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 ARCHAEOLINGUA

Edited by
ERZSÉBET JEREM and WOLFGANG MEID

Series Minor
38
 CULTURAL ENCOUNTERS
IN IRON AGE EUROPE

Edited by
IAN ARMIT, HRVOJE POTREBICA, MATIJA ČREŠNAR,
PHILIP MASON and LINDSEY BÜSTER

BUDAPEST 2016
 Front Cover
Digital image showing detail of face of female figure on the Vače situla
(produced by Adrian Evans and Rachael Kershaw, and reproduced
courtesy and copyright of the National Museum of Slovenia
/Bradford Visualisation/ENTRANS).

Back Cover
Lidar image showing the Iron Age hillfort of Poštela near Maribor in Slovenia,
and its surrounding landscape (prepared by Dimitrij Mlekuž, and reproduced
courtesy of the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia).

ISBN 978-963-9911-83-3
HU-ISSN 1216-6847

© by the Authors and Archaeolingua Foundation

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or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, digitised, photocopying,
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2016
ARCHAEOLINGUA ALAPÍTVÁNY
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 Contents

IAN ARMIT – HRVOJE POTREBICA – MATIJA ČREŠNAR –

PHILIP MASON – LINDSEY BÜSTER
Introduction: cultural encounters and the ENTRANS Project .................. 7

THE ENTRANS PROJECT: CURRENT DIRECTIONS

LINDSEY BÜSTER – IAN ARMIT – ADRIAN EVANS –

RACHAEL KERSHAW
Developing the 3D imaging of Iron Age art in the ENTRANS Project ... 23
HRVOJE POTREBICA – JANJA MAVROVIĆ MOKOS
Encounters on borders of worlds:
the Kaptol Group in the Early Iron Age communication network ........... 39
IGOR MEDARIĆ – BRANKO MUŠIČ – MATIJA ČREŠNAR
Tracing flat cremation graves using integrated
advanced processing of magnetometry data ............................................ 67
PHILIP MASON – DIMITRIJ MLEKUŽ
Negotiating space in the Early Iron Age landscape of
south-eastern Slovenia: the case of Veliki Vinji vrh ................................ 95
REBECCA NICHOLLS – JO BUCKBERRY
Death and the body: using osteological methods to investigate
the later prehistoric funerary archaeology of Slovenia and Croatia ...... 121
REBECCA NICHOLLS – HANNAH KOON
The use of stable light isotopes as a method of exploring the homogeneity
and heterogeneity of diet in Late Bronze Age
and Early Iron Age Temperate Europe: a preliminary study ................. 145

CULTURAL ENCOUNTERS: COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES

ALEXIS GORGUES
Trade in a liminal zone: commercial encounter and transformation
in the Iron Age north-west Mediterranean ............................................. 167
ANA DELGADO HERVÁS – MERITXELL FERRER
Feeding an emporion: gastronomies and
identities in Empúries, north Catalonia (5th century BC) ....................... 211
LOUP BERNARD
From the farm to the hillfort:
what happens to a Celt when a Greek settles at his door? ..................... 235
FABIO SACCOCCIO
The Venetic-Etruscan-Celtic encounters
in the Po River lowlands (north-eastern Italy) ....................................... 247
SIMONA MARCHESINI – ROSA RONCADOR
Celts and Raetians in the central-eastern Alpine Region during
the Second Iron Age: multidisciplinary research ................................... 267
AUREL RUSTOIU – SÁNDOR BERECKI
Cultural encounters and fluid identities
in the eastern Carpathian Basin in the 4th-3rd centuries BC ................... 285
SVETLANA SHARAPOVA
It is traced on bone: social identity in bioarchaeological research
of Iron Age populations of the Trans-Urals and western Siberia ........... 305
 Celts and Raetians in the central-eastern Alpine region
during the Second Iron Age: multidisciplinary research

SIMONA MARCHESINI* – ROSA RONCADOR*

Abstract
Recent archaeological research in the central-eastern Alpine region reveals a Celtic
presence during the Iron Age. La Tène type weapons, ornaments and artistic products
found in the ‘Fritzens-Sanzeno Culture’ indicate the complex web of contacts established
between the Celts and the local population, the Raeti. Nevertheless, it is unclear
as to what kind of relationship these objects refer: cultural influence, movement of
people, commercial exchange, gifts among élites, intermarriage (see TECCHIATI 1999;
MARZATICO 2001; STÖLLNER 2010; RONCADOR 2011; MARCHESINI 2013; RONCADOR in
press). These objects have been found in sanctuaries, such as Campi Neri (Sanzeno), but
also in settlements, such as Tesero Sottopedonda and necropolises, such as Settequerce
and Vadena. Thanks to recent linguistic discoveries and to the revision of all Rhaetic
inscriptions, the linguistic trace of the Celtic presence in this region during the Second
Iron Age was confirmed. Linguistically integrated Celtic gods, and personal names in
Tesero, Cles, Campi Neri and Vadena, allow for the identification of a deeper, resident
presence of Celts among the Raeti. Multidisciplinary research provides a more detailed
understanding of this complex historical scenario and allows us to outline cultural
identities and their interactions.
Keywords: Celts, Raetians, La Tène, material culture, Celtic language, people interactions

Introduction

The presence of objects from different areas in a defined region can be due to
manifold reasons and motivations, as often focused on in the archaeological,
anthropological and linguistic literature (see for example archaeological
contributions by TECCHIATI 1999 and STÖLLNER 2010; the anthropological and
linguistic literature has been recently summarised by MARCHESINI 2007). In the
present case, an attempt has been made to combine archaeological and linguistic
evidence, in order to examine the kinds of interactions taking place between Raeti
and Celts in the north-eastern Alpine region during the Late Iron Age (Second Iron
Age). We have collected data from between the 5th century BC and the Roman
period. Comparison between the two kinds of evidence, together with the results

*
Alteritas, Verona. E-mail: s.marchesini@progettoalteritas.org
268 Simona Marchesini – Rosa Roncador

of recent linguistic discoveries about the Raetic language, has provided a deeper
insight into the relations between these two peoples. After a short description
of the historical and geographical framework, the archaeological data will be
presented, followed by the epigraphic/linguistic elements.

Historical, archaeological and linguistic outline:

an interdisciplinary overview

Historical framework

According to Greek and Roman authors, the Raeti occupied the central Alpine
region during the Second Iron Age (Fig. 1) (MARZATICO 2001; 2014b). This
‘ethnos’ (mentioned in the inscription from the Arthemision in Ephesus) is
archeologically represented by the so-called Fritzens-Sanzeno Culture, identified
by researchers during the seventies and named after the two main settlements:
Sanzeno in the Non Valley (Trentino, Italy) and Fritzens in the Inn Valley
(Austria). This culture is characterised by particular ceramics and metallic
products and by the typical form of houses (the so-called ‘casa retica’), as well as
by the diffusion of inscriptions written in a local, Raetic alphabet (MARCHESINI
2013). The identification of continuity from the previous Luco/Laugen-Meluno/
Melaun Culture of the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age to the Fritzens-Sanzeno
Culture supports the idea of a local origin for the Raetic people (MARZATICO
2014a). According to ancient authors, the Raeti were sometimes considered to be
Celts (such as by Ptolemy, III, 1 or Pompeius Trogus, apud Justin, XX, 5) whilst
at other times, they were considered to be Etruscans (as by Livy, V, 33 or Pliny
the Elder, N.H. III, 133).

Archaeological framework

The Celtic origin of the Raeti has been posited by many local and foreign schol-
ars since the end of the 19th century, a period characterised by great reflection on
Celtic culture. This atmosphere was reflected in the Convegno Internazionale di
Antropologia e Archeologia, which took place in Bologna in 1871. During this
conference, Gabriel de Mortillet underlined the similarities that existed between
the objects found in the Marne region (France) and those recovered during
excavations in the Etruscan city of Marzabotto. Weapons and ornaments that
 Celts and Raetians in the central-eastern Alpine region
during the Second Iron Age 269

Fig. 1. Localisation of Raeti and of the area of spread of the Fritzens-Sanzeno

material culture in northern Italy (from MARZATICO 2014a, 14).

were found in this important centre in the Po Valley were interpreted as traces/
reflections of the historical migrations of Celts, mentioned in the written sources
(DE MORTILLET 1871). From this point onwards and in later contributions, scholars
from Trentino and from other European countries tried to outline the nature of the
human presence in the central-eastern Alpine region during the Second Iron Age.
Study (Fig. 2) (RONCADOR 2011; 2014; in press) of the indicators of contact
between Celts and Raeti (i.e. La Tène artefacts or those that imitate La Tène
models such as belt-hooks, swords, sword sheaths, shields, helmets, lances,
brooches, other metal artefacts, glass bracelets and pottery) has permitted
definition of the chronology of these relationships in respect of their intensity,
270 Simona Marchesini – Rosa Roncador

Fig. 2. Archaeological sites of Fritzens-Sanzeno Culture (central-eastern Alpine region)

with La Tène or La Tène style objects. Blue circles represent the sites quoted in the
paper (re-elaboration from ©Institut für Geographie und Landeskunde.
Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck).

if not of their nature. It is not yet clear whether these objects reflect commercial
contacts, intermarriage, gifts among elites, or even a mixture of all these factors.
For these reasons the authors have chosen to compare the archaeological and
linguistic data, in order to more closely examine the relations between these two
peoples.

Linguistic framework

Linguistic investigation has revealed a Celtic presence in the Raetic region,

emerging from two different types of information: the borrowing of Celtic
 Celts and Raetians in the central-eastern Alpine region
during the Second Iron Age 271

religious/cult elements and the presence of integrated, originally Celtic

names. Onomastic sciences can often be a tool for social investigation: socio-
linguistically speaking, borrowed proper names can not only reflect trends,
as is the case in modern times, but also social changes, such as migration and
integration. Onomastic fashion can reveal significant interaction between peoples
in a period and a region characterised by fragmentation, as was the Raetic case.
Integrated borrowed names, i.e. names that are not only phonologically adapted,
but also morphologically integrated into the new language, reveal a deep degree
of integration, as demonstrated in the following cases.

Case studies

A number of case studies will be presented here. These are three contexts of
the Fritzens-Sanzeno Culture, which have yielded La Tène objects in conjunc-
tion with linguistic evidence for a Celtic component – a cemetery, a settlement
and a sacred place – which together reflect the main aspects of everyday Raetic
life. The case of the name of a Celtic divinity in a Raetic magic inscription from
Tesero Sottopedonda in the Fiemme Valley (Trentino) is also presented as a sig-
nificant witness to intercultural relations.

The necropolis of Vadena/Pfatten Stadlhof (Bolzano/Bozen)

Archaeological data
The cemetery of Vadena/Pfatten Stadlhof has been studied since the second half
of the 19th century. Two-hundred-and-twenty cremation graves have been dis-
covered so far, but research is still in progress. They are characterised by a pit
covered with pebbles and stone slabs. The graves range in date from the Bronze
Age to the Late Roman period. La Tène objects have only been found in a group
of seven inhumations, excavated in 1928 by Ettore Ghislanzoni, Soprintendente
alle Antichità delle Venezie. The La Tène component of these tombs, such as
swords, lances, helmets, bronze and iron brooches, dated to the 4th century and the
beginning of the 3rd century BC (Fig. 3A). These objects were often intentionally
damaged, as is often the case in La Tène necropolises. The presence of La Tène
type weaponry (that is otherwise absent from earlier and more recent burials), the
difference in burial rite (probable inhumation instead of incineration), and the
absence or low number of local ceramics in the graves, could reflect the presence
272 Simona Marchesini – Rosa Roncador

Fig. 3. La Tène or La Tène style objects from Vadena/Pfatten Stadlhof (A);

Sanzeno (B); Cles Campi Neri (C).
 Celts and Raetians in the central-eastern Alpine region
during the Second Iron Age 273

Fig. 4. Porphyry stele from the necropolis of Vadena/Pfatten Stadlhof (Bolzano) with
Raetic inscription mentioning Vitamu (4th–3rd century BC)
(from MANCINI 1975, Tav. XXXVI b, c).

of foreign people, most probably Celtic warriors, within this Raetic community
(GHISLANZONI 1940; ALBERTI 2007).

Linguistic data
An inscription from a tomb with a porphyry stele (MARCHESINI 2014b, 289;
Fig. 4 = MLR 289) discovered in 1853 in the aforementioned Vadena/Pfatten
Stadlhof necropolis, and now kept in the Ferdinandeum Museum in Innsbruck,
has been interpreted in the past, or rather misinterpreted, within a Celto-Etruscan
framework by commentators (CONWAY et al. 2000; DE BERNARDO STEMPEL
2009, 175). As a result of recent insights into the Raetic language (DE SIMONE
– MARCHESINI 2013; MARCHESINI 2013; 2014a; 2014b) and its classification
within the newly outlined “Tirrenico Comune” linguistic family (comprising
Etruscan, the language of the Isle of Lemnos and the Raetic language), it is now
possible to understand the type and quality of Celtic elements in this Raetic text.
The inscription is dated to between approximately the 4th and 3rd century BC and
can be read as 1pnake:vitamu|2la↑em. After a verb of unknown meaning (pnake)
expressed in the past tense, the name Vitamu represents the Raetic form of a
Celtic name, i.e. the superlative in –ṃo, of a base *windo-, with the meaning of
“white”, “fair”, “noble”. The name has been integrated into the local language,
which had no /o/ sound (phoneme/grapheme) and did not possess a voiced dental
/d/.
274 Simona Marchesini – Rosa Roncador

The settlement of Sanzeno

Archaeological data
Sanzeno is located in the northern part of the Val di Non (Trentino, Italy) on
a limestone plateau, bounded to the north-west and to the south by two small
streams. As such, the settlement was established on a naturally defended location.
Since the second half of the 19th century this site has produced large numbers of
archaeological finds, which were initially recovered by peasants and were later
sold to antiquarians, to tourists and to regional and foreign museums. The first
systematic excavations were carried out between 1927 and 1928. They continued
in the 1950s and, more recently, from the 1990s to the present day. Sections of
walls, the remains of domestic dwellings and workshops have been found (MAR-
ZATICO 1999; RONCADOR 2009).
Recent excavations have resulted in a better understanding of the development
of the site and the different occupation levels. The first phase is characterised by an
apparent lack of unitary planning in the layout of the houses within the settlement
(6th–5th century BC). This is followed by the second phase, characterised by a
‘proto urban’ settlement, which began in the 4th century BC. Metallurgical
production and imports from the Mediterranean world, as well as from Central
Europe, increased in this phase (MARZATICO 1999).
Many La Tène objects have been found in in Sanzeno, which are dated to
between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC (Fig. 3B). These include weapons (swords,
sword scabbards, shield fittings, helmets and spearheads – NOTHDURFTER 1979),
ornaments (brooches and bracelets – ADAM 1996), artistic products (the so-called
disco di Sanzeno) and parts of a carnyx – a type of horn, with an animal-shaped
head, used by the Celts during battles to terrify the enemies. The rarity and
importance of this object led, in 2008, to the launching of an international research
project focused on the experimental reconstruction of the carnyx (RONCADOR
2009; RONCADOR – MELINI 2010; RONCADOR 2014; BELLINTANI et al. in press;
PICCARDO et al. in press).

Linguistic data
A bronze statuette of a warrior was found in Sanzeno in 1846 (Fig. 5A–D). Its
base bears a Raetic inscription: laturusi pianus apanin (SCHUMACHER 1992,
SZ-6; CONWAY et al. 2000, 197; MARCHESINI 2014a, 135 = MLR 160). A prob-
able meaning of the text could be: “[that is] the apanin of Pianu for Latur”, as
 Celts and Raetians in the central-eastern Alpine region
during the Second Iron Age 275

A B

D
C

Fig. 5. Details (A-D) of the inscription on the bronze statuette of a warrior

(so-called ‘Marte’), Sanzeno (Trento) with a Raetic inscription mentioning the name
Pianu (5th century BC) (©Ufficio beni archeologici, Soprintendenza per i beni culturali,
Provincia autonoma di Trento).

the -si dative in Latur-u-si and the -s genitive in Pianu-s suggest, whilst apanin
seems to be expressed in a casus absolutus (nominative/accusative, coinciding
in this language). The name Pianu is attested three times in the Raetic area (the
other two examples were found in Cles and Campi Neri, see below and Fig. 6),
and once more in the form Piana in the Celtic area of northern Italy, on the stele
from Brisino (near Stresa, Lake Maggiore, and dated into the 2nd century BC).
It has been suggested on several occasions (MORANDI 2004, 275; MATASOVIĆ
2009, s.v.; DE BERNARDO STEMPEL 2014, 96) that this name has a basis in Celtic
etymology (*Bivanos < *Bíwo-no-s “alive”).

The cult place of Cles, Campi Neri

Archaeological data
From the beginning of the 19th century onwards, a large amount of archaeological
material from different periods has been found in the large archaeological area
of Campi Neri, which is located above the modern settlement of Cles in the Val
di Non, Trentino (CIURLETTI et al. 2004; ENDRIZZI et al. 2009). The place-name
itself derives from the black colour of the soil, which is caused by the presence of
276 Simona Marchesini – Rosa Roncador

Fig. 6. Small bronze of a figure on horseback from Cles, Campi Neri,

with an inscription mentioning the name Pianu (mid-6th–5th century BC;
from MARCHESINI 2014a, 136 = MLR 29).

burnt bone and charcoal, mixed with other burned artefacts and plant material, as
is usually the case at these ritual sites, which are known as Brandopferplätze. An
area of 2700m2 was excavated between 1999 and 2007. The site reveals complex
structures of walls, paths, small stone circles and pits, which were re-used for
several thousand years, from the Copper Age into the Roman period.
La Tène weapons and ornaments (Fig. 3C) were found in association with
Fritzens-Sanzeno material in a large pit (24m²), dated to between the 5th and 2nd
century BC, in the south-eastern part of the area. Archaeologists have interpreted
the area as a non-structured votive deposit or a collection of more ancient objects,
deposited during reorganisation of the sacred area in the Roman period.

Linguistic data
A small bronze bar (Fig. 7) was discovered during the excavations conducted
by the Archaeological Office of Trento (Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici
della Provincia autonoma di Trento) between 1999 and 2007 on the site of Campi
 during the Second Iron Age

Fig. 7. Small bronze cylindrical rod from Cles, Campi Neri (Trento) with a Raetic inscription mentioning the names Esumne and
Pianu (mid-6th–5th century BC) (©Ufficio beni archeologici, Soprintendenza per i beni culturali, Provincia autonoma di Trento).
Celts and Raetians in the central-eastern Alpine region
277
278 Simona Marchesini – Rosa Roncador

Neri, Cles (MARCHESINI 2014a = MLR 30). The small bronze bar comes from a
ritual deposit, which comprised animal bone and other metal votive objects, as is
usual in Alpine open sanctuaries called ‘Brandopferplätze’. A small gold ring was
inserted onto the rod, probably at the time of deposition (Fig. 7).
The inscription nu↑nuale upiku pianus esumnesi, is a votive text, which is
shown by the typical Raetic verbal name upiku (“given”, “offered”, or something
similar). The name of the dedicator/supplicant (Pianu), as well as the name
of the recipient (compounded by a name and a -nu (male surname): esumnesi
nu↑nuale, both in pertinentive/dative case) are included in the short text. It is
worth noting that one or, more probably,
two names in this text are of Celtic origin.
The original form of the name Esumne is
well-attested in many forms (for instance as
Exobnos, Exobna, Ex-omnus, Ex-omniacus)
in the ancient Celtic speaking/writing area
(Gallia or northern Italy) up to the Roman
period and has a Celtic etymology: “fearless”
(see for example Gallic ehoft, middle Breton
ehaffn “fearless”, ancient Irish essamain).
The name Esumne, with the internal /o/
replaced by the /u/ sound and the end case
treated as -e, reveals a phonological as well
as a morphological adaptation of a foreign
name to the Raetic language. For the name
Pianu, which has a Celtic etymology as well,
see the discussion above.

A third kind of evidence: Raetic

language revealing Celtic religion
An inscribed horn with a Raetic inscription
(Fig. 8) was found in a settlement area in the

Fig. 8. Inscribed bone from a Raetic house in

Tesero, Sottopedonda (TN) with the
name of Tarani (4th–3rd century BC)
(from MARCHESINI 2012, 187).
 Celts and Raetians in the central-eastern Alpine region
during the Second Iron Age 279

Fiemme Valley (Trentino) by Tesero Sottopendonda. It dates to the Late Iron

Age (4th–3rd century BC) and reveals a magic, ritual text, with a local adaptation
of the name of the Celtic thunder god Taranis (MARCHESINI 2012 = MLR 275).
The name of the god is repeated twice in alternate lines, as it would be in a litany.
On further analysis of the form of the divine name, it is possible to state that it
is morphologically integrated into the Raetic language, not simply borrowed. It
is the name of a foreign divinity used for a local, private cult. A contextual clue,
such as the find of more than 80 goat anklebones (the sign of the practice of astra-
galomanteia) in the same context, confirms the interpretation of magic/religious
practice in connection with the Taranis text.

Conclusions

The archaeological data reveal chronologically heterogeneous distributions of La

Tène objects in the Raetic area in terms of their amount and quality. These com-
prise: a small number of high quality elite objects from the 5th century BC and
a large amount of more standardised objects. Most of the latter that imitate and
re-elaborate La Tène cultural traits are dated to the 4th century and especially to
the 3rd century BC. A new phase began in the 2nd century BC: at this time, the
central-eastern Alpine region participated in the so-called Gallo-Roman koine,
which was widespread in the territories of the Po Plain. It was a uniform cultural
situation, which lead to the formation of a commercially-oriented culture.
The archaeological record of La Tène objects in the Raetic area per sé could
be referred to as on or more possible interactions of peoples, as outlined at the
beginning of this paper. Taken together with the linguistic evidence that shows
the integration and adaptation of Celtic names into the Raetic language, they
reveal the possibility of a deep and structured integration of Celtic people into
this area between the 5th and the 4th century BC.
280 Simona Marchesini – Rosa Roncador

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