1

Introduction
1.1 Ammonia

Ammonia, an essential feedstock for a wide range of downstream nitrogen based prod-
ucts; fertilizer is one industry accounts for a major chunk of ammonia consumed worldwide,
while industrial applications account for the remainder.
To Manufacture Ammonia Hydrogen and Nitrogen are utilized in 3:1. Air is the source of
nitrogen always while Hydrogen Source kept on changing time to time. It is Natural Gas which is
used as Hydrogen source in Pakistan.

1.1.1 Some Important Properties of Ammonia

Table below shows some Important Properties of Ammonia

Property Value
Chemical Formula NH3
CAS Registry Number 7664-41-7
Odor Pungent Odor
Molecular Weight 17.03g/gmol
Melting Point -77.7oC
Boiling Point -33.3oC
Specific Heat at 0oC 2097J/KgK

1
Hazards of Ammonia

1. Ammonia is irritant and corrosive to eyes, skin and respiratory tract.

2. Over exposure can cause death.
3. Exposure Limits: 50ppm for 8hours, OSHA Standard

1.1.2 Manufacturing Processes of Ammonia

On industrial Scale Ammonia is Manufactured by number of Processes Detail of which is giv-

en below.

Process Source of Synthesis Gas Company Which Intro-

duced the Process
Haber Bosch Coal gasification by BASAF
Process (1913) Steam and Air

Haldor Topsoe Pre Reforming of Higher Haldor Topsoe

Process Hydrocarbons and then
Reforming of CH4 with
Steam and Air

ICI Process Reforming of Naphtha ICI Chemicals Limited

Kellogg Process Primary reforming of M.W Kellogg (Now Pullman

Natural Gas by Steam Kellogg)
and Secondary Reform-
ing by Air

2
1.1.3 Uses of Ammonia

Following is the Percentage break up of uses of Ammonia.

1. 27% of the Ammonia Manufactured worldwide is directly consumed.

2. 18.9% of the Ammonia Manufactured is used to make ammonium Nitrate.
3. 16% of the Ammonia is used to make Urea.
4. 5.5% of the Ammonia Manufactured is used to make ammonium Sulfate.
5. 8.8% of the Ammonia Manufactured is used to make ammonium Phosphate.
6. 4.0% of the Ammonia Manufactured is used to make Commercial Explosives.
7. 12.7% of the Ammonia Manufactured is used to make Fiber-Plastics.

1.1.4 Ammonia Production in Pakistan

There are following industries working in Pakistan, to Produce Ammonia.

Company Capacity to Produce

Ammonia

Fuji Fertilizer Company Li- (MTPD)

2250, 450
mited, Fuji Fertilizer Bin Qa-
Engro Chemicals Pakistan Li-
MTPD
1550
sim Limited
mited
Pak Arab Fertilizers Limited 950

DH Chemicals Limited 850

Pak American Fertilizers Li- 600
mited
1.2 Synthesis Gas

Synthesis Gas is the Combination of different Gases which are mainly H 2, N2, COx, CH4, Ar and
H2O. Percentages of these components are dependent on the process by which Synthesis Gas is

3
formed. Typical Composition of pure Synthesis Gas which is used in Synthesis Cycle for ammonia is
given below.

Component Percentage
H2 73.65%
N2 24.55%
CH4 0.8%
Ar 100ppm
COx 2-10ppm
H2 O 0.1ppm

1.3 Capacity Selection

According to Prospects of Chemical Industry in Pakistan, Ministry of Industries and Pro-

duction.

“In the next 10 years there will be a shortage of around 1.2 million MTPY of urea Therefore
two plants of urea with average capacity of 600,000 MTPY each would be required to meet the
future requirement of Fertilizer”.

To make 600,000 MTPY of Urea we need to make 1500 MTPD of Ammonia first as Ammonia
and Carbon Dioxide are the starting materials for Urea Manufacturing . But because of opera-
tional constraints we refer to install Ammonia Single Train Plant of Capacity 600 MTPD.

4
 2
Process Description & PFD

2.1 Problem Statement

Ammonia, an essential feedstock for a wide range of downstream nitrogen based prod-
ucts, is one industry accounts for a major chunk of ammonia consumed worldwide, while indus-
trial applications account for the remainder. Ammonia is to be manufactured from synthesis
Gas Which contains about 18% of Carbon Dioxide in it, first of all Carbon Dioxide is to be re-
moved from raw synthesis Gas in Two Steps, First by Chemical Absorption in Potassium Carbo-
nate Solution and then by Methanation the purified Synthesis Gas containing 75% Hydrogen
and 25% Nitrogen is sent to Ammonia Synthesis Loop Where Ammonia is formed by Reaction
between Hydrogen and Nitrogen over Iron Oxide Catalyst.

We are required to draw a Process Flow Diagram of the Process, Perform the Material and
Energy Balance, Design Absorption Column, Design a Cooler for Methanator Product, Size Syn-
thesis Gas Compressor and design Ammonia Synthesis Reactor.

5
2.2 Process Selection
We select Kellogg Process for Ammonia Production because of the following

rea sons.

1. It is highly Energy Efficient as Compared to the other processes.

2. Raw Material for this Process is Natural Gas which is abundantly available in Pakis-
tan.
3. Catalyst Used in Process has 20% more Activity as compared to the catalysts used in
other processes.

2.3 Process Description and Process Flow Diagr am

2.3.1 Process Description

1. As the raw Synthesis Gas Contains 18% Carbon Dioxide gas which is the poison for the
catalyst in the reactor so there is the need to remove this gas.
2. Carbon Dioxide is removed first in C30001, by Chemical Absorption in 30 wt. % Solution
of Potassium Carbonate, and then by Methanation Reaction, in 30003, where Carbon Dioxide
and Carbon Monoxide React with Hydrogen to form Methane and Water.
3. After the Removal of Carbon Dioxide Synthesis Gas is s ent to the Synthesis Gas Com-
pressor where Synthesis Gas is compressed to the desired reaction pressure.
4. After Compression Synthesis Gas is sent to the reactor where Ammonia is formed by the

Reaction between Hydrogen and Nitrogen.

6
 PFD For Production of 600 MTPD Ammonia From Synthesis Gas

14

Carbon dioxide to Urea Plant

2
9
C30003
C30002 Methanator
Stripper
16

Feed/Effluent Exchanger
C30001
Absorber
6 Syn. Gas compressor

Methanator
V30001
K.O Drum
18 19
4
11
E5
1 5 1st. Stage
C.W E6
10 E3 17 Ammonia
Raw syn. Gas P1
E2 12 Suspended solids and water
Reboiler
7 15
8
P2 13 E4
3 E1
Semi Lean Soln.Pump C.W Methanator effluent cooler
Benfield soln. cooler
C.W
20

Synthesis Gas recycle 31

C30004
Mole sieve
26 E10
R30001 V30002
NH3 converter Refrigration Unit
Syn. Gas compressor Product separator
21 22 23 24
27 28
Converter Feed/

29
Exchanger

B.F.W
E7

nd E9
Effluent

2 . Stage E8 30
Cooler1 Cooler2
C.W

25 Liquid Ammonia

Dated : 26/01/2010

7
 3
Material & Energy Balance

3.1 Material Balance

3.1.1 Assumptions
1. One Hour Operation i.e. 25 tons per hour Ammonia is formed.
2. Percent Conversion in the Reactor is 26%

3.1.2 Material Balance around Absorber

Following Reaction takes place in Absorber

K2CO3 + H2O + CO2 2 KHCO3

ΔHr =-7.2E+7KJ/hr

3.1.2.1 Streams description

Stream 1 = Raw Synthesis Gas

Stream 2 = Pure Synthesis Gas

Figure 3.1 Absorber C30001

8
Stream 3 = Rich Solution

Stream 5 = Semi Lean Solution

Stream 6 = lean Solution

Stream H2 N2 CO2 CO Ar CH4 H2 O Total

Number
Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr
1 4990 22820 33352 344 410 144 205 62265
2 4961 22874 146.4 344.4 410 143.6 181 29061

Stream K2CO3 KHCO3 H2O Total

Number
(Kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (Kg/hr)
5 91803 20485 570567 682856
3 15318 619269 227012 804272
6 26463.6 0 61748.4 88212

3.1.3 Material Balance around (Kg/hr)

Striper

Following Reaction takes place in Absorber

2KHCO3 K2CO3 + H2O + CO2

3.1.3.1 Streams description

Stream 3 = Rich Solution Figure 3.2 Stripper C30002

Stream 4 = Semi Lean Solution

9
Stream 8 = Hot Lean Solution

Stream 9 = Carbon Dioxide

Stream K2CO3 KHCO3 H2O Total

Number (Kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (Kg/hr)

3 15318 619269 227012 804272
4 91803 20485 570567 682856
8 26468 0 61748 88212

Stream H2 N2 CO2 CO Ar CH4 Total

Number (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
9 11.5 52.4 33028 0.862 0.1924 0.396 33093

3.1.4 Material Balance around Methantor

Following Reactions take place in Methanator

CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + 2H2O

ΔHr =-1.6E+6KJ/hr

CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O

ΔHr =-6.3E+6KJ/hr

3.1.4.1 Streams description Figure 3.3 Methanator C30003

Stream 14 = Feeed,Stream 12 = Product

10
 Stream H2 N2 CO2 CO Ar CH4 H2O Total
Number (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
14 4961 22874 146.4 344.4 410 143.6 181 29061
12 4889.8 22825 0 0 408.4 395.4 542.4 29061

3.1.5 Material Balance around

Molecular Sieve

3.1.5.1 Streams description

Stream 20 = Feed

Stream 21 = Product
Figure 3.4 Molecular Sieve C30004

Stream H2 N2 Ar CH4 H2O Total

Number (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
20 4889.8 22825 408.4 395.4 542.4 29061
21 4756.8 22338.8 408.4 351.6 0 27854

11
3.1.6 Material Balance around Reactor
3.1.6.1 Streams description

Stream 21 = Fresh Feed

Stream 24 = Total Feed

Stream 25 = Total Product

Stream 30 = Net Product

Stream 31 = Recycle

Figure 3.5 Ammonia Converter

Stream H2 N2 Ar CH4 NH3 Total

Number (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (Kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
21 4756.8 22338.8 408.4 351.6 0 27854
24 16562.4 77000 13116 12178 4355.4 123211.8
25 12162.7 56454 13092 12184 29304.2 123197.3
30 360.5 1694.4 365.6 360 25000 27782.3
31 11802.2 54759.6 12726.4 11824 4304.2 95416.4

12
3.2 Energy Balance
3.2.1 Reference State

1. 250C Temperature.
2. 1 atm (101325 Pa) Pressure.

3.2.2 Energy Balance around Absorber

Figure 3.6

Stream Number Temperature Enthalpy

(K) (MMJ/sec)
1 348 4.025

2 343 2.12

3 392 27.5

5 387 16.22

6 343 9.45

13
3.2.3 Energy Balance around Stripper

Figure 3.7

Streams Num- Temperature (K) Enthalpy

ber (MMJ/sec)

3 392 27.5
4 343 16.2
8 401 10.874
9 311 0.29
10 390 0.136
11 390 0.136

14
3.2.4 Energy Balance around Methanator

Figure 3.8

Streams Temperature (K) Enthalpy

Number (MMJ/sec)

2 343 5.85
12 620 23.4
13 373 5.3
14 589 21.5
15 314 1.1

15
3.2.5 Energy Balance around Molecular Sieve

Figure 3.9

Streams Num- Temperature (K) Enthalpy

ber (MMJ/sec)
20 277.4 -1.4
21 277.4 -1.4

16
3.2.6 Energy Balance around Reactor

Figure 3.10

Streams Temperature (K) Enthalpy

Number
(MMJ/sec)
23 327 7.1
24 524 58.2
25 727 106.6
26 551 53.1

17
 4
Equipment Design of
Absorber
4.1 Absorption
Absorption is a unit operation in which a gas mixture is contacted with a suitable
liquid for the purpose of preferentially dissolving one or more of the constituents of the
gas. These constituents are thus removed or partially removed from the gas into the liq-
uid. The dissolved constituents may either form a physical solution with the liquid or
react chemically with the liquid. The dissolved constituents are termed solutes, while
the dissolving liquid is termed the solvent. When the concentration of solute in the feed
gas is low, the process is often called scrubbing. The inverse operation, called stripping,
desorption, or regeneration, is employed when it is desirable to remove the solutes
from the solvent in order to recover the solutes or the solvent or both.

4.2 Commercial Applications

Absorption is practiced for the following purposes:

1. Gas purification, for example, removal of pollutants from a gas stream.

18
2. Production of solutions, for example, absorption of hydrogen chloride gas in wa-
ter to form hydrochloric acid.
3. Product recovery, for example, absorption of liquefied petroleum gases (LPG)
and gas olines from natural gas.
4. Drying, for example, absorption of water vapor from a natural gas mixture.

4.3 Choice of Solvent for Absorption

If the main purpose of absorption is to generate a specific solution, as in the manu-

facture of hydrochloric acid, the solvent is specified by the nature of the product. For all
other purposes, there is some choice in selecting the absorption liquid. The main solvent
selection criteria are as follows:

1. Gas solubility. Generally, the greater the solubility of the solute in the solvent, the
easier it is to absorb the gas, reducing the quantity of solvent and the equipment size
needed for the separation. Often, a solvent that is chemically similar to the solute or
that reacts chemically with the solute will provide high gas solubility.

2. Solvent selectivity. A high selectivity of the solvent to the desired solutes compared
with its selectivity to other components of the gas mixture lowers the quantity of unde-
sirable components dissolved. Application of a solvent of higher selectivity reduces the
cost of downstream processing, which is often required to separate out the undesirable
components.

3. Volatility. The gas leaving the absorber is saturated with the solvent. The more vola-
tile the solvent is, the greater are the solvent losses; alternatively, the more expensive
are the down-stream solvent separation facilities required to reduce the losses.

4. Effects on product and environment. For example, toxic solvents are unsuitable for
food processing; noxious solvents are unsuitable when the gas leaving the absorber is
vented to the atmosphere.

19
5. Chemical stability. Unstable solvents may be difficult to regenerate or may lead to
excessive losses due to decomposition.

6. Cost and availability. The less expensive is the solvent, the lower is the cost of solvent
losses. Water is the least expensive and most plentiful solvent.

7. Others. Noncorrosiveness, low viscosity, nonflammability, and low freezing point are
often desirable properties.

4.4 Absorption Processes

Absorption is usually carried out in a countercurrent tower, through which liquid

descends and gas ascends. The tower may be fitted with trays, filled with packing, or fit-
ted with sprays or other internals. These internals provide the surface area required for
gas–liquid contact.

Lean solvent enters at the top of the absorber and flows downward through the in-
ternals. Rich gas enters at the bottom of the absorber and flows upward through the in-
ternals. The liquid and gas are contacted at the absorber internals, and the solute is ab-
sorbed by the solvent. Overhead product from the absorber is the solute-free lean gas,
and bottom product is the rich solvent, which contains the absorbed solute. The rich
solvent then flows to the stripper where the solute is stripped from the rich solvent, this
operation being at a higher temperature and/or lower pressure than maintained in the
absorber. The solute leaves the stripper as the overhead product, and the solute-free
lean solvent leaves the stripper bottom and is recycled to the absorber.

20
4.5 Factors affecting Design of Absorption Column

Packed towers are used as contacting equipment for gas -liquid and liquid-liquid sys-
tems. The overwhelming factors in designing an absorption tower are the properties of
feed given and the desired purity level of the product. The other factors are listed be-
low.

1. Packing (one or more sections)

2. Packing support(s)
3. Liquid distributor(s)
4. Intermediate supports and redistributors
5. Gas and liquid entrance and exit nozzles
Many of the mechanical aspects of tower construction and assembly have an influ-
ence upon the design and interpretation of tower performance. Every effort should be
made to increase the effectiveness of contact between the process streams and to re-
duce losses by entrainment or wall effects at a minimum expenditure of pressure drop.
At the same time the design must be consistent with the economics dictated by the
process and type of construction.

1. Shell

The shell may be of metal (steel, alloy, or non-ferrous), plastic, wood or some com-
bination which may require the addition of liners or inner layers of rubber, plastic or
brick. The mechanical problems of attaching inner nozzles, supports and brick require
considerable attention that is not an integral part of sizing the equipment. In these tow-
ers, temperature and/or corrosive conditions usually dictate the internal lining, and the
selection of the proper acid- (or alkali-) proof cements.
Ceramic, plastic and other non-metal tower shells are used quite often is important
to consider in ceramic construction that the main inlet or outlet nozzles or any other
large connections should be oriented 90” to each other to reduce the possibility of

21
cracking the walls, as most cracks go one-half diameter. Preferably there should only be
one nozzle at any one horizontal plane. The nozzles should never carry any piping or
other stress load. For operating pressures of 5 psi in 18-in. through 48-in. dia., use non-
asbestos and silicate cement. Special hold-down packing gland-type rings will allow op-
eration at slightly higher pressure. The porcelain towers should be used for the higher
pressures rather than the weaker stoneware. The rate of heating or cooling a stoneware
or porcelain tower should not exceed 15oF/min.

2. Packing

The distributor and packing are the heart of the performance of this equipment.
Their proper selection entails an understanding of packing operational characteristics
and the effect on performance of the points of significant physical difference between
the various types. Good progress has been made in the past decade in the development
of packing for difficult and wide ranging process applications.

3. Packing Supports

The packing support may be anything from cross-grid bars spaced to prevent fall-
through of packing to more refined specialty units designed to direct the flow of gas and
liquid. Good tower performance is definitely linked to proper packing support. The net
free flow cross-sectional area of the support should be 65% (or larger) of the tower
area, and greater than the free area of the packing itself. In addition, the effect of the
free area "blocking" by the positioning of the packing on the support must be consi-
dered. To allow for this, every effort should be made to obtain as large a support-free
area as possible and yet remain consistent with the structural strength of the material
being used. If this area is too restricted, liquid build-up will occur at the plate, reducing
efficiency and increasing pressure drop of the tower, and leading to a flooding condi-
tion. A lot depends on the material of construction that the system requires; for exam-
ple, carbon or graphite bar grids, brick grid piers, some steel grating grids and most rub-

22
ber or plastic covered metal grids have inherently low free cross-sectional areas. These
may be less than 65% free area.
4. Liquid Distribution

Liquid distribution probably plays the most important part in the efficient operation
of a packed tower. A good packing from the process viewpoint can be reduced in effec-
tiveness by poor liquid distribution across the top of its upper surface or the packing
sections below any feed inlet(s) or reflux inlets. Poor distribution reduces the effective
wetted packing area and promotes liquid channeling. The final selection of the mechan-
ism of distributing the liquid across the packing depends upon the size of the tower,
type of packing (exposed surface, configuration), tendency of packing to divert liquid to
tower walls, and materials of construction for distribution. Spray nozzles are used, but
care must be taken in evaluating the percent of the total liquid that hits the walls and
never enters the packing. Full cone nozzles with spray angles which will keep most of
the liquid on the center portion of the packing for initial contact will perform quite well.
Most liquid distributors feed onto the packing by gravity, rather than being pressurized.
5. Redistributors

The liquid coming down through the packing and on the wall of the tower should be
redistributed after a bed depth of approximately 3 tower diameters for Raschig rings
and 5-10 tower diameters for saddle packings. As a guide, Raschig rings usually have a
maximum of 10-15 ft of packing per section, while saddle packing can use 12-20 ft. This
redistribution brings the liquid off the wall and outer portions of the tower and directs it
toward the center area of the tower for a new start at distribution and contact in the
next lower section. The redistributors must be sealed against the tower wall to collect
all of the liquid coming down the tower from the packed section above. Then it must be
capable either singly or in conjunction with a distributor placed below it of redistributing
the collected liquid from an upper packed section to the top of the next lower section in
an efficient manner. (See discussion in previous paragraph on distributors.) The
gas/vapor riser opening must be so covered by design as to avoid liquid dropping direct-

23
ly through the gas risers and onto the packed section below. This vapor flow area must
be relatively large to avoid localized development of high pressure drop and upsetting
the performance.
The height of packing before redistribution is a function of the liquid flow pattern
through the packing, and this is a function of the size and type of packing. Some towers
have 20-30 ft of packing with no redistribution; however, the reasons may be economic
as well as operational. The exact amount of performance efficiency sacrificed is subject
to question, although with 2&35% of the liquid flowing down the walls after 10 ft of ring
packing depth, it appears reasonable to consider that performance is lost for most of
this liquid. Redistribution is usually not necessary for stacked bed packings because the
liquid flows essentially in vertical streams. However, most packed tower services do not
use stacked packing.
The possibility of causing flooding in the tower at the redistribution point must not be
overlooked, as too much restriction by a wall wiper, or by packing on a plate can be the
focal point for poor tower performance. The velocity conditions should be checked for
the smallest cross-section

24
 4.6 Packing Selection and Performance

4.6.1 Guide Lines: Trays versus Packing

There are four main differences related to capacity and separation
when considering:
1. An optimal tray design, one that balances tray and down comer area so that nei-
ther prematurely restricts capacity, and set weir height, weir geometry, clearance under
the down comer, and fractional hole area so as to maximize efficiency and capacity.
2. Optimal packing design, which configures distributors, supports, and bed heights
to avoid loss of efficiency to maldistribution and no premature capacity restriction oc-
curs.

The four main differences are:

1. Differences between the capacity and efficiency of an optimal tray and an optimal
packed tower design
2. Deviations from optimal design of trays, packings and other tower internals, e.g., dis-
tributors and baffles.
3. Unique system characteristics and special design features, e.g., corrosion, foaming,
chemical reaction, and fouling, and designs to overcome such problems.
4. Capacity and separation gains due to lower pressure
5. Pressure drop of packing is typically 3 to 5 times lower than that of trays.

25
4.7 Problem Statement
Raw Synthesis Gas is entering the Tower at 343K containing 18% Carbon Dioxide in
it. This Carbon Dioxide is to be removed. Select a Suitable Solvent for the Removal of
Carbon Dioxide; determine the height and diameter of the Column and Pressure drop
across the Column.

4.7.1 Solution
4.7.1.1 Absorber Process
Raw Synthesis Gas is entered the tower at the Bot-
tom while lean solution is entered at the Top. These two
streams contact each other in the tower in counter cur-
rent manner and Carbon Dioxide is absorbed in the lean
solution via following exothermic reaction.

Figure 4.1

K2CO3 + H2O + CO2 2 KHCO3

Rich Solution leaves the bottom while purified Synthesis Gas leaves the top of the
Tower.

4.7.1.2 Designing Steps

1. Performing material and energy balance.

2. Selection of solvent

3. Selection of Packing

4. Calculation of Column Diameter

5. Calculation of Packing Height

26
 6. Calculation of Pressure Drop

7. Calculation of Shell Thickness

Material and Energy Balance

Entrance Exit

Variable Liquid Gas Variable Liquid Gas

(L1) (G1)
(L2) (G2)
Temp.(K) 343 343
Temp.(K) 383 343
Flow (Kg/h) 62265
435850 Flow (Kg/h) 469189 29061

1. Selection of Solvent
Following Three Solvents are mentioned in the literature for the absorption of CO 2
from reformed gases.

1- Monoethanolamine (MEA)

2- Diethanolamine (DEA)

3- Hot Potash (30 wt. % solution of K2CO3)

Let’s compare These Three Solvents to Select the Best One

27
K2CO3 Solution

1. For a given Amount of Solvent it absorbs more Carbon Dioxide.

2. It increases the safety of Carbon Dioxide removal as it does not absorb Hydrogen
along with Carbon Dioxide
3. It is the Current industry standard to use Hot Potash for CO 2 removal
4. Cost of K2CO3 is $1.1/Kg

MEA/DEA

1. For a given amount of Solvent it absorbs less Carbon Dioxide.

2. They absorb small amounts of Hydrogen along with acid Gas and at the top of the
stripper Hydrogen may flash off

3. They are not current industry standard.

4. Cost of MEA is $1.38/K

Based on Above Comparison, We Select Potassium Carbonate Solution for Carbon Dio-
xide Removal.

2. Packing Selection and Calculation of Diameter of Column

We select steel Rachig Rings of 2 in. Size as it is mostly used in acid gas absorptions

28
For the evaluation of Tower Diameter we need to calculate the following factor.

L/G*√ ρ y/ ρ l

As the larger flow rates are at the

tower bottom so we take the prop-
erties of gas and liquid at bottom
condition.

ρ y = 17.2 Kg/m3, ρ l = 1270 Kg/m3

and L/G*√ ρ y/ ρ l= 0.875

Now we see the K4 factor to get the

mass velocity

K4 =0.37

K4 at Flooding= 0.65

Percentage flooding = (0.37/0.65) 0.5

29
 = 0.75

Range is 0.6-0.8
So, Acceptable
Now,

K4 =42.9*(μL/ρL) 0.1 *FP*V12

ρV (ρ L- ρV )

V1 =2Kg/m2S

Ac = G1/ V1

Ac = 8.64m2

D=3m

3. Calculation of Packing Height

Packing Height is the height in which there is intimate contact between liquid flow-
ing down the column and gas moving up the column. Packing Height is calculated by the
following formula.

Z= n

KGa (A)(fa )(ΔPlm )2

Where,

n= 758kgmol of CO 2

KGa /La *Tf =26*10-4

KGa = Mass Transfer Coefficient = 102Kg/h.atm. m3

ΔPlm = Log Mean Pressure Gradient Across the Column = 1.27atm

30
fa = Fraction wetted = 0.85

A = Cross Sectional Area of the Tower = 8.69 m2

By putting all the values in above equation, Height of Tower comes out be.

Z= 30m

20% Allowances for Liquid Distribution and Redistribution are provided.

Actual Height of the Column = 36m

4. Pressure Drop across the Column

ΔP
f= 97(FP) 0.7 Pa/m

ΔP
f = 2.1KPa/m

20% Allowances for Liquid Distribution and Redistribution are provided and as tower is
operated at 75% flooding

Actual Pressure Drop comes out to be.

ΔP = 51KPa

5. Tower Thickness

Operating Pressure is 3.2MPa

Design Pressure is 4.2MPa (130% of Operating Pressure

ts = Pd (D)

2f- Pd

where,

D = Column Internal Diameter = 3m

31
f =Stress Factor = 145N/mm2

After 20% Increment for Overdesign and Corrosion Allowances , actual shell thickness
comes out to be.

ts = 55mm

32
Specification Sheet

1. Unit Absorption Column

2. Item Number C30001

3. Diameter of shell 3m

4. Packing Type 51mm Rashig Rings

5. Heightt Of Packing 30 m

6. Total Height of Tower 36m

7. Total Pressure Drop 51K Pa

8. Thickness of Column 55mm

33
 5
Design of Cooler E4

5.1 Heat Exchanger

Heat exchangers are devices built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid to
another and are widely used in engineering processes. In most of the exchanger the flu-
ids are separated by heat transfer surface and ideally they do not mix. The word ex-
changer really applies to all type of equipment in which heat is exchange but is often
used specifically to denote equipment in which heat is exchange between two process
fluids such as;

1. Heaters & coolers

Exchangers in which process fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service stream

are called heaters or coolers

2. Vaporizer

If the process stream is vaporized the exchanger is termed as vaporizer.

34
3. Reboiler

If the stream is essentially completely vaporized then the exchanger is reboiler. It

is associated with distillation column.

4. Evaporator

For the purpose of concentration of a solution the exchanger is called as an evapo-

rator.

5. Fixed exchanger

It is used for exchanger heated by combustion gases, such as boiler.

6. Chiller

One stream is a process fluid being condensed at sub atmospheric temperature and
other is boiling refrigerant or process stream.

5.2 Classification of heat exchangers

In general, industries heat exchanger classified according to there

1. Construction
2. Process transfer
3. Degree of surface compactness
4. Flow arrangement
5. Pass arrangement
6. Phase of the process fluid
7. Heat transfer mechanism
8. Flow arrangement

35
1. Classification according to the construction
According to the construction heat exchangers are :

a. Tubular heat exchanger (double pipe, shell and tube, coiled tube)
b. Plate heat exchanger (gaskitted, spiral, plate coil)
c. Extended surface exchangers (tube fin, plate fin)
d. Regenerator

2. Classification according to the transfer process

These classifications are:

a. Indirect contact (double pipe, shell and tube, coiled tube)

b. Direct contact(cooling towers)

3. Classification according to surface compactness

A compact heat exchanger incorporates a heat transfer surface having a high area
density, which is the ratio of heat transfer area (A) to its volume (V) . it is somewhat
700m2/m3. They can often achieve higher thermal effectiveness then shell and tube ex-
changer, (95% vs. 60-80% for STHE) which makes them particularly useful in energy in-
tensive industries.

4. Classification according Flow Arrangement

The basic flow arrangements in a heat exchanger are:

a. Parallel flow
b. Counter flow
c. Cross flow

36
 The Choice of a particular flow arrangement is dependent upon the required ex-
changer effectiveness, fluid flow paths, and packaging envelope, allowable thermal
stress, temperature levels etc.

5. Classification according to Pass Arrangement

A fluid is considered to have made one pass if it flows through a section of heat ex-
changer through its full length once. There are either single pass or multi pass, in a multi
pass arrangement the fluid is reversed and flows through the flow length two or more
times. The multi pass arrangements are possible with compact shell and tube and plate
exchangers.

6. Classification according to Phase of Fluid

This classification is made according to the phase of the fluid, I-e gas-gas, liquid-
liquid, gas-liquid etc.

7. Classification according to Heat transfer Mechanisms

The basic heat transfer mechanism employed for heat transfer from one fluid to

another is:

a. Single phase convection, forced or free

b. Two phase convection (condensation or evaporation)

c. Combined convection or radiation

37
 5.3 Selection of heat exchanger type
Following criteria for selection of heat exchanger:

a. Thermal & hydraulic requirements

b. Material compatibility
c. Operational maintenance
d. Environmental, health, and safety consideration and regulations
e. Availability
f. Cost

5.4 Problem Statement

a. 29061 Kg/hr of the product leaving the methanator is to be cooled from 373k to 321 k
using water as a coolant media.
b. Hot fluid will be cooled from373k to 321K while cold fluid is heated from 303K to 311K.

5.4.1 Selection of basic type of heat exchanger

A shell and tube heat exchanger (fixed tube) is selected keeping in view the following
qualitative characteristics of shell and tube heat exchanger.

1. Well established codes and standards are

available by TEMA and ASME.
2. Available in widest variety of materials
3. Many years of satisfactory services
4. Thermal and hydraulic characteristics
5. Material compatibility
6. Operational maintenance and cleaning
Figure 5.1 U Tube Heat Exchanger
7. SHE regulations and considerations
8. High heat transfer area to volume and weight ratios.

38
9. Product is widest variety of sizes and style.
10. Mechanical stresses

5.4.2 Step Wise Solution

The design calculations or thermal rating of a shell and tube exchanger comprises of the
following steps.

Material Balance

Inlet temperature of the process stream = T1 = 373 K

Outlet temperature of the process stream = T2 = 321K

Inlet temperature of utility stream = t1 = 303 K

Outlet temperature of utility stream = t2 = 311 K

Mass flow rate of process stream = m = 29061 Kg/hr

Specific heat capacity of the process stream = CP =3.3 KJ/Kg.K

Specific heat capacity of the utility stream = C P = 4.18 KJ/Kg.K

Mass flow rate of the utility stream =m=?

39
Heat load Calculations
Heat transfer rate Q = mC p( T1 – T2 )
Q=29061*3.3*(100–48)
= 4990 MJ/hr

Mass flow rate of utility stream

Q = mC p(t2 – t1 )

4990 = m x 4.18 x(38– 30)

m= 41.28 kg/s

Physical properties of water

a. Inlet temp: 30 oC
b. Outlet temp: 38 oC
c. Mean temp : 34 oC
d. Viscosity :1 cp
e. Density:1000 kg/m3
f. Specific heat:4.18 KJ/kg oC

physical properties of gas

a. Inlet temp: 100 oC

b. Outlet temp: 48 oC
c. Mean temp : 74 oC
d. Viscosity :0.023 Kg/m s
e. Thermal conductivity: 0.03 W/m oC
f. Specific heat:3.3 KJ/KgoC

40
Overall heat transfer co efficient

a. For an exchanger of this type the overall heat transfer coefficient will be in the range of
10 to 250 W/m2k
b. uo= 175 W/m2kn
c. Where: uo = overall heat transfer coefficient

LMTD
∆Tlm = ( T1–t2) – (T2-t1) /( ln( T1–t2) /(T2-t1))

=35.57 oC

∆Tlm = (100 –38) – (48-30) / ln(62/ 18)

=35.57 oC

Ft = 0.95 ( Table:8 “Process Heat Transfer” by Kern)

∆Tlm corrected = Ft x ∆Tlm

= 0.95*35.57

=34 oC

Heat transfer area and Flow Area

Q = ud Ao ∆Tlm corrected

Ao = Q / u ∆ ∆Tlm corrected

Ao = 4986867.6 / 175 x 33.8

Ao = 220m2

From Table:10 “Process Heat Transfer” by Kern

Tube outside dia =0.025 m

14 BWG, length of tube = 20ft = 6.1m

For Triangular pitch

41
Flow area per tube = 3.52*10-4 m2

At = (area of one tube)= 3.14do L

= 3.14 x 0.025 x 6.1

= 0.4788 m2

No. of tubes = Ao / At

= 220 / 0.4788

= 460 tubes

From Table 9, “Process Heat Transfer” by Kern

The closest value of the Standard Number of Tubes is 454

Shell Inner Diameter = 0.78m

Tube Clearance = PT-Do

= 0.00625m

Corrected Area = 454x6.1x0.2618

= 221m2

Corrected Ud = 174 W/m2 K

From Table 10, “Process Heat Transfer” by Kern

Baffle spacing = 0.203 m

Thickness = 6.35x10-4 m

Corrosion allowance = 1.33mm

Total Thickness = 0.00193m

42
Inner Dia = 0.021m

Flow Area per Tube = 0.000352m2

Tube Side Coefficient

Flow area = No. of tubes x Flow area per tube/No. of passes

= 0.083m2

Mass Velocity = G = Mass flow rate/Flow area

= 1956072 kg/hr m2

Reynolds Number = DG/μ

= 12535

Velocity = G/3600ρ

= 1.5 m/s

From Figure 25, “Process Heat Transfer” by Kern

hi = 5510 W/m.K

hio = hi x ID / OD

= 4595 W/m.K

Shell Side Coefficient

Flow area = IDshell x C’ x B/ (144 PT)

= 0.046m2

Mass Velocity = G = Mass flow rate/Flow area

= 625297 kg/hr m2

43
Reynolds Number = De G/μ

where De = 0.018m

Reynolds Number = 127868

Prandtl Number = Pr = C p x /k

Pr = 0.5

The corresponding JH value from Fig 12.23 (Chemical Engg. By Coulson & Richardson –
Volume 6) is:

JH = 200

ho = JH K/De (Pr)1/3

= 208 W/m2 K

Overall Coefficient

uc=(hio*ho)/(hio+ho)

Uc = clean overall heat transfer coefficient

ho = outside fluid film coefficient,

hio = inside fluid film coefficient,

uc =200.4W/m2K

Rd = (uc – ud)/ (uc*ud)

= 0.007m2K/W

Shell Side Pressure Drop

For Re= 127868

44
f = 0.0025

From Fig 12.24; Chemical Engg. By Coulson & Richardson. Volume 6

N+1 = 12L/B

N+1=30

Pressure drop for the shell side is given by

ΔP = *fG2D (N+1)]/ (5.2x1010xDe) = 53KPa

Tube Side Pressure Drop:

For Re= 12535

f = 0.003 (from Fig 12.24; Chemical Engg. By Coulson & Richardson. Volume 6)

No. of passes = n = 2

Pressure drop for the tube side is given by

ΔPT = [fG2D (N+1)]/ (5.2x1010xDe)

= 32KPa

Pressure drop due to returning losses tube side is given by:

ΔPR = 4n/S x v2/2g’

v2/2g’ = 0.33

=18KPa

Total Pressure drop = ΔPTotal = 50KPa

45
Specification Sheet

1. Unit Shell & tube heat exchanger

2. No. of shell passes 1
3. No. of tube passes 2
4. Heat Transfer area 220 m²
5. Diameter of shell 0.78 m
6. Pitch(Triangular Pitch) 0.03 m
7. No. of tubes 454
8. Type of tube used 14 BWG
9. No of baffles & type 29, (25%cut baffle)
10. Tube Length 6.10 m
11. OD & ID of tube 0.025 m, 0.021 m
12. hi 5510 W/m².0C
13. ho 208 W/m².0C
14. Ud 175 W/m².0C
15. ΔP on shell side 54KPa
16. ΔP on tube side 49KPa

46
 6
Sizing of Compressor

6.1 Compressor

Compressor is a device to transfer large volume of gas from an inlet condition to

pressures as high as 300 MPa.

6.1.1 Types of Compressor

The two basic types of compressors are Dynamic and Positive Displacement Com-
pressors Details of Which are given below.

6.1.1.1 Dynamic Compressors

In a Dynamic Compressor, a gas is first accelerated to a high velocity to i n-

crease its kinetic energy. Then, the compressor converts kinetic energy into pressure by
reducing the gas velocity, according to the macroscopic energy balance.

Dynamic Compressors are further classified as

a. Centrifugal Compressors
b. Axial Compressorsn

47
a. Centrifugal Compressors

The Centrifugal Compressor is a dynamic compressor, which depends on transfer

of energy from a rotating impeller to the gas. The rotor accomplishes this by changing
the momentum and pressure of the gas. This momentum is converted to useful pressure
by slowing the gas down in a stationary diffuser.
In general, the centrifugal compres-
sor consists of a stationary casing, contain-
ing a rotating impeller that imparts a high
velocity to the gas, and a number of fixed
diverging passages in which the gas is dece-
lerated with a consequent rise in static
pressure. The latter process is one of diffu-
sion, and thus the part of the compressor
Figure 6.1 Centrifugal Compressor with four Impellers
containing the diverging passages is
known as the diffuser. Gas enters the impeller eye and is whirled around at high rota-
tional speed by the vanes on the impeller disc. The static pressure rise is obtained in the
diffuser, where the very high velocity of the gas, leaving the impeller tip, is reduced to a
velocity similar to the velocity of the gas entering the impeller eye.

Operating limits for Centrifugal Compressors.

1. Many centrifugal compressors have one or more of the following operating li m-

its:
2. Minimum Operating Speed - the minimum speed for acceptable operation, be-
low this value the compressor may be controlled to stop or go into an "Idle" condition.
3. Maximum Allowable Speed - the maximum operating speed for the compressor.
Beyond this value stresses may rise above prescribed limits and rotor vibrations may in-
crease rapidly. At speeds above this level the equipment will likely become very danger-
ous and be controlled to lower speeds.

48
4. Stonewall or Choke - occurs under one of 2 conditions. Typically for high speed
equipment, as flow increases the velocity of the gas/fluid can approach the gas/fluid's
sonic speed somewhere within the compressor stage. This location may occur at the
impeller inlet "throat" or at the vane diffuser inlet "throat". In most cases, it is generally
not detrimental to the compressor. For low speed equipment, as flows increase, losses
increase such that the pressure ratio drops to 1:1.
5. Surge - is the point at which the compressor cannot add enough energy to ove r-
come the system resistance. This causes a rapid flow reversal (i.e. surge). As a result,
high vibration, temperature increases, and rapid changes in axial thrust can occur. These
occurrences can damage the rotor seals, rotor bearings, the compressor driver and cycle
operation. Most turbo machines are designed to easily withstand occasional surging.
However, if the turbo machine is forced to surge repeatedly for a long period of time or
if the turbo machine is poorly designed, repeated surges can result in a catastrophic
failure. Of particular interest, is that while turbo machines may be very durable, the
cycles/processes that they are used within can be far less robust.

b. Axial-flow Compressors

They are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to pro-
gressively compress the working fluid. They are used where there is a requirement for a
high flow rate or a compact design. The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs:
one rotating and one stationary. The rotating
airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accele-
rate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also
known as stators or vanes, decelerate and redi-
rect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it
for the rotor blades of the next stage. Axial
compressors are almost always multi-staged,
with the cross-sectional area of the gas passage
diminishing along the compressor to maintain

Figure 6.2 Axial Flow Compressors

49
an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure ratio,
variable geometry is normally used to improve operation.

Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around 90% polytropic at their de-
sign conditions. However, they are relatively expensive, requiring a large number of
components, tight tolerances and high quality materials. Axial-flow compressors can be
found in medium to large gas turbine engines, in natural gas pumping stations, and
within certain chemical plants.

6.1.1.2 positive Displacement Compressors

Positive displacement compressors compress essentially the same volume of
gas in a chamber regardless of the discharge pressure.

Positive Displacement Compressors are classified as

a. Reciprocating Compressors
b. Rotary Screw Compressors

a. Reciprocating Compressors

Reciprocating Compressors are

positive displacement machines,
meaning that they increase the pres-
sure of the gas by reducing its volume.
This means they are taking in succes-
sive volumes of gas which is confined
within a closed space and elevating
this air to a higher pressure. The Reci-
procating Compressor accomplishes

Figure 6.3 Double Acting Reciprocating Compressor

50
 this by a piston within a cylinder as the compressing and displacing element.

The reciprocating compressor is single acting when the compressing is accom-

plished using only one side of the piston. A compressor using both sides of the piston is
considered double acting.

a. Rotary Screw Compressors

Rotary Compressors are also Positive Dis-

placement compressors. The most common Ro-
tary compressor is the Single Stage Helical or
Spiral Lobe Oil Flooded Screw Compressor.
These compressors consist of two rotors within a
casing where the rotors compress the gas inter-
nally. There are no valves. These units are basi- Figure 6.4 Rotor of Screw Compressor

cally oil cooled (with air cooled or water cooled oil coolers) where the oil seals the inte r-
nal clearances.
Since the cooling takes place right inside the compressor, the working parts never
experience extreme operating temperatures. The rotary compressor, therefore, is a con-
tinuous duty, air cooled or water cooled compressor package.

Rotary screw compressors are easy to maintain and operate. Capacity control for
these compressors is accomplished by variable speed and variable compressor di s-
placement. For the latter control technique, a slide valve is positioned in the casing. As
the compressor capacity is reduced, the slide valve opens, bypassing a portion of the
compressed gas back to the suction.

51
6.2 Sizing steps

1. Selection of Compressor Type

2. Calculation of Compressor Work for Single Stage
3. Calculation of Discharge Temperature for Single Stage
4. Calculation of Compressor Work and Discharge Temperature for Two Stages
5. Calculation of Compressor Power for two stages
6. Calculation of motor Power for two stages

6.2.1 Important conditions required for sizing

1. T1=410C=314K
2. P1 =32atm
3. P2 =146atm
4. Molar flow rate into the compressor = 3229kgmol/hr
5. For N2 Y1=0.25
6. For H2 Y2=0.75
7. TC=∑Y¡TC¡=56.65 K
8. PC=∑Y¡PC¡=17.96 atm
9. R=8314 J/Kgmol.K
10. K=∑Y¡K¡=1.4075
11. TR1=T1/TC =5.543
12. PR1= P1/PC = 1.782
13. Z 1= 1.04

52
6.3 Step wise Sizing

1. Selection of Compressor Type

There are two major types of Compressors

1- Positive Displacement

2- Centrifugal

• Positive Displacement Compressors are Used when Inlet Flow is 5000m3/hr

• Centrifugal Compressors are Used when inlet Flow Is 340000m3/hr

As inlet Flow Rate is 7000 m 3/hr which lies in the Range of Centrifugal Compressor So
Centrifugal Compressor is selected

2. Calculation of Compressor Work for Single Stage

Assume one stage of compression, N=1

P1 =32atm

P2 =146atm

(K-1)/k=0.289

WC1=5.4×103 KJ/Kgmol

53
3. Calculation of Discharge Temperature for Single Stage

T2=501 K

As the Discharge Temperature is Greater Than 473K so Take Two Stages for Compression

4. Compression Work and Discharge Temperature for two stages of

compression

P2=69atm

P4=146atm

P3=67atm

WC2=4.7×103 KJ/Kgmol

TD = 450K

54
5. Actual Work and Power Requirement

W=(4.7×103 )/(0.75)(0.95)(0.98)(0.95)

Where in above expression

ηP= 0.75

ηs = 0.98

ηB= 0.95

ηG= 0.95

Hence Work Required for Compression comes out to be.

W= 8×103 KJ/Kgmol

Power Required = W*(molar Flow Rate)

Molar Flow Rate = 3229Kgmol/hr

Power Required for Compression = 7176 KW

Motor Efficiency = 0.90

Required Power for Motor = 10000 hp

55
 7
Design of Ammonia
Converter R30001

7.1 What is a Reactor?

A reactor is a vessel used to carry out the desired reaction under a controlled set of
conditions. This unit is said to be the heart of the process industry, and in fact, all the
other units usually act as its auxiliaries.

7.2 Types of Reactor

Because of the variety of reactors available, some engineers believe that reactor
Classification is not possible. No matter how incomplete a classification may be, howev-
er, the designer needs some guidance, even though there may be some reactor types
that do not fit into any classification. Accordingly, we will classify Reactors using the fol-
lowing criteria:

1. Form of energy supplied

56
2. Phases in contact
3. Catalytic or noncatalytic
4. Batch or continuous
5. Packed or suspended bed

1. Form of Energy Supplied

Energy Source Product Example

Thermochemical Ammonia
Biochemical Ethanol
Electrochemical Gluconic Acid
Photochemical Chloromethanes
Plasma Acetylene
Sonochemical Fumaric Acid

2. Phases in Contact
The next consideration is classifying reactors according to the phases in contact.

1. gas-liquid
2. liquid-liquid
3. gas-solid
4. liquid-solid
5. gas-liquid-sol

3.Catalytic or noncatalytic
The types of reactors used in industry for carrying out heterogene-
ous catalytic reactions may be classified in terms of a relatively small number of catego-
ries. One simple means of classification is in terms of the relative motion of the catalyst
particles, or lack thereof. We consider:

57
1. Reactors in which the solid catalyst particles remain in a fixed position relative to one
another (fixed bed, trickle bed, and moving bed reactors).
2. Reactors in which the particles are suspended in a fluid and are constantly moving
about (fluidized bed and slurry reactors).

4. Batch or Continuous
After specifying the energy form, the catalyst and the phases in contact, the next
task is to decide whether to conduct the reaction in a batch or continuous mode. In the
batch mode, the reactants are charged to a stirred-tank reactor (STR) and allowed to
react for a specified time. After completing the reaction, the reactor is emptied to ob-
tain the products. This operating mode is unsteady state. Other unsteady-state reactors
are: (1) continuous addition of one or more of the reactants with no product withdraw-
al, and (2) all the reactants added at the beginning with continuous withdrawal of pro d-
uct. At steady-state, reactants flow into and products flow out continuously without a
change in concentration and temperature in the reactor.

5. Packed or suspended bed

In chemical processing, a packed bed is a hollow tube, pipe, or other vessel that is
filled with a packing material. The packing can be randomly filled with small objects like
Raschig rings or else it can be a specifically designed structured packing.

The purpose of a packed bed is typically to improve contact between two phases in a
chemical or similar process. Packed beds can be used in a chemical reactor, a distillation
process, or a scrubber, but packed beds have also been used to store heat in chemical
plants. In this case, hot gases are allowed to escape through a vessel that is packed with
a refractory material until the packing is hot. Air or other cool gas is then fed back to the
plant through the hot bed, thereby pre-heating the air or gas feed.

58
7.3 Designing Steps

1. Selecting the possible type of reactor.

2. Catalyst Selection.

3. Estimating the rate of reaction.

4. Finding the volume of bed and volume of the reactor.

5. Determining the weight of the catalyst.

6. Length and diameter calculation.

7. Pressure drop findings.

1. Selecting the possible type of reactor

We Select fixed bed reactor for Ammonia Synthesis reactor, the reactor has three
beds in series.

Figure 7.1 Horizontal Ammonia Converter

59
 2. Catalyst Selection

Triply promoted Iron oxide catalyst is used The iron catalyst consists of magnetite
(Fe3O4) which is enriched(“promoted”) most frequently with Al- and K- (or Ca, Mg, Si)-
oxides. Catalyst is produced by fusing (melting) magnetite ore with the other promoters
at 1700oC and pouring melt into water to form fine particles. Iron being a transition
metal with partially occupied d-bands represents a surface suitable for adsorption and
dissociation of N2 molecules

A typical composition of an industrial Ammonia-synthesis catalyst is given below

Composition in Activated form(%)

Fe2O3 1.1 - 1.7

FeO 14.3 - 14.6

Fe 79.7 - 81.6

CaO 0.1 – 0.2

SiO2 0.1 – 0.7

MgO 0.3 - 0.6

Al2O3 1.5 – 2.1

K2O 0.2 – 0.5

Porosity 40-50

Catalyst Specification is as below.

Porosity = φ = 0.4

Particle Density = 3900 Kg/m3

Bulk Density = 2650 Kg/m3

Particle Size = Dp = 0.004m

60
 3. Estimating the rate of reaction

A rate equation is based on nitrogen adsorption as the slow steps is given below.

Where subscripts A, N, H refers to the ammonia, hydrogen, and nitrogen respectively

and:

Log 10 K = -2.691122 Log 10 T-5.519265* 10-5T

η = b0+b1T+b2X+b3T2+b4 X2+b5T3+b6X3

vH = exp{e(-3.8402T^0.125+0.541)P-e(-0.1263T^0.5-15.980)P2+300[e(-0.11901T-5.941)](e-P/300-1)}

vN = 0.93431737+0.3101804*10-3T+0.295896*10-3P-0.2707279*10-6T2+0.4775207*10-
6 2
P

vA = 0.1438996+0.2028538*10-2T–0.4487672*10 -3P-0.1142945*10 -5T2+0.2761216*10-

6 2
P

Where in Rate Expression:

η is effective Factor

v is fugacity Coefficient

R is Gas Constant

Y is mole Fraction

K is Equilibrium Constant

After putting all the values reaction rates come out to be

r1 = 288.5 Kmol/hr m3

r2 = 262.9 Kmol/hr m3

61
 r3 = 96.24 Kmol/hr m3

4. Volume of the bed and volume of reactor

We assume our reactor to be the ideal plug flow reactor.The expression for the vo-
lume of the reactor is given below,

V1 = 6.3m3

V2 = 4.7m3

V3 = 4.37m3

Weight of catalyst Wn = Vn*ρ

W 1 = 24570kg

W 2 = 18330 kg

W 3 = 17043kg

Total volume of the bed =15.37m 3

Volume of Bed including porosity = volume of catalyst/(1-Φ)=25.6 m3

5. Length of the reactor

Volume of reactor = 1.2(96) = 115.2m 3

Area of bed = Volumetric flow rate/superficial velocity

Superficial Velocity = 2520m/hr

Volumetric Flow rate = 8744.4 m3 /hr

AB = 3.47 m2

Diameter of the bed = 2.1m

Length of bed L B = L1+L2+L3

62
Ln = Vn/AB

L1 = 1.9m

L2 = 1.35m

L3 = 1.26m

LR = LB+ LI'

LR = 4.4 + 1 = 5.4 m

6. Pressure Drop
According to Ergen Equation

P G 1 150 1
3
1.75G
L gc Dp Dp

Viscosity, µ = 0.124 Kg/m s (T = 388K )

Density = 2.07 kg/m3 (T = 388K; P = 155atm )

Superficial velocity vs = 0.70m/s

Particle size Dp = 0.004m

ΔP/L = 6.7 KPa/m

ΔP = 37 KPa

63
Specification Sheet

1. Unit Ammonia Convertor

2. Item Number R30001

3. Total no. of Beds 3

4. Volume of Catalyst Bed 25.6m3

5. Area of Bed 3.47m2

6. Diameter of Bed 2.1m

7. Length of Bed 4.4m

8. Length of Reactor 5.4m

9. Volume of Reactor 30.7m3

10. Total Pressure Drop 37K Pa

64
 8
Environment Impact
Assessment Report
ElA is both a decision making process and a document that provides a systemic, re-
producible, and interdisciplinary evaluation of the potential effects of a proposed action
and its practical alternatives on the physical, biological, cultural and socioeconomic
attributes of a particular geographical area.

8.1 EIA steps

1. Participants

2. Purpose and need

3. Alternatives that satisfy purpose and need

4. Screening alternatives

5. Describing the affected environment

6. Forecasting and assessing impacts

7. Mitigating adverse impacts

8. Identifying preferred alternatives

9. Documenting results and soliciting comments

10. Decision

65
8.2 EIA of Ammonia Plant

8.2.1 Air Emissions

1. Flue-gas from steam reforming processes with a fired primary reformer and/or aux-
iliary boilers, and from auxiliary boilers in partial oxidation processes. This gas con-
tains pollutants such as:
2. Nitrogen Oxide which could affect the asthmatics and children populace of the re-
gion as well as create haze, cause vegetation damage and contribute to ozone deple-
tion.
3. Sulphur Dioxide from the sulphur removal and recovery systems in partial oxidation
processes could worsen pre-existing respiratory/cardio-vascular diseases of the re-
gion’s populace and contribute to acid rain and vegetation damage.
4. Carbon Monoxide which increases adverse cardio-vascular symptoms, can cause vis-
ual impairment in the region’s populace and contribute to the generation of green-
house gases.
5. Vent gas from CO2 removal The carbon dioxide product may have to be vented, de-
pending on the carbon dioxide requirements of other production facilities on the
site. In some cases, high purity carbon dioxide is used, while an air-carbon dioxide
mixture from a Stripping column is vented. The carbon dioxide contains small traces
of synthesis Gas, traces of amines and absorption solvent vapors.

8.2.2 Water Emissions

Pollution problems related to water, during normal operation, may occur due to
process condensates or due to the scrubbing of waste gases containing ammonia. In
partial oxidation, slag, soot and ash removal may cause pollution problems

Ammonia and ammonia based effluents discharged into the region’s waterways, un-
der some conditions, depending on water pH and temperature can become highly toxic
to fish and other animals living in the water. These substances are not found to be bi o-

66
accumulative, or to transfer up the food chain. Freshwater organisms are most at risk
from releases of ammonia in the aquatic environment. Some of the observed effects i n-
clude reduced reproductive capacity and reduced growth of young. At several point
sources in Canada, concentrations exceed the threshold levels of sensitive species such
as rainbow trout (a freshwater fish). Concentrations of ammonia between 0.158 - 1.090
mg/L (158 and 1,090 µ g/L) have been shown to be lethal to rainbow trout in 48 hour
and 96 hour exposures.
Ammonia is considered to be entering the aquatic environment in a quantity or concen-
tration or under conditions that have or may have an immediate or long -term harmful
effect on the region’s environment or its biological diversity.

8.2.3 Noise Pollution

Major noise sources in ammonia plant are

1. Compressor section

2. Ammonia refrigeration section

3. CO2 venting section

Noise can cause Hypertension, high stress levels, sleep disturbances, and rise in
blood pressure

8.2.4 Risk of Accidental Leakage

Ammonia is toxic by inhalation its exposure may cause

1. Irritation in eyes

2. Watering of eyes

3. Irritation of the skin

67
4. Liquid ammonia splashes may produce severe burns to the skin and permanent
damage to the eyes.

5. A release of 19 tons of ammonia from a road tanker in Houston, Texas in 1976 re-
sulted in 6 fatalities and more than 100 injuries.

8.2.5 Effect on Metallurgy

Ammonia is corrosive to storage tanks made of metal alloys particularly of zinc and
cu. Iron and steel are usually the only metals used in ammonia storage tanks, piping and
fitting

8.2.6 Mitigation

In an environmental context, means a sequence of proposed actions designed to help

manage adverse environmental impacts, and which includes (in order of preference):

1. Avoidance – avoiding the adverse environmental impacts

2. Minimization – limiting the degree or magnitude of the adverse impacts
3. Rectification – repairing, rehabilitating or restoring the impacted site as soon as
possible
4. Reduction – gradually eliminating the adverse impact over time by preservation
maintenance operations during the life of the action; and
5. Offsets – undertaking activities that counterbalance an adverse, residual Environ-
mental impact, after all other steps above have been exhausted

68
 9
HAZOP Study
9.1 HAZOP
A HAZOP survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of sys-
tematic qualitative hazard analysis. It is used for both new or existing facilities and can
be applied to a whole plant, a production unit, or a piece of equipment It uses as its da-
tabase the usual sort of plant and process information and relies on the judgment of en-
gineering and safety experts in the areas with which they are most familiar. The end re-
sult is, therefore reliable in terms of engineering and operational expectations, but it is
not quantitative and may not consider the consequences of complex sequences of hu-
man errors.
The objectives of a HAZOP study can be summarized as follows:

1. To identify (areas of the design that may possess a significant hazard potential.

2. To familiarize the study team with the design information available.

3. To ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant hazard poten-
tial.

4. To identify pertinent design information not currently available to the team.

5. To provide a mechanism for feedback to the client of the study team's detailed
comments.

A HAZOP study is conducted in the following steps:

69
70
 Table 8.1: HAZOP Guide Words and Meanings
Guide Words Meaning
No Negation of design intent
Less Quantitative decrease
More Quantitative increase
Part of Qualitative decrease
As well as Qualitative Increase
Reverse Logical opposite of the intent
Other than Complete substitution

9.2 HAZOP Study of Ammonia Storage Tank

A HAZOP study is to be conducted on ethylene oxide storage tank, as presented
by the piping and instrumentation diagram shown in fig.

In this scheme, Ammonia is transferred into a storage tank maintained at its liquefaction
temperature and pressure until it is transferred to the process. Application of the guide
words to the storage tank is shown in Table along with a listing of consequences that re-
sults from process deviation. Some of the consequences identified with these process
deviations have raised additional questions that need resolution to determine whether
or not a hazard exists.

71
 Ammonia
Storage Tank

Figure 9.1 P& ID of Ammonia Storage Tank

72
73
 10
Piping and
Instrumentation Diagram

A measurement is a fundamental requisite to process control. Either the control

can be affected automatically, semi automatically or manually. The quality of control
obtainable also bears a relationship to the accuracy, re-product ability and reliability of
the measurement methods, which are employed. Therefore, selection of the most effec-
tive means of measurements is an important first step in the design and f ormulation of
any process control system.

10.1 Temperature Measurement and Control

Temperature measurement is used to control the temperature of outlet and inlet

streams in heat exchanger, reactors etc

Most temperature measurements in the industry are made by means of thermo-

couples to facilitate bringing the measurement to centralized location. For local mea-
surements at the equipment bi-metallic or filled system thermometers are used to a
lesser extent. Usually, for high measurement accuracy, résistance thermometers are
used.

74
 All these meters are installed with thermo-wells when used locally. This provides
protection against atmosphere and other physical elements. Normally the control loops,
which are used to control the controlled variables, are feedback controllers. Only 10% of
the total controllers are feed forward controllers.

10.2 Pressure Measurement and Control

Like temperature, pressure is a valuable indication of material state and compos i-
tion. Tn fact, these two measurements considered together are the primary evaluating
devices for industrial materials.

Pumps, compressors and other process equipment associated with pressure

changes in the process material are furnished with pressure measuring devices. Thus
pressure measurement becomes an indication for energy increase or decrease.

Most pressure measurements in industry are elastic element devices, either directly
connected for local use or transmission type to centralized location. Most extensively
used industrial pressure element is bourden tube or a diaphragm or bellows gauges.

10.3 Flow Measurement and Control

Flow-indicator-controllers are used to control the amount of liquid. Also all manually
set streams require some flow indication or some easy means for occasional sample
measurement. For accounting purposes, feed and product stream are metered. In addi-
tion utilities to individual and grouped equipment are also metered.

Most flow measure in the industry are /by variable head devices. To a lesser extent
variable area is used, as are the many available types as special metering situation arise.

75
 PIPING & INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM
P.I

To CO2 Storage
Purified Gas PC T.I

350 K
Hot Process Gas Lean Soln. T.I
from LTSC
(Raw Synthesis Gas)
450 K & 2818 KPa
F.S Rich Solution
Absorber

STRIPPER
Reboiler FC TC
Arrangement
Steam Turbine
P.G Gas to K.O Drum

T.I

Semi Lean Solution

Hot P.G. from LTS
394 K

T.I

FC Steam
T.I
Lean soln. 390 K Vapors

397 K & 2689 KPa

T.I
380 K 386 K
L.I

Steam
P.I
T.I

Knock Out L.C

TC

Drum
L.I
H.E x 1A H.E x 1B H.E x 1C
P.I
P.I
Rich Soln. 390 K
L.I Lean soln.

Condensate
P.R. Turbine
T.I To K.O Drum
Water 375 K
Catacarb Lean Soln. Lean soln. Lean soln.
Storage unit
350 K 375 K
[ ___________ Reboiler Arrangement From Stripper __________ ]
Lean soln. Cooler
TC

76
 11
Cost Estimation

11.1 For Absorber

Weight of the Column = 2200 tone

Purchased cost for Column = $3.2 million

Delivery Cost (10% of Purchased Cost)=$0.32 million

Installation Cost( 55% of Delivered Purchased Cost)= $1.9million

Total Cost for Absorber = $5.4million

11.2 For Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Area of Heat Transfer = 220m2

Purchased cost = $94000

Installation Cost including Insulation = $37600

Instrumentation Cost =$28200

Piping cost = $47000

Total Cost = $ 0.2million

11.3 For Compressor

Power of Motor Required = 10000Hp

77
Cost of Motor = $3 million

11.4 For Reactor

Purchased Cost = $31500

11.5 Total Cost

Total Direct Cost = $ 11.2million

Total Indirect Cost = $ 2.5million

Fixed Capital Investment = Direct + Indirect Cost= $ 13.7million

Working Capital = $ 3.2million

Total Capital Investment = $16.9million

Exchange Rate= 84
Total Capital Investment = PKR 1420million

78
List of References

1. “Prospects of Chemical Industries in Pakistan”. Ministry of Industries and Produc-

tion.
2. Kirk, Othmer “Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology”, Vol. 2, Ed. 3
3. R.H Perry “Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook”, McGraw Hill Publishing Compa-
ny,USA
4. Vornel Walker, “Designing a Process Flow Diagram”, Chemical Engineering Progress
May 2009.
5. Jason Underwood “Design of CO2 Absorption System in an Ammonia Plant”, Chemi-
cal Engineering Vol. 403, November 10. 1997
6. http://image.made-in-china.com/2f0j00BCvasJDGllbj/Ceramic-Random-Tower-
Packing.jpg (retrieved on 09/05/2010)
7. Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering Design, 6 th Volume, 3rd Edition, Butter-
worth-Heinemann, Reviewed 2001, 2003. Great Britain.
8. Ernest E. Ludwig “Applied Process Design for Chemical & Petrochemical Plants” Vol.
2 Ed. 3
9. McCabe & Smith "Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering” Ed. 5
10. Harry Silla “ Chemical Process Engineering”
11. Chemical Engineering series ” by S. M. Walas
12. Howard F.Rase “Chemical Reactor Design for process plant”
13. Peter & Timmerhaus “Plant Design and Economics For Chemical Engineers”, Ed.4
14. D.Q Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill Publishing Company,USA
15. Eugeny Kenig, Penos Seferlis, “Modeling Reactive Absorption” CEP January 2009

79