STATISTICS

INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
Statistics is a collecting, analysing, interpreting, presenting, and organizing data.

Summation Notation

In summarizing data, we often have to find the sum of several numbers. A more concise way to
n
express the sum a 1+ a2+ a3 +…+ an is to use the summation notation or sigma notation. ∑ ak
k =1

 The Greek letter Σ (sigma) tells us to sum up the terms.

 k is called the index of summation. It tells you where to start the sum.
 n tells you the number of terms in the summation.

Examples: 4
5 ∑ k +2
Evaluate: ∑ k2 k =1
k =1
Solution: 2 2 2 2 2 Solution:
=1 + 2 +3 + 4 +5 =(1+2)+(2+2 )+(3+2)+(4 +2)
=1+ 4+9+ 16+25 =3+4+5+ 6
=55 =18

∑3k
k =1

Solution: =3(1 )+3(2)+3(3 )+3(4 )+3 (5 )

=3+ 6+9+12+15
=45
 Complete the table:

x f fx x2 fx 2
15 3 45 225 675
12 8 96 144 1152
11 4 44 121 484
8 1 8 64 64
N=16 Σ fx=193 2
Σ x =¿554 2
Σ fx =¿2375

COLLECTING AND ORGANIZING DATA

A table is a systematic arrangement of data usually arranged in rows or columns for ready
reference of information.

A table has a title and appropriate headings for the columns and rows. Notice how table neatly
organizes a data set.

Baby Boom!

Do you know in what month most babies are born? Let’s do a mini survey in your class. Gather the
birth months of everyone in the class and organize the data in the table.

POPULAR BIRTH MONTHS

MONTH JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
T
Number
of 2 12 6 10 4 8 0 4 2 7 11 7
Student
s
 In which month were most students in the class born?
 In which month were the least number of students in the class born?
 What can you infer from the data?

Stem and leaf display is a method of organizing data in which the stem values or the leading digits
for each observation are listed in a column and the leaf values or the trailing digits for each
observation is then listed beside the corresponding stem.

Examples: 1. Marco’s travel time from school to his house varies daily due to traffic and other
factors. He records his daily travel time in minutes for 20 days as follows:

25, 32, 18, 26, 40, 20, 31, 21, 34, 28, 19, 36, 25, 38, 41, 40, 23, 22, 30, 31
Construct a stem and leaf diagram.

Solution: Stem Leaf

1 8, 9
2 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 5, 6, 8
3 0, 1, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8
4 0, 0, 1

2. The following back-to-back stem and leaf diagram represents the scores of the students in two
different sections for a common examination. In each section, 30 students took the examination.

I- Charity I- Peace
Leaf Stem Leaf
5, 2, 1 4 0, 3
7, 6, 3, 3, 0 5 1, 2, 2, 5
8, 8, 7, 5, 1, 0 6 3, 4, 6, 6, 7, 9
9, 8, 7, 7, 6 7 0, 0, 3, 5, 8, 8, 9
9, 7, 7, 3, 2, 1, 1 8 0, 1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 5
6, 3, 0, 0 9 1, 2, 2, 5

a. Which section got the highest score? What was the score?
b. Which section got the lowest score? What was the score?
c. How would you decide which class did better in the exam?
Answers:
a. I- Charity. The highest score was 96.
b. I-Peace. The lowest score was 40.
c. Answers may vary. One way is to get the average score obtained by each class.

Try This

The following back-to-back stem and leaf diagram represents the total points made by two
basketball teams in 20 games.

Purefoods Alaska
Leaf Stem Leaf
6 8
8, 5, 4, 0 7 2, 6, 7
9, 7, 5, 3, 3 8 0, 4, 5, 8
8, 6, 5, 4, 2, 2, 0 9 1, 2, 5, 6, 6, 8
7, 6, 4, 0 10 2, 3, 7, 8, 8, 9

a. Which basketball team made the most points in a game? What was the score?
b. Which basketball team made the least number of points in a game?
 c. How would you decide which team made more points?

Frequency distribution is a table that displays frequencies for the different categories, values of a
counting variable or class intervals.
Note: N is the
Types of Frequency Distribution total number of
data.
a. Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

In the ungrouped frequency distribution, the data are arranged in a chronological order,
usually from the highest to lowest.

Consider the given data below that show the score of 25 students in a 40-itme math test.

29 20 29 27 28
25 19 33 27 33
32 33 29 25 29
28 28 25 20 28
20 27 27 19 30

These data are called array.

Let us tally the scores of the 25 students.

Score Tally Frequency

33 III 3
32 I 1
30 I 1
29 IIII 4
28 IIII 4
27 IIII 4
25 III 3
20 III 3
19 II 2
25

b. Grouped Frequency Distribution

Here are the results of 60-item test of a class. Construct a frequency distribution.

71 50 33 55 66 58
77 45 36 63 63 46
68 40 40 70 61 41
64 35 45 72 65 38
55 31 50 74 56 34

Solution: a. Find the range. ( the difference between highest score and the lowest score)
HS−LS=range
77−31=46
 b. Number of Classes
 Using Sturge’s Rule. Find k.
k = 1+3.3LogN
In the given, N=30 since the total number of data is 30.
k = 1 + 3.3Log30
k= 5.87 6

 Solve for class interval by dividing the value of range and k.

range
class interval =
k
46
=
6
= 7.6 8
Note: Taking an odd class interval gives a whole value of the class mark. So, instead
of taking 8 as the class interval, we have to get 7.

c. Class Limit – it is the end numbers which define a class. It should not overlap so that
the variables can be classified in one and only one class.

d. Class Boundaries or True Limits – It is the lower class boundary and upper class
boundary. This is obtained by getting the midpoint of the lower class limits of the
adjacent classes.

e. Class Mark - This is the midpoint of each class. It is obtained by dividing the sum of the
upper and lower values of the class by 2.
Example: 31 - 37
31+ 37 68
= =34
2 2

f. Cumulative Frequency – There are two ways on how to get the cumulative frequency.
 Less than cumulative frequency (<cf)
This can be obtained by taking the sum of the frequency of the class and the
frequencies of the lower classes.
 Greater than cumulative frequency (>cf)
This can be obtained also by adding the frequency of the class with the frequencies
of the upper classes.
Name: _________________________________

QUIZ

Construct a frequency distribution table. Given below are the scores of 30 students in their 50-item
math exams.

32 45 12 34 25 28 30 48 36 45
18 22 29 43 29 33 42 37 31 23
37 39 21 26 20 28 32 30 40 25

Class f Class mark Class <cf >cf

Class f Class mark Class
boundaries <cf >cf
73-79 2 76 boundaries
72.5-79.5 30 2
66-72 5 69 65.5-72.5 28 7
59-65 5 62 58.5-65.5 23 12
52-58 4 55 51.5-58.5 18 16
45-51 5 48 44.5-51.5 14 21
38-44 4 41 37.5-44.5 9 25
31-37 5 34 30.5-37.5 5 30
N=30
Graphs

SURVEY ON INTEREST CLUBS

What interest club would you join?
Check only one.

Drama Culinary Dance

Art Glee

Daniel tallies the results of the survey and presents the data in a frequency table.

Interest Clubs Tally Number of Students

Drama IIII–IIII–IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII 45
Dance IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII 24
Glee IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-I 36
Culinary IIII-IIII-IIII-III 18
Art IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-I 21
Total 144

Daniel can present the data using diagrams.

Pictograph is a diagram that uses pictures to represent statistics.

Example: Construct a pictograph of the data on students’ preferred interest clubs.

Students’ Preferred Interest Clubs

Drama

Dance

Glee
 Culinary

Art

Legend: = 3 students

Note that every represents 3 students.

Try This

Construct a bar graph and pictograph using this data. Let represent 5 students.

Students’ Favorite Kind of Movie

Horror Fantasy Romance Drama Suspense
35 45 50 40 45

Daniel may also choose to present the data on students’ preferred interest clubs using a bar graph.

Bar graph uses bars of different lengths and of equal widths to show the frequencies for each of
several categories.

Students' Preferred Interest Clubs

f
50
r 45
e 40
q 35
30
u 25 Number of
e 20 Students
n 15
c 10
5
y 0
Drama Dance Glee Culinary Art

Try This

Construct a bar graph using this data.

Students’ Favorite Kind of Movie

Horror Fantasy Romance Drama Suspense
35 45 50 40 45
If the principal asks what fraction of the students prefers to join, say, Art Club, Daniel should
present the data in a pie chart (or circle graph).

A pie chart is a circle divided into sectors proportional to the frequencies. It shows how a part of
something relates to the whole. It is important to define what the whole represents .

Approximate Composition of the Air

Oxygen
20%

nitrogen
80%

Example: Construct a pie chart using the data on students’ preferred interest clubs.

a. What percent of the students preferred dance?

b. What percent of the students preferred Glee over culinary?

Solutions: Divide the circle into sectors. Each sector corresponds to the percentage of students who
prefer a particular interest club.

Preferred Interest Club Number of Students Percentage Angle of Sector

Drama 45 45 45
× 100 %=31.3 % × 360° =112.5 °
144 144

Dance 24 24 24
× 100 %=16.67 % × 360° =60 °
144 144

Glee 36 36 36
× 100 %=25 % × 360° =90 °
144 144

Culinary 18 18 18
× 100 %=12.5 % × 360° =45 °
144 144

Art 21 21 21
× 100 %=14.58 % × 360° =52.5°
144 144
 a. 16.67 % of the students preferred dance.
b. 12.5 % of the students preferred Glee over Culinary
c. 14.58 % of the students preferred Art

Preferred Interest Club

drama dance glee culinary art

15%
31%
12%

25% 17%

Try This

Construct a pie chart using this data.

Students’ Favorite Kind of Movie

Horror Fantasy Romance Drama Suspense
35 45 50 40 45
Histogram is a bar graph that shows the frequency data occur within a certain interval. In a
histogram, the bars are always vertical, the width of each bar is based upon the size of the interval it
represents, and there are no gaps between adjacent bars. Histograms have no gaps because their
bases cover a continuous range of possible values.

Example: Construct a histogram of the results of 50-item test:

30 24 30 25 26 40 42 45 48 31

28 18 34 36 39 29 16 21 37 27

6 Solution: Begin by constructing a frequency

distribution.
5

4
Intervals
3 Tally Frequency
46-50 I 1
2
41-45 II 2
36-40
1 IIII 4
31-35 II 2
0
26-30 IIII 5
16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40
21-25 3 41-45 46-50
III
16-20 III 3

Each bar starts with the lower limit of the interval and extends to the upper limit.
50-item test
Try This

Construct a histogram of the frequency distribution shown below.

Interval Frequency
18-20 2
15-17 8
12-14 9
9-11 7
6-8 3
3-5 1
A line graph shows trends in data clearly. This displays data which are collected over a period of
time to show how the data change at regular intervals.

100
80
frequency

60 Math
40 English
20
0
First Quarter Second Quarter Third Quarter Fourth Quarter

Try This