HYDRODYNAMIC LOADS ON OFFSHORE PLATFORMS.

A CASE STUDY FOR A LOCATION IN ROMANIAN ZONEOF BLACK

SEA
1
MIHAIL POPESCU ,2 ADRIAN SIMBOTIN
1
Professor, University of Constantza, Romania
Bd. Mamaia Nr.124, cod 8700, Constantza, Romania
Phone: (0404)1614576, E-mail: mihapope@pcnet.pcnet.ro
2
Research and Engineering Institute for Environment, Bucharest
Spl. Independentei no. 294, sector 6, cod 77703, Bucharest, Romania
Phone: (0401)6373020, Fax: (0401)3121393, E-mail: cristina@nfp-ro.eionet.eu.int

ABSTRACT
The paper presents an approach to the problem of wind, wave, and current loads
acting on the structure of the fixed offshore platforms, using experimental and
theoretical methods.

Within the Hydraulics Department of the Hydraulic Engineering Research Institute

(ICH Bucharest) - at present Research and Engineering Institute for Environment -,
many theoretical and experimental studies were carried out, since 1975, for the
offshore platforms built on the Romanian zone of the Black Sea continental shelf.

A mathematical model, for computation of wind forces on the above-water

superstructure of the offshore platforms, and for computation of wave and current
forces on infrastructure, in particularly simplified assumptions, is briefly presented.
This model can compute the environmental loads on every structural member and on
joints of platform structure.

The paper presents also the experimental results obtained in the wind and wave
flume for a case study: the fixed offshore platform PFC-III, designed for the
Romanian zone of Black Sea continental shelf. A scale model 1:40 was used for the
measurement of wind forces acting on platform superstructure, and a scale model
1:20 was used for wave force tests. Some results of tests are presented in graphical
form (for example the drag coefficient CD and the inertia coefficient CM as function of
Reynolds number, or as function of Keulegan-Carpenter number).

Considering the obtained results, the paper stresses the need to carry out both
theoretical and experimental studies. In this way, it is possible to evaluate correctly
the wind, wave, and current loads for the design, in safe and optimal conditions, of
the offshore platforms.

Keywords: offshore platform, wind load, wave load, hydraulic model, drag coefficient,
inertia coefficient.

INTRODUCTION
Special efforts, concerning the design and construction of offshore platforms for
drilling, production, and storage, are necessary for the extraction of hydrocarbons in
continental shelf of the Black Sea. Adequate designing should be done in order to
obtain a workable and economical offshore platform to perform the given function.
The accurate evaluation of hydrodynamic forces (wind, wave and current load) on the
structures of platforms is very important for a proper design of these platforms.

Determining the hydrodynamic loads is a problem with practical importance and with
large amplitude of applications. A vast literature of this domain exists at present,
including both theoretical and experimental significant results. However, the diversity
of the oceanological and geological conditions enforces to continue the development
of the hydraulic research for offshore platforms, with the purpose to realise a
minimum risk, taking into consideration the disastrous consequences on the
environment due to an eventual accident.

In the last 20 years, within the Hydraulics Department of the Research and
Engineering Institute for Environment (the former Hydraulic Engineering Research
Institute Bucharest) many theoretical and experimental studies were carried out for
the determination of hydrodynamic loads on offshore platforms. Some results of
these studies are presented in the paper. The platforms were built on the Romanian
zone of the Black Sea continental shelf, at depths between 30 and 90 m.

Considering the obtained results, the paper stresses the need to carry out both
theoretical and experimental studies. In this way, it is possible to evaluate correctly
the wind, wave and current loads for the design, in safe and optimal conditions, of the
offshore platform structures.

SPECIFIC STUDIES CARRIED OUT IN ICH BUCHAREST

Within the Hydraulics Department of the Hydraulic Engineering Research Institute
(ICH Bucharest) - at present Research and Engineering Institute for Environment -
theoretical and experimental studies, for the determination of environmental loads
(wind, wave and current load) on offshore platform structures, were carried out.

MODEL-TESTING EQUIPMENT
Usually, the simulation of the environmental factors acting on the offshore platforms,
in storm conditions, is made, using scale models, in the wind and wave flumes
specially equipped. These flumes joint the specific characteristics of wave tanks and
wind tunnels. In this way, it is possible to determine not only separated wind and
wave loads but also the global loads on the structure of platform due to combined
action of wind and waves.

In order to facilitate the research activities in this field, an experimental base has
been provided in ICH Bucharest, with the equipment necessary for the tests as well
as with the measuring and data processing devices. Two wind and wave flumes were
equipped, having the following characteristics:
a. The little flume:
Dimensions: 60.00 m length, 2.00 m width, 2.00 m height, 0.80 m maximum water
depth.
Wave generator: mechanical type, which carries out uniform waves with maximum
0.30 m height and with periods between 0.5 and 3.0 s.
Wind generator: a battery of three air-blowers in open circuit. The air discharge is
240000 m3/h at a pressure of 60 mm water column. Maximum wind speed is 20.2
m/s. In addition, the wind generator can produce waves with maximum 0.20 m height
and with periods up to 1.5 s.

b. The big flume:

Dimensions: 65.00 m length, 7.00 m width, 4.70 m height, 4.00 m maximum water
depth.
Wave generator: mechanical type, which carries out uniform waves with maximum
0.60 m height and with periods between 0.7 and 5.0 s.
Wind generator: maximum air discharge is 700000 m3/h and maximum wind speed is
20.0 m/s. Also, the wind generator can produce waves with maximum 0.30 m height
and with periods up to 2.5 s.

For measuring the forces and moments on the model, specific transducers were
used; these transducers were integrated in measurement chains. Therefore, for the
measurement of the aerodynamic forces on cylindrical elements, the experimental
assemblage includes two bi-directional force transducers, which join the cylinder that
the wind load is measuring, and a frame that allows desired inclination of cylinder
axis. The measuring equipment (first generation) consists of two force transducers
(resistive type), an electronic bridge, and an oscillograph with photosensitive paper.
For measuring the wind resultant force overall platform superstructure, the model is
hung by wires, in wind tunnel. The horizontal force caused by the wind is measured,
in this case, with three resistive transducers.

For measuring the hydrodynamic forces produced by waves, were used triaxial
tensiometric transducers. These transducers were integrated in a measurement
chain of second generation. The forces and wave heights were recorded
simultaneously on an ultraviolet recorder. For some of the tests the forces and wave
profile were also recorded on a magnetic tape recorder and data processed on a
computer.

A MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR DETERMINATION OF THE HYDRODYNAMIC

LOADS
In the Hydraulic Engineering Research Institute from Bucharest a mathematical
model for determination of the forces on offshore platform structures, due to the wind,
wave and marine current, was developed. With this model, it is possible to determine
the wind, wave, and current load on members and on joints of platform structures,
even for very complicate shapes of “template“ platforms. The model integrates the
elementary hydrodynamic forces calculated for every tubular member of the
structure.

For the structure elements of simple geometric shape, wind force can be calculated
using semi-empirical formula as:
FW = 1 ρ CD U 2 A (1)
2
where ρ is the air density, CD is a drag coefficient (aerodynamic coefficient), U is the
wind speed, and A is the projection of the surface of the frame on a plane
perpendicular to the wind direction [1]. It is necessary the wind speed vertical
distribution U(z) and the value of the drag coefficient CD in formula (1). This
coefficient is determining by experimental methods; its value depends on: the flow
Reynolds number, the shape of the cross-section of the frame subjected to the wind,
the roughness of the body, and the influence of near objects (shielding effects).

The mathematical model, based on integrating in equation (1) for each simple
structural element, allows to determine wind loads on members and on joints of
platform superstructures, in any case of orientation in space for these members.

There are two major wave-induced forces exerted on structures. The drag force FD is
due to frictional and form drag; its magnitude depends on shape, roughness of the
object, Reynolds number of the flow, and intensity of turbulence in the flow. The
inertia force FI is due to water-particle acceleration. It is assumed in practical
application that the total wave forces acting on a structure can be obtained by linearly
superimposing the drag and inertia forces. This is the basis of the well-known
Morison, Johnson and O’Brien formula [2], [3], which gives the wave force vector dF
acting on the cylinder ds, as:
1 π 
dF = dFD+dFI =  CDDρu| u|+ CMD2 ρu& ds (2)
2 4 
where ρ is the mass density of water, u is the horizontal water-particle velocity, u& is
the horizontal water-particle acceleration, and D is the diameter of the cylindrical
element. The hydrodynamic coefficients (the drag coefficient CD and the inertia
coefficient CM) are usually determined by experimental methods.

Integrating in Morison’s formula (2), the resultant wave force on the entire cylinder is
obtained. The mathematical model takes into account the variation of water-particle
velocities and accelerations with depth. The values of these accelerations and
velocities are computed by using the Stokes fifth-order approximation wave theory
[2], [4]. Finally, for every joint of the structure, the total load results by algebraically
summing the components of the wave force on all the bars, which are intersecting in
this joint. The loads are written into an output file, which may be processed later.

OFFSHORE PLATFORMS STUDIED

The most important offshore platforms, theoretical and experimental studied in ICH -
Bucharest, were:

Name Characteristics Location depth Total height Total weight

Sinoe Vadu I 4 legs/6 wells -37 m 52 m 4780 kN
Sinoe Vadu III 6 legs/12 wells -51 m 66 m 8840 kN
PFC III 8 legs/18 wells -52 m 70 m 15300 kN
PFS Sinoe 4 legs/6 wells -39 m 54 m 4950 kN
PFS + A 10 legs/16 wells -46 m 65 m 10600 kN
PFS 2 6 legs/6 wells -50 m 68 m 8530 kN
PFS 3 8 legs/18 wells -50 m 68 m 11850 kN
PFS + 4M 10 legs/18 wells -52 m 70 m 15650 kN

In our institute, many theoretical and experimental studies were carried out, since
1975, for the offshore platforms built on the Romanian zone of the Black Sea
continental shelf. It is important to specify that no significant incidents and accidents
were recorded for these platforms.
 A CASE STUDY

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF PFC III PLATFORM

The fixed offshore platform PFC III was designed for extraction and storage of
hydrocarbons, supporting 18 wells. This platform is located in west zone of the Black
Sea, at 52 m depth. Its infrastructure is composed by an eight-leg jacket; total weight
is 15300 kN, and total height is 70 m. The maximum diameter of the legs is 1200
mm.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Model tests, for fixed platform PFC III, were carried out in the wind and wave flume of
the ICH-Bucharest, including measurements for the determination of wind load on the
entire platform superstructure [6], [7]. The model is a 1:40 linear scale representation
of PFC-III superstructure. The multileveled decks, the legs, the main modules
(production and living), and the derrick, were modelled (Fig. 1). Two configurations of
superstructure were examined:

Fig. 1. The model of the PFC-III superstructure in wind tunnel

without derrick tower (projected area of the model being 0.30 m2);
with derrick tower (projected area of the model being 0.39 m2).
The measurement results are presented in Fig. 2: the drag coefficient CD as function
of Reynolds number. The relatively large variation of the drag coefficient CD may be
also caused by specific conditions of model tests (vibrations due to model hanging by
wires).
 2.25

2.00

CD 1.75

1.50

1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0.00
1.0E+4 1.0E+5 Re 1.0E+6 1.0E+7
With derrick
Without derrick

Fig. 2. Measurement results - drag coefficient CD as function of Reynolds number

Using a scale model 1:20, a series of laboratory tests on wave forces, acting on fixed
offshore platform PFC III, were conducted (the model of this structure in wave tank is
shown in Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. The model of the PFC-III structure in wave tank

Both horizontal and vertical components of wave forces were measured, taking the
effect of the buoyancy variations on the vertical components into consideration. The
correlation between the maximum wave forces and maximum wave heights obtained
in our model tests is presented in Fig. 4. The horizontal components of wave forces,
which are shown in Fig. 4, increase parabollicaly against the wave height.

40000
35000
30000
T=14 s
25000 T=12 s
F (kN)

20000 T=10 s
T=7.5 s
15000
T=5 s
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
H wave

Fig. 4. Correlation between maximum horizontal wave force and wave height

Fig. 5 shows a typical example of the relation between wave force coefficients and
Reynolds number, which was calculated from the maximum orbital water-particle
velocity at still-water level and the diameter of the jacket legs:

2.0

1.5
C M , CD

CM
1.0
CD
0.5

0.0
1.00E+04 1.00E+05

Re

Fig. 5. Wave force coefficients as function of Reynolds number

 Re = U max D / υ (3)
Generally, this relation is roughly the same for all the directions of wave propagation
tested on model, the inertia coefficient CM being constant at about 1.5 - 1.8 and the
drag coefficient CD tending to decrease as Reynolds number increases.

A better correlation was obtained between wave force coefficients and Keulegan-
Carpenter number [5], defined as:
KC = Umax T/D (4)
where T is the wave period. This correlation, presented in Fig. 6, shown that inertia
coefficient CM is relatively constant and the drag coefficient CD tends to peak at a
Keulegan-Carpenter number about 25.

2.0

1.5
C M, C D

CM
1.0
CD
0.5

0.0
10 100

KC

Fig. 6. Wave force coefficients as function of Keulegan-Carpenter number

The theoretical and experimental results presented herein correspond to regular

wave conditions in the range of 5.0 to 14.0 s period and 6.0 to 24.0 m wave height.

THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS APPLIED TO PLATFORM

DESIGN
§ For static and dynamic analysis of platform structure, the mathematical model has
provided wind, wave, and current loads in all joints of the structure. Directly, by
experimental investigations on hydraulic models, the global force and the
overturning moment were determined, for different values of the design wave.
§ For fatigue analysis of platform structure, the mathematical model has provided
wave loads (at different values of wave height and period) in all joints of the
structure. These loads were utilised as input data for the spectral model of the
fatigue analysis.

CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents some results obtained within the Hydraulics Department of the
Hydraulic Engineering Research Institute (ICH Bucharest) - at present Research and
Engineering Institute for Environment - concerning the theoretical and experimental
studies carried out, since 1975, for the offshore platforms built on the Romanian zone
of the Black Sea continental shelf.
A mathematical model, for computation of wind forces on the above-water
superstructure of the offshore platforms, and for computation of wave and current
forces on infrastructure, in particularly simplified assumptions, is briefly presented.
This model can compute the environmental loads on every structural member and on
joints of platform structure.
The paper presents also the experimental results obtained in the wind and wave
flume for a case study: the fixed offshore platform PFC-III, designed for the
Romanian zone of Black Sea continental shelf. Some results of tests are presented
in graphical form.
Considering the obtained results, the paper stresses the need to carry out both
theoretical and experimental studies. In this way, it is possible to evaluate correctly
the wind, wave, and current loads for the design, in safe and optimal conditions, of
the offshore platforms.

REFERENCES
1. Aiston, S.T., Nath, J.H. - Wind Drag Coefficient for Bluff Offshore Ocean Platforms.
Offshore Technology Conference. OTC/1068. Dallas, 1969.
2. Wiegel, R.L. - Oceanographical Engineering. Prentice Hill, New York, 1964.
3. Ippen, A.T. – Estuary and Coastline Hydrodynamics. McGraw Hill, New York,
1966.
4. Teng H. Hsu - Applied Offshore Structural Engineering. Gulf Publishing Company.
Houston, 1984.
5. Sarpkaia, T., Isaacson, M. – Mechanics of Wave Forces on Offshore Structures.
Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1981.
6. Negru, R., Diaconu, S., Simbotin, A. - Model Tests for Fixed Offshore Platform
PFC-III (in Romanian). Hydraulic Studies Series, I.C.H. Bucharest, 1980.
7. Popescu, M., Diaconu, S., Simbotin, A. - Wind Loads Acting on Offshore Platform
Superstructures (in Romanian). Hidrotehnica, nr. 5/1998, Bucharest.