Assignment # 5

Assigned Date: - 04-06-2020

Submission Date:-07-06-2020

Summer Semester 2020

Degree:BS(CS)

NAME: ABDULLAH NOOR

Roll Number: 2K15BSCS204

Course Name:Computer Communication & Networks

Course Code:CS-311

Instructor:Assistant Professor Muhammad NamanChaudhry

NFC-Institute of Engineering and Technology, Multan

Assignment no.3 (Theory)

Note: Attempt all questions. Any type of plagiarism strictly prohibited.

If any found, according to institute policy necessary actions will be
taken. At least punishment is carrying zero marks in Sessional.
1. Elucidate line coding, block coding, and scrambling techniques of DIGITAL-TO-
DIGITAL CONVERSION. How and why these can be used? Also write down the
Considerations for choosing a good signal element referred to as line encoding.

ANSWER:
Line Coding:
 Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital data) into a sequence of signals that denote the
1’s and 0’s.
 For example a high voltage level (+V) could represent a “1” and a low voltage level (0 or
-V) could represent a “0”.

Mapping Data symbols onto Signal levels

 A data symbol (or element) can consist of a number of data bits:
 1 , 0 or
 11, 10, 01, ……
 A data symbol can be coded into a single signal element or multiple signal elements
 1 -> +V, 0 -> -V
 1 -> +V and -V, 0 -> -V and +V
 The ratio ‘r’ is the number of data elements carried by a signal element.

Considerations for choosing a good signal element referred to as line encoding

 Baseline wandering - a receiver will evaluate the average power of the received signal
(called the baseline) and use that to determine the value of the incoming data elements. If
the incoming signal does not vary over a long period of time, the baseline will drift and
thus cause errors in detection of incoming data elements.
 A good line encoding scheme will prevent long runs of fixed amplitude.

Block Coding:
 For a code to be capable of error detection, we need to add redundancy, i.e., extra bits to
the data bits.
 Synchronization also requires redundancy - transitions are important in the signal flow
and must occur frequently.
 Block coding is done in three steps: division, substitution and combination.
 It is distinguished from multilevel coding by use of the slash - xB/yB.
 The resulting bit stream prevents certain bit combinations that when used with line
encoding would result in DC components or poor sync. quality.

Scrambling:
 The best code is one that does not increase the bandwidth for synchronization and has no
DC components.
 Scrambling is a technique used to create a sequence of bits that has the required c/c’s for
transmission - self clocking, no low frequencies, no wide bandwidth.
 It is implemented at the same time as encoding, the bit stream is created on the fly.
 It replaces ‘unfriendly’ runs of bits with a violation code that is easy to recognize and
removes the unfriendly c/c.
 +

2. Define the consumption of multiplexing and spread spectrum in computer networks?

Differentiate the Frequency-Division Multiplexing, Wavelength-Division Multiplexing,
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing and Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS).

ANSWER:

MULTIPLEXING:

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth
needs of the devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows
the (simultaneous) transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. As data and
telecommunications use increases, so does traffic.
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Interleaving
 The process of taking a group of bits from each input line for multiplexing is called
interleaving.
 We interleave bits (1 - n) from each input onto one output.

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate digital

channels into one high-rate one.

Data rate matching:

 Multilevel: used when the data rate of the input links are multiples of each other.
 Multislot: used when there is a GCD between the data rates. The higher bit rate channels
are allocated more slots per frame, and the output frame rate is a multiple of each input
link.
 Pulse Stuffing: used when there is no GCD between the links. The slowest speed link will
be brought up to the speed of the other links by bit insertion, this is called pulse stuffing.
Synchronization:
 To ensure that the receiver correctly reads the incoming bits, i.e., knows the incoming bit
boundaries to interpret a “1” and a “0”, a known bit pattern is used between the frames.
 The receiver looks for the anticipated bit and starts counting bits till the end of the frame.
 Then it starts over again with the reception of another known bit.
 These bits (or bit patterns) are called synchronization bit(s).
 They are part of the overhead of transmission.

Synchronous time-division multiplexing

In synchronous TDM, the data rate

of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.

Spread Spectrum:
 A signal that occupies a bandwidth of B, is spread out to occupy a bandwidth of Bss
 All signals are spread to occupy the same bandwidth Bss
 Signals are spread with different codes so that they can be separated at the receivers.
 Signals can be spread in the frequency domain or in the time domain.
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

3. Enlist the types of transmission media? Bullet down the Categories of unshielded
twisted-pair cables and its connectors. Provide Comparison with coaxial cable according
to performance and applications.
ANSWER:
Transmission Media

Classes of transmission media

GUIDED MEDIA:
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Twisted-pair cable:
  A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure

 One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a
ground reference.
 The receiver uses the difference between the two.
 In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and
crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both
wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e,g., one is
closer and the other is farther).
 This results in a difference at the receiver.
 By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained.
 For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is
farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true.
 Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences
(noise or crosstalk).
 This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference between the two, receives
no unwanted signals.
 The unwanted signals are mostly cancelled out.
 From the above discussion, it is clear that the number of twists per unit of length (e.g.,
inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable.

 The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded

twisted-pair (UTP).
 IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted-
pair (STP).
 STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors.
 Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of
noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
 Figure shows the difference between UTP and STP.
 Our discussion focuses primarily on UTP because STP is seldom used outside of IBM.

Applications:
  Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
 The local loop line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office commonly
consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
 The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
 Local-area networks, such as 10Base-T(twisted pair Ethernet) and 100Base-T, also use
twisted-pair cables.

Coaxial Cable:
 Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those
in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite
differently.
 Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in
turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of
the two.
 The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the circuit.
 This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole
cable is protected by a plastic cover (see Figure ).

Performance:

 As we did with twisted-pair cables, we can measure the performance of a

coaxial cable.
 We notice in Figure that the attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables
than in twisted-pair cable.
 In other words, although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the
signal weakens rapidly and requires the frequent use of repeaters.

Applications:
 Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single
coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
 Later it was used in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable
could carry digital data up to 600 Mbps.
 However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced
today with fiber-optic cable.
 Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
 In the traditional cable TV network, the entire network used coaxial cable.
 Later, however, cable TV providers replaced most of the media with fiber-
optic cable; hybrid networks use coaxial cable only at the network
boundaries, near the consumer premises.
 Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
 Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet
LANs.
 Because of its high bandwidth, and consequently high data rate, coaxial
cable was chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs.
 The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC
connectors to transmit data at 10 Mbps with a range of 185 m.
 The 10Base5, or Thick Ethernet, uses RG-11 (thick coaxial cable) to
transmit 10 Mbps with a range of 5000 m.
 Thick Ethernet has specialized connectors.

4. Does the switching exist in computer communication? Elaborate your answer with
strong reason. Illustrate the certain diagram

CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS:
A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links. A
connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link. Each link is
normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM
Taxonomy of switched networks
 A trivial circuit-switched network

In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the setup phase;
the resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown
phase.
Important points to consider:
 Circuit switching takes place at physical layer
 Resources are reserved before communication takes place
 In the form of reserved channel in FDM or reserved time slot in TDM
 Data is not in packets form but a continuous flow
 No addressing involved during data transfer
 Only end-to-end addressing used during setup

Efficiency
 It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as the other two
because resources are reserved during the entire duration
Delay
 Delay is minimal in already reserved channel
Application
Switching at the physical layer in the traditional telephone network uses the circuit-
switching approach

Three Required Phases in Circuit-switching

 Setup, Data Transfer and Teardown

5. A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling
rate for this signal?

ANSWER:

Solution

We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case because we do not know where
the bandwidth starts or ends. We do not know the maximum frequency in the signal.

6. We need to send data 3 bits at a time with a bit rate of 3 Mbps. The carrier frequency is
10 MHz. Calculate the number of levels (different frequencies), the baud rate, and the
bandwidth.

ANSWER:

We have a L = 23 = 8
We have a baud rate S = 3Mhz/3 = 1000 Mbaud
This means that the carrier frequency must be 1MHz apart(2f=1MHz)
So,
The bandwith B = 8 x 1000 = 8000

7. Let us use a circuit-switched network to connect eight telephones in a small area.

Communication is through 4-kHz voice channels. We assume that each link uses FDM
to connect a maximum of two voice channels. The bandwidth of each link is then 8 kHz.
Telephone 1 is connected to telephone 7; 2 to 5; 3 to 8; and 4 to 6. Of course the
situation may change when new connections are made. In the given scenario how the
switch controls the connections. Draw the diagram of it.

ANSWER: