Cell The Basic Unit of Life

What Is This Module About?
Don’t be fooled by the apparent inactivity of these dogs. Even at rest, their bodies are alive
with action because of their cells. This module will help you gain knowledge about the cell, the
basic unit of life. Cells are the fundamental units of which all organisms are made. The cell is the
key to biology—the study of living things—because it is at the cellular level that life truly begins.
As you read this module, you will learn more about the parts and activities of the cell. You
will also learn how materials enter and leave the cell. Then you will learn how microscopes have
helped scientists study cells. You will also study how cells grow and increase and why growth is
essential to living cells.
This module has four lessons. These are:
Lesson 1 – The Basic Unit of Life
Lesson 2 – Movement of Materials Through the Cell Membrane
Lesson 3 – Using the Microscope in Studying Cells
Lesson 4 – Cell Division
What Will You Learn From This Module?
After studying this module, you should be able to:

♦ identify and explain the functions of the cell as the basic unit of life;
♦ explain the similarities and differences among animal, plant and bacterial cells;
♦ describe the different functions of each part of a cell;
♦ describe the role and importance of the plasma membrane in passive transport and
active transport;
♦ explain the use of the microscope in studying cells; and
♦ compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.
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Let’s See What You Already Know
Before you start studying this module, find out first how much you already know about the
topic by taking the following test. Encircle the letter of your choice.
1. In which of the following objects can you find cells?
a. peso coin
b. strawberry
c. plastic flower
d. eyeglasses
2. Which of the following is found in the nucleus?
a. chromosome
b. vacuole
c. chloroplast
d. mitochondrion
3. A swollen cell can be returned to normal size by putting it in __________________.
a. pure water
b. ice water
c. slightly salty water
d. salt
4. The following are forms of passive transport except ___________________.
a. diffusion
b. osmosis
c. endocytosis
d. facilitated diffusion
5. Organisms whose cells do not contain a nucleus are called __________________.
a. prokaryotes
b. eukaryotes
c. organelles
d. plants
6. Plant cells often have a boxlike shape because of the __________________.
a. cell wall
b. cell membrane
c. nucleus
d. cytoplasm
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7. Which of the following parts of a microscope has the highest magnification?
a. mirror
b. eyepiece
c. high-power objective
d. low-power objective
8. How many daughter cells are produced by one parent cell in mitosis?
a. 6
b. 8
c. 4
d. 2
9. Where does protein synthesis take place?
a. nucleus
b. lysosome
c. mitochondrion
d. ribosome
10. Which of the following is not true of chloroplasts?
a. They synthesize sugar.
b. They contain pigments.
c. They appear green because of chlorophyll.
d. They are found only in plants.
Well, how was it? Do you think you fared well? Compare your answers with those in the
Answer Key on page 57.
If all your answers are correct, very good! This shows that you already know much about
the topic. You may still study the module to review what you already know. Who knows, you
might learn a few more new things as well.
If you got a low score, don’t feel bad. This means that this module is for you. It will help you
understand important concepts that you can apply in your daily life. If you study this module
carefully, you will learn the answers to all the items in the test and a lot more! Are you ready?
You may go now to the next page to begin Lesson 1.
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LESSON 1
The Basic Unit of Life
Are you curious about how things look from the inside? You may have wondered how the
insides of a leaf or a flower or even a person look. Well, you are not alone. Human beings have
been curious about the structure of living things for a very long time. Such curiosity led early
scientists to examine living things in the hope of getting a better view of the internal structure of
living things. Gradually, they discovered that all living things are made up of cells. Cells are the
basic units of structure and function of living things. All organisms, including the ones in the picture
below, are made up of living cells.
All organisms are made up of cells.
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Let’s Try This
Break a chicken egg into a bowl and look at the yolk. How large is it? Use a ruler to
measure the diameter of the yolk.
Let’s Think About This
The egg you examined is a cell. Do you think all cells are of the same size and appearance?
Why?
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_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
Compare your answer with that in the Answer Key on page 58.
Let’s Learn
Of all the cells of living organisms, it is only plant cells that we are able to see with the naked
eye. Major exceptions, of course, are eggs of birds, which are also cells. However, most cells
cannot be seen by the naked eye. Hence, much of the early studies in biology concentrated on
developing tools to assist humans in their research. As more tools were developed, biological
discoveries increased.
In 1838, two scientists named Scheiden and Schwann proposed the cell theory. According
to this theory:
♦ All living things are made up of one or more cells.
♦ Cells come from other cells.
♦ The cell is the smallest unit of life.
This theory provides us with a definition of life. It simply says that life begins in the cell.
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Cells Vary in Shape, Size and Arrangement
Just as there is variety among organisms, there is also variety among cells. Your own body
contains over one hundred different kinds of cells. Some of these cells are round; others are
shaped like long, tangled strings.
Cells vary greatly in size too. The bacteria that naturally live inside your body are very tiny.
The ostrich egg cell is 800,000 times bigger than bacterial cells.
The living arrangements of cells also vary. Bacteria and other cells you might find in a drop
of pond water live by themselves. These cells are one-celled or unicellular organisms. You,
plants, animals and a variety of other organisms are many-celled or multicellular organisms.
Smooth
Red blood
muscle Human
Bacteria cells
cell egg
Connective Cells lining the
tissue cell intestinal tract
Bone Frog
cell egg
Plant Fat Chicken
cell cell egg
Different types of cells
Did you know that . . .

. . . the most rapidly growing animal is the blue whale? It develops from an ovum (egg)
with a mass of less than a milligram into a 26-ton adult in less than two years. All of this
growth is the result of the functioning of its cells.
Blue whale
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Let’s Try This
One day, unicellular organisms got tired of being called simple organisms by the multicellular
organisms. The unicellular organisms felt that they were rather complex individuals and should be
recognized as such. In order to gain this recognition, they challenged the multicellular organisms to
a debate.
Pretend that you are a unicellular organism. What arguments would you use to defend your
position? Write them down.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Blah! Blah! Blah! Blah!

Blah! Blah! Blah! Blah!
Did you write the same answer as the following? Unicellular organisms differ in structure
from multicellular organisms such as plants and animals. However, their cells can also carry out all
of the life processes (reproduction, digestion, excretion, respiration, etc.) that the cells of
multicellular organisms carry out.
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Let’s Learn
Cells Have Organelles

Imagine that you could become smaller and could reduce your body size to one micron
1
(1 micron = millimeter). Your whole body would be smaller than a typical animal cell.
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Imagine that you could step inside this cell and explore it. Find out what the parts of the cell are.
The structures found in the cell are called organelles because they are like tiny organs that work
to maintain the life of the cell.
Nucleus Nucleolus
Mitochondrion
Ribosomes
Vacuole
Cell Endoplasmic
membrane reticulum
Cytoplasm
Golgi apparatus
Nuclear Lysosome
membrane
A typical animal cell and its parts
While cells differ in size and shape, most of them have similar parts. The cells of animals and
plants have three basic structures:
♦ Cell membrane — the outer boundary of the cell
♦ Nucleus — the control center of the cell
♦ Cytoplasm — the material that fills most of the cell
Animal Cells
The first thing you will see as you approach our sample animal cell is a thin saclike
membrane. The cell membrane covers the entire surface of the cell.
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As you take an imaginary step through the cell membrane, you will immediately come in
contact with the cytoplasm. Moving through the cytoplasm would be like moving through a huge
blob of jelly.
The cytoplasm. This jelly-like substance fills most of the cell. Many of the cell’s building
materials are manufactured and stored here.
A large, round nucleus is found in the cytoplasm. As the control center of the cell, the
nucleus contains coded instructions for all of the cell’s activities. These coded instructions are
stored in special structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes are visible when a cell is
reproducing.
Just as the cell membrane covers the cell, a nuclear membrane covers the nucleus of the
cell. It regulates the passage of materials into and out of the nucleus.
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Nuclear
membrane
The nuclei of different animal cells
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As you walk through the cytoplasm, you might bump into sausage-shaped bodies called
mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion). They are called the power house of the cell. They trap
the energy produced when food is broken down. Just as a power plant supplies energy to a
community, mitochondria provide energy for the cell and its other parts. Some types of cells are
more active than others, hence, they have more mitochondria.
A mitochondrion

Why might a muscle cell have more mitochondria than other cells in your body?
Compare your answer with this: Muscle cells are always undergoing some type of
movement, thus they have more mitochondria than other cells do. Muscles are the ones exposed
to strenuous activities such as household chores, running and walking.
Mitochondria
Extends for
about 165m
Skeletal muscle cell
Let’s Learn
Ever since you entered the cell, you have been walking on a network of canals called the
endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum extends from the nucleus to the cell
membrane and takes up quite a lot of space in some cells. It moves materials from one place to
another inside the cell.
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Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (er)
Rough er
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes
Ribosomes are the tiny dots on the edges of some of the endoplasmic reticulum. Some
cells may contain millions of ribosomes. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. They often
cluster on the endoplasmic reticulum, although a number of them also float freely in the cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic reticulum bound to ribosomes is called rough endoplasmic reticulum because the
ribosomes appear to give the reticulum a rough texture.
In a manufacturing plant, products are made, packaged and moved to loading centers to be
carried away. Membrane-enclosed structures called golgi bodies function as a packaging plant.
They “package” molecules in sacs called vesicles, making it possible for these molecules to
reach various locations in the cell.
Golgi apparatus
Golgi bodies
Did you know that cells also produce wastes? In the cytoplasm, structures called
lysosomes serve as the digestive system of the cell. Lysosomes contain chemicals called
enzymes that digest wastes and worn-out or damaged cell parts. When a cell dies, chemicals in
the lysosomes act quickly to break down the cell. Lysosomes are common in animal cells but rare
in plant cells. Why do you think that the parts of a cell are enclosed in their own compartments?
That’s to prevent the destructive enzymes in the lysosomes from digesting all of the cell even if it is
still healthy.
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Lysosomes act as the digestive system of the cell.
Plant Cells
You have just finished your tour of an animal cell. Now it’s time for you to take another tour,
this time, of a plant cell. You will find that there are differences between plant cells and animal
cells. For one thing, the outer covering of the plant cell is not thin and soft as that of the animal
cell. The plant cell is surrounded by a thick, rigid nonliving membrane called cell wall.
Like the animal cell, the plant cell also contains a cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes. It also contains vacuoles, which serve as storage areas in
the cell. Vacuoles are clear structures that are capable of storing large amounts of materials in
both plant and animal cells. They are much more prominent in plant cells than in animal cells. Plant
cells also tend to have one large central vacuole, whereas animal cells contain many small
vacuoles.
Vacuole
When a plant is well watered, the vacuoles are filled up with water and push against the cell
wall, making the plant rigid. When the plant does not receive sufficient water, the vacuoles exert
lower pressure against the cell wall, thus, the plant wilts.
Another cell part that you can find in plants is the chloroplast. Chloroplasts are dark green
bodies which contain chlorophyll, a substance that helps green plants trap the sun’s energy and
utilize it to produce food. Chloropasts can also be found in blue-green bacteria.
Chloroplasts
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Let’s Review
Do you now know the difference between an animal cell and a plant cell? Look at the
pictures below of an animal cell and a plant cell. Based on the pictures, identify the differences
between plant cells and animal cells by filling up the table on the next page.
A typical animal cell
A typical plant cell
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Plant Cell Animal Cell
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 58.
An animal cell contains about 10 to 20 golgi bodies, while a plant cell contains several
hundreds. Why do you think there is such a difference in the number of these organelles in the
two cell types?
Compare your answer with this: Plants produce many materials (food, oils, resins, etc.),
hence they need more golgi bodies to package and release these materials.
Let’s Learn
Did you know that not all cells have nuclei?

Cells are generally divided into two kinds. These are:
♦ Eukaryotic cells—cells that have a nucleus
♦ Prokaryotic cells—cells that do not have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Amoeba
Bird
Bacterium
Snail
Cocci
Green algae Unicellular
Crayfish
prokaryotic
Acetabularia
Unicellular organisms Multicellular organisms
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Organisms that are prokaryotes include bacteria and blue-green bacteria. Both are unicellular
organisms. They have a very simple internal structure and no membrane-bound organelles.
Below is a picture of a typical bacterial cell. A bacterial cell has no nucleus although it does
have a nucleoid which helps the bacteria multiply. It also contains cytoplasm and ribosomes as
well as some storage granules that store materials the cell needs. The cell is also surrounded by a
cell membrane and a cell wall that protects the organism.
Ribosomes Cytoplasm
Nucleoid
Cell membrane
Cell wall
A bacterial cell
A Tale of a Tail
Mang Kardo works on a farm. Every day on his way to work, he passes by a pond that
serves as a home for all sorts of animals, including frogs. He has noticed that frogs start out
looking very different from their parents. Young frogs are called tadpoles. Tadpoles have long
tails but after a while they begin to change and resemble their parents. They grow hindlegs and
forelegs, their mouths widen and they develop lungs. What amazes Mang Kardo most is how the
tails of tadpoles become much smaller when they grow into adult frogs.
Based on what you have studied about cell organelles, can you help Mang Kardo figure out
what happened to the tadpoles’ tails? Which cell organelle do you think is responsible for the
disappearance of the tails? Write your answers in the blanks below.
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__________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________
Were you able to figure it out? Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on
page 58.
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Frog
Let’s See What You Have Learned
Let us see how well you know the parts of the cell. In the following table is a list of cell
organelles. Indicate if each organelle is present in a type of cell by putting a check (3) in the
appropriate column. If the organelle is not present in the cell, put a cross (8) in the column.
Structure Animal Cell Plant Cell Bacterial Cell
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Mitochondrion
Ribosome
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi body
Lysosome
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Nucleus
Chromosome
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on pages 58 and 59.
Did you get a perfect score? If you did, that’s very good. It means you understood the
lesson well. You are now ready to move on to the next lesson. If you did not get everything right,
don’t worry. Review the parts of the lesson you did not understand very well. Afterward,
proceed to Lesson 2.
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Let’s Remember
♦ All living things are made up of cells. Cells are the fundamental units of life.
♦ Cells vary in size, shape and structure.
♦ Plant cells, animal cells and bacterial cells contain organelles, each of which has a task
to perform.
♦ Cell organelles include the following:
Cell membrane—the outer boundary of the cell
Nucleus—the control center of the cell
Cytoplasm—the material that fills most of the cell
Mitochondria—function as the power house of the cell
Endoplasmic reticulum—moves materials from one part of the cell to another
Ribosomes—the sites of protein synthesis
Golgi bodies—pack various molecules in the cell in order for them to reach
various places within the cell
Lysosomes—serve as the digestive system of the cell
Vacuoles—storage areas in the cell
Chloroplasts—contain chlorophyll, which helps green plants trap energy from the
sun and utilize it in making food
♦ Cells are generally divided into two types—eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles while prokaryotic
cells do not.
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LESSON 2
Movement of Materials Through

the Cell Membrane
Have you tried washing dishes or staying in a pool so long that your fingers became
wrinkled? What caused your fingers to wrinkle? How long did it take for your fingers to return to
normal? Why does this happen?
In this lesson, you will learn how materials move into and out of the cells. You will also learn
how materials are constantly being exchanged between a living cell and its nonliving environment.
Let’s Try This
Do this simple activity to find out why your fingers wrinkle when you stay too long in a pool
or use soap.
Pour around 250 milliliters of water each into two bowls. Label the bowls A and B. Stir a
pinch of salt in bowl A. Place 3 slices of raw potato in each bowl. Soak these for around 20
minutes. Afterward, pick up the slices and examine their appearance. Compare the potato slices
in bowl A with those in bowl B.
A B
Potato slices in Potato slices in
salt water plain water
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What do you think is responsible for the difference between the appearance of the potato
slices in bowl A and that of the slices in bowl B?
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Let’s Learn
Look around you. The things you see, and even those you cannot see, are all matter. Matter
is anything that occupies space and has mass. Cells that make up living things are all matter.
Matter is made up of small nonliving particles called atoms. Atoms are seldom found alone
in nature. Usually, they join together to form larger particles called molecules (combinations of
two or more atoms). Cells are made up of different kinds of molecules.
A molecule is made up of two or more atoms.
Each individual cell exists in a liquid environment. The cells of your body are bathed in a
liquid that was once part of your blood. The presence of the liquid makes it easier for materials
like food, oxygen and water to move into and out of the cells.

. . . water molecules are very, very small? To get an idea of just how small
they are, try to imagine this: If a single drop of water were enlarged until it
was the size of the earth, each water molecule in that earth-size drop of
water would be no larger than a golf ball!
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Just as whole organisms take in food, cells also obtain food, oxygen and other substances
from their environment. They also release waste materials.
How do materials move into and out of the cell? How does the cell control which materials
will enter and which ones will leave?
The job of controlling the movement of materials into and out of the cell belongs to the cell
membrane. Have you ever seen marbles in a mesh bag? The marbles stay inside because they are
larger than the holes of the bag.
Mesh bag
Marbles
Sand grains
Marbles stay inside the mesh bag but sand grains spill from it.
What would happen if you replaced the marbles with sand? The sand would spill right
through the holes because the sand grains are smaller than the holes.
The mesh bag is selectively permeable or penetrable because it allows some things to pass
through it but retains others. The marbles and sand are similar to molecules in the environment of
the cell. Biologists describe the cell membrane as selectively permeable or semipermeable
because some molecules can pass through it while others cannot.
Water and other small molecules can easily pass through the cell membrane. Proteins and
other large molecules must be broken down into smaller parts to be able to enter the cell. Once
inside the cell, the large molecules can be rebuilt.
There are several ways by which materials enter and leave the cell.
If materials move through a cell membrane without the help of energy, passive transport
takes place. If materials require energy to move through a cell membrane, active transport takes
place.
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How do molecules move into and out of the cell?
Molecules move like a crowd of bump cars in an amusement park. As they move, they
move from places where they are crowded together into places where there are fewer of them.
Scientists call the movement of molecules from a crowded area to a less crowded area diffusion.
Diffusion occurs when someone opens a bottle of perfume in a closed room. Gas molecules
from the perfume move to areas in the room where there are few of them until the whole room is
filled with the scent of the perfume.
Gas molecules from perfume bottle
In the process of diffusion, molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area
of lower concentration.
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Look at the diagrams below. They show the process of diffusion as it takes place in the cell.
Oxygen is needed by the cell in order to carry out its functions. It is delivered by the blood
vessels into the cell and enters through the process of diffusion. The molecules of oxygen diffuse
through the selectively permeable cell membrane because there are fewer oxygen molecules
inside than outside the cell. The cell also continually produces wastes which diffuse through the
cell membrane because there are fewer wastes outside than inside the cell. These wastes are then
carried away by the blood as they leave the cell.
Oxygen diffusing into a cell Wastes diffusing out of a cell
cell
More oxygen Less wastes

Less oxygen More wastes
You can observe diffusion when ink is dropped into a glass of water as shown in the picture
below. Notice that the ink molecules move through the water until they are evenly spread out and
all of the water is of the same color.
Let’s Try This
Pour equal amounts of hot water and cold water into two glasses. Add a teaspoon of coffee
to each glass. Observe and record how long it takes for coffee to dissolve in each glass of water.
Cold water Hot water
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Did you observe any difference between the time it took the substances to dissolve faster at
high temperature? The rate of diffusion is faster at high temperature than at low temperature. Cells
must maintain normal temperature to facilitate the entrance and exit of materials.
Let’s Learn
If you will recall, water makes up a large part of living matter. The diffusion of water into and
out of a cell is known as osmosis. The process can cause a cell to swell or shrink depending on
the amount of water in the cell’s environment. Water molecules move from where there are more
of them to where there are less. When the number of water molecules inside and outside the cell
is the same, equilibrium is reached.
Do you recall the activity on page 18? Do you now know what caused the potatoes in salt
water to shrivel? The water in the potato cells moved to the salt water because there was less
water in their environment than in the cells. Hence, the potatoes appeared wrinkled after a while.
Let’s Study and Analyze
The beaker in the diagram has a selectively permeable membrane separating two solutions.
Let us suppose that the salt molecules are small enough to pass through the membrane but the
starch molecules are too large to pass through. Will the water level on either side of the
membrane change? Explain your answer. Write your answer below.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Selectively permeable
membrane
Concentrated salt Dilute starch

solution solution
A B
Will the water level on either side of the membrane go down?
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Here’s something to think about:
Whenever you are thirsty, you feel as if your throat has dried up. If cells are not
provided with the water that they need, they die because they continue losing water. If
you forget to water a plant, it will wilt and die. Water is really important to life.
Sometimes, materials are transported across the cell membrane by cell membrane proteins.
These proteins act like secret passages through which substances can diffuse faster and easier
into and out of the cell. This process is called facilitated diffusion. In this process, atoms or
molecules pass through protein tunnels called gates or channels.
For example, many sugar and amino acids are transported from the alimentary canal to the
cell lining the canal by means of facilitated diffusion.
Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion are forms of passive transport.
Sometimes, a cell needs chemical energy to fuel the transportation process. This process is
called active transport. Active transport also uses a membrane carrier protein but the direction
of flow can either be from a region of high concentration to a low concentration, or from a low
concentration to a high concentration.
Movement from a region of low concentration to that of high concentration through active
transport occurs:
♦ when plant root cells take in minerals from the soil, the cells use energy to move
additional minerals into the root cells.
♦ when wastes are moved by active transport out of some kidney cells.
How are large amounts of materials transported through the cell membrane?
Some white blood cells are capable of swallowing whole bacteria. Other cells, such as the
single-celled amoeba, are capable of “eating” clumps of sugar and even tiny pieces of bread!
Many cells will seem to eat small particles of food, foreign materials or even other cells. This
process of taking in large quantities of a substance is called endocytosis.
Bacterial cell
White blood cell
A white blood cell eating a bacterial cell
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As you might expect, cells are also capable of sending materials out into their surroundings.
When large molecules are removed from the cell, the process is generally known as exocytosis.
For example, human plasma cells produce antibodies which they then secrete into the blood
through exocytosis.
Cell Waste being removed
A cell releases wastes using exocytosis.
Endocytosis and exocytosis are forms of active transport.
Here’s something to think about:

Cells have to stay in balance with their environment. Cells keep this
balance, called homeostasis, by controlling what enters and leaves the cell
through passive and active transport. The selectively permeable cell membrane
and its transport systems are important in keeping the cell alive and healthy.
A. Tell what will happen in each of the following situations and explain the process
responsible for each outcome.
1. An egg yolk placed in salt water
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2. Seagulls drinking seawater
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B. Answer the following questions.
1. How will you be able to return a swollen cell to normal?
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______________________________________________________________
2. If a cell membrane were not semipermeable, the cell might die. Why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Did you get a perfect score? If you did, that’s very good. It means you understood the
lesson well. If you did not, don’t worry. Just review the parts of the lesson that you did not
understand very well. Afterward, you may proceed to Lesson 3.
Let’s Remember
♦ Materials, mostly atoms and molecules, move in and out of the cell through the cell
membrane, which is semipermeable.
♦ Simple molecules move into and out of cells through diffusion. Molecules move from a
region of high concentration to one of low concentration.
♦ Water enters and exits cells through the process of osmosis.
♦ Facilitated diffusion is the process of transporting materials across the cell membrane
through protein tunnels in the cell.
♦ Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion are forms of passive transport. Passive
transport is the movement of materials across the cell membrane that doesn’t require
the use of energy.
♦ Active transport requires the use of energy in transporting materials into and out of the
cell. Endocytosis is a form of active transport. It is a method of moving large particles
into the cell. Exocytosis is another form of active transport used in moving large
particles out of the cell.
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LESSON 3
Using the Microscope

in Studying Cells
How were scientists able to determine what cells look like? How were they able to identify
cell organelles? How were they able to look at things that cannot be seen by the naked eye? They
were able to do all these by using microscopes.
In this lesson, you will learn a lot about the microscope, a very important tool in the study of
cells. You will find out how a microscope works and how you can use it properly.
A compound microscope
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Let’s Try This
Cut a small letter “a” from a newspaper. Look at the letter. Then get a clear drinking glass
and fill it with water. Look at the letter again, this time through the glass of water. How does the
letter look?
Let’s Learn
From ancient times, people have wanted to see things that are too small to be seen by the
naked eye. In the sixteenth century, a magnifier composed of a single lens was developed. This in
turn led to the development of the microscope.
The microscope is an instrument that can make objects appear larger than they really are.
There are generally two kinds of microscopes—the simple microscope and the compound
microscope. A magnifying glass is a simple microscope. It is made up of one double convex lens.
A compound microscope is made up of two or more double convex lens, which are fitted into the
ends of a hollow cylinder. The compound microscope is widely used in the examination of
extremely small objects such as bacteria and other unicellular organisms, and plant and animal
cells and tissues. It has been very significant in the development of the biological sciences and
medicine.
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Both the simple and compound microscopes are called light microscopes because they need
light in order to form an image. Electron microscopes, on the other hand, use electrons instead of
light to form an image. Electrons are the negatively charged particles in an atom. There are two
kinds of electron microscopes—transmission electron microscope and scanning electron
microscope.
The electron microscope has a large depth, which makes it possible for a large amount of
the sample to be in focus at one time. It also produces high-resolution images, which means that
closely spaced features can be examined at high magnification.
A scanning electron microscope

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) provides high-resolution images of the surfaces of
both biological and non-biological specimens. Through the SEM, you will be able to examine
even the smallest pollen grains for surface details or to study such varied materials as ceramics,
wood and metals.
The transmission electron microscope (TEM) enables you to examine the smallest details of
the internal structures of animal and plant cells.
A transmission electron microscope
29
Let’s Try This
Ask your Instructional Manager or Facilitator for permission to use the microscope.
Observe the microscope and study its parts. Look at the diagram below. Can you identify the
parts named in the diagram on the microscope that you are using? Check your answers with your
Instructional Manager or Facilitator.
Eyepiece
Coarse
adjustment
Body tube
Fine
Revolving
adjustment
nosepiece
High-power Arm
objective
Low-power Stage clip

objective
Stage
Diaphragm
Mirror Base
Let’s Learn
Were you able to locate each part of the microscope named in the diagram? Now study
each part carefully as you read its function.
♦ Eyepiece—is the lens through which you look. It is also known as the ocular. Look at
the eyepiece closely. Most microscopes have numbers, such as 5, 10 and 15 written
near the eyepiece. The number refers to the magnification of the lens. Magnification
is the ratio of the size of an image to the size of the actual object. A magnification of
100× means that the image is 100 times bigger than the actual object.
30
The pictures above show different magnifications for a sample of smooth muscle tissue. The
upper picture shows the specimen as seen at a magnification of 4x; the lower picture shows
the specimen as seen at a magnification of 10x.
♦ Body tube—holds the objective lenses. It is in the body tube where the image of the
specimen (object being studied) is magnified, refracted and resolved.
♦ Revolving nosepiece—The body tube ends in the revolving nosepiece. If you turn
the nosepiece, the objectives will click into place.
♦ Objectives—The objectives are low-power or high-power lenses. You can find the
total magnification of the microscope by multiplying the number on the eyepiece by the
number on the objective that you are using. For example, if the number on the eyepiece
is 10× and the number on the objective is 20×, the total magnification is 200×.
♦ Stage—the part of the microscope overlooked by the objectives. This platform has an
aperture or opening that allows light to enter the microscope. The specimen is placed
on a slide, which is then placed on the stage.
♦ Stage clips—keep the slide from moving.
♦ Diaphragm—a knob underneath the stage. The diaphragm regulates the amount of
light entering the microscope.
♦ Coarse adjustment—a knob used for focusing an unresolved object. The coarse
adjustment moves the body tube up or down rapidly. It is used for initial focusing. This
is the knob that you will use most of the time.
♦ Fine adjustment—is used for final focusing. This is used only when the image is a bit
out of focus for all objectives.
♦ Mirror—found on the base of the microscope. It can be turned toward the light
source.
♦ Arm—the handle of the microscope. You hold this firmly with your hand when you
carry the microscope.
♦ Base—supports the microscope. Always hold one hand under the base and firmly
grasp the arm with the other hand.
31
Let’s Review
Answer the following questions. Write your answers in the blanks.

1. What is the purpose of the microscope?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. Where does the light for the microscope come from?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. What are the lenses on a microscope called?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. What do the clips hold?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Let’s Try This
Now it’s time for you to learn how to use the microscope properly. Get the microscope
from your Instructional Facilitator/Manager. Remember that the proper way to carry a
microscope is to hold the base with one hand and to grasp the arm with your other hand. Hold it
close to your body.
How to hold the microscope properly
32
Place the microscope on a table, making sure that it is upright. Arrange the mirror so as to
reflect light from a window or from a lamp. When you look down into the microscope you should
see a large white circular area.
When you have adjusted the mirror properly, do the following.
Let’s Try This
A. Preparing a Specimen for Microscopic Examination

1. Cut out a small letter “a” from a newspaper.
2. Place the letter “a” right side up on a slide.
3. Add a drop of water to the specimen. If the letter is disturbed from its position,
use a needle or pencil tip to move it back to its position.
4. Lower a cover slip at the angle shown in the picture (c) on the next page. This
will push air out the side of the cover slip.
Preparing a sample for microscopic examination
33
B. Using the Microscope
1. Draw the letter “a” as it appears to the naked eye.
2. Carefully insert the slide under the clips.

3. Position the “a” directly over the aperture on the stage. The “a” should still be
right side up.
4. Looking at the low-power objective from the side, lower the objective so that it
almost touches the slide.
c
a
Preparing a sample for microscopic examination
5. Look into the eyepiece with both eyes to avoid eyestrain and slowly turn the
coarse adjustment to raise the tube. The “a” should come into focus. If you turn
the knob more than 2 centimeters, do step 4 again.
6. Finish focusing by turning the fine adjustment.
7. Draw the letter “a” as it appears under the microscope. Indicate the magnification
of the image next to the drawing.
8. Turn the nosepiece until the high-power objective clicks into place.
9. When using the high-power objective, do not use the coarse adjustment. Use
only the fine adjustment to bring the image into focus.
34
10. Draw what you see. Indicate the magnification of the image.
How did the letter “a” appear when you looked at it through the microscope? It appeared
larger, of course. When you looked at it through the low-power objective, it appeared as many
times as big as its actual size as is indicated by the number on the objective. Looking at the letter
through a high-power objective made it appear even bigger than when it did through the low-
power objective.
Let’s Learn
Remember to do the following whenever you use a microscope:

♦ Carry the microscope using both hands. Clean the objectives and eyepiece with lens
paper; never use anything except lens paper for cleaning the lenses.
♦ When focusing on a specimen, first rotate the nosepiece until the low-power objective
clicks into place. While viewing the objective lens from one side of the body tube,
carefully adjust the distance between the lens and the stage by turning the coarse
adjustment, until the distance is about 1 to 2 centimeters.
♦ Set the diaphragm to its largest opening where it allows the maximum amount of light
through.
35
♦ While observing the objective lens and the slide from the side, carefully adjust the
distance between them to about half a centimeter. Take care not to look through the
eyepiece while performing this step.
♦ Next, look through the eyepiece and slowly increase the distance between the
objective lens and the specimen until the specimen comes into focus. Never focus in
the opposite direction, that is, decrease the distance between the objective and the
specimen, while looking through the eyepiece. This will cause eyestrain.
♦ Center the specimen in your field of view and bring it into sharper focus by turning the
fine adjustment.
♦ Rotate the nosepiece until the high-power objective clicks into position. This time, use
only the fine adjustment to focus the specimen into view. Remember that when using
the high-power objective, you should turn only the fine adjustment.
♦ After using the microscope, rotate the nosepiece until the low-power objective clicks
into position. Remove the slide from the stage and return it to its container. Then clean
the objective lenses and eyepiece with lens paper. Then return the microscope to its
storage cabinet or container, taking care to hold it properly.
Do you now know how to use the microscope properly? Try practicing the procedure
above on the microscope that you are using. Have your Instructional Facilitator/Manager check if
what you’re doing is right.
There are also a number of precautions that you must take whenever you use a microscope.
These are:
♦ Never raise the stage or lower the objective while looking through the eyepiece.
♦ Always locate the specimen under the low-power objective before switching to the
high-power objective.
♦ Never turn the microscope upside down or lay it on its side. The eyepiece could fall
out and get damaged.
36
♦ Always try to relax and keep both eyes open when using the microscope. This helps
prevent undue eyestrain.
♦ Never allow the objective lens to touch a slide or the stage. Anything that comes in
contact with the objective lens might damage the lens, which is very expensive.
A. Identify the parts of the microscope in the diagram below.
13.
12.
11.
10.
8.
7. 9.
5.
6.
4.
3.
2. 1.
37
B. Identify what is being described in each of the following statements. Write your answer
in the blank before the number.
_________________ 1. It is the ratio of the size of an image to the size of the actual
object.
_________________ 2. A magnifying glass is an example of this type of
microscope.
_________________ 3. It is a knob on the microscope that regulates the amount of
light that enters the microscope.
_________________ 4. You use only this when you are using the high-power
objective.
_________________ 5. This is the part of the microscope where you mount the
slide.
_________________ 6. They hold the slide in place.
_________________ 7. This is the shorter of the two objectives on the
microscope.
_________________ 8. You should never lower this when you are looking through
the eyepiece.
_________________ 9. This is a microscope used for both biological and non-
biological specimens.
_________________10. This is another name for the eyepiece.
Did you get a perfect score? If you did, that’s very good. It means that you understood the
lesson well. If you did not get everything right, don’t worry. Just review the parts of the lesson
that you did not understand very well. Afterward, you may proceed to Lesson 4.
Let’s Remember
♦ The microscope is an instrument that helps make objects appear larger than they really
are. There are generally two kinds of light microscopes—simple microscope and
compound microscope.
♦ Electron microscopes use electrons to form an image. There are two kinds of electron
microscopes—the scanning electron microscope and the transmission electron
microscope.
♦ A compound microscope is composed of the following parts: the eyepiece or ocular,
body tube, revolving nosepiece, high-power and low-power objectives, stage, stage
clips, diaphragm, coarse adjustment, fine adjustment, mirror, arm and base.
♦ It is important to know the proper way of holding the microscope properly. It is also
important to know how to adjust and focus the microscope properly in order to avoid
eyestrain and to protect the microscope from any damage.
38
LESSON 4
Cell Division
How much did you weigh when you were born? How did you measure in length? Your
body needed to produce millions of new cells to become as big as it is now.
Most of the cells in your body are constantly being replaced by similar cells. Bone cells
make new bone cells. Muscle cells make new muscle cells. The fact is that you are constantly
changing. You aren’t the same now as you were a year ago or even a few hours ago.
Even at this very moment as you read this page, groups of cells throughout your body are
growing, dividing and dying. Worn-out cells on the palms of your hands are being replaced. Cuts
and bruises are healing. Other organisms undergo similar processes.
How does this happen? You will find out in this lesson.
Let’s Study and Analyze
Look at the picture below. Can you tell how young living things are able to grow into adults?
What is the role played by the body cells in the growth of living things?
Compare your answer with this:

Living things are able to grow into adults by increasing the number of their body cells. In
order for body cells to increase, new cells must form from cells that are already present in the
body. Hence, the reproduction of cells plays an important part in the growth of living things.
39
Let’s Learn
Cells reproduce either by mitosis or by meiosis. Mitosis is the process by which a cell
divides to form two new daughter cells, each of which contains the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis, on the other hand, is the process by which a cell
divides into four daughter cells that hold half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
.
a.
Parent cell Daughter cell Daughter cell
n n n
b.
Parent cell Daughter cell Daughter cell
n 1/2n 1/2n
Daughter cell Daughter cell
1/2n 1/2n
n = number of chromosomes
The difference between mitosis and meiosis
Before we discuss these two processes, let us first try to understand how a cell reproduces.
Let’s meet the parts of the cell that play a major part in the process of cell division. Think of them
as major characters in a fascinating and wonderful story that occurs endlessly in your body.
A chromosome
40
The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are made up of units of deoxyribonucleic acid
and proteins called histones. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the genes. Genes are
instructions that tell the body how to develop. They are responsible for how each living thing
looks. You look the way you do because of your genes.
DNA and histones bind together to form chromosomes.
The DNA is a large molecule that is composed of two strands coiled around each other.
Look at the picture below. The kind of structure that the DNA has is called a double helix.
DNA double helix
Before cell division can occur, the genetic information in the DNA of the mother cell must be
accurately and completely duplicated or copied in order for the daughter cells to function and
survive. This is a very complex process. Do you know why? That’s because the DNA molecule
is very long. Each strand of DNA consists of around 100 million base components called
nucleotides.
The process of DNA duplication is called DNA replication. For this to happen, the two
DNA strands have to be unwound from each other. Proteins bind to the strands in order to
prevent them from pairing again.
41
During replication, an exact copy of the DNA is made in the cell. After the copies of the
DNA are made, the cell contains twice the number of chromosomes. This double set of
chromosomes is then divided into two sets during cell division. Each new cell that will be
produced must have an exact and complete copy of the original DNA in order to function
normally.

. . . cancer occurs when the cells cannot stop replicating and dividing? This
excessive production of cells leads to the formation of a tumor, a mass of growth on the
affected part of the body. That’s why it is very important that you see a doctor if you
notice any abnormal growths on any part of your body. Cancer is best cured when it is
in its beginning stage.
Mitosis can occur only among eukaryotic cells. Based on what you know about eukaryotic
cells and what you have just found out about cell division, what do you think the reason for this
is?
Compare your answer with this: Mitosis occurs only among eukaryotic cells because only
eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus which is essential to the process of mitosis. Do you recall what
you found out about prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? Prokaryotes reproduce by different
means. You shall find out more about it later.
Let’s Learn
Mitosis
Mitosis is a very important stage in the life of a cell. Do you know why? As I mentioned
before, whenever a cell divides, it is important that each new cell must have a complete copy of
the DNA in order to function normally. Preparations are made during mitosis to ensure an equal
distribution of chromosomes to each new cell.
During cell division, the DNA condenses and is bound by proteins to form short, tightly
coiled chromosomes. Each chromosome then splits to form two identical chromatids that are held
together by a centromere.
Each pair of chromatids is then divided into two daughter cells during mitosis. In this
process, the chromosomes are pushed by their attachment to the mitotic spindle, a bundle of
hollow filaments or threads that serve to separate the chromosomes.
42
Chromatids Mitotic spindle
There are five stages of mitosis. Let us examine each of these stages.
The resting stage of the cell is called the interphase. However, the cell is not really resting
during this stage. The chromosomes are being replicated and the proteins that will form the mitotic
spindle are being manufactured by the cell. It is simply because there is no cell division taking
place that the cell is considered to be resting.
During interphase, chromosomes are found in the nucleus as a network of thin long threads
called chromatin. Look at the picture below. The chromatin looks like spaghetti on a plate,
doesn’t it? The dark spot in the nucleus is the nucleolus. The nuclear membrane is also visible.
Chromatin
Nucleolus
Nuclear
membrane Nucleus
In an animal cell, a pair of centrioles can be found right outside the nuclear membrane.
During interphase, each centriole starts to produce a daughter centriole. When this happens, the
cell is about to enter the second stage of mitosis.
Centrioles
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear
membrane
An animal cell during interphase
43
The second stage of mitosis is called prophase. The chromosomes have duplicated by this
time. They thicken and coil. The nucleolus shrinks and disappears. At the end of this stage, the
nuclear membrane has disappeared and the fibers that will form the mitotic spindle begin to
cluster together.
The centrioles
start to form
fibers.
Chromosomes
thicken and coil. The nuclear
membrane and
nucleolus have
disappeared.
Prophase
The third stage is the metaphase. The chromosomes, which now consist of duplicate
chromatids, line up along the middle of the cell, aided by the spindle fibers that form from the
centrioles. The line along the middle of the cell is called the metaphase plate. Each pair of
chromatids is held together by a centromere. The centromere is itself attached to the spindle
fibers that make up the mitotic spindle.
Sister chromatids
Metaphase
plate
Centromere
Centrioles
Mitotic spindle
made up of
spindle fibers
Metaphase
What do you think is the importance of the chromosomes lining up along the metaphase
plate? This organization ensures that when the chromosomes are separated in the next stage, the
nucleus of each new cell will receive a copy of each chromosome.
44
The fourth stage of cell division is the anaphase. In this stage, the centromere duplicates
and the chromatid pair separates. Each half of the pair moves to the pole opposite that of the
other. Each chromatid is now a daughter chromosome.
Sister
chromatids
separate and
move toward
opposite
poles.
Centromere is
pulled by
spindle fibers.
Anaphase
The last stage of mitosis is the telophase. The daughter chromosomes arrive at the opposite
poles and the fibers disappear. The coiled chromosome expands and the nuclear membrane
reappears. The cytoplasm divides and the cell membrane pinches inward until two daughters cells
are produced. This splitting of the cytoplasm into two is called cytokinesis.
Nuclear
membrane
reappears.
Cytoplasm
Chromosomes divides.
expand.
Telophase
In animal cells, the division of the cytoplasm occurs when the cell membrane pinches inward
between the two poles until the two daughter cells are formed. In plant cells, a region of new
membrane is formed and new cell wall material is formed as well in the middle of the cell. This
material, called cell plate, moves outward until the two daughter cells are formed.
Cytokinesis in an animal cell
Cell plate
Cytokinesis in a plant cell
45
Let’s Review
Arrange the following pictures by numbering them 1 to 5 according to the order in which the
stages occur in the process of mitosis.
a. __________________ b. __________________
c. __________________ d. __________________
e. __________________
46
Let’s Learn
Meiosis
The second type of cell division is meiosis. Meiosis takes place in order to produce
gametes or sex cells, namely, the egg and sperm cells. The egg and sperm cells are important in
the process of reproduction. The egg cell from the female organism and the sperm from the male
organism meet in order to produce a new organism.
Meiosis occurs in organisms that reproduce sexually. During meiosis, two cell divisions
follow DNA replication. The stages of meiosis are:
♦ First division
Interphase
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
♦ Second division
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Did you know that all the cells in the human body are made up of 46 chromosomes? These
chromosomes make up 23 pairs that are replicated and passed on to daughter cells. The only
exception is the sperm and egg cells, each of which is made up of 23 single chromosomes.
Why do you think this is so? Think of a reason based on the role that the sperm and egg
cells play in the process of reproduction. Write your answer below.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
47
Were you able to think of an answer? Compare it with this:
In the process of reproduction, the sperm unites with the egg cell in order to produce a
zygote that will grow into a fetus inside its mother’s womb. Each sex cell contributes 23
chromosomes to the developing human. Hence, a human being starts out with 46 chromosomes,
all in all. Each set is contributed by the person’s parents.
Let’s Learn
Let us look more closely at the stages of meiosis.

In interphase, the chromosome is replicated as in mitosis. The chromosome is also not
visible during this stage.
Chromatin
Nuclear
membrane
Interphase in meiosis is similar to that in mitosis.
Prophase I is one of the most important stages of meiosis. During this stage, the DNA in
the chromosomes condenses and becomes visible to the microscope. The chromosomes look
very long because they are not yet fully coiled. Each chromatid seeks out its homologous pair.
Homologous pairs
Nuclear
membrane
disappears. Centrioles
Mitotic
spindle
Homologous chromosomes seek each other out during prophase I.
What is a homologous pair? Remember that meiosis takes place in sex cells. A sex cell
contains chromosomes from both the mother and the father. A homologous pair of chromosomes,
therefore, is made up of one chromosome that comes from the mother and another chromosome
that comes from the father. When the chromosomes replicate, the homologous chromosomes are
separated. During prophase, however, they seek each other out again.
48
Sister
chromatids
Tetrad structure
Chiasma
Nonsister
chromatids
Homologous chromosomes and their sister chromatids make up a tetrad.
When the two members of the homologous pair find each other, they form a synapse. The
structure formed is called a tetrad, because it is made up of four chromatids. The point at which
the two nonsister chromatids intertwine is called chiasma.
In metaphase I, the members of the tetrad prepare to separate. They interact with spindle
fibers that form from either side of the nuclear membrane. Spindle fibers are produced from the
centrioles. The centrioles are found at opposite poles of the cell. The sister chromatids align at the
middle of the cell, called the equatorial plate. The nuclear membrane disappears. The
centromeres are now oriented toward the poles of the cell and the chromosomes are fully coiled
and condensed.
Equatorial
plate
Homologous
pair
The sister chromatids are now aligned along the equator or middle part of the cell.
The centrioles form poles toward which the centromeres are facing.
In anaphase I, the chromosomes migrate toward opposite poles. The homologous

chromosomes separate but the chromatids do not. Each pole will receive one set of
chromosomes, each with two chromatids.
49
The chromosomes now migrate toward opposite poles.
Telophase I is very short and is in fact often mistaken for prophase II. In general,
however, two nuclear membranes begin to surround the separate chromosomes and cytokinesis
takes place. Then a phase called interkinesis follows, which is essentially a resting period from
telophase I to prophase II. This differs from mitosis because DNA replication does not occur.
In telophase I, cytokinesis takes place. The cytoplasm is split into two.
During prophase II, each half of a tetrad is composed of a pair of sister chromatids
connected by a centromere. The centrioles that replicated during telophase I also start to move
toward the poles of the cell.
Centriole pair
Nuclear
membrane
Centromere
In prophase II, the centrioles start to move toward opposite poles of each cell.
Metaphase II is similar to metaphase I in that the sister chromatids are lined up along the
metaphase plate by the spindle fibers.
50
Spindle fibers
Metaphase
plate
In metaphase II, the chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell. The centromeres of
sister chromatids face opposite poles.
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate from each other and move toward opposite
poles of the cell.
The spindle fibers pull the sister chromatids apart.
At the end of telophase II, the nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes
and the cytoplasm divides once again. As a result, four cells result from the original cell, each
containing half the number of chromosomes of the original cell.
Cytokinesis occurs
At the end of telophase II, four daughter cells are produced.
51
Let’s Review
Identify the step in cell division that is being described in each statement. Write your answer
in the blank before the number.
___________________ 1. Each chromatid seeks its homologous pair.
___________________ 2. This is the stage where cytokinesis takes place to produce
two cells.
___________________ 3. The homologous chromosomes separate.
___________________ 4. The cell appears to be resting.
___________________ 5. Cytokinesis takes place to produce four cells.
___________________ 6. The sister chromatids separate from each other.
___________________ 7. The members of the tetrad prepare to separate.
___________________ 8. The centrioles that replicated in telophase I start to move
toward the poles of the cell.
___________________ 9. The sister chromatids are lined up along the metaphase plate.
___________________10. This stage does not occur twice in meiosis.
Let’s Learn
How do prokaryotic cells multiply? As you found out in Lesson 1, prokaryotes are much
simpler in organization than eurkaryotes. The usual method of prokaryotic cell division is binary
fission. The prokaryotic chromosome is a single DNA molecule that first replicates and then
attaches each copy to a different part of the cell membrane. When the cell begins to pull apart,
the replicate and the original chromosome separate. The cell splits into two and two cells of
identical composition are produced.
DNA
(a) A prokaryotic cell (b) DNA replicates. (c) DNA strands separate. (d) Cross wall forms.
(e) Cell divides. (f) Two daughter cells are formed.
The stages of cell division in a prokaryote
52
A. Fill up the following table.
Basis of Comparison Mitosis Meiosis
1. Type of cell where the process

occurs
2. Number of cell divisions
3. Number of chromosomes
4. Number of daughter cells produced
per parent cell
B. Answer the following questions. Write your answers in the blanks.

1. Meiosis is sometimes called reduction division. Why is this so?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. If the body cells of a horse have 64 chromosomes each, how many
chromosomes do the gametes of a horse contain?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. How does binary fission take place?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
53
Let’s Remember
♦ There are two kinds of cell division among eukaryotes—mitosis and meiosis.
♦ Mitosis occurs when a cell divides to form two new cells that have the same number of
chromosomes that it has. It occurs in all body cells. Meiosis occurs when a cell divides
to form four new cells that contain half the number of chromosomes the original cell
has. It takes place only in the gametes or sex cells.
♦ Mitosis occurs in five stages: (a) interphase, where chromosomes appear as chromatin;
(b) prophase, in which the chromosomes and the centrioles have duplicated and the
mitotic spindle starts to form; (c) metaphase, in which the duplicate chromatids line up
along the metaphase plate; (d) anaphase, where the chromatid pair separates, each
moving to the pole opposite the other; and (e) telophase, where the daughter
chromosomes arrive at the opposite poles and the cytoplasm divides until two new
cells are formed.
♦ Meiosis occurs in nine stages. The first division is similar to mitosis, except that it is the
homologous chromosomes that separate, not the sister chromatids. In the second
division, the sister chromatids separate. At the end of the second division, four
daughter cells are produced.
♦ In prokaryotes, cell division is a much simpler process. It usually takes place in the
form of binary fission. The DNA, present in a single strand of chromosome, replicates
and each copy is attached to a different part of the cell membrane. When the cell
divides, each of the two new cells receives a copy of the DNA.
You have now reached the end of the module. Congratulations! Did you enjoy studying the
module? Did you learn a lot from it? The following is a summary of its main points to help you
remember them better.
Let’s Sum Up
♦ All living things are made up of one or more cells. These cells all come from other cells.
♦ The shapes and sizes of cells vary greatly.
♦ According to the cell theory, the cell is the basic unit of life.
♦ There are differences among animal, plant and bacterial cells. Plant cells have cell walls
and chloroplasts. Bacterial cells have fewer structures.
♦ Cell functions are performed by organelles under the control by the nucleus.
♦ Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus; eukaryotic cells have a nucleus.
♦ The cell membrane controls what types of molecules can pass through it.
54
♦ Molecules move by diffusion from areas of greater concentration to areas of lesser
concentration. In osmosis, water diffuses through a selectively permeable membrane.
♦ The cell expends energy to move molecules by active transport, but not by passive
transport.
♦ A microscope makes small objects appear larger than they really are.
♦ In order to see anything through a light microscope, light must reach the eye.
♦ Body cells divide to form new cells through the process of mitosis.
♦ Meiosis is a process that occurs in sex cells or gametes.
What Have You Learned?
A. Write True in the blank if the statement is correct and False if the statement is wrong.
___________ 1. Cells are produced from other cells.
___________ 2. Active transport does not require the use of energy in the
movement of materials across the cell membrane.
___________ 3. Ribosomes serve as the site of protein synthesis in the cell.
___________ 4. The coarse adjustment on the microscope is used only for final
focusing.
___________ 5. Only eukaryotes undergo mitosis and meiosis.
___________ 6. You should never look through the eyepiece of the microscope
while decreasing the distance between the objective and the slide.
___________ 7. Diffusion is a form of active transport.
___________ 8. Only plant cells contain vacuoles.
___________ 9. Exocytosis occurs when a cell takes in large quantities of a
substance.
___________10. The mitochondria serve as the digestive system of the cell.
___________11. Prokaryotic cells contain a nucleus.
___________12. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and proteins called albumin.
___________13. In metaphase I, the sister chromatids start to separate and move
toward opposite poles.
___________14. The centriole holds two sister chromatids together.
___________15. Chloroplasts are found only in plant cells.
55
B. Draw a diagram comparing the key points of meiosis and mitosis. Do this by drawing
the different stages of meiosis and mitosis in which there are differences between the
two processes. There are six key points to consider. Draw your diagram in the space
below.
C. Identify what is being described in each of the following statements. Write your answer
in the blank before each number.
__________________ 1. This structure forms the outer boundary of the cell.
__________________ 2. This requires the use of energy in transporting materials
into and out of the cell.
__________________ 3. This is the process of transporting materials across the
cell membrane through protein tunnels in the cell.
__________________ 4. In this stage of meiosis, the sister chromatids separate
and each moves to a pole opposite that of the other.
__________________ 5. These are tiny dots that are found on the edges of some
endoplasmic reticulum.
__________________ 6. This is made up of one chromosome from the mother and
another chromosome from the father.
__________________ 7. This is a process in which the cytoplasm divides into two,
creating two new cells from the original cell.
56
__________________ 8. In this process, molecules move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration.
__________________ 9. This is the lens of the microscope through which you
look.
__________________10. This is referred to as the resting stage of the cell.
If you got a score of:
0–12 You should study the whole module again.
13–25 Good! Just review the parts of the module that you did not understand very well.
26–31 Congratulations! This means that you understood the module very well. Keep up
the good work. Your persistence and eagerness to learn will help you go a long
way in life.
Answer Key
A. Let’s See What You Already Know (pages 2–3)

1. b. Cells are found only in living things. Options a, c and d are not living things,
hence, they do not contain cells.
2. a. Among the four options, only the chromosome is found in the nucleus. The
rest are found in the cytoplasm.
3. c. A swollen cell contains more than the normal amount of water. This water
needs to be released in order for the cell to return to its normal size. One can
do this by putting the cell in slightly salty water. Water inside the cell will move
to the surrounding salty water because the environment contains less water
than the interior of the cell.
4. c. Options a, b and d are all forms of passive transport. Only endocytosis is
not—it is a form of active transport.
5. a. Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells do not contain a nucleus.
6. a. The cell wall which is made up of a rigid material gives plant cells their
boxlike shape.
7. c. The lens of the high-power objective has the highest magnification in a
microscope.
8. d. A parent cell produces two daughter cells in mitosis.
9. d. Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosome.
10. d. Chloroplasts are found not only in plants, but in blue-green bacteria as well.
57
B. Lesson 1
Let’s Think About This (page 5)
(Answers will depend on the learners’ opinions. The following is a possible
answer.)
Not all cells have the same appearance and size. The chicken egg, for one, is a
cell that looks different from other cells, such as plant cells and human body cells. Cells
differ both in size and appearance.
Let’s Review (pages 13–14)
Plant Cell Animal Cell
Has a cell wall and a cell Has no cell wall

membrane
Contains chloroplasts Does not contain chloroplasts
Contains a large central vacuole Contains smaller vacuoles
Has a rigid structure Can change shape

(Answers will vary depending on the learners’ opinions. The following, however,
is the expected answer.)
The tadpole changes as it grows into an adult frog. Some body parts grow, while
others are discarded. One body part that is discarded is the tail. The cell organelle
responsible for the disappearance of the tail is the lysosome. The lysosome serves as
the digestive system of the cell. The cells that make up the tail are eaten away by the
lysosomes.
Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 16)
Cell wall 8 3 3
Cell membrane 3 3 3
Cytoplasm 3 3 3
Mitochondrion 3 3 8
Ribosome 3 3 3
Endoplasmic 3 3 8
reticulum
58
Golgi body 3 3 8
Lysosome 3 3 8
Vacuole 3 3 8
Chloroplast 8 3 8
Nucleus 3 3 8
Chromosome 3 3 3
C. Lesson 2
(Answers will vary depending on the learners’ observations. The following,
however, is the expected answer.)
The presence of salt in bowl A is responsible for the difference between the
appearance of the potato slices in bowl A and that of the potato slices in bowl B.
Water inside the potato slices in bowl A moved out into the surrounding salty water,
causing the potato slices to shrink. The water inside the potato slices in bowl B did not
move because there was the same amount of water inside the potato slices and in the
surroundings.
Let’s Study and Analyze (page 23)
(Answers will vary according to the learners’ understanding. The following,
however, is the expected answer.)
The water level in A will rise because the water from the starch solution in B will
transfer through the membrane to A, where there are less water molecules.
Let’s See What You Have Learned (pages 25–26)
A. 1. When an egg yolk is placed in salt water, it will shrink. This is because water in
the egg yolk will move into the environment that contains less water than the
egg yolk does.
2. Unlike most other animals, seagulls can drink seawater because their cells can
actively transport excess salt from their bodies. This is also the reason why
there are salt particles deposited on the beaks of seagulls.
B. 1. A swollen cell can be returned to normal by placing it in slightly salty water.
The excess water inside the cell will move into the environment where there is
less water.
2. If a cell membrane were not selectively permeable, the cell might die because it
would allow any material to just move in. Too many materials inside the cell
can cause it to expand and eventually burst. On the other hand, if it allows all
kinds of material to move out into the environment, it might eventually shrink
and die.
59
D. Lesson 3
Let’s Review (page 32)
1. The microscope helps you see things that are not visible to the naked eye by
making these things appear larger than they really are.
2. The light for the microscope comes from the surroundings, such as a lamp or the
sunlight.
3. The lenses on the microscope are of three kinds—the eyepiece, the low-power
objective and the high-power objective.
4. The stage clips hold the slide in place.
Let’s See What You Have Learned (pages 37–38)
A. 1. base
2. mirror
3. diaphragm
4. stage
5. stage clip
6. low-power objective
7. high-power objective
8. revolving nosepiece
9. arm
10. fine adjustment
11. body tube
12. coarse adjustment
13. eyepiece
B. 1. magnification
2. simple microscope
3. diaphragm
4. fine adjustment
5. stage
6. stage clips
7. low-power objective
8. objective
9. scanning electron microscope
10. ocular
60
E. Lesson 4
a. 4
b. 1
c. 3
d. 2
e. 5
1. prophase I
2. telophase I
3. anaphase I
4. interphase
5. telophase II
6. anaphase II
7. metaphase I
8. prophase II
9. metaphase II
10. interphase
Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 53)
A. Basis of Comparison Mitosis Meiosis
1. Type of cell where the somatic or body cell gamete or sex

process occurs cell
2. Number of cell divisions 1 2
3. Number of chromosomes same number as parent half the number

cell of parent cell
4. Number of daughter cells

produced per parent cell 2 4
61
B. 1. Meiosis is called reduction division because in this type of cell division, the
number of chromosomes in the parent cell is reduced in half in each of the
daughter cells.
2. The gametes of a horse contain 32 chromosomes. This is because sex cells or
gametes contain half the number of chromosomes of the body cells. Since a
body cell from a horse has 64 chromosomes, a gamete must have half this
number of chromosomes, which is 32.
3. Binary fission takes place in several stages. First, the DNA of the prokaryotic
cell replicates and each copy of the DNA is attached to a different part of the
cell membrane. Then, the two DNA copies separate and a cross wall is
formed in the middle of the cytoplasm, dividing the cell into two. Two new
cells having identical copies of DNA are thus produced.
F. What Have You Learned? (pages 55–57)

A. 1. True. All cells come from other cells.
2. False. Active transport requires the use of energy. It is passive transport that
does not require the use of energy.
3. True. Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosomes.
4. False. It is the fine adjustment that is used for final focusing.
5. True. Mitosis and meiosis require the presence of a nucleus, which is found
only among eukaryotic cells.
6. True. Doing so would cause eyestrain.
7. False. Diffusion is a form of passive transport.
8. False. Animal cells contain vacuoles too.
9. False. Exocytosis takes place when cells remove large materials into their
surroundings.
10. False. It is the lysosomes that serve as the digestive system of the cell.
11. False. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus.
12. False. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and proteins called histones, not
albumin.
13. False. In metaphase I, it is the homologous chromosomes that start to
separate, not the sister chromatids.
14. False. It is the centromere that holds sister chromatids together.
15. False. Chloroplasts are also found in blue-green bacteria.
62
B. (Learners’ diagrams may vary. The following diagram shows the six key points of
difference in the stages of the two kinds of cell division.)
Meiotic division 1 1. DNA replication
Homologous
chromosomes
seek each
other out.
Homologous
2. chromosomes
at the same
level on
equatorial
plate
Sister
3. chromatids
CELL separate
DIVISION 1
Meiotic division 2
4.
5.
CELL
CELL
DIVISION
6. DIVISION 2
C. 1. cell membrane
2. active transport
3. facilitated diffusion
4. anaphase II
5. ribosomes
6. homologous pair
7. cytokinesis
8. diffusion
9. eyepiece
10. interphase
63
Glossary
Alimentary canal A part of the digestive system that extends from the mouth to the
intestines, and through which food passes to be digested.
Amino acid The basic unit of proteins.
Antibody A protein found in certain types of cells; fights disease-causing particles in the
cell.
Aperture A hole or opening.
Base A supporting part of a material.
Binary fission A type of cell division that occurs among prokaryotic cells.
Cancer A disease characterized by the invasion of cells that spread and increase in number
in different parts of the body.
Cell The smallest structural unit of an organism, made up of certain materials surrounded by
a membrane.
Cell membrane A structure that surrounds the cell and that controls the passage of
materials into and out of the cell.
Cell plate Cell wall material that forms along the middle of a plant cell during cytokinesis.
Cell wall A rigid material that surrounds a plant cell and which gives it support and shape.
Centriole Any of a pair of structures near the nuclear membrane, from which spindle fibers
form.
Centromere A small structure that holds sister chromatids together and which attach to the
spindle fibers during cell division.
Chiasma The point at which two nonsister chromatids meet in a tetrad.
Chloroplast A dark green body that contains chlorophyll, found inside a plant cell; helps
the plant cell energy from the sun.
Chromatin The form in which chromosomes exist during interphase.
Chromosome A threadlike strand made up of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus of
the cell; contains genes that carry hereditary information that determines how a
particular organism looks and functions.
Convex lens A piece of glass that has a surface or outer boundary that bulges outward.
Cytoplasm The material that makes up the cell.
Daughter cell The cell produced from the parent cell after the process of division.
DNA Stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, a type of acid found in the nucleus and which
contains genetic information; made up of two strands of nucleotides coiled in a double
helix.
64
Double helix The coiled structure of the DNA in which two strands bound to each other
form a spiral, with the two strands oriented in opposite directions.
Egg cell Sex cell produced by the female organism.
Endoplasmic reticulum A network of canals that lead from the nuclear membrane to the
cell membrane; involved in the storage and transport of substances.
Enzyme A type of protein that can hasten a chemical reaction.
Equatorial plate The middle part of the cell.
Equilibrium A condition characterized by stability.
Eukaryote A single-celled or multicellular organism whose cells contain a membrane-
bound nucleus.
Gamete A reproductive or sex cell that contains half the number of chromosomes of the
organism’s body cells.
Gene A hereditary unit that determines a particular characteristic in an organism.
Genetic Affecting or determined by the genes.
Golgi body A membrane-bound organelle that packs molecules in sacs, making it possible
for these molecules to reach various areas of the cell.
Histone A small protein that binds with DNA to form chromosomes.
Homeostasis The ability of a cell to maintain equilibrium.
Homologous pair A pair of chromosomes, one of which is contributed by the female
organism and the other contributed by the male organism.
Lysosome An organelle that contains enzymes that digest wastes and damaged cell parts.
Meiosis A type of cell division in which a cell undergoes changes to produce four new
cells, each containing half the number of chromosomes as the original cell.
Metaphase plate A line along the middle of the cell on which the sister chromatids are
lined up during the metaphase stage.
Mitochondrion A sausage-shaped organelle that traps the energy produced when food is
broken down.
Mitosis A type of cell division in which a cell undergoes changes in order to produce two
new cells that contain the same number of chromosomes that the original cell has.
Mitotic spindle A rod-shaped structure made up of fibers of proteins along which the
chromosomes move and separate during mitosis.
Molecule The smallest particle of a material that exhibits the properties of that material;
made up of two or more atoms.
Nuclear membrane A material that surrounds the nucleus.
Nucleoid A structure in a bacterial cell that carries out the process of cell division.
65
Nucleolus A small, round granular body found inside the nucleus that controls the process
of producing ribosomes.
Nucleotide The basic constituent or component of DNA.
Nucleus A membrane-bound cell structure that contains genetic material and serves as the
control center of the cell.
Organelle A structure within a cell, which performs a specific function.
Oxygen A nonmetallic element that makes up part of the atmosphere and which is needed
by organisms in order to function well.
Parent cell The cell that undergoes division.
Prokaryote An organism that does not contain a nucleus and whose genetic material is
present as a single DNA strand.
Protein A large molecule made up of combinations of nitrogen with oxygen, hydrogen,
sulfur and carbon; an essential component of all living cells.
Refract To change by viewing through a medium.
Replication The process in which a genetic material makes a copy of itself.
Resolve To bring into focus.
Ribosome A tiny, dense dot on the edge of some endoplasmic reticulum; serves as the site
of protein synthesis.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum A type of endoplasmic reticulum that has ribosomes on
the edges.
Sperm cell Sex cell produced by the male organism.
Spindle fibers Threads of protein that form from the centrioles during cell division and
which make up the mitotic spindle.
Synapse The place where two things meet.
Tetrad An intermediate structure during meiosis made up of a homologous pair of
chromosomes and their sister chromatids.
Tumor An abnormal growth of tissue caused by the uncontrolled multiplication of cells.
Vacuole A clear structure that can store a large amount of material; found in both plant and
animal cells.
Vesicle The sac in a golgi body where molecules are packed.
Zygote The cell formed from the union of two gametes.
66
References
Balzer, Le Von, et al, eds. Introduction to Biology. Illinois, U.S.A.: Scott Foresman and
Company, 1984.
Campbell, Neil A. Biology. California, U.S.A.: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing
Company, Inc., 1996.
Daniel, Lucy, et al. Life Science. Ohio, U.S.A.: Merrill Publishing Company, 1994.
Hopson, Janet L. and Norman K. Wessels. Essentials of Biology. U.S.A.: McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, 1990.
Miller, Kenneth R. and Joseph Levine. Biology. New Jersey, U.S.A.: Prentice-Hall
Company, 1991.
Wong, Harry K. and Malvin S. Dolmatz. Biology: The Key Ideas. New York, U.S.A.:
Globe Book Company, 1986.
67

Cell The Basic Unit of Life

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Cell The Basic Unit of Life

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What Is This Module About?

What Will You Learn From This Module?

After studying this module, you should be able to:

The Basic Unit of Life

All organisms are made up of cells.

Let’s Think About This

Different types of cells

Did you know that . . .

Blah! Blah! Blah! Blah!

Cells Have Organelles

A typical animal cell and its parts

The nuclei of different animal cells

Let’s Think About This

Skeletal muscle cell

Endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes

A typical animal cell

A typical plant cell

Let’s Think About This

Did you know that not all cells have nuclei?

Unicellular organisms Multicellular organisms

Let’s Think About This

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Structure Animal Cell Plant Cell Bacterial Cell

Movement of Materials Through

Let’s Try This

A molecule is made up of two or more atoms.

Did you know that . . .

Gas molecules from perfume bottle

More oxygen Less wastes

Let’s Try This

Cold water Hot water

Let’s Study and Analyze

Concentrated salt Dilute starch

Will the water level on either side of the membrane go down?

White blood cell

A white blood cell eating a bacterial cell

Cell Waste being removed

A cell releases wastes using exocytosis.

Endocytosis and exocytosis are forms of active transport.

Here’s something to think about:

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Using the Microscope

A scanning electron microscope

A transmission electron microscope

Low-power Stage clip

Answer the following questions. Write your answers in the blanks.

Let’s Try This

How to hold the microscope properly

When you have adjusted the mirror properly, do the following.

Let’s Try This

A. Preparing a Specimen for Microscopic Examination

Preparing a sample for microscopic examination

2. Carefully insert the slide under the clips.

Preparing a sample for microscopic examination

Remember to do the following whenever you use a microscope:

Let’s See What You Have Learned

A. Identify the parts of the microscope in the diagram below.

Let’s Study and Analyze

Compare your answer with this:

Parent cell Daughter cell Daughter cell

Parent cell Daughter cell Daughter cell

Daughter cell Daughter cell

The difference between mitosis and meiosis

DNA and histones bind together to form chromosomes.