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Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Text Book:
Open Channel Flow by .M .Hanif Chaudhry
Reference Books:
Open Channel Hydraulics by V.T.Chow
Open Channel Flow by F.M.Henderson
Open Channel Hydraulics by French
Engineering Fluid Mechanics by Daugherty/Franzini
DEFINITIONS
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
Analysis of open-channel flow is required for the Planning,
Design and Operation of Water Resource Projects.
CLOSED CONDUIT
A flow passage with closed top is called a closed conduit, e.g.,
tunnels and pipes etc.
OPEN CHANNEL
A flow passage with open top is known as an open channel,
e.g., rivers, streams, estuaries etc.
Open Channel
A B
Section A-A
A B
Section B-B
TERMINOLOGY
A channel may be natural or artificial. Various names have
been used for artificial channels as follows:
Canal
A long channel having mild slope excavated in ground is
called a canal.
Flume
A channel supported above ground and built of wood, metal
or concrete is called a flume.
Chute
A chute is a channel having very steep bottom slope and
almost vertical sides.
Tunnel
A tunnel is a channel excavated through a hill or a mountain.
Culvert
A short channel flowing partly full is known as culvert.
Prismatic Channel
A channel having the same cross section and bottom slope is
referred to as a prismatic channel.
Non-Prismatic Channel
A channel having varying cross section and/or bottom slope is
called a non-prismatic channel.
A y
Z
P
Datum
Datum
Pipe flow
Datum
Free - surface flow
CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWS
Flows are classified as follows: -
Flow
Unsteady Steady
REYNOLDS NUMBER
The ratio of viscous and inertial forces is defined as the
Reynolds number, i.e.
(Re=VL/)
R=Reynolds number
V=mean flow velocity
L=characteristic length
=kinematic viscosity of the liquid.
The value of Reynolds number (Re=VL/) determines whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent. The transition from laminar
to turbulent flow in free-surface flows occurs for R e of about
600.
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION
The flow velocity in a channel section varies from one point
to another. This is due to shear stress at the bottom and the
sides of the channel and due to the presence of free surface.
Following figures show typical velocity distributions in
different channel cross-sections.
Pipe
2.0
Typical
1.0
2.5 Velocity
2.0 2.5
2.0
Y Variation
Tropezoidal channel
1.5
1.0
Shallow ditch 0.5 2.5
= ( ρ gV ΔA )=γVΔA
1 wt . flowing /sec
× ×V 2
= 2 g m
1 γV m∫ dA
× ×αV 2
= 2 g m
V 3
m
ρα dA →(3 )
= 2 ∫
(Here Vm is a constant while V is a variable)
for River
Consider a compound channel as shown below:
1 2 3
Main
Flood Plain Channel Flood Plain
V A1 + V A2 +V A3
13 23 33
α= →( 5)
V 3 ( A1 + A 2 + A3 )
m
V 1 A 1 +V 2 A 2 +V 3 A 3
V m= →(6 )
Now A 1 + A2 + A 3 Use of Eq .of cont.
Substituting eq. (6) in Eq. (5)
3
(V 3 A 1 +V 3 A 2 +V 3 A 3 )( A 1 + A 2 + A3 )
1 2 3
α=
( V 1 A1 + V 2 A 2 +V 3 A 3 )3 ( A1 + A 2 + A 3 )
2
(V 3 A 1 +V 3 A 2 +V 3 A 3 )( A 1 + A 2 + A3 )
1 2 3
α=
( V 1 A 1 +V 2 A 2 +V 3 A3 )3
(∑ V i A i )3
i=1
MOMENTUM COEFFICIENT()
Similar to energy coefficient, a coefficient for momentum
transfer through a channel section may be introduced to
account for non-uniform velocity distribution.
Mass of liquid flowing through area A per unit time
= VA
Momentum passing through area A per unit time
mass
×velocity
= time
2
= ( ρVΔA )×V = ρΔ AV
Momentum passing through whole section, ‘A’per unit time
2
= ρ ∫ V dA →(1)
Momentum passing through whole section per unit time in
terms of means velocity Vm,
βρ V2 ∫ dA→( 2 )
Vm = m
Quiz:
For turbulent flow is less (than 1.15) but for laminar flow it
is more, why?
EXAMPLE
The velocity distribution in a channel section may be
approximated by the equation V=Vo(y/yo) n, in which V is the
flow velocity at depth y; Vo is the flow velocity at depth yo,
and n = a constant. Derive expressions for the energy and
momentum coefficients.
Solution
V m=
∫ VdA
∫ dA
If we consider unit width of the channel, then A can be
replaced with depth y
V m=
∫ Vdy
∫ dy
yo y n
∫ Vo( ) dy
0 yo
V m= yo
∫ dy
0
V o y o n+1 1 Vo
V m= × ×
y n n+1 y o =
o n+1
n
By substituting V=Vo (y/yo , Vm=Vo/(n+1) and dA=dy into
equation for “”, we get
yo y 3n
∫0 V 3( ) dy
o yo
α=
V o 3 yo
[ ] ∫ dy
n+1 0
( V 3/ y 3 n) [ y 3n+1 /( 3 n+1) ] 3
α=
o o o (n+1 )
=
[V o /( n+1) )]3 y o 3 n+1
yo y 2n
∫0 V 2( ) dy
o yo
β=
V o 2 yo
[ ] ∫ dy
n+1 0
( V 2/ y 2n )[ y 2n+1 /( 2n+ 1) ]
o o o
β=
[ V o /( n+ 1)) ]2 y o
( n+1)2 ( y 2 n+1 )
β= o (n+1 )2
y ( y o )( 2n+1 ) =
o2 n 2 n+1
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
The pressure distribution in a channel section depends upon
the flow conditions. There are several possible cases as
follows:
STATIC CONDITIONS
Consider a vertical column of liquid in a body of fluid at rest.
Peizometer
y W= y A
pΔA=ρ gy ΔA
p=γy
p∝ y ( is constant)
pΔA=ρ gy ΔA
p=γy
pΔA=ρ gd ΔA cosθ
p=ρ gd cos θ
p=γd cosθ
Now d= y cos θ
2
p=γy cos θ
CURVILINEAR FLOW
In all the previous cases the streamlines were straight and
parallel to the channel bed. But in certain cases, the
streamlines are not straight but have some curvature. If the
curvature of streamlines is substantial, the flow is known as
curvilinear flow. It is of two types:
Case I: Concave Flow
In order to determine the pressure distribution in a concave
flow, consider the forces acting in the vertical direction on a
column of liquid having cross-sectional area A.
Peizometer
ya
ys A
ys Centrifugal
Force
Flow p A
ya Centrifugal
ys Force
ys A
Flow
p A
2
1V
p =γy s (1± )
g r
2
p 1V
= y s (1± )
Total pressure head= γ g r
PROBLEM 1-2
The discharge in a given channel is proportional to AR2/3 if the
flow is uniform. For a circular conduit having an inside
diameter D, prove that the discharge is maximum when the
flow depth is 0.94D.
Solution:
Q AR2/3 T
2
d A E B
A= (θ−sin θ)
8
D/2 D/2
θD
P= C /2 D
2 y
D sin θ D/2
R= (1− )
4 θ
(Values for A, P & R are given F
in Table 2-1 of book by Chow)
Q = AR 2/3
Q = A (A 2/3/P 2/3)
Q = A 5/3/P 2/3
dQ
=0
For Qmax, dθ
−2 dP 5 dA
A 5/3 ( )( P−5 /3 ) +P−2 /3 ( )( A 2/3 ) =0
3 dθ 3 dθ
On simplification we get,
2 dP 5 dA
( ) =( )
P dθ A dθ
2
A d θD d D
2×( ) ( )=5× [ (θ−sinθ )]
P dθ 2 dθ 8
On simplification we get,
A 5
= D(1−cosθ )
P 8
Substituting values of A & P from above and simplifying,
θ−sin θ 5
= (1−cos θ )
θ 2
5
θ(1−cos θ)=θ−sin θ
2
By hit and trial, for a value of = 5.28 radians, the LHS of the
equation becomes equal to RHS (i.e. LHSRHS6.12)
Therefore, = 5.28 radians
D 5 .28
CE= Cos( π− )
2 2
CE=0 . 44 D
y = CE + CF
y = 0.44D + 0.50D
y = 0.94D
So the discharge will be maximum for y = 0.94D
PROBLEM 1-3:
Given Data;
Circular conduit (flowing partially full),
y = flow depth; D = conduit diameter;
To find
Maximum values of y/D for (R/Rf )2/3 and AR2/3/ (AR2/3)f
SOLUTION
Values of A and R are;
2
d
A= (θ−sin θ)
8
D sin θ
R= (1− )
4 θ
(Values for A, P & R are given in Table 2-1 of book by V. T. Chow)
PROBLEM 1-9
While computing the bending moment and the shear force
acting on the side walls of the spillway chute as shown below,
a structural engineer assumed that the water pressure varies
linearly from zero at the free surface to gy at the invert of the
chute, where y = flow depth measured vertically. What are the
computed values for the bending moment and the shear force
at the invert level? Are the computed results correct? If not,
Compute the percentage error.
Side wall
Watr surface
A 50 m
y=5 m Section A-A
A
30
Solution
d d
F(actual) F(computed)
d/3 d/3
dcos y
ACTUAL PRESSURE DIST. COMPUTED PRESSURE DIST.
Using actual pressure distribution
1
F( actual )= ×γd cos θ×d
(Shear Force) actual = 2
1
(S . F . )actual = ×γ× y cos θ×cos θ× y cos θ
2
1
= ×γ × y 2 cos 3 θ
2
1 kN
(S . F . )actual = ×9. 81×5 2×cos3 30=79 .64
2 m
1 d
=( ×γdcos θ×d )×
(Bending Moment) actual 2 3
d y cos30
=(S . F .)actual × =79 . 64×
(B.M.) actual 3 3
5×cos30 kN −m
=79 . 64× =114 . 95
(B.M.) actual 3 m
Using computed pressure distribution
1
F( computed )= ×γy ×d
(Shear Force)computed = 2
1
(S . F . )computed= ×γ× y × y cos θ
2
1 kN
(S . F . )computed= ×9 . 81×52 ×cos 30=106 .19
2 m
1 d
=( ×γy×d )×
(Bending Moment) computed 2 3
d y cos 30
=(S . F .)computed × =106 .19×
(B.M.) computed 3 3
5×cos30 kN −m
=106 . 19× =153 .27
(B.M.) computed 3 m
Thus the computed results are not correct as they are
Not equal to the actual values.
PERCENTAGE ERROR
For Shear Force:
Error = 106.19 - 79.64 = 26.55 kN/m
Percentage Error = (26.55/106.19)100 = 25%
For Bending Moment
Error = 153.27 - 114.95 = 38.32 kN/m
Percentage Error = (38.32/153.27)100 = 25%
PROBLEM 1-10
A spillway flip bucket has a radius of 20 m as shown below. If
the flow velocity at section B-B is 20 m/sec and the flow
depth is 5 m, compute the pressure intensity at point C.
0m
B
R=2
Flip Bucket
C
B
Data
R = 20 m
V = 20 m/sec
ys = 5 m
= 9.81 kN/m3
g = 9.1 m/sec2
Determine
p = ? (kN/m2)
SOLUTION
Since it is a concave flow, so the pressure intensity can be
computed using the following formula:
2
1V
p =γy s (1+ )
g r
2
1 20
p =9 .81×5(1+ × )
9. 81 20
p = 149.15 kN/m2
PROBLEM 1-11:
In a partially full channel having a triangular cross section as
shown below the rate of discharge Q = kAR2/3, in which K = a
constant; A = flow area; and R= hydraulic radius. Determine
the depth at which the discharge is maximum. For the
triangular channel section shown, A = [B-(h/ √3 )] h, and P =
B+ (4h/ √ 3 ).
Data
Q =KAR2/3
A = [B-(h/ √ 3 )] h
P =B+ (4h/ √ 3 )
Determine
h=? (For max. Q)
SOLUTION
Therefore, hB – h2/ √ 3 =0
h = √3 B
PROBLEM 1-19:
Show that the bending moment on the side walls
of a steep channel with a bottom slope θ for a flow depth of y
is 1/6γy3 cos4 θ. Derive an expression for the shear force.
SOLUTION
d = y cos θ
P = 0.5γd2 cos θ
P = 0.5γy2 cos2 θ cos θ γ
P = 0.5γy2 cos3 θ
M = P * d/3 θ
= P* (y cos θ) /3
= 0.5γy2 cos3 θy cos) /3
= γy3 cos4 θ/6
So, shear force = P = 0.5γy2 cos3 θ
Assignment No.1
All exercise problems