Groundwater Recharge,

Hydrodynamics and
Hydrochemistry
of the Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining
Springs in the Great Artesian Basin

Volume
II
 Volume
II

Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and
Hydrochemistry
of the Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining
Springs in the Great Artesian Basin
 © Commonwealth of Australia 2013

This work is copyright. The Copyright Act 1968 permits fair dealing for study, research, news
reporting, criticism or review and the National Water Commission supports and encourages the
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reproduced for such purposes provided you attribute the National Water Commission as the source.
Reproduction for commercial use or sale requires prior written permission from the National Water
Commission. Requests and enquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the
Communication Director, National Water Commission, 95 Northbourne Avenue, Canberra ACT 2600
or email bookshop@nwc.gov.au

ISBN (volume II): 978-1-922136-07-7

ISBN (set): 978-1-922136-05-3

Groundwater Recharge, Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the

Western Great Artesian Basin, 2013.

Editors: Andrew J Love, Daniel Wohling, Simon Fulton, Pauline Rousseau-Gueutin and
Samantha De Ritter

Published by the National Water Commission

95 Northbourne Avenue
Canberra ACT 2600
Tel: 02 6102 6000
Email: enquiries@nwc.gov.au

Date of publication: March 2013

Design, illustration and editing by Ecocreative® <www.ecocreative.com.au>.

This document has been printed on a waterless press under an ISO 14001-certified EMS, onto chain-
of-custody, carbon-neutral certified Australian-made paper (made from a mix of sustainably harvested
and recycled fibres).

An appropriate citation for this report is:

Love et al. (eds) 2013, Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs in the Great Artesian Basin, Volume
II: Groundwater Recharge, Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the Western Great Artesian Basin,
National Water Commission, Canberra.

ii

Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Contents
About the editors...................................... xi
Acknowledgements.................................. xii
Background.. ........................................... xiii
Introduction. . ........................................... xiii
The Great Artesian Basin. . ........................ xiii
Cultural and historical context........................ xiv
Government intervention................................ xiv
Economic profile............................................. xv
The AWMSGAB Project. . ...........................xv
The AWMSGAB study area............................. xv
Project aim...................................................... xv
Project partners.............................................. xv
The report volumes................................. xvi
Executive summary................................. xix
1. Introduction .. ......................................... 1
1.1 Background . . ...................................... 1
1.2 Overview of the Great Artesian Basin.... 2
1.3 The western GAB study area................ 2
1.4 Groundwater recharge in the arid zone.. 5
1.4.1 Arid zone recharge mechanisms
and processes................................................. 5
1.5 Hydrodynamics. . .................................. 5
1.6 Hydrochemistry and environmental
tracers. . ................................................. 6
1.7 Existing conceptual model.................... 6
1.8 Aims and objectives............................. 6
2. Diffuse recharge. . ................................... 9
2.1 Introduction......................................... 9
2.2 Constraining regional estimates of
diffuse groundwater recharge using
CMB analysis....................................... 10
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
2.3 Models of the unconfined aquifer
along the western margin of the GAB.... 11
2.3.1 Unconfined—no confining layer............. 12
2.3.2 Unconfined—potentiometric surface
below the confining units................................ 12
2.4 A review of chloride-to-bromide
ratios along the western margin of the
GAB to assess validity of a CMB
approach to estimate diffuse recharge... 14
2.5 Chloride deposition along the
western margin of the GAB................... 18
2.6 Groundwater chloride along the
western margin of the GAB................... 18
2.7 Potential rate and area of diffuse
groundwater recharge along the
western margin of the GAB................... 22
2.8 Point-scale recharge estimates........... 22
2.8.1 Using environmental tracers from
the unconfined J Aquifer to evaluate
groundwater fluxes and recharge rates.......... 22
2.8.2 Palaeo-recharge analysis from
continuous core taken along the
western margin of the GAB............................ 25
2.8.3 Results.................................................. 30
2.9 Major findings.................................... 33
2.9.1 Extent of potential diffuse recharge
and rates....................................................... 33
2.9.2 Timescales............................................ 34
2.10 Conclusions. . ................................... 35
iii
 3. Ephemeral river recharge..................... 37
3.1 Introduction....................................... 37
3.1.1 Ephemeral river recharge...................... 37
3.1.2 Previous western margin
recharge studies............................................ 38
3.1.3 Research objectives.............................. 40
3.2 Methodology/research approach. . ....... 41
3.2.1 Overview............................................... 41
3.2.2 Hydrochemistry and environmental
tracers........................................................... 42
3.2.3 Targeted drilling and aquifer hydraulics.. 42
3.2.4 Geophysics........................................... 43
3.3 Finke River case study....................... 44
3.3.1 Hydrology............................................. 46
3.3.2 Characterisation of the recharge zone... 50
3.3.3 Regional hydrochemistry and
isotope assessment....................................... 52
3.3.4 Focus recharge study site..................... 61
3.4 Northern rivers case studies............... 67
3.4.1 Plenty River........................................... 67
3.4.2 Hale River............................................. 73
3.4.3 Other western margin river systems...... 76
3.5 Summary and discussion. . .................. 78
3.6 Conclusions.. ..................................... 81
4. Mountain system recharge................... 83
4.1 Introduction....................................... 83
4.1.1 Peake and Denison Inlier—a
mountain block setting within the GAB........... 83
4.1.2 Geology of the Peake and Denison
Inlier and surrounding units............................ 84
4.2 Methodology..................................... 86
4.2.1 Previous work....................................... 86
4.3 Case study: Peake and Denison Inlier.. 92
4.3.1 Constraining the order of magnitude
using empirical equations............................... 92
4.3.2 Hydraulics—mountain block spring
elevation compared with regional
potentiometric surface elevation..................... 94
4.3.3 Drilling and groundwater sampling........ 95
4.3.4 Environmental tracers and isotopes...... 98
4.3.5 Groundwater mixing............................ 110
4.4 Significance of research for other
mountain block areas......................... 115
4.5 Summary and discussion. . ................ 118
4.5.1 Major findings..................................... 118
4.6 Conclusion...................................... 119
iv
5. Groundwater flow and
hydrodynamics . . ..................................... 121
5.1 Introduction..................................... 121
5.2 Theoretical background.................... 122
5.2.1 Topography-driven flow....................... 122
5.2.2 Density-driven flow.............................. 123
5.2.3 Compaction-driven flow...................... 125
5.2.4 Hydrodynamic state of aquifers........... 125
5.3 Flows in variable-density aquifer....... 126
5.3.1 The three different hydraulic heads...... 126
5.3.2 Correction of hydraulic heads.............. 127
5.3.3 Variable-density flow in
sloping aquifers............................................ 134
5.4 Horizontal flow / potentiometric
surface.............................................. 135
5.4.1 Upper aquifer water table surface....... 135
5.4.2 Potentiometric surface of the
J Aquifer...................................................... 137
5.5 Vertical flow..................................... 145
5.5.1 Pressure-elevation profiles.................. 145
5.5.2 Hydrogeological cross-sections.......... 154
5.6 Mixed convection ratio..................... 160
5.7 Hydrodynamic state......................... 163
5.8 Discussion. . ..................................... 165
5.9 Gaps and uncertainties.................... 166
5.10 Conclusions. . ................................. 167
6. Hydrochemistry.................................. 171
6.1 Introduction..................................... 171
6.2 Piper diagram.................................. 172
6.3 Major elements................................ 173
6.4 Regional major element
concentration maps. . .......................... 174
6.4.1 Chloride concentrations...................... 174
6.4.2 Alkalinity concentrations...................... 175
6.4.3 Sulfate concentrations........................ 175
6.4.4 Cation concentrations......................... 175
6.5 Regional major ion percentage maps.185
6.5.1 Chloride percent................................. 185
6.5.2 Alkalinity percent................................. 185
6.5.3 Sulfate percent.................................... 185
6.5.4 Cation percent.................................... 185
6.6 Regional isotope maps..................... 190
6.6.1 Carbon-14.......................................... 190
6.6.2 Terrigenic helium................................. 190
6.7 Cross-sections................................ 193
6.8 Conclusions.. ................................... 200
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin

7. Conclusions....................................... 203
7.1 Groundwater recharge and
mechanisms.. ..................................... 203
7.1.1 Diffuse recharge.................................. 203
7.1.2 Ephemeral river recharge.................... 203
7.1.3 Mountain system recharge.................. 204
7.1.4 Recharge is much less than
discharge..................................................... 204
7.2 Hydrodynamics. . .............................. 205
7.3 Hydrochemistry and environmental
tracers. . ............................................. 205
7.4 Palaeo-hydrogeology....................... 205
7.5 Conceptual model. . .......................... 206
7.6 Recommendations........................... 207

References. . ........................................... 210

Glossary and shortened forms............... 222

v
 List of figures

Figure 1.1: Major geological basins within the GAB................................................................. 1

Figure 1.2: Location of the AWMSGAB Project area in the western margin of the GAB.............. 3
Figure 1.3: Potentiometric surface of the main J Aquifer in the western margin of the GAB........ 4
Figure 2.1: Idealised chloride mass balance model. . ...............................................................10
Figure 2.2: Conceptualised cross-section illustrating the unconfined aquifer model..................12
Figure 2.3: Extent of confining units and unconfined–confined J Aquifer boundary
along the western margin of the GAB. . ...............................................................................13
Figure 2.4: Cl/Br molar ratio of J Aquifer groundwater across the western margin of the GAB. . .16
Figure 2.5: Cl/Br ratio compared with chloride concentration of the unconfined J Aquifer.........17
Figure 2.6: Log-log plot of chloride and bromide for the unconfined J Aquifer..........................17
Figure 2.7: Chloride deposition (kg/ha/yr) of wet and dry fall over the diffuse recharge area......19
Figure 2.8: Groundwater chloride of the J Aquifer over the diffuse recharge area.. ....................20
Figure 2.9: Diffuse recharge estimates using the chloride mass balance across the
western margin of the GAB...............................................................................................21
Figure 2.10: Comparison of carbon-14 activities between South Australia and the
Northern Territory for the unconfined J Aquifer. . ..................................................................23
Figure 2.11: Bore pairs for carbon-14 analysis and drill site locations......................................24
Figure 2.12: Fallout pattern of 36
Cl as a function of latitude.....................................................27
Figure 2.13: Depth to water table along the western margin of the GAB..................................29
Figure 2.14: Soil water potentials for DR3 and DR4................................................................31
Figure 2.15: Soil water chloride and soil water potential, DR3.................................................32
Figure 2.16: Soil water chloride and soil water potential, DR4.................................................32
Figure 2.17: Cumulative chloride versus cumulative water for DR3 and DR4............................33
Figure 3.1: Finke River in the recharge zone..........................................................................37
Figure 3.2: Western GAB watercourses.................................................................................39
Figure 3.3: Drilling on the banks of the Finke River, New Crown Station, October 2010............42
Figure 3.4: Fractures and cross-bedding in Algebuckina Sandstone, New Crown Station.. ........44
Figure 3.5: Hydrogeological setting, Finke River region...........................................................45
Figure 3.6: Finke River Catchment with active gauging stations.. .............................................48
Figure 3.7: Finke River flows at the Stuart Highway Bridge gauging station (G0050116)...........49
Figure 3.8: Flow duration curve (G0050116) 2004–2012. . .......................................................49
Figure 3.9: Finke River NanoTEM survey showing resistivity (ohm-m). . .....................................51
Figure 3.10: Hydrograph for RN018352 (J Aquifer) and RN018353 (perched aquifer)................52
Figure 3.11: Piper diagram categorised by sampling distance from the Finke recharge zone.....53
Figure 3.12: Ion plots for J Aquifer in Finke Region.. ...............................................................54
Figure 3.13: Stable isotopes of regional groundwater in the Finke area and
Alice Springs LMWL. . ........................................................................................................55
Figure 3.14: Mean groundwater δ 18O concentration plotted with the average
weighted δ 18O concentration in Alice Springs rainfall...........................................................56

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 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin

Figure 3.15: Carbon-14 in groundwater versus distance from Finke River................................57

Figure 3.16: Conceptual models of two recharge scenarios....................................................58
Figure 3.17: Bore pairs used in 14
C recharge calculations.......................................................60
Figure 3.18: J Aquifer outcrop adjacent to focus recharge study site (April 2010).....................61
Figure 3.19: Aerial view of Finke River in no-flow condition and transect view of
piezometers in Finke River recharge focus site.. ..................................................................62
Figure 3.20: Water level response at the focus recharge study site
May 2010–April 2011 (mAHD). . ..........................................................................................62
Figure 3.21: Two flow events in the Finke River at the study site.............................................63
Figure 3.22: Groundwater response to October 2010 flood in the Finke River..........................64
Figure 3.23: Groundwater dating at the recharge focus site....................................................66
Figure 3.24: Chloride-to-bromide ratios in groundwater at recharge focus site.........................66
Figure 3.25: Plenty River recharge zone.. ...............................................................................68
Figure 3.26: Plenty River hydrostratigraphic section and hydrochemistry.................................70
Figure 3.27: Plenty River stable isotopes...............................................................................71
Figure 3.28: Hydrogeology of the Hale River GAB margin.......................................................75
Figure 4.1: Conceptualised section of mountain system recharge at the
Peake and Denison Inlier...................................................................................................84
Figure 4.2: Potential locations MSR operates within the western margin of the GAB. . ...............85
Figure 4.3: Noble gas solubility as a function of temperature.. .................................................87
Figure 4.4: Noble gas solubility as a function of salinity..........................................................87
Figure 4.5: Site location map for MSR investigation along the Peake and Denison Inlier. . ..........93
Figure 4.6: Peake and Denison Inlier and J Aquifer cross-section............................................94
Figure 4.7: Drilling and groundwater sampling locations.........................................................96
Figure 4.8: Common reference datum at the MSR investigation drill site..................................98
Figure 4.9: Piper diagram of groundwater near the Peake and Denison Inlier and
rainfall across the western margin of the GAB.. ...................................................................99
Figure 4.10: Cl/Br versus Cl. . .............................................................................................. 100
Figure 4.11: 87
Sr/ 86Sr versus 1/Sr........................................................................................ 101
Figure 4.12: Stable isotope values for spring and wells collected near the
Peake and Denison Inlier................................................................................................. 102
Figure 4.13. Carbon-14 activities (pmC) for spring and wells collected near the
Peake and Denison Inlier and interpreted groundwater velocities within the J Aquifer.......... 103
Figure 4.14: 14
C activities at MSR1 from the Peake and Denison Inlier................................... 105
Figure 4.15: δ 18O versus 14
C of groundwater collected from springs and wells near
the Peake and Denison Inlier........................................................................................... 106
Figure 4.16: 4He/ 20Ne profile for MSR1A.............................................................................. 107
Figure 4.17: Terrigenic 4He (µcc/kg) of groundwater collected from springs
and wells near the Peake and Denison Inlier..................................................................... 108

vii
 Figure 4.18: ERI lines at the Freeling Spring Complex. . ......................................................... 109
Figure 4.19: Conceptualised section through the Freeling Spring Complex............................ 110
Figure 4.20: Freeling Spring Complex ERI Profile 1—PK255.. ................................................ 111
Figure 4.21: Freeling Spring Complex ERI Profile 3—PK345.. ................................................ 111
Figure 4.22: δ 18O of groundwater collected from springs and wells near the
Peake and Denison Inlier................................................................................................. 114
Figure 4.23: Hydrographs (WNT010 and WNT014) representative of the Marla
Groundwater Monitoring Network.................................................................................... 115
Figure 4.24: Histogram of monthly rainfall totals 1980–2010................................................. 116
Figure 4.25: Histogram of daily rainfall totals 1980–2010...................................................... 116
Figure 5.1: Nested flow system created by a hummocky ground surface............................... 122
Figure 5.2: Aquifers with topography-controlled and recharge-controlled water tables. . .......... 123
Figure 5.3: Thermally-driven free convection cells in a confined aquifer................................. 124
Figure 5.4: Schematic representation of the three different hydraulic heads........................... 127
Figure 5.5: Importance of correction for variable salinity and temperature environments......... 128
Figure 5.6: Density estimated from the salinity, temperature and pressure, assuming
that the temperature is constant (A) or variable (B) in each bore. . ....................................... 130
Figure 5.7: Temperature in the J Aquifer.............................................................................. 132
Figure 5.8: Steady-state temperature as a function of depth in a pumping well for
different pumping rates................................................................................................... 133
Figure 5.9: Uncorrected water table surface of the upper aquifer.......................................... 136
Figure 5.10: Potentiometric surface for the 'pre-development' stage (1900–1940) of
the J Aquifer.. ................................................................................................................. 138
Figure 5.11: Potentiometric surface produced from observation points and modelling............ 139
Figure 5.12: Present-day uncorrected potentiometric surface of the J Aquifer........................ 140
Figure 5.13: Present-day corrected potentiometric surface of the J Aquifer for the
constant temperature assumption. . .................................................................................. 141
Figure 5.14: Present-day corrected potentiometric surface of the J Aquifer for the
variable temperature assumption..................................................................................... 143
Figure 5.15: Approximate area influenced by groundwater flow from eastern states............... 144
Figure 5.16: Pressure versus elevation/depth profile. . ........................................................... 146
Figure 5.17: Hydraulic cross-section and p(z) plot locations (1900–1940).............................. 148
Figure 5.18: p(z) plots for 1900–1940. . ................................................................................ 149
Figure 5.19: p(z) plot and cross-sections locations (1990–2011)........................................... 151
Figure 5.20: p(z) plots for 1990–2011. . ................................................................................ 152
Figure 5.21: Hydraulic cross-sections with hydraulic data from 1900–1940.. .......................... 155
Figure 5.22: Hydraulic cross-sections with hydraulic data from 1990–2011.. .......................... 157
Figure 5.23: Localisation of free and mixed convection processes for different
vertical rock permeabilities.............................................................................................. 162
Figure 5.24: Effect of the vertical hydraulic conductivity value on the occurrence
of free convection........................................................................................................... 163
Figure 5.25: Two-dimensional cross-section of the conceptual model used in the study,
indicating the boundary conditions and the initial hydraulic heads assumed at the
end of the Pleistocene.................................................................................................... 165
Figure 6.1: Piper plots displaying bore and spring data for the GAB...................................... 172

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 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin

Figure 6.2: Major element–chloride plots for groundwaters and spring discharges
in the western GAB. . ....................................................................................................... 173
Figure 6.3: Western margin of the GAB showing the location of the chemistry
samples in relation to the elevation of the C horizon (top of aquifer units) and
the potentiometric surface produced in Chapter 5 with inferred flow paths......................... 176
Figure 6.4: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater pH......................................... 177
Figure 6.5: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater chloride concentration (mg/L).. 178
Figure 6.6: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater alkalinity (meq/L)..................... 179
Figure 6.7: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater sulfate concentration (mg/L).... 180
Figure 6.8 Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater sodium concentration (mg/L).... 181
Figure 6.9: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater magnesium
concentration (mg/L). . ..................................................................................................... 182
Figure 6.10: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater potassium
concentration (mg/L). . ..................................................................................................... 183
Figure 6.11: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater calcium
concentration (mg/L). . ..................................................................................................... 184
Figure 6.12: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater chloride
percentage of the major anions.. ...................................................................................... 186
Figure 6.13: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater alkalinity
percentage of the major anions.. ...................................................................................... 187
Figure 6.14: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater sulfate
percentage of the major anions.. ...................................................................................... 188
Figure 6.15: Western margin of the GAB showing groundwater sodium
percentage of the major cations.. ..................................................................................... 189
Figure 6.16: Western margin of the GAB showing carbon-14 (pmC) of bores......................... 191
Figure 6.17: Western margin of the GAB showing carbon-14 (pmC) of springs. . ..................... 192
Figure 6.18: Location of cross-sections: northern, southern, Birdsville Track Ridge,
and Finke to Dalhousie. . .................................................................................................. 195
Figure 6.19: Schematic geologic northern cross-section with chloride, alkalinity,
sulfate and sodium concentrations of the bores................................................................ 196
Figure 6.20: Schematic geologic southern cross-section with chloride, alkalinity,
sulfate and sodium concentrations of the bores................................................................ 197
Figure 6.21: Schematic geologic Birdsville Track Ridge cross-section with chloride,
alkalinity, sulfate and sodium concentrations of the bores. . ................................................ 198
Figure 6.22a: Schematic geologic Finke-Dalhousie cross-section with chloride,
alkalinity, sulfate and sodium concentrations of the bores. . ................................................ 199
Figure 6.22b: Schematic geologic Finke-Dalhousie cross-section with
carbon-14 (pmC) of the bores.. ........................................................................................ 200

ix
 List of tables

Table 1.1: Summary of the existing hydrogeological model for groundwater recharge
and aquifer systems, with particular reference to the western margin of the GAB................... 7
Table 2.1: Carbon-14 travel time, horizontal velocities and recharge rates...............................25
Table 3.1: Results and conclusions from Finke River TDEM survey..........................................50
Table 3.2: Carbon-14 travel time, horizontal velocities and recharge rates...............................59
Table 3.3: Unconfined Vogel recharge estimates for the Plenty River.......................................72
Table 3.4: Confined Vogel recharge estimates for the Plenty River...........................................73
Table 3.5: Summary of results from Hale River investigation drilling program............................74
Table 3.6: Summary of ERR conceptual model development. . .................................................80
Table 4.1: First-order MSR estimate......................................................................................92
Table 4.2: Mountain block investigation well water level..........................................................97
Table 4.3: Mixing model results—Freeling Spring Complex.. .................................................. 113
Table 5.1: Hydrodynamic parameter values for the western portion of the GAB and
for the eastern part of the GAB. . ...................................................................................... 164
Table 5.2: Comparison of hydraulic parameters between the transient and
the both steady-state simulations.................................................................................... 165
Table 7.1: Hydrogeological conceptual model ..................................................................... 208

x

About the editors
Associate Professor Andrew J Love
Andrew is the Chief Investigator on Allocating
Water and Maintaining Springs in the Great
Artesian Basin (AWMSGAB). He has over 20 years
experience as a Principal Hydrogeologist with the
South Australian Government and more recently
as a Senior Research Fellow in Hydrogeology
at Flinders University of South Australia and
the National Centre for Groundwater Research
and Training. His expertise covers surface/
groundwater interactions, fractured rock
aquifers, large groundwater system analyses and
aquifer characterisation. He has contributed to
several books and written various journal papers
on his research into complex groundwater
interactions. Dr Love has collaborated widely
with researchers across the globe in studying
the movement and rates of groundwater flow
using geochemical and environmental tracer
techniques.
Daniel Wohling
Daniel is a Senior Hydrogeologist with the
South Australian Government Department of
Environment, Water and Natural Resources
(DEWNR). He was the DEWNR Project Manager
for the AWMSGAB Project and research
interests include recharge processes in the Great
Artesian Basin (GAB).
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Simon Fulton
Simon works as a Hydrogeologist for the
Department of the Northern Territory Goverment
Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and
Sport (NRETAS) and was the Project Manager
for the NT component of the AWMSGAB Project.
Simon's research focus is on recharge and
aquifer hydrodynamics. He co-led two of the
recharge research programs with Daniel Wohling
and was the NT representative on the Technical
Steering Committee for the Project.
Pauline Rousseau-Gueutin
Dr Rousseau-Gueutin is a Research Scientist,
School of the Environment, Flinders University of
South Australia. She is involved in the research
that investigates the understanding of the
groundwater flow system of the Great Artesian
Basin by numerical modelling. She is particularly
interested in the different mechanisms and
driving forces at the origin of the groundwater
flows in this basin.
Samantha De Ritter
Samantha is Director of First Year Studies in the
School of Environment, Flinders University of
South Australia, and was the Project Manager
of the hydrogeology portion of the GAB project.
Samantha has a very broad background in earth
sciences.
xi
 Acknowledgements
This publication is part of a series of works
commissioned by the National Water
Commission under its Raising National Water
Standards Program and its major partners: the
Flinders University of South Australia, the South
Australian Government, the South Australian
Arid Lands Natural Resources Management
Board, The University of Adelaide, the Northern
Territory Government and the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation,
as part of the Allocating Water and Maintaining
Springs in the Great Artesian Basin (AWMSGAB)
project.
The scientific editors and authors are grateful
to the following people and groups for their
assistance in this work, including provision of
information and access to land for the collection
of data:
• traditional owners and custodians of the
South Australian spring country present and
past, particularly the Arrabuna, Dieri, Lower
Southern Arrente, Wokangurru and Kuyani
peoples, especially Dean Ah Chee, Reg
Dodd, Gordon Warren, Marylin Ah Chee and
Aaron Stuart
• traditional owners and custodians of the
NT GAB
• the pastoralists and graziers of the western
GAB, in particular Nilpinna, The Peake, Anna
Creek, New Crown, Macumba, Wintinna,
Finnis Springs, Muloorina, Mt Sarah,
Hamilton, Billa Kalina, Allandale, Mt Barry,
Lilla Creek, Numery, Henbury, Andado, Atula
and De Rose Hill Stations
• Witjira National Park Co-management Board
xii
• the Central Land Council for facilitating
cultural heritage clearances in the Northern
Territory
• Dr Jennie Fluin for her work and advice
• Tim Ransley and the friendly staff and
Geoscience Australia, Canberra
• Travis Gotch from SAALNRMB for his help
and advice out in the field
• visiting scholars Drew Dressler and Marie
Arnoux
• Don Armstrong, chair of the Technical
Advisory Group and Zac Sibenaler, chair of
the End User Group
• all members of Technical Advisory Group
• John Wischusen for his knowledge of the arid
regions of Australia
• Professor József Tóth (University of Alberta)
and Dr Neville Robinson for providing
invaluable advice and mentoring throughout
the project
• the drilling services group from NRETAS, in
particular David Miller, Ian McMasters, Peter
Pardon, Dennis Low, Peter Rees, Kallum
Peckham-McKenzie and Hank van Geel
• field and laboratory support provided
by Markus Pichler, Yueqing Xie, Zijuan
Deng, Chuanyu Zhu, Adrian Costar, Peter
Kretschmer, Amanda Trejis, Martin Fidge,
Enys Watt, Graham Green, Darren Alcoe,
Phil Paterson, Paul Magarey, Don Freebairn,
Stuart Wright, Jon Sumner, Thomas Jacko
and James Aitkin
• the reviewers of this volume whose efforts are
greatly appreciated and improved the quality
of the final product, including Don Armstrong,
Peter Jolly and Vincent Post.

Background
Introduction
Increasing efficiency in the use of Great Artesian
Basin (GAB) groundwater resources has
important economic and environmental benefits
for the whole nation. The National Water Initiative
(NWI) recognised that lack of water information
and scientific knowledge of water systems
hampers the ability of authorities charged with
water management to fulfil their roles effectively.
This is especially true for the GAB.
The National Water Commission, as part of its
work to address this limitation, provided funding
for the establishment of a research project
entitled Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin (hereafter referred
to as the AWMSGAB Project). The AWMSGAB
Project investigated groundwater hydrogeology
along the western margin of the GAB (specifically
within South Australia and the Northern Territory)
and employed the latest technologies in spatial
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Background
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
survey and remote sensing to precisely map
the locations and elevations of GAB springs,
the extent of their wetland vegetation, and their
surface characteristics over space and time.
The Great Artesian Basin
The Great Artesian Basin (GAB) is the largest
groundwater basin in Australia (and one of the
largest in the world), underlying 22% of the
Australian continent, including considerable
areas of Queensland, New South Wales, the
Northern Territory and South Australia. These
groundwater resources are of great national and
societal significance for Australia.
Groundwater sourced from the GAB supports
the iconic GAB springs. The isolated nature of
these springs has resulted in the preservation of
many endemic, rare and relict species of great
ecological, evolutionary and biogeographical
significance.
xiii
Background
With the exception of the far north and far
eastern parts, the GAB largely occurs in the arid
and semi-arid interior of central and eastern
Australia. Due to the ephemeral nature of surface
watercourses in these regions, groundwater
from the GAB is often the only reliable water
source. Consequently, exploitation of the GAB
groundwater resource has played, and continues
to play, a vital role in supporting agriculture,
mining, industry, civil and cultural communities in
Australia (Cox & Barron 1998; Armstrong 1990;
Ah Chee 2002; Leek 2002).
The Lake Eyre Basin is a surface water
catchment that overlies the GAB. Many
springs and lakes within the Lake Eyre Basin
are supported by upward leakage from
GAB groundwater. This interconnection of
groundwater and surface water in the Lake
Eyre Basin is largely unexplored and unknown,
though is very likely to be of environmental
significance.
Geologically, the name GAB refers to a non-
marine to marine Triassic-Jurassic-Cretaceous
hydrogeological superbasin that covers much of
eastern and central Australia. The GAB contains
three large epi-continental depressions called
the Carpentaria Basin, the Surat Basin and the
Eromanga Basin, with the Eromanga Basin being
volumetrically the largest. The eastern margin
of the GAB abuts the Great Dividing Range
and it is from here that the majority of present
day groundwater recharge occurs, flowing in
a largely westerly and south-westerly direction
toward South Australia.
Cultural and historical context
The springs of the GAB are culturally very
important to Aboriginal and non-Indigenous
Australians. GAB springs were the only reliable
water source for Aboriginal people in central
Australia for thousands of years and set the
boundaries for early European exploration and
development through the central inland during
the 19th and early 20th centuries.
xiv
Since European discovery of the GAB in 1878,
thousands of bores have been drilled into the
aquifers of the Basin. Currently there are about
3400 artesian bores and over 10 000 sub-
artesian bores which access the aquifers of
the GAB. Most of the older artesian bores were
uncontrolled pastoral bores that flowed freely
into open bore drains where more than 95%
of the water is lost through evaporation and
seepage. These free-flowing bores also cause
substantial pressure reductions over much of
the basin. Decreases in pressure head have led
to diminishing groundwater resources; bores
becoming either non-artesian or non-productive,
and to either the degradation or extinction of
nearby spring-fed natural environments (Cox &
Barron 1998; Hassall & Associates 2003; Hovey
et al. 2008; Kinhill Stearns 1984; Mudd 2000;
Reyenga et al. 1998).
Government intervention
The need for government intervention to control
the extraction of water from the GAB was
recognised as early as 1913. Since that time,
governments have worked with landholders
to control the wastage of GAB water and to
reverse the reduction in artesian pressure.
In more recent times, the impact of human
exploitation on GAB spring environments has
been recognised by both governments and
other stakeholders and efforts to remediate
past damage and protect what is left have been
made (Hassall & Associates 2003; Hovey et al.
2008; Reyenga et al. 1998). Such recognition
culminated in the inclusion of GAB springs
under the protection of the Australian Federal
Government’s Environment Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act),
which aims to protect and manage nationally and
internationally important flora, fauna, ecological
communities and heritage places (Department
of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population
and Communities (DSEWPaC) 2011).

Groundwater discharge from the GAB
through springs supports natural communities
containing a wide variety of endemic species in
isolated groundwater-dependent ecosystems
surrounded by an otherwise largely waterless
landscape. Such environments appear
throughout the GAB, but some of the most
well-known and best preserved are found within
the South Australian portion of the GAB. These
springs are also often associated with distinctive
mound-shaped accumulations of chemically
precipitated freshwater carbonate (either termed
‘travertine’ or ‘tufa’) and, to a lesser extent,
detrital sediments that build up in the vicinity
of the spring vent. Most mounds and spring
vents tend to align along faults; in particular,
the set of aligned mounds between Marree and
Oodnadatta in South Australia is referred to in
this and other AWMSGAB Project volumes as
the ‘Mound Springs Line’.
Economic profile
The contribution of groundwater from the GAB to
the Australian economy is difficult to determine
but it is considered significant (GABCC 2010).
Cox & Barron (1998) estimated the gross value
of production of broad-acre farms in the GAB in
1996/1997 to be approximately $2 billion. More
recently, GABCC (2010), using auction results
for unallocated GAB groundwater licences
in New South Wales, estimated the value of
groundwater extracted from the GAB on an
annual basis at a minimum of $457 million. In
relation to non-market values, such as the GAB’s
contribution to tourism, biodiversity and quality
of life, Rolfe (2008) tentatively estimated that
improved management of the GAB groundwater
resources could be valued as high as $68 million
annually. The economic value of the groundwater
resource is expected to increase with future
developments, particularly with respect to the
petroleum and mining industries slated for the
area (SAALNRMB 2009).
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Background
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
The AWMSGAB Project
The AWMSGAB study area
The AWMSGAB hydrogeological studies were
undertaken in the South Australian and Northern
Territory portion of the GAB. The groundwater-
dependent ecosystem studies (including the
spatial mapping, remote sensing and risk
assessment) were undertaken in the South
Australian portion of the GAB.
Project aim
Between April 2008 and June 2012, the
AWMSGAB Project was undertaken in order to
obtain a greater understanding of the complex
hydrogeological and ecological systems in the
western margin of the GAB.
Project partners
The AWMSGAB Project was funded by the
National Water Commission and undertaken with
the following project partners:
• South Australian Arid Lands Natural
Resources Management Board
• Flinders University of South Australia
• The University of Adelaide
• South Australian Department for
Environment, Water and Natural Resources
• Northern Territory Department of Natural
Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sport
• Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation.
The Project also attracted a number of national
and international scientific collaborators,
including the University of New Mexico,
University of Bern, Oklahoma State University,
Argonne National Laboratory at the University
of Alberta, and Bureau of Economic Geology,
University of Texas.
xv
The report volumes

The report volumes

The Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs in the Great Artesian

Basin Project (the AWMSGAB Project) is one of a series of projects
commissioned by the National Water Commission under its Raising
National Water Standards Program.

Volume I: Hydrogeological Framework of the Western Great

Volume
Artesian Basin presents a summary of background knowledge of
I
the climate, physiology, geology and hydrogeology of the western
Hydrogeological
Framework margin of the GAB that can support the work of managers,
of the Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining
scientists and risk assessors in relation to the GAB resource and
Springs in the Great Artesian Basin

its associated extractions.

Volume
I

Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Hydrodynamics and

Volume Hydrochemistry of the Western Great Artesian Basin
II examines three forms of groundwater recharge processes in the
Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and western margin of the GAB: ephemeral river recharge, diffuse
Hydrochemistry recharge and mountain block recharge. It presents when and
of the Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining
Springs in the Great Artesian Basin how recharge currently occurs and concludes that present day
Volume
rates of groundwater recharge are much less than in the past.
II
in the Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

xvi
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, The report volumes
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin

Volume III: Groundwater Discharge of the Western

Volume
Great Artesian Basin bridges a number of knowledge gaps
III
in the understanding of groundwater discharge in the GAB,
Groundwater Discharge
presenting research relating to the source and origin of spring of the Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining

water, the formation and evolution of the mound springs, the Springs in the Great Artesian Basin

formation of acid sulfate soils, the hydrogeology of Dalhousie

Springs, and the results of the first successful Uranium-series Volume
III

dating on GAB spring travertine deposits.

in the Great Artesian Basin

Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

Volume IV: Spatial Survey and Remote Sensing of Artesian

Volume
Springs of the Western Great Artesian Basin advances
IV
knowledge of GAB springs and wetlands through the application of
Spatial Survey and Remote
a range of advanced land survey and remote sensing technologies. Sensing of Artesian Springs
of the Western Great Artesian Basin
It provides new spatially-explicit information about the location, Allocating Water and Maintaining
Springs in the Great Artesian Basin

elevation and distribution of GAB springs, their surface

characteristics and how these vary over time. This information Volume
IV

provides a foundation for future monitoring of the ecological and

hydrogeological condition of springs in the western GAB and
beyond.
in the Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

Volume V: Groundwater-dependent Ecosystems of the

Volume
Western Great Artesian Basin presents the results of several
V
research studies which explored palaeo-ecology, genetic and
Groundwater-dependent
floristic diversity of the springs as well as a comprehensive review Ecosystems
of the Western Great Artesian Basin
of the function of Phragmites australis and on-ground works to Allocating Water and Maintaining
Springs in the Great Artesian Basin

enable the return of environmental flows in the western GAB.

Volume
V
in the Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

xvii
The report volumes

Volume VI: Risk Assessment Process for Evaluating Water

Volume
Use Impacts on Great Artesian Basin Springs provides
VI
a clear and transparent process to analyse and evaluate risk
Risk Assessment
Process for Evaluating factors associated with reductions in groundwater pressure in the
Water Use Impacts GAB. The risk assessment process has been developed using
on Great Artesian Basin Springs
Allocating Water and Maintaining
Springs in the Great Artesian Basin the information generated by all components of the AWMSGAB
Volume
Project.
VI
in the Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

Volume VII: Summary of Findings for Natural Resource

Volume
Management of the Western Great Artesian Basin presents
VII
a summary of each of the volumes and outlines the key tools,
Summary of Findings
for Natural Resource methods and information arising from the research.
Management
of the Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining
Springs in the Great Artesian Basin

Volume
VII

xviii

Executive summary
This volume is the second of six volumes
covering new research into the hydrogeology
and ecology of the western Great Artesian
Basin (GAB) in South Australia and the Northern
Territory. The key themes of this volume are:
• Recharge mechanisms: determining the
relative importance of diffuse recharge,
ephemeral river recharge and mountain
system recharge
• Hydrodynamic analyses: a new methodology
provides density-corrected hydraulic heads
used to produce a revised potentiometric
surface for the western GAB
• Hydrochemistry: environmental tracers
and chemical species are used to infer
groundwater flow processes
• Palaeo-hydrogeology: a model of basin
dynamics is developed to investigate the
relationship between aquifer storage and
climate, and the balance between recharge
and discharge
• Conceptual hydrogeological model:
the existing conceptual model does not
adequately describe the western GAB, a
revised model is developed that will ultimately
underpin groundwater management.
A summary of each chapter within this volume,
excluding the introduction, is as follows:
Diffuse recharge: Recharge associated with
diffuse recharge mechanisms are estimated
using groundwater chloride mass balance,
environmental tracers and point estimates from
chloride mass balance in the unsaturated zone.
Results indicate there is effectively zero recharge
resulting from diffuse mechanisms.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Executive summary
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Ephemeral river recharge: Active recharge to
the J Aquifer is identified along the Finke and
Plenty Rivers and occurs across approximately
16 km2 of river bed. Recharge rates are
estimated at between 380–850 mm/year for
the Finke River, while a flow from October
2010 to contributed 1275 mm of recharge.
Recharge from the Plenty River is estimated
at between 17–92 mm/year. Stable isotopes
of water indicate recharge is linked to summer
monsoonal precipitation occurring in months
with over 100 mm total rainfall. Recharge to the
J Aquifer is considered negligible along other
western margin rivers.
Mountain System Recharge (MSR): This study
recognised MSR as a newly defined recharge
mechanism and emphasises the importance of
this process on the Peake and Denison Inlier
and Marla. Mixing models are used to determine
the relative proportion of MSR to neighbouring
aquifers.
Groundwater flow and hydrodynamics:
An overview of the different driving forces
responsible for groundwater flow is presented
with an emphasis on horizontal and vertical
components. The horizontal groundwater flow
component is analysed using a density corrected
potentiometric surface. The vertical component
is assessed using pressure-elevation plots
and hydrogeological cross-sections. Analyses
indicate it is theoretically possible for free
convection to occur. To the west of the mound
spring line, the groundwater system is not in
hydrodynamic equilibrium and it is estimated it
would take between 50 000 and 60 000 years to
reach a new steady state.
xix
Executive summary

Hydrochemistry: Chemical variations in • future numerical models must consider the

groundwater provide constraints on groundwater system to be in a transient state otherwise
flow systems and reflect geochemical processes models may give erroneous outputs
responsible for water quality evolution. • groundwater dating indicates that the
Characterising flow systems requires information majority of groundwaters are recharged under
from the J Aquifer, as well as overlying and different climate conditions than today
underlying aquifers: this information is lacking • geochemical analysis indicates groundwater
in the western GAB. Regional spatial variations from multiple aquifers discharge at springs
for natural tracers are presented to explain along the Peake and Denison Inlier
groundwater origin, to demonstrate changes • analysis of the new, density-corrected
along inferred flow paths and to assess the potentiometric surface indicates groundwater
dominant hydrochemical processes. Solutes flow from the eastern states to the western
concentrations generally increase down flow GAB is significantly less than previous
paths toward the major discharge complex at interpretations.
Lake Eyre, while the distribution of chemical
species along the Oodnadatta track indicates This contribution makes a significant
the importance of recharge or cross-formational advancement in understanding groundwater
flow. recharge, flow and current day hydrodynamics
in the western GAB. Future work should
The concluding chapter expands upon the include focused studies on recharge, basin
developing hydrogeological conceptual model hydrodynamics and palaeo-hydrogeology.
presented in this volume and includes the This contribution is extremely important as
following key points: it underpins future policy and groundwater
• diffuse mechanisms contribute a mean management options for the region.
recharge across the newly mapped area
of 0.15 mm/year; given the low rates and
uncertainties on these estimates it can be
inferred that the actual diffuse recharge rate is
effectively zero
• current day recharge is much less than
discharge
• numerical modelling indicates the current day
potentiometric surface is decaying and would
take in the order of 50 000–60 000 years to
reach a new hydraulic equilibrium
• groundwater sourced from the west and
northwest of the mound spring line is in
hydraulic disequilibrium today; this most likely
has always been the case, as the time to
reach a new equilibrium is larger than climate
forcing on the western boundary

xx
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Executive summary
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin

xxi
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

1 in the Great Artesian Basin

Introduction

Andrew J Love School of the Environment and the National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training,
Flinders University of South Australia
Daniel Wohling Department for Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Government of South Australia
Simon A Fulton Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sport, Northern Territory Government
Pauline Rousseau-Gueutin School of the Environment, Flinders University of South Australia
Samantha De Ritter School of the Environment, Flinders University of South Australia
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 1: Introduction
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
1

1. Introduction

1.1 Background industries, the reticulated supply of many

Managing groundwater resources relies on
understanding the characteristics and scale
of groundwater recharge, flow and discharge.
In the Great Artesian Basin (GAB), like many
semi-arid to arid zone aquifers around the
world, modern day recharge is significantly less
than discharge. Groundwater in such aquifer
systems may be very old and may have been
recharged at higher rates than present during
wetter climate periods tens to hundreds of
thousands of years ago. Groundwater from the
GAB supports pastoral, tourism and mining
outback and Indigenous communities and
groundwater dependent ecosystems including
the iconic GAB springs. If groundwater-
discharge (natural discharge plus use) exceeds
the modern recharge regime, the management
of a groundwater resource to sustainable limits
becomes time-dependent rather than indefinite
term.

Figure 1.1: Major geological

basins within the GAB

Darwin

Carpentaria
Basin

Northern Territory

Alice Springs Queensland

Western Australia
Eromanga Basin Surat
Basin Brisbane

South Australia

Perth
New South Wales
Sydney
ACT Canberra
Adelaide

Victoria
Melbourne

Tasmania
1000km Hobart Photo on facing page:
Daniel Wohling

1
 Chapter 1: Introduction
1.2 Overview of the Great Artesian Basin
The GAB is one of the largest groundwater
basins in the world and underlies 22% of
Australia. Water sourced from GAB aquifers
represents a lifeline to the arid interior of central
and eastern Australia as it supports pastoral
and mining activities as well as towns and small
communities. Due to the ephemeral nature of
surface watercourses, groundwater from the
GAB is often the only reliable water source.
The name 'GAB' refers to a non-marine
to marine Triassic–Jurassic–Cretaceous
hydrogeological superbasin that contains three
large epi-continental depressions, called the
Carpentaria Basin, the Surat Basin and the
Eromanga Basin, with the Eromanga Basin
being volumetrically the largest (Figure 1.1).
The eastern margin of the GAB abuts the Great
Dividing Range and it is from here that the
majority of present-day groundwater recharge is
thought to occur.
1.3 The western GAB study area
This section provides a brief description of
relevant information pertaining to the study
area. For a more comprehensive review of
the contextual setting, refer to Volume I:
Hydrogeological Framework of the Western
Great Artesian Basin (Keppel et al. 2013).
This study's area of investigation, the western
GAB, is also referred to as the 'western margin
of the GAB' and specifically refers to the GAB
within South Australia and the Northern Territory.
The eastern boundary of this area is represented
by the South Australian and Northern Territory
eastern state boundaries.
The western margin is in the driest portion of the
GAB with mean annual rainfall between 130–230
mm/yr and mean relative humidity around
40%. The region is relatively flat with gradual
increase in elevation towards the west. Typically,
2
ephemeral rivers are internally draining, generally
towards the major playa lakes and largely
coincident with the Lake Eyre surface water
drainage basin. See Figure 1.2 for the location of
the study area.
From the 1870s until the commencement of
mining activity, groundwater development in
the western margin of the GAB was limited to
the pastoral industry and town water supply.
Groundwater development then increased in
line with mining development and is predicted to
further increase dramatically over the next 5 to
10 years as extraction is expected to double as a
result of increased mining, petroleum and power
generation activity (Fluin et al., 2009).
The main confined aquifer in the region is
referred to as the J Aquifer and contains the
Cretaceous Cadna-owie Formation and the
underlying Jurassic Algebuckina Sandstone.
The aquifer comprises unconsolidated gravels,
sands, silts, consolidated sandstones with
inter-bedded shales and mudstones and can
reach a thickness in excess of 1000 m. Salinity
of groundwater stored within the aquifer varies
considerably from < 300 mg/L in the Finke River,
Plenty River and Marla regions to
>30 000 mg/L along the south-west margin. The
J Aquifer outcrops along the western boundary
of the GAB and adjacent to Proterozoic Inliers
(the Peake and Denison Inlier) in the central
portion of the study area (Figure 1.2). Overlying
the J Aquifer is the Rolling Downs Group
(including the Bulldog Shale and its equivalent,
the Rumbalara Shale, in the Northern Territory).
These units form a regional aquitard over
much of the region and can reach a maximum
thickness in excess of 1000 m.
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 1: Introduction
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
1

Figure 1.2: Location of the

AWMSGAB Project area in the
western margin of the GAB

Produced by Flinders University

Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of
Australia 1994
Date: February 2012
Data source: GAB Boundary/
Waterbodies Department for Water.
Geology courtesy of GA
(Whitaker et al., 2008)

Great
Artesian
Basin
Dalhousie
Supergroup

Western
Margin
Western
Margin
Lake Eyre Lake Frome
Supergroup Supergroup

100km

3
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Figure 1.3: Potentiometric surface

of the main J Aquifer in the
western margin of the GAB

Produced by Flinders University

Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of
Australia 1994
Date: February 2012
Data source: Data/GAB Boundary/
Waterbodies Department for Water

4

The potentiometric surface of the J Aquifer
(Figure 1.3) indicates that the major direction
of groundwater flow is predominantly from
the north and west to the south-east. The
hydraulic gradient tends to steepen in the
southern portion of the study area, which is
coincident with thinning of the aquifer and a
potential increase in upward leakage. For a more
comprehensive discussion of the potentiometric
surface, including the development of a revised
methodology for correcting hydraulic heads,
refer to Chapter 5.
1.4 Groundwater recharge in the arid zone
Understanding groundwater recharge
mechanisms and rates is notoriously difficult
and is often referred to as the most difficult
parameter to measure in a groundwater budget
(Scanlon et al. 2003; Healy 2010). Estimating
recharge rates is even more complicated in the
arid zone as a result of generally low recharge
rates combined with large spatial and temporal
variability of water fluxes.
1.4.1 Arid zone recharge mechanisms and
processes
Recharge is the amount of water per unit area
that reaches an aquifer over a given period
of time. Large variation of rainfall in both time
and space results in groundwater recharge
varying temporally and spatially. This variability
is particularly pronounced in semi-arid and arid
regions of Australia, making recharge rates in
these areas difficult to precisely determine due
to temporal and spatial variability of small water
fluxes.
Three recharge mechanisms are assumed to
operate in the western GAB:
• diffuse recharge—recharge that enters the
water table as a result of the infiltration of
precipitation and subsequent drainage that
occurs fairly uniformly across the landscape
(Scanlon et al. 2003)
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 1: Introduction
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
1
• localised recharge—recharge resulting from
the addition of surface water through stream,
river or lake beds to the water table
• mountain system recharge—the contribution
of mountain regions to the recharge of
adjacent aquifers (Wilson & Guan 2004).
Recharge has the potential to occur along the
western margin of the GAB where: a) the aquifer
outcrops (e.g. ephemeral river recharge), b)
vertical flow to the water table is not impeded
by low permeability material (e.g. diffuse
recharge), or c) where elevated basement
regions are connected to adjacent aquifers (e.g.
mountain system recharge). Chapter 2 focuses
on diffuse recharge, Chapter 3 on ephemeral
river recharge, and Chapter 4 on mountain
system recharge. The development of a number
of geochemical and isotopic techniques that
attempt to integrate different spatial and
temporal scales are often the only reliable
techniques in regions where low net water fluxes
dominate.
1.5 Hydrodynamics
Potentiometric surfaces are represented by
contours of equal hydraulic head and provide
valuable information on groundwater flow.
Prior to the Allocating Water and Maintaining
Springs in the Great Artesian Basin project
(AWMSGAB Project), an accurate potentiometric
surface describing horizontal flow directions for
the western margin of the GAB did not exist.
Previously published potentiometric surfaces for
the J Aquifer within the western GAB did not fully
account for density variations. The production of
a density-corrected potentiometric surface is an
important outcome of this volume.
As groundwater flow is three dimensional in
nature, potential vertical connections have
been examined in addition to the potentiometric
surface. This was done with the aid of pressure-
depth plots and hydrodynamic cross-sections.
5
 Chapter 1: Introduction
1.6 Hydrochemistry and environmental
tracers
The spatial distribution of dissolved species in
the groundwater is used to provide inferences
on groundwater flow systems, in particular the
mixing of flow lines within the J Aquifer as well
as inter-aquifer leakage. It was not the prime
objective of this study to ascertain the various
mineral solution interactions unless they were
deemed necessary to decode information on
groundwater flow dynamics.
The corrected potentiometric surface implies
groundwater flow direction and provides
information on the current hydraulics of the
system, but does not provide information about
hydraulics of the system in the past. Estimating
groundwater flow rates and directions in porous
media aquifers can be determined using Darcy's
Law with estimates of hydraulic conductivity and
hydraulic gradient. Alternatively, if groundwater
ages can be determined using environmental
tracers then horizontal flow rates can be
estimated.
1.7 Existing conceptual model
The existing conceptual model of groundwater
recharge and groundwater flow in the GAB,
with special reference to the western margin,
is presented in Table 1.1. This table is repeated
in the conclusion of the volume to include
contributions derived from the study to the
evolving conceptual model.
6
1.8 Aims and objectives
The objectives of this volume are listed below:
1. Recharge mechanisms and rates: Estimate
recharge rates for diffuse and ephemeral
river recharge and provide a greater
understanding of mountain system recharge
mechanisms. Comment on whether the
groundwater basin is in a steady state
with respect to groundwater recharge and
discharge.
2. Hydrodynamic analyses: Develop a
potentiometric surface for the J Aquifer
that corrects for variations in groundwater
density. Mixed convection analyses will
indicate whether or not free convection is
occurring.
3. Hydrochemistry and environmental tracers:
Investigate hydrochemical and environmental
tracer characteristics of the J Aquifer to infer
groundwater flow and mixing processes.
4. Palaeo-hydrogeology: Develop a generic
model that helps conceptualise groundwater
basin dynamics and determine time scales
for a new hydraulic equilibrium to be
reached.
5. Conceptual hydrogeological model
development: Develop an improved
conceptual model of groundwater recharge
and groundwater flow as it is recognised
that the current model does not adequately
describe the system.
The fifth objective is achieved in conjunction
with Volume I (Keppel et al. 2013) and Volume
III: Groundwater Discharge of the Western
Great Artesian Basin (Love et al. 2013). The
development of a hydrogeological conceptual
model aims to provide the science that will
ultimately underpin effective groundwater
management.
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 1: Introduction
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
1

Table 1.1: Summary of the existing hydrogeological model for groundwater recharge and aquifer systems,
with particular reference to the western margin of the GAB

Attributes Existing model(s)

  Pre-1980 Post-1980

Recharge

Recharge zones Largely restricted to areas of Outcrop and sub-crop given by

outcropping aquifer units in Great Habermehl and Lau (1997) and used
Dividing Range and central Australia by Welsh (2007) to define potential
recharge areas

Recharge mechanisms Infiltration through outcropping aquifer Matthews (1997) recognised role of
units intermittent flooding in central Australia

Recharge rates   Welsh (2000) modelled transient and

steady-state recharge up to 33 mm/yr
with an average of 2.4 mm/yr;
Love et al. (2000) estimated recharge
rates of 0.16 mm/yr (this represented
only a small subset of bores along the
western margin)

Aquifer flow systems

Aquifer system flow type Porous media Porous media

Groundwater flow Largely horizontal 1–5 m/yr (Habermehl Numerous studies:

1980) Phillips 1993 (36Cl) 1.3 m/yr;
Matthews 1997 (14C) 0.8–2 m/yr;
Beyerle et al. 1999 (4He) 0.3–0.9 m/yr;
Love et al. 2000 (36Cl) 0.24 ± 0.03 m/yr

Flow drivers Gravity-driven flow (19th century model) Pestov (2000) uses modelling to
demonstrate that thermally induced
vertical driven convection is possible in
some regions

Flow scale Regional (whole basin) Regional (whole basin)

Potentiometric surface Audibert (1976) inferred large-scale
flow from Queensland into South
Australia
Habermehl and Lau (1997) provide
updated potentiometric surface;
hydraulic head data have either not
been corrected for T (oC) or salinity or
methodology not explained

Inter-aquifer leakage Not recognised or very minor Radke et al. (2000) recognised
(Habermehl 1980) potential for inter-basinal connectivity

Basin dynamics

Basin dynamics Steady state R = D (Habermehl 1980) R does not equal D in western margin
(Love et al. 2000)

7
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

2 in the Great Artesian Basin

Diffuse recharge

Daniel Wohling Department for Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Government of South Australia
Simon Fulton Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sport, Northern Territory Government
Andrew J Love School of the Environment and the National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training,
Flinders University of South Australia
Bridget Scanlon Bureau of Economic Geology, John A & Katherine G. Jackson School of Geosciences,
The University of Texas

2. Diffuse recharge
2.1 Introduction
A key requirement for the sustainable
management of groundwater resources in
the western Great Artesian Basin (GAB) is the
development of an enhanced understanding of
water balance inputs and associated pressure
dynamics. The objective of this chapter is to
provide robust estimates of diffuse recharge
and develop a better understanding of diffuse
recharge in a temporal context to identify what
drives the modern GAB water balance.
Diffuse recharge is groundwater recharge that
is distributed over large areas in response to
rainfall infiltrating the soil surface and percolating
through the unsaturated zone to the water
table (Healy 2010). Along the western margin
of the GAB, diffuse recharge occurs where the
confining beds of the Rolling Downs Group
are discontinuous or absent. Understanding
the spatial and temporal scales of diffuse
recharge rates is a fundamental requirement
for determining water budgets in large aquifer
systems such as the GAB.
It is widely accepted that many aquifers in arid
to semi-arid zones around the world contain
fossil or non-renewable groundwater resources,
e.g. Nubian Sandstone (Bakhbakhi 2006),
Central Kalahari Karroo Sandstone (Carlsson
et al. 1993), and North Western Sahara (Pallas
& Salem 1999). Distinguishing palaeo-recharge
from contemporary recharge is critical if water
resource managers are to set and maintain
socially acceptable and sustainable limits
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
2
for water extraction. Very few studies have
previously dealt with the recharge regime along
the western margin of the GAB. Most recently,
Love et al. (2000) used chloride and chlorine-36
(36Cl) dating techniques to provide mean flow
velocities (0.24 ± 0.03 m/yr) and an estimate
of groundwater recharge (0.16 ± 0.08 mm/yr)
using a chloride mass balance (CMB) approach
along two transects in the south-western GAB.
However, no published studies have specifically
focused on diffuse recharge along the western
margin of the GAB.
This investigation
• redefines the potential area of influence for
diffuse recharge to the sedimentary Jurassic
and Cretaceous aquifer (J Aquifer) of the
Eromanga Basin across the western margin
of the GAB
• provides regional estimates of diffuse
recharge to the J Aquifer
• uses deep unsaturated zone soil profiles
to consider diffuse recharge in a temporal
context
• relates the temporal importance of diffuse
recharge on the modern dynamics of the GAB
groundwater system.
For a more detailed description of the
hydrogeology of the western margin of the GAB,
refer to Volume I: Hydrogeological Framework of
the Western Great Artesian Basin (Keppel et al.
2013).
Photo on facing page:
Daniel Wohling
9
 Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Figure 2.1: Idealised chloride
mass balance model
Transpiration
Evaporation
2.2 Constraining regional estimates of
diffuse groundwater recharge using CMB
analysis
A CMB approach was applied to constrain
regional estimates of diffuse recharge and
develop a conceptual understanding of the
spatial variability of diffuse recharge rates across
the western margin of the GAB.
The CMB method provides reliable estimates
of groundwater recharge for rates below a
few millimetres per year (Gee et al. 2004).
The chloride ion (Cl ) is an ideal environmental
-
tracer and acts as a proxy measurement for
groundwater salinity due to the high solubility
of (Cl-) with mobility similar to the water
molecule and conservative behaviour of (Cl ) in -
groundwater. Notably, (Cl-) does not participate
in oxidation/reduction reactions or sorption/
desorption reactions in the aquifer or precipitate
10
Precipitation
Run-off
Infiltration
Drainage
Recharge
as salts except at very high concentrations
(greater than approximately 200 000 mg/L) (Hem
1985).
As precipitation infiltrates through the soil,
surface (Cl-) is excluded when water evaporates
or is transpired (Figure 2.1) and therefore
concentrates the residual solution proportionally
to the volume of water removed. As the
concentrated water moves beyond the limit
of the evapotranspiration zone (drainage), it
transports a chloride signature through the
unsaturated zone. If the drainage front persists
to the water table, recharge occurs carrying with
it the (Cl‑) signature. Application of relationships
between atmospheric chloride and unsaturated
zone accumulations enable calculation of mean
recharge rates to aquifers by comparing net
water loss to precipitation.

Under steady-state conditions where piston-flow
mechanisms govern unsaturated zone soil water
movement, the assumption that chloride is not
gained or lost through weathering processes and
that anthropogenic inputs are negligible allows a
CMB equation to be used:
P(Cl)P=ET(Cl)ET+R(Cl)sw+Q(Cl)run
2.1
where P is precipitation (mm/yr), ET is
evapotranspiration (mm/yr), R is recharge
(mm/yr), Q is runoff (mm/yr), (Cl)P is chloride
concentration in precipitation (mg/L), (Cl)ET is
chloride concentration of evapotranspiration,
(Cl)sw is mean chloride concentration in soil
water below the root zone (mg/L) and (Cl)run is
the chloride concentration in runoff (mg/L).
If it is assumed that no chloride is removed via
evapotranspiration, then ET(Cl)ET = 0. Similarly, in
arid and semi-arid environments where surface
runoff and discharge to rivers and chloride
addition from rock weathering can be assumed
to be negligible, Q(Cl)run = 0. Consequently,
Equation 2.1 can be rearranged to give R:
R = P(Cl)P ⁄ (Cl)sw
2.2
In the GAB, ephemeral rivers dominate modern
recharge mechanisms (refer to Chapter 3);
therefore, the basic form of the CMB equation
will only be valid at some distance from the
influence of ephemeral river recharge.
Typically, the regional distribution of (Cl)sw is
not well known. However, for semi-arid to
arid environments where the first four CMB
assumptions (summarised below) are implicit, a
further fifth assumption may be applied:
1. The rate of fluid and chloride deposition at
the land surface is constant with time.
2. There are no additional chloride sources or
sinks.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
2
3. Run-off (overland flow) is negligible.
4. Movement of fluid and chloride through the
unsaturated zone is one-dimensional (piston
flow).
5. Recharging waters contain a chloride
concentration equivalent to (Cl)sw and
recharging waters uniformly mix within the
aquifer.
As a result, the chloride concentration of
groundwater can substitute for (Cl)sw to constrain
potential recharge rates:
R=P(Cl)P ⁄ (Cl)gw
2.3
where (Cl)gw is the chloride concentration of
groundwater (mg/L).
Chloride deposition at the ground surface can
be in the form of wet (rainfall) and dry (aerosols)
fallout. When the chloride deposition mass at the
ground surface from wet and dry fall is known,
then the CMB equation can be simplified further:
R= ((Cl)dwdf ⁄ (Cl)gw )×100
2.4
where (Cl)dwdf is the chloride deposition from wet
and dry fall (kg/ha/yr).
2.3 Models of the unconfined aquifer
along the western margin of the GAB
The area available to diffuse recharge along
the western margin of the GAB falls into two
categories:
1. areas where the J Aquifer is unconfined and
Rolling Downs Group is absent
2. areas in category (1) plus where the J Aquifer
is partially unsaturated below the Rolling
Downs Group (e.g. the J Aquifer water table
sits below the base of the Rolling Downs
Group).
11
 Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
2.3.1 Unconfined—no confining layer
An unconfined aquifer in the western margin of
the GAB can be described where the Rolling
Downs Group (Bulldog Shale, Oodnadatta
Formation, Rumbalara Shale and Winton
Formation) is absent, therefore allowing recharge
to the water table (Figure 2.2). Refer to Volume I
(Keppel et al. 2013) for detailed formation
descriptions. Figure 2.3 displays the spatial
extent of the surface outcrop of confining units
across the western margin of the GAB. The
extent of confining units was mapped using
a combination of surface geology coverage
to define the outcrop of confining units and
groundwater bores to define sub-cropping units
of the Rolling Downs Group. This conceptual
model of the unconfined aquifer describes a
very limited expanse of land at the basin margin
where diffuse recharge can potentially occur.
2.3.2 Unconfined—potentiometric surface
below the confining units
By definition, an aquifer is unconfined where
the potentiometric level is below the top of
the formation (Figure 2.2). For this case, along
the western margin of the GAB, the J Aquifer
Figure 2.2: Conceptualised cross-
Unconfined
section illustrating the unconfined
aquifer model Non-artesian
G r o u nd s u r
Unconfined (a) Unconfined (b)
12
is also unconfined where the Rolling Downs
Group is present but the water table is below
the (unsaturated) confining units. Figure 2.3
illustrates the location of the conceptualised
unconfined–confined J Aquifer boundary.
Generally to the west (south in the far south of
the western margin and north in the far north of
the western margin) of the unconfined–confined
J Aquifer boundary to the basin margin, the CMB
approach for estimating diffuse recharge was
deemed an appropriate method for evaluating
and constraining the potential for diffuse
recharge across the western margin of the GAB.
Within the Northern Territory portion of the
GAB, the area estimated to be influenced by
diffuse recharge was divided further into a
series of provinces determined on the basis of
stratigraphic information from bore logs. Limited
data along the basin extremities within South
Australia do not allow for a similar appraisal.
Therefore, within South Australia, the potential
for diffuse recharge to the unconfined J Aquifer
remains from the unconfined–confined J Aquifer
boundary to the basin margin.
Confined
Artesian
J Aquifer
fa ce
potentiometric surface
Upper aquifer
Aquitard
J Aquifer
 -23

-23

-25
ALICE SPRINGS
"
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse
Northern Territoryrecharge NEW CROWN
-24

-24
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the

-26
Legend
132 133 134 135
Western
136
Great Artesian
137
Basin 138
132 133 134 135 136 137 138 SouthofAustralia
Limit artesian flow
-22 -22-22

-22 -22-22
132 133 132 134 133 135 134 136 135 Allocating
137 136Water and138
Maintaining
137 Springs
138

-22
in the Great Artesian Basin Extent of Rolling Downs Group
-25

-25
Queensland
J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary

-27
Eromanga Basin Bounday MARLA
FINKE "
-23 -23-23

-23 -23-23
"
" FigureOutcropping
2.3: ExtentJ of confining
aquifer

-23
Northern Territory NEW CROWN STATION
132 133 134 135 136 137 138 units and unconfined–confined
WINTINNA STATION "
Outcropping confining units
-26

-26
-22

-22
ALICE SPRINGS
J Aquifer boundary along the

-28
South Australia " ALICE SPRINGS western margin
J aquifer of the GAB
absent
ALICE SPRINGS "ALICE SPRINGS
" "
J aquifer unsaturated
-24 -24-24

-24 -24-24
Legend

-24
Legend
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-27

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-23

-23
Limit of artesian flow
Limit of artesian flow Limit of artesian flow

-29
MARLA
" Extent of Rolling Downs Group
Extent of Rolling Downs Group
OODNADATTA Extent of Rolling Downs Group
Extent of Rolling Downs Group
-25 -25-25

-25 -25-25
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ALICE SPRINGS
" J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary

Queensland
WINTINNA STATION J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary

-25
"

Queensland
"

Queensland
J aquifer unconfined - confined
J aquifer boundary
unconfined - confined boundary
Eromanga Basin Bounday
FINKE Eromanga Basin Bounday
-28

-28
-24

-24
" FINKE Eromanga Basin Bounday Eromanga Basin Bounday
LegendOutcropping J aquifer

-30
FINKE "
"FINKE
Northern Territory " NEW CROWN STATION " Outcropping J aquifer
Northern Territory "
"
NEW CROWN STATION" Lake Eyre Outcropping J aquifer Outcropping J aquifer
Northern Territory NorthernNEW
Territory Outcropping
Limit confining
of artesian flow units
-26 -26-26

-26 -26-26
CROWN STATION NEW CROWN STATION Outcropping confining units
Outcropping confining Outcropping
units confining units

-26
South Australia WILLIAM CREEK
J aquifer
Extent of absent
Rolling Downs Group
South Australia COOBER PEDY " J aquifer absent
South Australia South Australia J aquifer absent J aquifer absent
J aquifer unsaturated
-29

-29
-25

-25
Queensland
"
JJ aquifer
aquifer unconfined
unsaturated- confined boundary
J aquifer unsaturated

-31
Lake Eyre South J aquifer unsaturated
Eromanga Basin Bounday
FINKE
-27 -27-27

-27 -27-27
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" " Outcropping J aquifer

´
-27

MARLA
Northern Territory NEW CROWN STATION
" MARLA 0 13240 80 120133 160 134
MARLA "MARLA
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-30

-30
-26

-26
" " " OODNADATTA Kilometers
WINTINNA STATION " OODNADATTA "OODNADATTA
South Australia Produced by Department for Water | Science
WINTINNA STATION " " " J aquifer absent
WINTINNA STATION " WINTINNA STATION " Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection
J aquifer unsaturated
-28 -28-28

-28 -28-28 Produced by Department for Water

Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
-28

Science Monitoring & Information Division

GLENDAMBO Lake Eyre Map Projection:
Geocentric Lambert1994
Datumof Australia Conformal Conic
| Date February
" Lake Eyre Lake
-27

-27
-31

-31

Lake Eyre Lake Eyre Torrens Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of

2012
MARLA Australia 1994
" WILLIAM CREEK
LakeCOOBER
GairdnerPEDY " WILLIAM CREEK Date February: 2012
OODNADATTA
-29 -29-29

-29 -29-29

" COOBERWILLIAM
PEDY CREEK
" "WILLIAM CREEK
132 133 COOBER PEDY
134 "COOBER
135 " PEDY 136 " 137 138
WINTINNA"STATION "
-29

" Lake Eyre South

Lake Eyre South
Lake Eyre South Lake Eyre South
-28

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MARREE
" MARREE

´´
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" Lake Eyre " 0 40 80 120 160

´ ´
0 40 80 1200 16040Kilometers
80 120 160
-30 -30-30

-30 -30-30

Kilometers
-30

Kilometers Produced byKilometers

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WILLIAM CREEK Produced by Department for Water | Science
COOBER PEDY " Produced by Department for Monitoring
Water | Science
Produced by DepartmentDivision
& Information for Water | Science
| Map Projection
-29

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" Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

Monitoring & Information Division | Map
Monitoring
Lambert Projection
& Information
Conformal ConicDivision | Map Projection
| Map Datum
Lake Eyre South Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
GLENDAMBO Lambert Conformal Conic | Map DatumConformal
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Geocentric Datumof Conic | Map
Australia Datum
1994 | Date February
" GLENDAMBO Lake
-31 -31-31

-31 -31-31

Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February

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Torrens
MARREE
Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February
" Lake Lake "
Torrens
Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February
2012

´
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2012 2012
Lake Gairdner
-30

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Lake Gairdner Kilometers

132 133 134 Lake Gairdner
135 136 137 138
132 133 134 135 136 137 138 Produced by Department for Water | Science
132 133 132 134 133 135 134 136 135 137 136 138 137 138
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum

GLENDAMBO Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February

" Lake
-31

-31

Torrens 2012

Lake Gairdner
132 133 134 135 136 137 138

13
 Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
The outer Eromanga Basin boundary was
mapped on the basis of outcropping Jurassic
sediments. Examination of subsurface geology
revealed that not all of the outcrop is connected
to the main body of the aquifer and consequently
there are areas where the aquifer is absent within
the Eromanga Basin boundary.
Similarly, no diffuse recharge to the J Aquifer
occurs where the J Aquifer is present but
fully unsaturated (Figure 2.3). Under current
climatic conditions it was assumed that a flux of
infiltrating water to a fully unsaturated J Aquifer
would not directly recharge the J Aquifer, rather
any infiltration of rainfall at these locations may
become recharge to deeper hydrogeological
units. Note that under a wetter palaeo-climate
with associated higher groundwater levels,
saturation of the J Aquifer may have extended
into the present-day unsaturated zone and the
potential area available for diffuse recharge to
the J Aquifer would have been larger.
As defined previously, the potential for diffuse
recharge is assumed to occur where the J
Aquifer is present, unconfined, or sub-cropping
beneath Quaternary/Tertiary sediments and
where the water table of the J Aquifer is below
the base of the Rolling Downs Group. However,
due to the low permeability of the Rolling Downs
Group Shale, diffuse recharge fluxes are likely
to be lower than diffuse recharge rates in areas
where the J Aquifer outcrops or sub-crops
beneath Quaternary/Tertiary sediments.
2.4 A review of chloride-to-bromide ratios
along the western margin of the GAB to
assess validity of a CMB approach to
estimate diffuse recharge
A key assumption of the CMB approach for
estimating diffuse recharge in any environment
is that there are no additional chloride sources
or sinks. A general review and analysis of the
uncertainty and limitations of the CMB approach,
14
and its suitability to estimate groundwater
recharge along the western margin of the GAB,
was undertaken by Kretschmer et al. (2009).
This review reported that it is unreasonable to
assume rainfall is the only source of chloride
to the groundwater system. Subsurface
chloride addition may occur via diffusion from
the overlying confining shale aquitards (Love
et al. 2000; Lehmann et al. 2003) or via halite
dissolution (Love et al. 2000). To identify where
potential sources or sinks of chloride occur in the
J Aquifer and whether or not the CMB method
is valid or has higher uncertainty, the chloride-
to-bromide (Cl/Br) ratios of groundwater in the J
Aquifer were reviewed. The Cl/Br ratio provides
a tool to consider the addition or loss of chloride
from the groundwater system. Moreover, a Cl/
Br ratio of the groundwater similar in magnitude
to the meteoric signature provides a basis to
assume that there are no additional chloride
sources/sinks in the system and therefore that
the application of the CMB method is valid.
At the coast, chloride and bromide
concentrations in rainfall are dominated by sea
salt entrained in air from the ocean surface.
Further inland, rainfall concentrations of chloride
and bromide still originate from ocean salts,
however any addition from dry fallout influences
chloride and bromide deposition. For example,
wind-blown dusts off dry lake beds shape the
overall deposition of chloride and bromide.
In natural groundwater systems, variations in
chloride and bromide concentrations may result
from the dissolution of evaporites, extrusion of
brines from compacting clays, diffusion of ions
out of saline fluid inclusions and micropores, and
expulsion of water through re-crystallisation of
minerals (Davis et al. 1998).
Variation in the Cl/Br ratio from a meteoric input
indicates removal or addition of chloride or
bromide within the aquifer. Davis et al. (1998)
summarised Cl/Br ratios in rainfall from seven
publications and their own data (predominately

Photo: Daniel Wohling
the USA, plus Canada and Antarctica) to
establish that rainfall Cl/Br ratios decrease
with distance inland. Near the coast, the molar
Cl/Br ratio is ~290 to 405, a small decline
compared to seawater, which is ~655 (Sonney
& Vuataz 2010). The Cl/Br ratio declines down
to 110 several hundred kilometres inland.
Fallout patterns vary between continents
and hemispheres, however Keywood (1995)
reported Cl/Br molar ratios in rainfall (median
127; mean 168) at Wintinna Station (more than
several hundred kilometres inland) which align
closely with reported data by Davis et al. (1998).
Davis et al. (1998) reported on groundwater Cl/
Br ratios which indicate halite dissolution and
crystallisation of halite from residual brines rich
in bromide. Typically, Cl/Br ratios between the
range 2500–25 000, generally greater than 9000
indicate halite dissolution.
All Cl/Br ratios within the unconfined J Aquifer
(away from areas influenced by ephemeral river
recharge) of the western margin are less than
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
2
1500 (Figure 2.4). Within South Australia, all Cl/
Br molar ratios are less than 1000. Given that
there are no known occurrences of halite within
the unconfined J Aquifer, Cl/Br ratios of less
than 1500 suggest that the dissolution of halite
is not an active process and therefore chloride
is behaving conservatively (which underpins the
CMB method); the use of the CMB approach for
estimating diffuse recharge is therefore deemed
to be valid.
Furthermore, due to the conservative nature of
chloride, the straight line relationship between
the Cl/Br ratio and chloride (Figure 2.5), and
bromide and chloride (Figure 2.6) indicates
an evaporative influence on the groundwater
chemistry. Therefore, it is assumed that no
chloride or bromide is being added or removed
and no halite dissolution processes are active
along the unconfined portion of the J Aquifer.
15
 ! 601 - 1000
ALICE SPRINGS 1001 - 1500
" !
! 1501 - 2000
-22

-24
> 2001

-24
!

Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge

J aquifer - chloride to bromide ratio
-23

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-25

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2 !
!
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-22
-22 -24

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-26

-26
J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
FigureSouth Australia
2.4: Cl/Br molar ratio of J
Aquifer groundwater across the 132 133 134 135 136 Eromanga
137 Basin Bounday
138
-22

-22

-22
western margin of the GAB
J aquifer - chloride to bromide ratio
-23
-23 -25

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-27

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-24 -26

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-24

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-26
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-26

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Australia 1994 ofFebruary
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Australia 1994 Lake Eyre

2012
Date: February 2012

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& Department for Water
Information Division | Science
| Map Projection
0 40 80 120 160 0 40 8
ormation Division | Map
Monitoring
Lambert Projection
& Information
Conformal ConicDivision | Map Projection
| Map Datum
-30

Kilometers
-30

-30

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mal Conic | Map Datum
Lambert
ProducedConformal
Geocentric
byDatumofConic | Map
Australia
Department for Datum
1994
Water Date February
| Science Produced by Depa
-31

mof Australia2012
1994 | Date
Geocentric
Monitoring & February
Datumof Australia
Information 1994
Division | Date
| Map February
Projection Monitoring & Infor
-31

2012
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum Lambert Conform

Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February GLENDAMBO Geocentric Datum

Lake
-31

"
-31

-31

2012 Torrens 2012

Lake Gairdner
132 133 134 135 136 137 138

16
 10

Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge

Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs1
in the Great Artesian Basin
500 1000
2
CI (mg/L

10000
Figure 2.5: Cl/Br ratio compared
with chloride concentration of the
unconfined J Aquifer

Unconfined J Aquifer wells

Minimum halite dissolution value
1000 1.0
Typical halite dissolution range
CI/Br ratio (molar)

100 0.5

Log Br (mg/L)
10 0.0

1 -0.5
500 1000 1500 2000 2500
CI (mg/L)

-1.0
1.5 2.0
1.0
Figure 2.6: Log-log plot of
chloride and bromide for the
Unconfined J Aquifer wells unconfined J Aquifer

Minimum halite dissolution value

Unconfined J Aquifer wells
Typical halite dissolution range
0.5 Linear regression: R2 = 09492
95% confidence intervals
95% prediction intervals
Log Br (mg/L)

0.0

-0.5

-1.0
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Log CI (mg/L)

Unconfined J Aquifer wells

Linear regression: R2 = 09492

95% confidence intervals 17
95% prediction intervals
 Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
2.5 Chloride deposition along the western
margin of the GAB
The Recharge and Discharge Estimation
in Data Poor Areas project (Leaney et al.
2011) developed a chloride deposition map
for Australia, including upper and lower 95th
percentile estimates (Davies et al. in prep.).
Rainfall chloride measurements across Australia
over the past 60 years were collated to quantify
the spatial distribution of chloride accession to
the land surface. Using an empirical relationship
for change in chloride concentration with
distance from the coast (Keywood et al. 1997)
and optimisation modelling in PEST (Doherty
2005), Davies et al. (in prep.) generated a best-
estimate chloride deposition map for Australia
with uncertainty evaluated by the upper and
lower 95 percentiles. An extract of the 'best'
th
estimate chloride deposition map is provided
for the unconfined region of the western margin
of the GAB in Figure 2.7. The mass of chloride
deposition along the unconfined portion of the
western margin of the GAB ranges from ~1 kg/
ha/yr to ~6 kg/ha/yr. The model presented
by Davies et al. (in prep.) represents the best
estimate of modern chloride deposition, however
it does not indicate chloride deposition over
palaeo-climatic time scales.
2.6 Groundwater chloride along the
western margin of the GAB
Both the South Australian and Northern Territory
government groundwater databases were
queried to provide groundwater chloride data
for bores screened exclusively in the J Aquifer.
Bores with multiple water intersections across
the screened interval were removed from the
analysis as it was not obvious in those cases
18
which hydrogeological formation the chloride
value represented. Radiocarbon (14C) and
groundwater flow data were used to highlight
and exclude regions of the J Aquifer influenced
by ephemeral river recharge (e.g. the Finke River;
see Chapter 3).
The limited number of groundwater chloride
measurements available for the Northern
Territory unconfined J Aquifer did not allow
production of an interpolated surface of
groundwater chloride. In lieu of a continuous
surface, a chloride range was used as the input
for the Northern Territory region. Within South
Australia, adequate data allowed interpolation
of groundwater chloride across the unconfined
J Aquifer boundary. The spatial extent of the
interpolated groundwater chloride surface within
South Australia was limited to the most southerly
and westerly bore locations having groundwater
chloride data (Figure 2.8).
Low groundwater chloride concentrations
(< 1000 mg/L) are common throughout the
Northern Territory and extend into South
Australia to the south of Marla while a small
zone of low groundwater chloride concentration
is prevalent near Marree. The groundwater
chloride concentration increases from the Marla
and Marree regions towards the region south of
Coober Pedy to greater than 10 000 mg/L. Within
the most southerly area (near Glendambo), the
J Aquifer is known to exist and is saturated;
however, no groundwater chloride data exist.
The exclusion of groundwater chloride data
to the west covers an area of the Tallaringa
Conservation Park and the Great Victorian
Desert. Within this area, the J Aquifer exists;
however, knowledge of the saturated extent of
the sediments is limited.
 132 133 134 135 136 137 138

-22

-22
-23

-23
-23

-23

-25
"
ALICE SPRINGS
ALICE SPRINGS Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
"
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the Northern Territory NEW CROW
-23

-23
Western Great Artesian Basin
-24

-24
-24

-24

-26
South Australia
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

"
ALICE SPRINGS in the Great Artesian Basin
2
-24

-24
-25

-25
Queensland
-25

-25

-27
Queensland
Chloride deposition
Chloride deposition (kg/ha/yr)
(kg/ha/yr) MARLA
Figure "
2.7: Chloride deposition
FINKE <
<1 1
FINKE
132 133 134 "
" 135 136 137 138 (kg/ha/yr)
1 -- 2
2 of wet and dry fall over
" 1
-22

-22
" the 2diffuse recharge area
Northern
Northern Territory
Territory NEW CROWN
NEW CROWN STATION
STATION
2-3-3 "
WINTINNA STATION
-25

-25
Queensland
3
3 -- 4
-26

-26
4
-26

-26

-28
South Australia
South Australia 4 -- 5
4
Chloride 5 deposition (kg/ha/yr)
5
5 --1 6
< 6
FINKE
" > -6
>
1 62
"
Northern Territory
-26 -23

-26 -23
NEW CROWN STATION 2-3
3-4
-27

-27
-27

-27

-29
South Australia 4-5
MARLA
MARLA
"
" ALICE SPRINGS 5-6
" OODNADATTA >6
OODNADATTA
"
"
"
-27 -24

-27 -24
"
WINTINNA STATION
WINTINNA STATION
Legend
Legend
-28

-28
-28

-28

-30
MARLA
" Limit of
Limit of artesian
artesian flow
flow
OODNADATTA Lake Eyre
Lake Eyre
" Extent of
of Rolling
Rolling Downs
Downs Group
Group
Extent
"
-28 -25

-28 -25
Queensland
WINTINNA STATION WILLIAM CREEK
CREEK J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
COOBER
COOBER PEDY
PEDY "
"
WILLIAM
LegendJ aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
Chloride deposition (kg/ha/yr)
-29

-29
"
-29

-29

-31
"
Eromanga
< 1 Eromanga
Limit Basinflow
Basin
of artesian Bounday
Bounday
FINKE Lake Eyre
Lake Eyre South
" Lake Eyre South 1-2
"
Extent of Rolling Downs Group
Northern Territory NEW CROWN STATION MARREE
MARREE
2-3
" 132 133 134

´
" 3 - 4J aquifer unconfined
-29 -26

-29 -26
WILLIAM CREEK 0
0 40
40 80
80 120 160
120 - confined boundary
160
South Australia COOBER PEDY " 4-5
"
-30

-30
Kilometers
-30

-30
5 - 6Eromanga
KilometersBasin Bounday
Lake Eyre South Produced by
> 6 by Department
Produced Department for
for Water
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Division || Map
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´
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-27

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GLENDAMBO Map Projection:
Geocentric Lambert Conformal Conic
MARLA GLENDAMBO
Lake Geocentric Datumof Australia
Australia 1994
1994 || Date
Date February
-30

-30

" Lake Kilometers

Datumof February
-31

-31

" "
-31

-31

Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of

Torrens
Torrens 2012
Produced by Department for Water | Science
OODNADATTA 2012
Australia 1994
"
Lake
Lake Gairdner
Gairdner Date February
Monitoring 2012Division | Map Projection
& Information
"
132 133 WINTINNA STATION
134 135 136 137 138 Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
132 133 134 135 136 137 138 Legend
-28

-28

GLENDAMBO Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February

" Lake Limit of artesian flow
-31

-31

Lake Eyre Torrens 2012

Extent of Rolling Downs Group
Lake Gairdner
132 133 134 135 136 WILLIAM CREEK
137 138 J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
COOBER PEDY "
-29

-29

"
Eromanga Basin Bounday
Lake Eyre South

MARREE
"

´
0 40 80 120 160
-30

-30

Kilometers
Produced by Department for Water | Science

Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum

GLENDAMBO Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February

" Lake
-31

-31

Torrens 2012

Lake Gairdner
132 133 134 135 136 137 138

19
 -23

J aquifer - groundwater chloride (mg/L)

-25

-25
Queensland
<1,000
1,000 - 2,500 Legend
FINKE
2,500 - 5,000 " Limit of artesian flow
"
Chapter
5,000 -2: Diffuse
Territoryrecharge
10,000
Northern NEW CROWN STATION
> 10,000 Extent of Rolling Downs Group
-24

-26

-26
South Australia J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
-22

Eromanga Basin Bounday

2
-22
-25

-27

-27
Legend MARLA
-23 -22

"
J aquifer - chloride to bromide ratio
OODNADATTA
Figure
chloride toJ!
2.8:
Limit
< 200
bromide
Groundwater
of artesian flow chloride "
aquifer - ratio
chloride to bromide ratio
of!the J -Aquifer over the diffuse
-23

WINTINNA STATION "

201 600 132 133 134 135 136 137 138
! < 200
Extent of Rolling Downs Group
-22

-22
recharge area
601 -- 600
1000
-26

00 ! 201 !
-28

-28
000 ! 1001
! -1000
1500 unconfined - confined boundary
601J-aquifer
-24 -23

1500 ! 1501 -- 1500

1001 2000
J!aquifer - groundwater chloride (mg/L) Lake Eyre
Eromanga Basin Bounday
2000 ! >1501
! 2001
<1,000- 2000
! >1,000
2001- 2,500
-24

WILLIAM CREEK
-23

-23
2,500 - 5,000 COOBER PEDY
-27

" J aquifer - gr
-29

-29
"
5,000 - 10,000
<1,000
> 10,000 Lake Eyre South
-25 -24

1,000 - 2,
ALICE SPRINGS 2,500 - 5,
" MARREE
" 5,000 - 10
-25

´
Legend 0 40 80 120 160
> 10,000
-24

-24
-28

LegendLimit of artesian flow

-30

-30
Kilometers
Produced by Department for Water | Science
-26 -25

t of artesian flow Limit of artesian flow

Extent of Rolling Downs Group
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection
nt of Rolling Downs
Legend Group
Extent of Rolling Downs Group
J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
-26

Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum

Limit of artesian
uifer unconfined - Jconfined
aquifer boundaryflow - confined boundary
unconfined
-25

-25
Queensland
GLENDAMBO
-29

Eromanga Basin Bounday Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February

" Lake
-31

-31
Extent of Rolling
manga Basin Bounday
Eromanga Basin Downs Group
Bounday Torrens 2012 Legend
-27 -26

J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary Lake Gairdner FINKE

E " Limit o
"
Northern
135 Territory

´
132 133 134 136 137
NEW CROWN STATION 138
-27

0 40 80 Basin
Eromanga 120 Bounday
160 Extent
-26

-26
-30

Kilometers
South Australia J aqui
Produced by Department for Water | Science
-28 -27

Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

Produced by Department for Water
Eroma
Science Monitoring
Lambert Conformal Conic& |Information
Map Datum Division
-28

Map Projection: Lambert Conformal Conic

Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February
-27

-27
Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of
-31

Australia
2012 1994 MARLA
Date: February 2012 "
-29 -28

OODNADATTA
"
WINTINNA STATION "
-29

-28

-28
E

´´
E 0 40 80 120 160 Lake Eyre
-30 -29

´
80 1200 160
40 Kilometers
80 120 160
ometers Produced byKilometers
Department for Water | Science WILLIAM CREEK
-30

E COOBER PEDY "

-29

-29

epartment for Produced

Water | Science
Monitoringby
& Department for Water
Information Division | Science
| Map Projection "

´
0 40 80 120 160
formation Division | Map
Monitoring
Lambert Projection
& Information
Conformal ConicDivision | Map Projection
| Map Datum Lake Eyre South
-30

Kilometers
mal Conic | Map Datum
Lambert Conformal
Geocentric DatumofConic | Map
Australia Datum
1994 | Date February
Produced by Department for Water | Science MARREE
-31

"
umof Australia2012
1994 | Date
Geocentric February
Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February
0 40 8
-31

Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

2012
-30

-30

Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum Kilom

Produced by Depa
Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February
-31

Monitoring & Infor

2012
Lambert Conform

GLENDAMBO Geocentric Datum

" Lake
-31

-31

Torrens 2012

Lake Gairdner
132 133 134 135 136 137 138

20
 132 133 134 135 136 137 138

-22

-22
-23

-23

-25
ALICE SPRINGS Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
-23 "

-23
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the Northern Territory NEW CROW
Western Great Artesian Basin
-24

-24

-26
South Australia
132 133 134 135 Allocating136Water and Maintaining
137 Springs
138

2
ALICE SPRINGS
-22

-22
" in the Great
132 133 132 134 133 135 134 136 135 137 136 Artesian Basin
138 137 138
-22

-22
-22

-22
-24

-24
-25

-25
Queensland Queensland

-27
MARLA
J aquifer2.9:
Figure - chloride
Diffusetorecharge
bromide ratio
"
-23

-23
FINKE < 200- ratio
132 133 134 " 135 136 137 J138 estimates
aquifer - chloride toJ!bromide
aquifer using the
chloride chlorideratio
toaquifer
bromide
Diffuse recharge -J (mm/yr)
-23

-23
-23

-23
! 201 - 600
"
-22

-22
! < 200 !
mass balance
<<200 across the western "
-25

-25
Northern Territory NEW CROWN STATION 0.1
! 201 - 600 601
margin -
! 201 -of6001000
the GAB WINTINNA STATION
! 0.1 - 0.25
-26

-26
ALICE SPRINGS 1001- -1000
1500

-28
South Australia " ! 601 - 1000 !
! 6010.25 - 0.5
ALICE SPRINGS ALICE SPRINGS FINKE ! 1501 -- 2000
" " " ! 1001 - 1500 ! 1001 11500 - J aquifer (mm/yr)
0.5 -recharge
Diffuse
" > 2001
-24

-24
! 1501 - 2000 ! 1501
Northern Territory NEW CROWN STATION 1 - 2000
! <> 0.1
! > 2001 ! >0.12001
-24

-24
-24

-24
- 0.25
-23

-23
-26

-26
South Australia 0.25 - 0.5
-27

-27
0.5 - 1

-29
MARLA
" ALICE SPRINGS >1
"
-25

-25
Queensland
OODNADATTA
"
-25

-25
Queensland
-25

-25
Queensland
-24

-24
"
-27

-27
Legend
WINTINNA STATION
FINKE Legend
MARLA Legend Legend
-28

-28
" " Limit of artesian flow

-30
FINKE "
FINKE
Northern Territory " NEW CROWN STATION
" OODNADATTA Limitofofartesian
Limit of artesian flow Limit artesianflow
flow
" " " Extent of Rolling Downs Group
Northern Territory Northern NEW
Territory Lake Eyre
-26

-26
CROWN STATION NEW CROWN
" STATION
Extent of Rolling Downs Extent
Group
Extent ofofRolling
RollingDowns
DownsGroup
Group
WINTINNA STATION J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
-26

-26
-26

-26
South Australia Legend
-25

-25
Queensland
-28

-28
South Australia
WILLIAM CREEK Jaquifer
aquiferboundary
J aquifer unconfined - Jconfined unconfined- -confined
unconfined confinedboundary
boundary
South Australia COOBER PEDY " Eromanga Basin Bounday
Limit of artesian flow
-29

-29
"

-31
Lake Eyre Eromanga Basin Bounday EromangaBasin
Eromanga BasinBounday
Bounday
FINKE
" Lake Eyre South Extent of Rolling Downs Group
" Diffuse recharge - J aquifer (mm/yr)
-27

-27
Northern Territory NEW CROWN STATION WILLIAM CREEK MARREE < 0.1J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
-27

-27

MARLA
-27

-27
COOBER PEDY " " 0.1
132 - 0.25 133 134

´
-26

-26
-29

-29
" " 0 40 80 120 160
South Australia
MARLA MARLA OODNADATTA 0.25 Eromanga
- 0.5 Basin Bounday
" " " Lake Eyre South
-30

-30
WINTINNA STATION " OODNADATTA OODNADATTA 0.5 - 1Kilometers
" " Produced
> 1 by Department for Water | Science
WINTINNA STATION " WINTINNA STATION " MARREE
"
-28

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0 40 by Department
80 120 for160 Water
-28

-28
-28

-28

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Lambert Conformal Conic& Information
| Map Datum Division
-27

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-30

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Map Projection: Lambert Conformal Conic
MARLA GLENDAMBO GeocentricbyDatumof Australia 1994 || Science
Date February
" Lake Eyre Lake Eyre Lake Produced
Map Datum:Department
Geocentricfor Water
Datum of
-31

-31

"
OODNADATTA Torrens Australia
2012 1994
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection
" WILLIAM CREEK
COOBER PEDY Date: February 2012
Lake
" Gairdner
"
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
-29

-29

" WILLIAM CREEK WILLIAM CREEK

WINTINNACOOBER
STATIONPEDY COOBER " PEDY "
GLENDAMBO
132 133 134 135 136 137 138
-29

-29

Lake Eyre South Legend

-29

-29

" " Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February

Lake
-28

-28

"
-31

-31

Lake Eyre South Torrens

Lake Eyre South 2012
MARREE Limit of artesian flow
Lake Gairdner Lake Eyre "

´´
MARREE MARREE 0 40
Extent 80 120 Downs
of Rolling 160 Group
" "

´
132 133 134 135 136 137 138
0 40 160 80
40 Kilometers
80 1200
120 160
-30

-30

WILLIAM CREEK J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary

COOBER PEDY "
-30

-30

Kilometers Produced byKilometers

Department for Water | Science
-30

-30
-29

-29

"
Produced by Department for ProducedEromanga
Water | Science
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Division | Science
| Map Projection
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Monitoring & Information Division | Map
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Lambert Projection
& Information
Conformal ConicDivision | Map Projection
| Map Datum

GLENDAMBO MARREE
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
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Geocentric DatumofConic | Map
Australia Datum
1994 | Date February
" Lake "

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Geocentric Datumof Australia2012 | Date
80
February
120 160
Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February
" " Lake Lake
-31

-31
-31

-31
-30

-30

Torrens Torrens Kilometers

Lake Gairdner 2012 2012
Produced by Department for Water | Science
132 133 Lake Gairdner
134 Lake Gairdner
135 136 137 138
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection
132 133 132 134 133 135 134 136 135 137 136 138 137 138
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum

GLENDAMBO Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February

" Lake
-31

-31

Torrens 2012

Lake Gairdner
132 133 134 135 136 137 138

21
 Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
2.7 Potential rate and area of diffuse
groundwater recharge along the western
margin of the GAB
Geographic information system (GIS) layers of
chloride deposition and groundwater chloride
were used to provide an estimate of the potential
rate of diffuse groundwater recharge along
the western margin of the GAB (Figure 2.9,
Equation 2.4). Due to data constraints explained
previously, the modelled extent of diffuse
groundwater recharge does not encompass
the entire unconfined aquifer of the western
margin of the GAB. Additional groundwater
chloride data would be required to provide a
reliable estimate of diffuse groundwater recharge
over the most southerly and westerly portions
of the unconfined aquifer in South Australia.
Estimates of diffuse recharge range from <0.1
up to 1.8 mm/yr, although the rate is typically
< 0.25 mm/yr (mean 0.15 mm/yr) over the
majority of the western margin. Diffuse recharge
was estimated to be above 1 mm/yr (maximum
of 1.8 mm/yr) in the areas surrounding Marla.
2.8 Point-scale recharge estimates
2.8.1 Using environmental tracers from the
unconfined J Aquifer to evaluate groundwater
fluxes and recharge rates
2.8.1.1 Radiocarbon regional trends
Radiocarbon ( C) is a radionuclide with a
14
known decay rate and is frequently utilised in
groundwater studies to estimate the residence
time of fossil and palaeo-groundwater resources.
Thirty-two 14C analyses collated from literature
(Love et al. 2000; Radke et al. 2000; Matthews
1997; Mahara et al. 2009) and analyses from
this investigation from bores screening the
22
unconfined J Aquifer within South Australia and
the Northern Territory are shown in Figure 2.10.
General findings and implications are:
•  14C activities are significantly higher in the
Northern Territory (range 67–101 percent
modern carbon (pmC), mean 86 pmC) than
South Australia (range 2–26 pmC, mean
4 pmC) along the unconfined portion of the
western margin
• groundwater is younger within the Northern
Territory portion of the unconfined J Aquifer
(ignoring any bias relating to sampling
location).
This would suggest that there is no active
recharge source of regional significance in South
Australia.
2.8.1.2 Radiocarbon point scale estimates
Radiocarbon (14C) concentrations in
groundwater can be used to estimate travel
times between two sampling points along a flow
path, which enables calculation of an average
horizontal groundwater velocity. If certain
conditions are met, the horizontal velocity can
be used to approximate recharge rates using a
method proposed by Vogel (1967). For further
details of this method, including the conditions
and assumptions, refer to Section 3.3.3 of
this volume. In order to apply the Vogel (1967)
method to approximate diffuse recharge along
the western margin of the GAB, bores with 14C
analyses were screened for the following criteria:
• located in the confined portion of the aquifer
• located outside the influence of major
watercourses so that 14C results are not
biased by ephemeral river recharge
• situated on the same flow path and
clearly screening the J Aquifer with known
construction.

120
100
80
60
Carbon -14
40
20
NT
State
Only one pair of bores in the Northern Territory
NT unconfined J Aquifer
met these criteria: RN016706 and RN016707
SA unconfined J Aquifer
(Figure 2.11). These are investigation bores
drilled in 1996 by the Northern Territory Water
Resources Division for the GAB investigation
undertaken by Matthews (1997). The bores are
located 8 km apart and report C concentrations
14
of 22 and 10 pmC respectively. The uncorrected,
calibrated travel time between these two bores
is 8100 years. The horizontal distance is 800 m
resulting in a horizontal velocity of ~1 m/yr.
There is some uncertainty associated with the
width of the recharge beds in the unconfined
portion of the J Aquifer in this area as it is
largely obscured by Quaternary aeolian dunes.
The width of the recharge zone has been
approximated at 40 km, which is the distance
between the confined limit and the edge of the
J sediments. An aquifer porosity of 23% was
used, representative of the mean porosity for the
60
Carbon -14
40
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
20
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
2
0
Figure 2.10: Comparison of
carbon-14 activities between NT
South Australia and the Northern
Territory for the unconfined J
Aquifer
NT unconfined J Aquifer
SA unconfined J Aquifer
SA
Algebuckina Sandstone taken from a range of
measurements reported by Radke et al. (2000).
Radke et al. (2000) reported a range of porosities
for the Algebuckina Sandstone and equivalents
of between 10% and 29%. The lower range is
indicative of samples taken from the centre of
the basin where burial depth influences aquifer
compaction (Radke et al. 2000) and is not
considered representative of the unconfined J
Aquifer. Locally, the Algebuckina Sandstone has
recorded porosities between 21 and 24% from
sidewall cuttings from Poepells Corner oil well.
A recharge rate of 0.7 mm/yr was calculated
using the confined Vogel method (inputs are
provided in Table 2.1). The estimate shows
general agreement with results from the
saturated CMB recharge approximations and
suggests that under current climatic conditions
diffuse recharge is negligible.
23
 South Australia

Queensland
Limit of artesian flow

Extent of Rolling Downs Group

J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary

Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge Eromanga Basin Bounday

Legend

! DR_drill_sites J aquifer absent

J aquifer unsaturated
-26

! Bore pair used for carbon-14 analysis

2 Limit of artesian flow

Extent of Rolling Downs Group

J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary

-27

-27
Figure Eromanga
2.11: Bore pairs
Basin for
Bounday
carbon-14 analysis and drill site 134 135
J aquifer absent
locations
J aquifer unsaturated
MARLA
"
Legend

! ! RN016706
! DR_drill_sites
DR2 DR1 RN016707
OODNADATTA
-26

! Bore pair used for carbon-14 analysis "

-27

Limit of artesian flow WINTINNA STATION FINKE

!
"
" DR5

´
Extent of Rolling Downs Group 0 10 20 30 40
"
Kilometers
NEW CROWN STATION
J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
! Produced by Department for Water | Science
DR3 Legend
Eromanga Basin
! Bounday Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection
Northern Territory
-28

-28
DR4 ! D
J aquifer absent Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
-26

-26
A J aquifer unsaturated Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February ! B
South Australia

Queensland
2012 L

´
0 10 20 30 40 134 135
J
Kilometers
-27

Produced by Department for Water | Science E

Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection
Produced by Department for Water
-28

J
Science Monitoring
Lambert Conformal Conic&| Information
Map Datum Division
Map Projection; Lambert Conformal Conic J
Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February
Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of
Australia
2012 1994
Date February: 2012

A
-27

-27
´
0 10 20 30 40

Kilometers MARLA
"
Produced by Department for Water | Science

Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

-28

Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum

OODNADATTA
Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February
"

2012 WINTINNA STATION

"
0 10

Kilo
! Produced
DR3
! Monitoring
-28

-28

DR4
Lambert C

Geocentric

2012

134 135

24
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
2

Table 2.1: Carbon-14 travel time, horizontal velocities and recharge rates
Travel time between bore pair

Distance between bores (m)

Width of recharge beds (m)

Average saturated aquifer

Horizontal velocity (m/yr)

Recharge rate (mm/yr)

thickness (m)
Bore pair

Porosity
(years)

Vh

θ
x

RN016706
8100 8000 1 40000 120 0.23 0.7
RN016707

2.8.2 Palaeo-recharge analysis from palaeo-climatic signatures may be retained

continuous core taken along the western within any unsaturated zone profile along the
margin of the GAB western margin of the GAB.
The unsaturated zone contains information
that enables estimation of aquifer recharge and Mixing layers, diffusion and persistence time
provides an archive of recharge history (Cook The following summary of mixing layers, diffusion
et al. 1992; Edmunds & Tyler 2002). If water and persistence time is taken from Cook et
movement can be approximated by piston al. (1992) unless noted herein. Within the root
flow, then past changes in recharge chemistry zone, unsaturated zone water and solute fluxes
may be preserved in the unsaturated zone and may not be approximated realistically by piston
interpreted as signals of palaeo-recharge and flow, as preferential flow paths dominate.
palaeo-climate (Cook et al. 1992). Unsaturated Where evaporation frequently dominates in the
zones that exhibit characteristics of preferential unsaturated zone, particularly in arid to semi-arid
flow are most likely unsuitable as recharge climates like the western margin of the GAB,
archives (Edmunds & Tyler 2002). upward water potentials may redistribute water
and solutes upwards, while solutes may also
2.8.2.1 Previous work and application to be redistributed at the soil surface by plants.
western GAB Therefore the root zone is characterised as a
Cook et al. (1992) presented a model describing zone where considerable mixing of water and
'piston-flow' water movement beneath a surface solutes can occur.
mixing layer taking into account diffusion and
dispersion. They stated that climatic events on In contrast, water fluxes below the root zone
a scale of four to five years may be preserved in (within the unsaturated zone) are in general
the unsaturated zone for longer than 50 years if adequately described by piston flow for arid
the recharge rate is greater than ~20 mm/yr and semi-arid climates as there is little evidence
and that century-scale climatic fluctuations may of preferential flow under low water fluxes,
persist for longer than 1000 years, providing particularly where soils are coarse grained.
that the recharge rate is greater than ~2 mm/yr Although Scanlon (1992) found that fissures
and the unsaturated zone is sufficiently deep. (discontinuous surface collapse structures or
From the analysis of diffuse recharge along the extensional fractures filled with sediment) in
western margin of the GAB, diffuse recharge the Chihuahuan Desert, Texas, USA had water
rates range between 0–1.8 mm/yr (CMB) and velocities 150 times higher than neighbouring
0.7 mm/yr (14C analysis) and therefore only very ephemeral stream and inter-stream sediments.
long (greater than century to millennia scale)

25
 Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Cook et al. (1992) states that, in reality, complete
mixing is unlikely to occur within the mixing
layer and therefore the true water and solute
residence times will usually be greater than the
mean residence time for water and solutes,
respectively. Furthermore, Cook et al. (1992)
emphasise that variations in the recharge rate or
rainfall chemistry will vary the chemistry of water
draining below the mixing layer, but only if the
time scale for variations in hydrologic conditions
is greater than the residence time within the
mixing layer.
Persistence time represents the length of time
that variations in water chemistry will persist
in the unsaturated zone before they are lost
through diffusion and hydrodynamic dispersion.
At very long times, the unsaturated zone will
have a constant concentration.
Cook et al. (1992) summaries mixing layers,
diffusion and persistence time such that
variations in the recharge rate or rainfall
quantity or chemistry appear as variations in
the unsaturated zone soil water chemistry if: 1)
variations in the hydrological regime are large
relative to the residence time of water or solutes
in the mixing layer, and 2) the input time scale is
large relative to the diffusive time scale.
Reducing uncertainty in chloride input using
36
Cl analysis
Dating of very old pore waters is achievable
using chlorine-36 (36Cl) analysis as variations
of the Cl/Cl ratio over the past 40 thousand
36
years (ka) may be used to trace water movement
(Scanlon 2000, after Plummer et al. 1997).
Importantly for this study, Cl pore water data
36
can be used to estimate the long-term Cl input
(for estimating recharge using a CMB approach)
rather than a contemporary Cl mass deposition
(estimated using Cl concentrations in rainfall
and dry fallout multiplied by annual rainfall). As
the fallout of 36Cl is variable with latitude, shown
in Figure 2.12, application of Cl pore water
36
26
analysis to estimate long-term Cl deposition is
restricted geographically and uncertainty will
arise if results are extrapolated spatially.
Scanlon et al. (1990) determined a long-term
average rate of chloride accumulation by
comparing the present-day meteoric 36Cl/Cl
ratio with a 36Cl/Cl ratio measured deep in a
soil profile. The accumulation rate of chloride
(qcl, mg/m2/yr) was estimated by dividing the
calculated natural 36Cl fallout by the measured
36
Cl/Cl ratio found in pore water, excluding the
pre-bomb anthropogenic pulse 36Cl peak (in
Murphy et al. 1996, after Phillips et al. 1988 and
Scanlon et al. 1990).
36
Clo(31.536x106 s⁄y) (35.5x103 mg⁄mol)
qcl=
((36Cl⁄Cl)m)(NA)
2.5
where 36Clo is calculated natural 36Cl fallout by
dry and/or wet deposition (atoms/m2/s), (36Cl/
Cl)m is the 36Cl/Cl ratio in soil water excluding
the anthropogenic peak due to the bomb-pulse
and NA is Avogadro's Number (6.0221415 x 1023
atoms/mol).
Lehmann et al. (2003) provided a value for 36Clo
(reported as F36) of 8.4 for the GAB based on
the work of Love et al. (2000). Love et al. (2000)
used a value of 0.625 mg/L for the mean chloride
input based on work of Keywood (1995);
however, Kretschmer et al. (2009) reported that
Love et al. (2000) and later Lehmann et al. (2003)
incorrectly applied wet and dry fallout data given
by Keywood (1995). Rather, Kretschmer et al.
(2009) stated that an average chloride input of
0.474 mg/L should have been used based on a
mean annual rainfall of 200 mm/yr at Wintinna
Station. Coincidentally, Wintinna Station was
a study site for both Keywood (1995) and this
investigation. Keywood (1995) had no additional
sites within the western margin of the GAB for
comparison.
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
2

20
Figure 2.12: Fallout pattern of
36
Cl as a function of latitude
(from Andrews & Fontes 1992)

15
CI fallout (atoms/m2/s)

10
36

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Latitude

Recharge and residence time estimates using • the chloride age (or mean residence time) at
pore water chloride profiles any depth in the soil profile is given by (after
If chloride input is assumed to have remained Tyler et al. 1996; Scanlon et al. 1990):
constant over time, no additional sources of
chloride are present, and soil water flow is one-
∫surface
z
θl Cswdz
dimensional downward piston flow, then: A(z)=
qCl
• Equation 2.2 can be re-written to determine
net downward flux, JR (after Murphy et al. 2.7

1996)

where A(z) is chloride age (or chloride travel

time, years), θl is volumetric water content,
Csw is chloride concentration in soil water
JR=(Clo ⁄ Clsw )×P (mg/L) and z is the depth (m).

2.6 Scanlon et al. (1990) point out that the accuracy

where Clo is atmospheric Cl concentration
(mg/L, equivalent to qcl divided by rainfall) and
Clsw is mean chloride concentration in soil
water (mg/L). JR is equivalent to recharge at
the water table (mm/yr)
of any flux or age measurements estimated
using pore water chloride rely on the conceptual
model being used. The conceptual model in this
investigation relies on chloride concentrations
increasing through the root zone then remaining
constant below the zone of evapotranspiration
until dilution near the water table. However,
satisfying all assumptions for the conceptual
model all of the time is unlikely to occur. Scanlon
et al. (1990) discuss that not all chloride profiles
exhibit constant chloride concentrations below
the root zone, in fact, many display decreasing
chloride concentrations beneath the chloride

27
 Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
peak. Furthermore, Scanlon et al. (1990)
highlight that non-piston flow (after Sharma
& Hughes 1985), transient flow resulting from
palaeo-climatic variations (after Allison et al.
1985; Phillips & Stone 1985), and diffusion-
dominated rather than advection-dominated
transport implying upward moisture flux (after
Peck et al. 1981) may influence applicability of
assumptions in the conceptual model.
2.8.2.2 Site selection (spatial variability)
Two regions were selected for point diffuse
recharge analysis: Wintinna Station and New
Crown Station (Figure 2.3). The sites were
selected based on three categories:
• attaining deep unsaturated zone profiles
• absence of confining units
• site access.
The depth to water table (Figure 2.13) verifies the
thickness of the unsaturated zone. In general,
deeper unsaturated zones should provide
greater pore water mean residence times at
the base of the profile. If soil matrices within
the unsaturated zone and vegetation cover are
considered to be reasonably consistent and
preferential flow is considered limited regionally,
then depth to water table presents the potential
variability in pore water mean residence time
across the western margin diffuse recharge
zone.
2.8.2.3 Drilling program
Due to drill rig breakdowns, malfunctions and
a bushfire, investigation holes DR1, DR2 and
DR5 on New Crown Station were not completed
(Figure 2.11). Two investigation holes, DR3 and
DR4 (Wintinna Station), approximately 15 km
apart, were sampled during June 2011 and
September 2011, respectively. Depth to water
(thickness of unsaturated zone) was estimated
to be 100–110 m.
At DR3, a sonic drill rig was used. During the
drilling process a high-frequency, resonant
energy is transferred down the drill string at
28
various sonic frequencies. Simultaneously, the
drill string rotates the drill bit allowing the core
barrel or casing to advance into the subsurface
formation with minimal fluid addition. The sonic
drill rig sampling process allowed for 84.5 m
(15–25 m short of the water table) of continuous,
undisturbed core to be collected. Sub-samples
were then taken at 0.2 m intervals (0–3 m), 0.5 m
intervals (3–6 m), 1 m intervals (6–20 m), 2 m
intervals (20–50 m) and 3 m intervals (50 m to
bottom of hole) and placed in airtight 500 mL
glass jars for later analysis. The remaining
sample was retained as a continuous core
sample.
At DR4, a hollow flight auger and split-tube wire
line recovery technique on an Investigator drill
rig enabled drilling without additional air, water
or drilling fluids to be used, therefore minimising
contamination to the pore water chloride and
water contents of the core samples. Core
sub-samples were taken at 0.5 m intervals
(0–10 m), 1 m intervals (10–20 m) and 2 m
intervals (20–40 m). The limit of continuous core
sampling using the hollow flight auger method
is dependent on local drilling conditions. The
maximum depth at DR4 was 40 m. Again, each
sub-sample was placed in airtight 500 mL glass
jars for later analysis and the remaining part
sample retained as a continuous core sample.
2.8.2.4 Pore water extraction
Two (DR3 and DR4) unsaturated continuous
core profiles were analysed for gravimetric
water content, pore water chloride, chlorine-36
and matric potential to provide for a greater
understanding of the temporal scale of diffuse
recharge along the GAB's western margin.
Gravimetric water content, θg (grams of water
per grams of dry soil), was determined by oven
drying a weighed sample (~20 grams) overnight
at 105ºC. The dried samples were reweighed
and the gravimetric water content calculated.
 132 133 134

-22
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
2

-23
in the Great Artesian Basin

ALICE SPRIN
132 133 134 135 136 137 138 "
-22

-22
Figure 2.13: Depth to water table

-24
132 133 134 135 136 137 138 Depth to potentiometric surface (m)
132 133 134 135 136 137 138 along the western margin of the
-22 -22-22

-22 -22-22
< -140
132 133 134 135 136 137 138 GAB
Depth-130
to potentiometric surface (m)
Depth to potentiometric surface (m)
<-120
-140
< -140
Depth to potentiometric surface (m)
-130
-110
-130
-23

-23
< -140
-120
-100

-25
-120
-130
-110
-90
-110
-23 -23-23

-23 -23-23
-120
-100
-80
-100
-110
ALICE SPRINGS -90
-70
" -90
-100
-80
-60
-80
-90
ALICE SPRINGS -70Northern Territory
-50 NEW CROW
-24

-24
"ALICE SPRINGS -70
-80
" -60
-40

-26
ALICE SPRINGS -60South Australia
-70
-50
-30
-24 -24-24

-24 -24-24
"
-50
-60
-40
-20
-40
-50
-30
-10
-30
-40
-20
0
-20
-30
-25

-25
Queensland
-10
10
-10
-20

-27
020
0
-10
-25 -25-25

-25 -25-25
Queensland
10 MARLA
30

Queensland
FINKE 10 "
0
20
" 40

Queensland
" 20
10
Northern Territory NEW CROWNFINKE
STATION 30
50
30
20 "
"FINKE 40
60
-26

-26
" " 40 WINTINNA STATION
30
50
South Australia
Northern Territory "
FINKE
NEW CROWN STATION 70

-28
Northern Territory NEW CROWN"STATION 50
40
" 60
80
-26 -26-26

-26 -26-26
Northern Territory NEW CROWN STATION 60
50
South Australia 70
90
South Australia 70
60
80
100
South Australia 80
70
90
110
90
80
-27

-27
100
> 120
100
90

-29
MARLA 110
" 110
100
-27 -27-27

-27 -27-27

> 120
OODNADATTA > 120
MARLA " 110
"MARLA > 120
" " Legend
OODNADATTA
WINTINNA STATION
MARLA "OODNADATTA
"
-28

-28

"
" Limit of artesian flow
OODNADATTA Legend
-30

WINTINNA STATION" " Legend

WINTINNA STATION Extent of Rolling Downs Group
Lake Eyre
-28 -28-28

-28 -28-28

" LegendLimit of artesian flow

WINTINNA STATION Limit of artesian flow
J aquifer
Extent
Limit unconfined
ofofartesian
Rolling Downs
flow - confined
Group boundary
Lake Eyre Extent of Rolling Downs Group
Lake
WILLIAM CREEK Eyre
JEromanga BasinDowns
Bounday
COOBER PEDY "
aquifer
Extent of unconfined
Rolling - confined
Group boundary
Lake Eyre
-29

-29

"
J aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
WILLIAM CREEK
-31

COOBER PEDY "WILLIAM CREEK Lake Eyre South JEromanga Basin Bounday
aquifer unconfined - confined boundary
Eromanga Basin Bounday
-29 -29-29

-29 -29-29

"COOBER PEDY "

" WILLIAM CREEK
COOBER PEDY " Lake Eyre South MARREE Eromanga Basin Bounday
" Lake Eyre South "

´
0 132 40 80 120
133 160 134
Lake Eyre South MARREE
-30

-30

"MARREE Kilometers

´´
" 0 40 80 120 160
MARREE 0Produced
40 by Department
80 for Water
120 160 | Science
"

´
-30 -30-30

-30 -30-30

Produced Kilometers
by Department for Water
0Monitoring
40 Kilometers
80 120
& Information 160
Division | Map Projection
Scienceby
Produced Monitoring
Department &forInformation Division
Water | Science
Produced
Lambert byKilometers
Department
Conformal Conicfor| Map
Water | Science
Datum
Map Projection: Lambert Conformal Conic
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection
GLENDAMBO Produced
Map
Monitoringby
Datum: Department
& Datumof
Information for Water
Geocentric | Science
Datumof
Division | Map Australia
Projection
Geocentric Australia 1994 | Date February
" Lake
-31

-31

1994 Conformal Conic | Map Datum

Lambert
Torrens Monitoring
Lambert & Information Division | Map Projection
2012 Conformal Conic | Map Datum
GLENDAMBO Date February 2012
Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February
Lake Gairdner "GLENDAMBO Lake Lambert
Depth toConformal Conic | Map
potentiometric Datum
surface
| Date(m)
-31 -31-31

-31 -31-31

Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 February

" Lake
Torrens
GLENDAMBO 2012
132 133 134 135 " 136 137 Torrens
Lake 138
Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date February
2012
Lake Gairdner Torrens
Lake Gairdner 2012
132 133 134 135 136 137 138
132 133 134 Lake Gairdner
135 136 137 138

132 133 134 135 136 137 138

29
 Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Chloride measurements were made on air-dried
samples. Approximately 20 grams of soil from
each interval was placed into a pre-weighed
(clean and dry) porcelain crucible and re-
weighed. Each sample was then placed in a
fume cupboard to dry for 48 hours. An exhaust
fan within the fume cupboard prevented the
build-up of moisture. After 48 hours, the weight
of the air-dried sample was recorded. Each
sample was air dried for a further 24 hours and
re-weighed. If the sample weight decreased,
the sample was left to air dry for a further 24
hours until the air dry weight was constant
between measurements. Chloride extraction
was undertaken using a fixed 1:5 (soil to water)
ratio. Each air-dried sample was placed into a
clean and dry plastic jar with a water tight lid
and 100 mL of ultra-pure water was added. The
jars were then placed in a mechanical mixer
and turned end over end for ~12 hours. After
the sample settled, each jar was decanted and
then vacuum filter sample using a pre-filter and
0.45 μm filter, then analysed using inductively
coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for
Cl (and other major anions).
Chloride extraction for 36Cl/Cl followed a
saturation extract method. Ultra-pure water was
added to each sample and mixed to saturate
the soil sample. At saturation, the soil paste
glistened. The soil paste mix was allowed to
30
Photo: Roland Purtschert
reach equilibrium overnight, then decanted and
vacuum filtered using a pre-filter and 0.45 μm
filter. The filtered water extracts were then
analysed for 36Cl/Cl at the PRIME Lab, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
Matric potential analysis was undertaken using
the filter paper technique using Whatman No. 42
filter papers. The filter paper was placed in direct
contact with the soil and allowed to equilibrate
for several days in an airtight, isothermal
container. After equilibration, the change in mass
of the filter paper was measured and then related
to the matric potential against a calibration
curve.
2.8.3 Results
2.8.3.1 Matric (soil water) potential and pore
water chloride profiles
Thick unsaturated zones in semi-arid and arid
regions can provide an archive of response to
palaeo-climatic fluctuations (Tyler et al. 1996).
Water and vapour fluxes in the unsaturated zone
may be controlled by climate, vegetation and
sediment texture (Scanlon et al. 2003). The soil
water potential (SWP) can be used to assess
the systems response to variations in those
controlling factors by indicating the potential
for upward versus downward flux. Figure 2.14
illustrates the combined upward and downward

SWP that were measured at the DR3 and DR4
profiles. Both profiles imply the potential for
water and solute transfer (or mixing) in both the
upward and downward directions. If variations
in texture can be excluded, then under varying
climatic conditions vegetation will typically adapt
and the species type and cover of vegetation
become the primary control on infiltration to the
unsaturated zone.
Relative increases in soil water potential are
generally related to relative increases in soil
water chloride down the DR3 profile (Figure
2.15). However, within the top 10 m of the soil
profile, which was previously established as a
mixing zone, the relationship between soil water
chloride and soil water potential is variable.
Although the SWP profiles for DR3 and DR4
are similar in that both upward and downward
potential for water and solute transfer can be
inferred, the soil water chloride profile for DR3
is markedly different to DR4 (Figure 2.16). Soil
water chloride down the DR4 profile peaks in the
top 4 m from the ground surface, then decreases
below the chloride bulge. Whereas at DR3, the
0 100
20
40
Depth (m)
60
80
100
-50 -40
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
2
bulge in chloride concentration has propagated
deeper into the profile (~20 m) and the chloride
concentration below the bulge is generally
higher and more variable. Both profiles can be
considered typical of similar desert environments
found in the US (Walvoord & Scanlon 2004).
2.8.3.2 Reducing uncertainty in chloride
input using 36Cl analysis
Based on chloride deposition and rainfall 36Cl/0
Cl data (for Wintinna Station) presented by
Keywood (1995), a 36Clo of 10.37 has been
adopted for calculation of point diffuse recharge
20
rates using 36Cl/Cl ratios of unsaturated
pore water profiles (at Wintinna Station, DR3
and DR4) within the western margin of the
GAB. The long-term Cl deposition rate at the 40
Wintinna Station study sites was calculated
to be 128 mg/m2/yr (Equation 2.5) compared Depth (m)
to a contemporary estimate of 95 mg/m2/yr
60
calculated using Cl concentrations in rainfall
and dry fallout multiplied by annual rainfall.
An uncertainty of approximately 25% in the Cl
input was therefore generated between the 80
contemporary and long-term estimates.
-50
Figure 2.14: Soil
-40
water potentials -30
for DR3 and DR4
Soil water
Arrows represent the zones of
upward and downward potential
DR3
DR4
-30 -20 -10 0
Soil water potential (MPa)
31
0

Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge

0
-50
2 -40 -30

Soil water potential (MPa)

-20 -10 0

0 2000 4000 6000 8000

Figure 2.15: Soil water chloride
0
and soil water potential, DR3
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Soil water potential

Soil water chloride
20

40
Depth (m)

60

80

100
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0

Soil water potential (MPa)

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0

Soil water potential (MPa)

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Figure 2.16: Soil water chloride
0
and soil water potential, DR4
Soil water potential
Soil water chloride
Soil water potential
Soil water chloride

10
Depth (m)

20

30

40
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0

Soil water potential (MPa)

32
Soil water potential

0 Figure 2.17: Cumulative chloride
5
Cumulative water (m3/m2)
10
15
20
0 10
2.8.3.3 Recharge and residence time
estimates using pore water chloride profiles
Recharge flux estimates (Equation 2.6) range
DR3
between 0.34 mm/yr and 1.65 mm/yr for DR3
DR4
and DR4 respectively. The chloride inventory at
DR3 and DR4 can be used to estimate mean
residence times (or pore water ages) within the
unsaturated zone (Equation 2.7). Generally, the
cumulative chloride (plotted against cumulative
water in Figure 2.17 represents the total amount
of pore water to that depth) may be used as a
proxy for residence time if a constant chloride
flux can be assumed. Note that at DR3 and DR4,
the full unsaturated profile was not sampled
due to drilling restrictions and therefore the
cumulative chloride provided only represents
the chloride inventory to the deepest drill depth
at each site. Using the long-term chloride
deposition rate (128 mg/m /yr), the DR3 profile2
indicates at mean pore water residence time of
~26 ka (to 83 m, total unsaturated zone depth
100–110 m). Similarly, the DR4 implies a mean
pore water residence time of 1.3ka (to 40 m).
C
15
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
20
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
2
0 10 20
in the Great Artesian Basin
Cumula
versus cumulative water for DR3
and DR4
DR3
DR4
20 30 40 50
Cumulative CI (g/m2)
2.9 Major findings
2.9.1 Extent of potential diffuse recharge and
rates
Providing definitive and accurate measurements
of recharge is beyond the current capabilities
of the hydrogeological community (Healy 2010)
and, as such, estimates of recharge are inferred
from other data. By using multiple approaches,
including groundwater techniques (e.g. CMB
and 14C) and unsaturated techniques (e.g. pore
water chemistry), to improve understanding of
diffuse recharge mechanisms, the conceptual
model ultimately improves. With an appropriate
conceptual model, it has been possible to
reduce the uncertainty of diffuse recharge
estimates to provide a range of estimates within
which the actual rate is expected to fit.
This study redefined zones within the western
GAB where diffuse recharge mechanisms have
the potential to operate, including areas that
had not previously been mapped. The outcome
revealed a larger area of 'potential recharge' than
33
 Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
previously considered. Diffuse recharge estimates
across the newly mapped potential recharge
area using CMB techniques resulted in very low
recharge rates (typically less than 0.25 mm/
yr, mean 0.15 mm/yr, range 0.01–1.8 mm/yr).
The estimates of diffuse recharge using the
CMB approach were corroborated by estimates
calculated using C in the Northern Territory
14
(rate of < 1 mm/yr) and the findings from
unsaturated zone coring which suggest a
recharge rate of between 0.34 ± 0.11 mm/yr and
1.65 ± 0.42 mm/yr (the error bounds relating
to the ~25% uncertainty between the long-
term chloride deposition rates compared to
contemporary deposition estimates).
The unsaturated zone profile analysis casts doubt
on one of the critical assumptions underpinning
the CMB method—that the movement of fluid
and solutes through the unsaturated zone is
one-dimensional (piston flow). Soil water potential
analysis at both DR3 and DR4 indicates zones
of upward and downward flux potential within
the profiles, whereas piston flow assumes
solely downward fluxes below the root zone.
Consequently, the CMB results should be viewed
as approximate and used with some caution.
Nonetheless, all methods consistently indicate
that along the western margin of the GAB the
potential for diffuse recharge is extremely low,
such that it can be considered negligible.
Scaling of potential diffuse recharge estimates is
a product of the CMB method; however, given the
low recharge fluxes and associated uncertainties,
the spatial extrapolation should be used with
great caution as it belies an accuracy that is not
necessarily supported by the data.
34
Diffuse recharge estimates up to 2 mm/yr have
been specified; although the real rate may
actually equal zero where the uncertainty of
chloride deposition may result in discrepancy
that exceeds the rate estimated. Because of
these uncertainties, caution should be exercised
if those diffuse recharge rates are used as inputs
into any modelling scenario for management.
The imbalance of recharge to discharge is further
discussed in Section 7.1.4.
2.9.2 Timescales
The majority of groundwater recharge occurring
through the thick unsaturated zones of the
western margin has mean pore water residence
times in the order of up to 20 ka to 30 ka. Simply,
this means that diffuse recharge occurring to
the water table now is a result of rainfall during
the Pleistocene. On the other hand, ephemeral
river recharge mechanisms have timescales
in the order of days, weeks and months. As
suggested by Walvoord and Scanlon (2004)
for a vadose zone study in the US, unsaturated
zones greater than 50 m thick have drying
response times (drying flux) that exceed
palaeo-climatic timescales (climate forcing
cycles) and subsequently vapour fluxes control
the hydrodynamic state, meaning that the
unsaturated zone is not in a steady state.
During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) most of
Australia had an extreme desert climate with the
last major desert phase beginning around 25 ka
before present (BP) and ending before 12 ka BP
(Lioubimtseva 2004). Smith et al. (1995) used
charcoal to interpret variations in tree species
prior to the LGM and during the beginning of the
Holocene, concluding that in central Australia
post-glacial climatic changes increased shrub

cover and acacias which were related to the
onset of more humid conditions in the early-
Holocene. In the Lake Frome region, high grass
percentages occurred between 13 ka and 4.5
ka BP indicating re-establishment of a summer
monsoon circulation following the post-glacial
period (Singh & Luly 1991). From around 4 ka
to 1 ka BP, rainfall declined and the Holocene
was at its most arid (Lioubimtseva 2004; Singh
& Luly 1991). Core profiles from DR3 and DR4
(Section 2.8.3.1) provide responses indicative
of drying and wetting phases, with low recharge
rates and zones of low SWP consistent with arid
phases within the Pleistocene and Holocene.
This outcome is consistent with the decay of
the potentiometric surface of the J Aquifer as
discussed in Chapter 5.
2.10 Conclusions
Diffuse recharge along the western margin of the
GAB calculated using a CMB has a mean rate
of ~0.15 mm/yr, while the zone defined as the
potential area for diffuse recharge mechanisms
to operate to the unconfined J Aquifer extends
east beyond previously assumed area of
recharge. The diffuse recharge rate to the
unconfined J Aquifer compares favourably with
Love et al. (2000) who provided a recharge rate
of 0.16 ± 0.08 mm/yr for two transects along
the South Australian portion of the unconfined J
Aquifer. For management purposes, the diffuse
recharge flux can be considered effectively
zero along the western margin. Furthermore,
given the very low (effectively zero) diffuse
recharge rates, any estimation of recharge as a
percentage of rainfall (which is a common first
pass in water balance modelling) is inappropriate
along the western margin of GAB.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 2: Diffuse recharge
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
2
Any large-scale increase in groundwater
extraction along the unconfined portion of
the western margin may pose a risk to flow to
springs on the western side of the Peake and
Denison Inlier, as groundwater flow effectively
acts within a localised system with little to
minimal flux from the J Aquifer to the east of
the Peake and Denison Inlier. Furthermore, the
matric potential profiles at DR3 and DR4 indicate
that at these locations the unsaturated zone
is not in a steady state, hence recharge to the
unconfined J Aquifer will be variable with time.
Further characterisation of both recharge rates
and mechanisms, including development of the
hydrogeological conceptual model, is strongly
advised before any numerical modelling is
attempted.
A limitation to this investigation was the lack of
precipitation data. It is strongly recommended
that any future investigations along the western
margin of the GAB invest in automated wet and
dry fall collection systems to provide greater
certainty to the spatial and temporal deposition
of chloride and isotopes, and precipitation
volumes.
35
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

3 in the Great Artesian Basin

Ephemeral river recharge

Simon Fulton Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sport, Northern Territory Government
Daniel Wohling Department for Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Government of South Australia
Andrew J Love School of the Environment and the National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training,
Flinders University of South Australia
Volmer Berens Department for Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Government of South Australia

3. Ephemeral river recharge
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Ephemeral river recharge
Ephemeral river recharge (ERR) is the term
adopted by this investigation to describe indirect
recharge resulting from episodic flow events
in arid zone rivers along the western margin of
the Great Artesian Basin (GAB). ERR refers to
recharge occurring 'in channel' through the base
of the river bed and does not encompass any
localised recharge that results from overbank
flooding. Although flow events in arid zone rivers
are often anecdotally referred to as 'floods',
overbank flooding along the recharge reach of
the rivers is relatively rare due to the significant
width and defined channel structure of the rivers
(Figure 3.1).
Photo: Jason Barnetson
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
Potential exists for ERR where surface water
drainage lines intersect outcropping or sub-
cropping sediments of the J Aquifer. In the
western GAB this occurs exclusively along the
basin margin. The depth to groundwater in the J
Aquifer is generally deep along the basin margin
and surface water / groundwater interaction is
characterised as a disconnected losing stream,
as classified by Brunner et al. (2009). The ERR
mechanism is spatially constrained to those
river reaches spanning the area between the
edge of the continuous outcrop of the J Aquifer
and the start of the Rolling Downs Group.
Where the Rolling Downs Group is present, low
permeability shales isolate surface water flows
from the J Aquifer.
Figure 3.1: Finke River in the
recharge zone
Photo on facing page:
Simon Fulton
37
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge
Significant watercourses that flow across the
western basin margin are shown in Figure
3.2. In the Northern Territory these include the
Finke, Todd, Hale, Plenty and Hay Rivers, and
Illogwa Creek, while in South Australia significant
drainage systems include Stevenson Creek and
the Alberga River.
3.1.2 Previous western margin recharge
studies
The Northern Territory Water Resources
Division undertook a groundwater investigation
involving the sampling of GAB stock bores
in the Finke River region, the installation of
two deep confined monitoring bores and the
collection of a suite of chemical and isotopic
data (Matthews 1997). This study identified
elevated radiocarbon concentrations around the
Finke River and proposed that indirect recharge
from flow events in the river lead to enhanced
recharge rates in this area. A bulk recharge
volume for the Northern Territory portion of the
GAB was estimated at 107 m3/yr. The Bureau
of Rural Sciences sampled a series of bores in
the Finke region as part of the basin-wide study
into the hydrodynamics of the Cadna-owie
Formation / Hooray Sandstone Aquifer (Radke et
al. 2000) concluding that elevated radiocarbon
around the Finke River, in addition to a localised
anomaly of lower concentrations of Cl, Ca,
SO4, Na, K and alkalinity, indicated an area of
enhanced recharge. The study suggested that
the highly fractured Bulldog Shale may also act
as a conduit between the Finke River and the J
Aquifer further downstream from the mapped
outcrop area. Love et al. (2000) used chloride
and chlorine-36 (36Cl) dating techniques to
provide mean flow velocities (0.24 ± 0.03 m/
yr) along two transects in the south-western
GAB and an estimate of groundwater recharge
(0.16 ± 0.08 mm/yr) using a chloride mass
balance (CMB) approach.
38
Recharge investigations have been undertaken
by the Bureau of Rural Sciences on the eastern
GAB intake beds in Queensland (Kellett et al.
2003) and in New South Wales (Habermehl
et al. 2010). Kellett et al. (2003) investigated
both direct recharge and indirect recharge
mechanisms using a combination of hydrograph
analysis, and unsaturated and saturated CMB
techniques. Direct recharge rates, both diffuse
and preferential flow, for the Hutton Sandstone
and Kumbarilla Beds ranged between 0.02
and 28.2 mm/yr for unsaturated CMB methods
and < 0.5 to > 20 mm/yr for saturated CMB
methods. Indirect recharge was identified along
several rivers however, no recharge rates were
published. Habermehl et al. (2010) also applied
saturated and unsaturated CMB techniques to
estimate recharge to the Pilliga Sandstone in the
New South Wales GAB intake beds. The study
reported direct recharge rates of 0.1–40 mm/yr.
Several studies have been conducted
investigating slack water deposits in the upper
reaches of the Finke, Todd and Hale Rivers
(Baker et al. 1983; Bourke 1999). Slack water
deposits provide a marker of palaeo-flood levels
within these rivers and provide insight into the
palaeo-hydrology and therefore the recharge
chronology of these systems.
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
133 134 135 3 1

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133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 Figure 3.2: Western GAB
133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141
watercourses

-23
-22

-22
-22

-22
133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 Western Margin Rivers
Western Margin Rivers
¬
«¬
1 Hay River ¬
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3
-22

-22
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¬
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-24
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-26
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¬
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-27
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South
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| Map Projection Lines Geodata
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133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141

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133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141

39
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge
3.1.3 Research objectives
Previous research suggests that along the
western margin of the GAB, leakage from
ephemeral streams is the principal source of
recharge to the J Aquifer (Radke et al. 2000;
Matthews 1996). However, no comprehensive
research has been undertaken to investigate
the nature of the recharge mechanism and there
have been no attempts to quantify recharge
occurring through the Finke River or other
western margin watercourses. Aside from the
Finke system, there is a paucity of data available
to confirm the operation of ERR in other rivers.
In several systems (e.g. the Hale and Plenty
Rivers) hydrostratigraphic information is too
limited to confidently establish the presence of
the J Aquifer and the nature of its connection, if
any, with surface drainage. This research aims to
undertake a detailed investigation of ERR along
the western margin rivers with the following
specific objectives:
40
• develop the hydrogeological understanding of
the western GAB flow systems by gathering
information on groundwater chemistry,
hydrostratigraphy, aquifer extent and
hydraulic characteristics
• describe the spatial distribution and recharge
significance of ephemeral rivers across the
western margin, including estimating the
spatial extent of each river reach contributing
recharge to the J Aquifer
• investigate in detail the operation of the
recharge mechanism including geological
controls, extent of spatial influence within
the J Aquifer and, where possible, the
significance of the recharge mechanism
within the palaeo-climatic record
• quantify modern groundwater recharge from
a losing ephemeral river (Finke River) along
the western margin of the GAB.
Photo: Simon Fulton

3.2 Methodology/research approach
3.2.1 Overview
Characterising recharge mechanisms and
quantifying recharge rates is particularly difficult
in the arid zone due to the large spatial and
temporal variability of recharge and overall
low water fluxes. Estimating recharge to the
J Aquifer from ephemeral rivers along the
western margin is made more complex by the
paucity of time-series data with respect to
both surface and groundwater, the absence of
monitoring infrastructure in the recharge zones,
irregularity of flow events, limited availability of
existing data (aquifer parameters, precipitation,
evapotranspiration) and the remote location of
the study sites. These factors preclude a number
of methods commonly employed to estimate
localised recharge (e.g. artificial tracer studies,
channel loss calculations and hydrograph
fluctuation methods).
Environmental tracer techniques have the benefit
of providing recharge information on a range of
spatial and temporal scales (Herczeg & Love
2007). They have been adopted as a key method
in this recharge study because they are relatively
inexpensive to implement (existing stock and
supply bores can be utilised), reduce reliance on
observing a flow event to achieve results and can
be integrated over a large spatial areas, which
is crucial given the size of the western margin
study area. Environmental tracers also give
insight into palaeo-recharge mechanisms and
rates. Understanding recharge mechanisms over
longer timescales is critical to characterising
flow dynamics in the GAB given the large
groundwater residence times.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
The environmental tracer component of the
investigation was complemented by a program
of targeted drilling to establish hydraulic
observation and monitoring points within the
ephemeral river recharge zones and to build on
the fundamental hydrogeological understanding
of the J Aquifer in data-poor regions (e.g. Plenty
River and Hale River systems). Hydrogeophysical
methods were employed to assist with
characterising the extent and nature of the
Finke River recharge zone. Further detail on the
methodology applied is provided in the following
sections.
The research approach was to initially focus
on enhancing the overall understanding of
ERR along the Finke River. Previous studies
had identified the ERR mechanism operating
in this region but lacked detail as they were
part of regional investigations (Matthews 1997;
Radke et al. 2000). These studies provided a
knowledge platform to build a focused drilling
and sampling program aimed at understanding
the local dynamics of the recharge mechanism
and quantifying recharge rates along the Finke
River. Subsequent effort focused on investigating
ERR along more remote and data-poor river
systems, primarily through drilling programs
(Plenty and Hale Rivers) and the collection of
environmental tracer data (Plenty, Hale and Hay
Rivers, and Illogwa Creek).
41
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge
3.2.2 Hydrochemistry and environmental
tracers
A comprehensive groundwater sampling
program was undertaken across the western
GAB within the Northern Territory. The
groundwater sampling and analysis program
aimed to investigate the spatial distribution of
mean groundwater residence times around
ephemeral river systems and assess the
significance of contemporary recharge through
these systems. The program also characterised
the ionic and isotopic composition of
groundwater in order to delineate flow paths and
investigate groundwater evolution between the
recharge beds and the assumed discharge zone
at Dalhousie Springs. The sampling program
involved:
• a review of accessible groundwater bores in
the western GAB in order to establish reliable
sampling points for the J Aquifer (e.g. bores
with known construction and geology logs)
–– this process assisted in identifying regions
of data paucity that were targeted in the
drilling program
• the collection and analysis of groundwater
samples for following parameters:
–– physical characteristics (pH, Eh, Electrical
conductivity, temperature, dissolved
oxygen)
Figure 3.3: Drilling on the banks
of the Finke River, New Crown
Station, October 2010
42
–– major ion and trace element chemistry
–– environmental tracers including: 36Cl, 14C,
13
C/12C, δ18O & δ2H, 3H/3He, CFC, SF6,
81
Kr, 85Kr, 39Ar, 87Sr/86Sr, other noble gases
• the measurement of standing groundwater
levels to benchmark the potentiometric
surface of the J Aquifer.
3.2.3 Targeted drilling and aquifer hydraulics
During 2008/2009 and 2009/2010, the Northern
Territory Water Resources Division drilling
unit carried the installation of piezometers
in the recharge zone along the Finke River
targeting two geophysical transects (Section
3.2.4) established in January 2009. Nested
piezometers were installed at three locations
along the New Crown Station transect and three
locations at a second site (Focus Recharge
Study site) between the New Crown Station and
Finke Community transects (Figure 3.3). The
broad aim of the drilling program was to assist
in characterising recharge and hydrogeological
processes along the Finke River. Specific
objectives are listed below:
• Construct piezometers in the J Aquifer and
any perched units, if encountered, in order
to establish permanent monitoring bores.
The majority of existing bores in the region
have been drilled for stock and domestic use
Photo: Ian McMasters

and do not have good control on geology or
construction. The drilling program enabled
reliable monitoring bores with discrete
sampling intervals to be constructed.
• Establish vertical and horizontal gradients in
the aquifer beneath and directly adjacent to
the Finke River. The drilling program allowed
for the identification of mounding adjacent to
the Finke River channel and the calculation
of recharge rates to the J Aquifer. Ideally,
piezometers would have been drilled directly
beneath the river bed, however, due to the
difficulty of operating heavy machinery in
the sandy river bed and the risk of losing
infrastructure during subsequent flow events,
this was not practical.
• Install pressure loggers in the bores
after drilling to record groundwater level
fluctuation over the life of the project. This
provided information on pressure effects of
past recharge events and flow events that
occurred during the project timeframe.
• Use drill cuttings and down-hole logging of
the bores to provide geological control and
assist in the interpretation of the gravity and
Transient Electromagnetic (TDEM) surveys.
• At the New Crown Station transect,
use nested sites to investigate perched
groundwater in the overlying river alluvial
sediments and Rolling Downs Group.
Constructed bores determined the degree
of confinement and the extent of interaction
between the Finke River, shallow groundwater
units and the J Aquifer.
The 2011/12 drilling program targeted the
Plenty River and Hale River (referred to as the
northern rivers) along which ephemeral river
recharge is a potential recharge mechanism. The
baseline data in these two systems were much
more limited than the Finke system, with limited
stratigraphic control and no baseline information
on hydraulics or hydrochemistry. The aims for
the northern rivers drilling are listed below:
• Establish the geological presence of the J
Aquifer beneath the respective rivers and
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
investigate the nature of connection (if any)
with the river system.
• Construct dedicated and control monitoring
bores to allow for hydrogeochemical and
tracer sampling. Dating methods will enable
the identification of modern groundwater
and confirm the operation of the recharge
method.
• Install pressure monitoring equipment to
assess the hydraulic response within the J
Aquifer.
3.2.4 Geophysics
Time Domain Electromagnetics (TDEM) was
employed to assist with characterising the Finke
River recharge zone. Survey objectives included
characterising the nature and subsurface
continuity of the geology and structures beneath
the Finke River, examining the potential for
preferential pathways and establishing the
presence or absence of shallow perched
groundwater. Three transects were established
in the vicinity of the Finke Recharge zone on
Lilla Creek Station, adjacent to Apatula (Finke)
Community and downstream on New Crown
Station. At each location, initial site inspection
of the channel was completed to establish
the inundated channel/flow extent and to
determine midpoint of each transect. A bearing
perpendicular to the channel orientation was
incorporated to determine a survey starting
point at a distance of 1 km from the central
channel point. TDEM surveying commenced on
the return bearing defining the transect line and
extended 2 km through the central channel point.
The high resolution NanoTEM system used small
loops designed for measuring early response
time data much faster. The system is designed to
measure data from within 1 to 2 m of the surface
and down to a depth of 20 to 50 m (Hatch et
al. 2002). A multipurpose GDP-32 II receiver
was used to simultaneously collect data on up
to sixteen channels, while controlling signal
frequency and synchronisation. Transmitted
source fields were generated using a NT-20
transmitter powered by a 12-volt battery.
43
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge
Transmitter loops (2.5 mm insulated copper wire)
were 20 x 20 m, with the receiving antenna 5 x 
5 m located centrally within the transmitter loop.
Data were acquired using a repetition rate of 32
hertz and a sampling rate of 1.6 microseconds
(µs). The data were collected in static mode
every 40 m stacking 512 readings. The current
for the survey was set to 2 amperes and the
transmitter delay ramp set in the receiver at
approximately 1.5 µs. A minimum of 3 readings
were collected at each site.
Data were processed and inverted based on
a 1D smooth model inversion (MacInnes &
Raymond 2001). The processing transformed
time versus signal magnitude into model
resistivity as a function of depth. Smoothed
model inversion results were imported into
gridding software and colour shaded to provide
model resistivity sections.
Figure 3.4: Fractures and
cross-bedding in Algebuckina
Sandstone, New Crown Station
44
3.3 Finke River case study
The Finke River recharge zone is located
200 km south-east of Alice Springs on the
western margin of the GAB. Apatula Community
(historically known as Finke Community) is the
closest settlement. Recharge occurs when
surface water from irregular flow events in the
Finke River drains directly into the J Aquifer
where it outcrops on the banks of the river or
sub-crops underneath the river channel. In this
reach of the Finke River, the main channel is well
defined and ranges between 100 and 1000 m
in width with an average width of 370 m. The
channel is incised up to 15 m into the J Aquifer
and filled with a sand bed of between 5 and
8 m (Nanson et al. 1995). The river bed material
consists predominantly of very well sorted,
medium-grained quartz sand. Thin clay drapes
(<1 cm) occur at the surface (Nanson et al.
1995) but are unlikely to operate as an effective
clogging layer due to significant desiccation.
Photo: Simon Fulton
 Figure
TEM
TEMtransect Hydrogeological
3.5:locations
transect locations
134
134 134
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135 135
135 135
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135 135
135 135
135 135
135
setting, Finke River region
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Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,

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Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

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 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge
Within the Finke River recharge zone, the
J Aquifer consists of Jurassic Algebuckina
Sandstone – locally referred to as the De
Souza Sandstone (Sullivan & Opik 1951) and
is characterised as a fine- to medium-grained
quartzose sandstone that is cemented and
silicified. Thin shale and siltstone beds were
encountered during drilling at the focus recharge
site (see Section 3.3.4) but these are minor
and are not considered laterally continuous. In
outcrop the Algebuckina Sandstone is fractured
and weakly consolidated (Figure 3.4).
The J Aquifer dips to the south-east and is
confined by the Bulldog Shale several kilometres
upstream of the New Crown Station Homestead
(Figure 3.5). In the Finke Recharge zone, the
Bulldog Shale is the main confining unit within
the Rolling Downs Group. It comprises a blue to
grey mudstone and siltstone that weathers to
a plastic yellow clay at the top of the formation.
The Bulldog Shale is conventionally regarded
as an aquitard, although Radke et al. (2000)
suggests that fractures and lateral discontinuities
within the formation may act as a conduit for
recharge between the Finke River and the J
Aquifer. The J Aquifer progressively thins to the
west and pinches out approximately 20 km west
of the Finke Community. It is underlain by the
Permian Purni and Crown Point Formations,
which consist of varicoloured clays and silts
interbedded with white kaolinitic sandstone,
diamictites, pebbly sandstones and clays.
A groundwater mound is apparent from
the potentiometric surface of the J Aquifer
(see Chapter 5 for details on potentiometric
surface) beneath the recharge zone (Figure
3.5). Groundwater elevations reach 185 mAHD
(metres Australian Height Datum) adjacent to
the Finke River and decrease in a radial pattern
away from the recharge zone. The regional
groundwater flow direction is to the south-
east. The depth to groundwater in the J Aquifer
averages around 70 mBNS (metres below natural
surface) in the recharge zone.
46
3.3.1 Hydrology
The Finke River catchment is located in the
north-east of the Lake Eyre surface water basin
(see Figure 3.6). Over 70% of the catchment
area is situated outside of the GAB with the
headwaters of the Finke rising in the West
MacDonnell Ranges, 150 km west of Alice
Springs. Under present-day hydrological
conditions, the Finke River has a length of
approximately 600 km and terminates in an
interdunal flood-out in the Simpson Desert.
Craddock et al. (2010) hypothesised that the
Finke River originally connected directly to Lake
Eyre during the wetter climates experienced in
the Oligocene–Miocene 12–35 ka BP). There is
also some suggestion that in years of extreme
flooding (1909, 1938, 1945) the Finke River
drained to Lake Eyre through the Macumba
River, however, conclusive evidence of present-
day connection is still forthcoming (Kotwicki
1986). The Finke River has several tributaries
including the Hugh and Palmer Rivers, Goyder,
Lilla and Coglin Creeks. The Finke River system
has a catchment area of 63 000 km2—over 70%
or 45 000 km2 of the catchment area is upstream
of the GAB intake beds.
Flow events in the Finke River are highly episodic
and are driven by the southward movement
of large low pressure fronts associated with
monsoonal or cyclonic systems in northern
Australia. The availability of gauging data along
the Finke River is limited both with respect to the
spatial coverage of gauging stations and length
of the hydrographic record (Figure 3.6, active
gauging stations on the Finke River system).
The most comprehensive data set is from the
Stuart Highway Bridge Gauging Station (No.
G0050116) which has a 15-year record from
1997 through to 2012. The hydrograph for this
station (Figure 3.7) shows that over the 15-year
record there were 28 discrete flow events and
that the Finke River flows for less than 20%
of the time at the Stuart Highway Bridge. The
majority of flow events are short lived (around
50% of flows have a duration of less than 10
days) and are low flow (80% of daily flows are

less than 5 m3/s; Figure 3.8). These small flows
are commonly driven by very local rainfall activity
and result in flow events in discrete reaches of
the river. In contrast, large events are anecdotally
characterised as those where the river flows
simultaneously along its entire length (from
Hermannsburg through to the flood-out on
Andado Station). Larger flow events occur on a
decadal timeframe (1988, 2000 and 2010) and
often involve multiple flow events (2000, 2010)
which can result in the river flowing for more
sustained periods. The highest recorded flow at
G0050116 occurred in February 2000 and was
estimated at 2510 m3/s. The river continued
to flow in this part of the catchment until
September 2000. Similarly, in 2010 a series of
rainfall events resulted in the Finke River flowing
continuously at the Stuart Highway for the entire
calendar year.
Photo: Simon Fulton
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
Transmission losses in large Lake Eyre Basin
rivers are observed to vary non-linearly with
discharge such that, in the middle to lower
reaches, mean annual discharge decreases
with increasing catchment size (McMahon et
al. 2005). The two operational gauging stations
on the Finke River are both located in the upper
to mid catchments and consequently do not
provide an accurate measure of flow duration
or size where the rivers cross the GAB recharge
zone in the lower catchment. Little quantitative
flow data exist around the Finke Community,
which is situated within the recharge zone.
The closest gauge is located 200 km upstream
and does not capture the flood contribution of
the Hugh River, a major tributary of the Finke.
The lack of stage height and flow data for the
reach of the Finke River coincident with the
GAB recharge beds limits the range of methods
available for recharge estimation in this system.
47
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river

(ASWMA) 2000 Geoscience Australia,

Watercourse Lines Geodata V3 2006
Active Stream Gauge

Locality Areas 2008 DPI NTG, Road

Finke Catchment NT

Surface Water Management Areas

recharge

Geoscience Australia, Australian

Town/Community

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with active gauging stations -24 -25 -26
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-24 -25 -26

48
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3

Figure 3.7: Finke River flows

at the Stuart Highway Bridge
gauging station (G0050116)
Stage height (m)

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Year

10000 Figure 3.8: Flow duration curve

(G0050116) 2004–2012

No-flow conditions excluded

1000

100
Stream discharge (m3/s)

10

0.1

0.01

0.001
0 20 40 60 80 100

Percentage of days equalled or exceeded

49
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge

3.3.2 Characterisation of the recharge zone Transect 2 (Apatula Community) is situated at

Previous studies (Radke et al. 2000; Matthews
1997) have identified modern recharge occurring
through the Finke River but did not attempt
to define the extent of the recharge zone. The
effective recharge area can be used in concert
with recharge rates to calculate a recharge
volume the Finke River contributes to the J
Aquifer. This section uses geophysics and time-
series water level data, in addition to historical
drilling and sampling data to approximate the
extent of the Finke River recharge zone.
NanoTEM surveys were conducted in January
and August 2009 and provide insight into the
subsurface geology at three locations along the
Finke River (Figure 3.9). Transect 1 (Old Crown)
is located 20 km upstream of Finke Community
on the western edge of the GAB margin;
the Finke Community river crossing; Transect 3
is located at the New Crown river crossing and
aims to investigate the potential for recharge in
areas where the fractured Bulldog Shale overlies
the J Aquifer. A discussion of the features and
conclusions for each transect is provided below
in Table 3.1. Locations of transects are shown in
Figure 3.5.
At both the Old Crown and New Crown
transects, there is very limited potential for
recharge to the J Aquifer. At Old Crown, the
NanoTEM image shows a conductor underneath
the river bed that is interpreted as the Crown
Point Formation. The presence of the Crown
Point implies that the Algebuckina Sandstone
has pinched out to the east of the transect.

Table 3.1: Results and conclusions from Finke River TDEM survey

Transect Interpretation

Old Crown The area of higher resistivity directly beneath the river at around 10 m is consistent
with thickness of river bed sands (5–8 m from Nanson et al. 1995). Resistive data such
as this can plausibly be related to clean river sands, with or without fresh water in the
pore spaces to variable saturation levels. If any water is present in the pore spaces it
seems reasonable to be of low salinity (relatively resistive) given the recent channel flow.
The zone of lower resistivity underlying the river bed is likely to reflect clays/siltstones
of the Crown Point Formation. The Crown Point Formation underlies the J Aquifer
and implies the aquifer has pinched out downstream of this location. The zone of low
resistivity (orange to red) in the shallow subsurface on the western edge of the image
suggests perched water table with slightly saline groundwater—this is confirmed by bore
RN002012, which indicates a water table at approximately 10–15 m with a conductivity
of 6000 EC. This low resistivity feature terminates abruptly at 360 m; this could reflect
either the truncation of the aquifer by the Finke River channel or alternatively the limit of
fresh water flushing by the surface water flows.

Apatula Relatively uniform resistivity across the profile and with depth are consistent with a single,
(Finke Community) relatively homogenous geology (e.g. Algebuckina Sandstone outcropping and extending
to depth beyond the profile base), the profile shows no pronounced high-resistivity
features in shallow subsurface which may have indicated perched groundwater or
shallow clays that would impede rapid recharge to the regional water table at 70 mBNS.
The relatively high resistivities through all of this profile are markedly different to any of
the other survey sites and are suggestive of different geology setting; this is interpreted
as resulting from a single layer highly resistive sandstone in contrast to the multi-layer
sandstone, clay and siltstones seen along the other transects.

New Crown A uniform and continuous low-resistivity feature is apparent across the transect at a
depth of 20 m. Drilling data from bore RN018350 indicate that this conductor is reflecting
the presence of the Bulldog Shale which was intersected at between 11 m and 28 m. This
feature appears to be laterally extensive beneath the river channel, suggesting that the
J Aquifer is effectively isolated from surface water by the Bulldog Shale. The top 20 m is
quite resistive, indicative of aeolian and alluvial sands which are observed at surface and
in bore records.

50
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3

West Old Crown station - August 2009 East Figure 3.9: Finke River NanoTEM

1060

1140

1220

1300

1380

1460

1540

1620

1700

1780

1860

1940
survey showing resistivity
100

180

260

340

420

500

580

660

740

820

900

980
20

(ohm-m)
280

260
Elevation (mAHD)

240

220

200

180

Model Resistivity(ohm-m)
100m 300m
160
1 4 11 32 89 251 708 0m 200m 400m

South Apatula Finke community - August 2009 North

1060

1140

1220

1300

1380

1460

1540

1620

1700

1780

1860

1940
100

180

260

340

420

500

580

660

740

820

900

980
20

260

240
Elevation (mAHD)

220

200

180

Model Resistivity(ohm-m) 100m 300m

160
1 4 11 32 89 251 708 0m 200m 400m

West New Crown station - August 2009 East

1060

1140

1220

1300

1380

1460

1540

1620

1700

1780

1860

1940
100

180

260

340

420

500

580

660

740

820

900

980
20

220
Elevation (mAHD)

200

180

160

Model Resistivity(ohm-m) 100m 300m

140
1 4 11 32 89 251 708 0m 200m 400m

The New Crown profile reveals a continuous The simplest approach to mapping the
coverage of Bulldog Shale and no evidence recharge zone was to assume the distribution
of preferential recharge through fractures or of Algebuckina Sandstone outcrop was
discontinuities within the formation. Drilling on representative of the reach of the Finke River
this site revealed a perched water table in the contributing recharge to the J Aquifer. However,
weathering zone at the top of the Bulldog Shale. a review of historic drilling data indicates
Time-series data from loggers placed in the some inconsistency between the surface
perched aquifer and J Aquifer reveal that the expression of the Algebuckina Sandstone
shallow aquifer responds to flow events in the and the saturated extent of the J Aquifer. Beer
Finke River but no response was discernible in Street Bore (RN007397), located 6 km west of
the J Aquifer (Figure 3.10). Results confirm that Finke Community, records 67 m of unsaturated
the Bulldog Shale acts as an effective aquitard Algebuckina Sandstone before penetrating
isolating the J Aquifer from the Finke River. and screening the confined Crown Point
Formation. No significant water intersections

51
 164 211

163 210

162 209
Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
RWL (mAHD)

RWL (mAHD)
recharge
161 208

3
160 207

159 206

158
Figure 3.10: Hydrograph for 164 205 211
Nov 09 Jan 10 Mar 10 May 10 Jul 10 Sep 10 Nov 10 Jan 11 Mar 11
RN018352 (J Aquifer) and
RN018353 (perched aquifer)
163 210

Perched aquifer
162 209
J Aquifer
RWL (mAHD)

RWL (mAHD)
161 208

160 207

159 206

158 205
Nov 09 Jan 10 Mar 10 May 10 Jul 10 Sep 10 Nov 10 Jan 11 Mar 11

Perched aquifer
were encountered during drilling through the
J Aquifer
Algebuckina Sandstone. Matthews (1997)
reports a radiocarbon concentration of 43 pmC
(an uncorrected mean residence time of 6640
years) for groundwater from RN007397. These
results imply the Crown Point Formation is
not receiving modern recharge from the Finke
River at this location. For this investigation,
RN07397 is adopted as the western limit of the
Finke recharge zone. The eastern limit of the
recharge zone is conservatively taken as 30 km
downstream of the Finke Community crossing.
This point is several kilometres upstream of
the first mapped outcrop of Bulldog Shale.
Field reconnaissance identified unmapped
Algebuckina Sandstone in the river banks along
this stretch of the Finke River. The reach of the
Finke River believed to contribute recharge
to the J Aquifer extends for 35 km. The main
channel of the Finke River across this area was
digitised using spot imagery and covers an area
of approximately 13 km2.
3.3.3 Regional hydrochemistry and isotope
assessment
Extensive groundwater sampling was
undertaken between November 2008 and
December 2011 at 50 sites within the Finke
River region. The sampling incorporated 37
groundwater sites including project investigation
bores, stock production and community water
supply bores. Between November 2008 and
April 2011 there were 14 flow events recorded
in the Finke River at the Stuart Highway Bridge
gauging station (Figure 3.7). Twenty-two surface
water samples were opportunistically taken
during these events at a series of locations from
the Finke River and its tributaries. One rainfall
sample was obtained from New Crown Station
in November 2008. Samples were analysed for
a suite of chemical and isotopic constituents
(see Section 3.2.2 for further detail). Historic
groundwater chemistry and isotope data were
drawn from Matthews (1997), Radke et al.
(2000), Mahara et al. (2009) and the Northern
Territory Water Resource Branch database.
The sampling targeted bores screening the J
Aquifer, however samples were also collected
from the overlying aquifer in the Rolling Downs
Group and the underlying Permian Crown Point
Formation and Devonian Finke Group. It should
be assumed that results are for the J Aquifer,
unless otherwise stated.
3.3.3.1 Major ion chemistry
The piper diagram (Figure 3.11) presents
groundwater data for the J Aquifer categorised
by distance from the recharge zone, in addition
to New Crown Station rainfall and Finke River
surface water samples. The diagram shows a
clear evolution from Ca-HC03 groundwater in
rainfall and the recharge source water through to
a Na-Cl type groundwater as distance increases
down flow path from the recharge zone.

52
 Mg
0
100

10
90

20
80

Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3:70Ephemeral river30

Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge 40
60
Western Great Artesian Basin
50 50
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin 40
3
60

70
30

20 8

100 10
Figure 3.11: Piper diagram
100
90 0 categorised by sampling distance
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 1
90 from the Finke recharge zone
80 Ca
80
70 Rain new crown
70
60 Recharge water
60
50 1 - 20km
50
20-40km
40
40
40-60km
30
30 >60km
20
20
10
10
0
0
Mg SO4
0 0 100
100

10 10
90 90

20 20
80 80

30 30
70 70

40 40
60 60

50 50
50 50

60 60
40 40

70 70
30 30

20 80 80
20

90 90
10 10
100 100
0 0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ca Na HCO3 CI

Rain new crown

Hydrochemical
Rechargeratios
water have been used
extensively in groundwater studies to trace the
1 - 20km
evolution20-40km
of atmospheric
systems 40-60km
(Herczeg et al. 1991, Love et al. 1994;
>60km
Kimblin 1995). Meteoric waters have an ionic
signature that reflects their oceanic origin.
Processes such as rock–water interaction,
precipitation and dissolution of minerals and
ion exchange reactions alter the ionic ratio of
rain water (Acworth & Jankowski 1997). The
examination of ionic ratios makes it possible to
identify the dominant processes affecting the
chemical composition of groundwater.
3.3.3.2 Chloride versus distance from
recharge zone
Figure 3.12A shows that chloride concentrations
are relatively low close to the Finke River
(< 160 mg/L) and increase noticeably with
distance from the recharge zone once the
aquifer becomes confined (approximately 25 km
from the recharge sink). The data support the
water in groundwater operation of the Finke River as an active source
of recharge to the J Aquifer and indicates
groundwater is accumulating chloride down flow
path.
Many groundwater bores within the confined
section of the aquifer are constructed in the top
few metres of the J Aquifer. The defined increase
in chloride in the confined bores (blue diamonds)
may be the result of higher chloride groundwater
within the Rolling Downs Group diffusing
downwards into the J Aquifer. Drilling from the
2008/2009 drilling program at New Crown
Homestead showed that chloride concentrations
within the J Aquifer are significantly higher in
the top of the aquifer than at greater depth (e.g.
50 m).

53
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge
1500 A 2000 B

3 1250
1750

1500

CI/Br molar ratio

Chloride (mg/L)

1000
1250

750 3.3.3.3 Chloride/bromide

1000 versus chloride negligible bromide. Other processes, such as
Chloride and bromide are highly soluble, evapotranspiration, lead to the concentration of
750
500 conservative ions that do not occur in large both
Sea water chloride and bromide but do not alter the
concentrations500in most rock forming minerals Cl/Br ratio.
250
(Davies et al. 1998).
250 Chloride/bromide (Cl/Br)
ratios in precipitation are very homogenous and Cl/Br ratios in the J Aquifer around Finke range
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 prove
125a powerful tool
0 for
250tracing
500 the 750
evolution
1000 1250 from
1500 406 to 2010 with an average of 1137
Distance from Finke River recharge zone (km) Chloride (mg/L)
of water in groundwater systems (Davies et al. (Figure 3.12B). Generally ratios are elevated
1998). Specific processes will shift the molar above the oceanic range (550–700), suggesting
25 C -5 D
ratio of Cl/Br away from the oceanic ratio which the addition of chloride or the removal of
ranges between-6550 and 700. The precipitation bromide relative to meteoric water. A potential
20
of halite leaves residual waters greatly enriched source for the additional chloride in the system
-7
in bromide and results in low Cl/Br ratios may come from the recharge source water in
δ18O (‰ V-SMOW)
Chloride (mg/L)

15
line (Herczeg & Edmunds
-8 1999). Groundwater the Finke River. Limited surface water analysis
tion
rd
ilu actively dissolving halite is characterised by of flood water in the Finke returned Cl/Br ratios
te -9
10 wa
Sea very high Cl/Br ratios of between 2250 and in excess of 2100 in flood waters. Evaporite
22 500 (Davies-10
et al. 1998). Cl/Br ratios can deposits are recorded in the Amadeus Basin
5 be raised to a lesser degree by water–rock sequence (e.g. Bitter Springs Formation) which
-11
interaction with rocks that contain chloride but outcrops along the Finke River upstream of the
0 -12
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 25 50 75 100 125
Figure 3.12: Ion plots for J Aquifer
Sodium (mmols) 1500 Distance from Finke River rechargeAzone (km) 2000 B
in Finke Region
1750
1250
J Aquifer unconfined
1500
CI/Br molar ratio

J Aquifer confined
Chloride (mg/L)

1000
1250

750 1000

750
500
Sea water
500

250
250

0 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Distance from Finke River recharge zone (km) Chloride (mg/L)

25 C -5 D

-6
20
-7
δ18O (‰ V-SMOW)
Chloride (mg/L)

15
e -8
lin
n
lutio
r di
te -9
10 wa
a
Se
-10

5
-11

0 -12
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 25 50 75 100 125
Sodium (mmols) Distance from Finke River recharge zone (km)

J Aquifer unconfined
54 J Aquifer confined
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the 0
recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3

GAB. Surface water flows may dissolve halite
from outcrop and springs where the Finke River
crosses these formations
The ionic plot of sodium versus chloride
-20
δ2H and δ18O concentrations from J Aquifer
in the Finke region have been plotted against
the Alice Springs Local Meteoric Water Line
(LMWL) in Figure 3.13. The Alice Springs LMWL
has been derived from monthly weighted δ2H

δ2H (‰ V-SMOW)
(Figure 3.12C) illustrates that at lower chloride and δ18O taken from the Global Network of -40

concentrations, characteristic of groundwater Isotopes in Precipitation program conducted

close to the recharge zone, values plot close to by the International Atomic Energy Agency.
the seawater dilution line. Groundwater samples have been grouped into 100-150mm/month

bores within 25 km of the recharge zone (orange

3.3.3.4 Stable isotopes (δ2H and δ18O)
Stable isotopes of water (δ2H and δ18O) give
insight into the geochemical evolution and
recharge characteristics of groundwater. They
symbols) and bores greater than 25 km from of
-60
the recharge zone (green symbols). The blue
squares represent the amount-weighted mean
δ2H and δ18O composition of different size rainfall

3
.9
-5
O
δ 18
150-200mm/month
are a powerful tool because they directly record events for Alice Springs rainfall (after Harrington

43
6.
the evolution of the water molecule in contrast to et al. 2002).

=
H
δ2
solutes which have complex interactions with the -80

host aquifer.

>200mm/month

0 Figure3.13: Stable isotopes

-14 -12 -10of -8
regional groundwater in the Finke δ
area and Alice Springs LMWL
0-50mm/month

J Aquifer <25km from Finke River

J Aquifer >25km from Finke River

8)
.4
-4

Alice Springs weighted mean rainfall

O

-20
δ 18
86
6.
=
H
(δ 2

50-100mm/month
L
W
LM
gs
rin
Sp
e
ic
Al
δ2H (‰ V-SMOW)

-40

100-150mm/month

-60
93
.
-5
O
δ 18

150-200mm/month
43
6.
=
H
δ2

-80

>200mm/month

-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0

δ18O (‰V-SMOW)

J Aquifer <25km from Finke River 55

J Aquifer >25km from Finke River
 -8

Chapter 3: Ephemeral river

Mean groundwater δ18O<25km from the Finke River
recharge
-10 9.75 ‰ V-SMOW

3
-12

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
2
Figure 3.14: Mean groundwater
δ18O concentration plotted
with the average weighted δ18O
concentration in Alice Springs
rainfall
0

Average weighted monthly

δ18O for Alice Springs rainfall

-2
δ18O (‰V-SMOW)

-4

-6

-8

Mean groundwater δ18O<25km from the Finke River

-10 9.75 ‰ V-SMOW

-12

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Groundwater samples from the J Aquifer within 25 km of the recharge zone and plot closer to
25 km of the recharge zone plot with a very the 100–150 mm mean monthly rainfall. Results
similar gradient to the Alice Springs LMWL, indicate that groundwater within the J Aquifer
indicating very little evaporation occurred during greater than 25 km from the Finke River was
Average weighted monthly
recharge. δThese
18 values
O for Alice arerainfall
Springs more depleted in δ2H recharged through a different mechanism (e.g.
and δ O than J Aquifer groundwater sampled
18
direct recharge as opposed to ERR) or under
greater than 25 km from the recharge zone and different climatic conditions (e.g. spring/winter
approach a composition similar to the monthly dominated rainfall as opposed to summer
average rainfall of 150–200 mm. Average δ18O monsoonal events).
in these groundwaters was -9.75‰; when
compared with monthly weighted totals for Alice 3.3.3.5 Radiocarbon (14C)
Springs rainfall it suggests that recharge occurs Carbon-14 (14C) is a radionuclide with a known
almost exclusively between January and March decay rate and a half-life of 5730 years.
(Figure 3.14). Results are consistent with rapid Carbon is near ubiquitous in groundwater,
recharge driven by summer monsoonal weather making 14C a useful and commonly employed
events. tracer in hydrogeological investigations
where groundwater residence times are less
J Aquifer groundwater sampled farther than than 30 ka (Clark & Fritz 1997). Carbon-14 is
25 km from the recharge zone are less depleted conventionally reported as percent modern
in δ H and δ O than those sampled within
2 18
carbon (pmC) which is defined as the absolute

56

percent modern relative to the NBS oxalic
acid standard, corrected for decay since 1950
(Stuiver & Polach 1977). The year 1950 is taken
as the zero year for modern 14C activity: therefore
groundwater values less than 100 pmC indicate
a recharge pre-1950 and samples which have
an activity greater than 100 pmC are indicative of
groundwater recharge post-1950 (Kalin 1999).
After 1950, atmospheric weapons testing and
nuclear power plants resulted in a substantial
increase in the concentration of atmospheric 14C.
In 1963, atmospheric 14C concentrations in the
northern hemisphere peaked at nearly double
the pre-testing levels before gradually declining
over the last 50 years with the cessation of
atmospheric weapons testing (Clark & Fritz
1997). The C peak provides a useful event
14
marker for identification of modern groundwater.
Sampling results from the Finke region reveal
elevated 14C concentrations in groundwater
close to the river channel and a trend of
decreasing 14C concentrations down flow path
away from the river (Figure 3.15A). Carbon-14
concentrations in groundwater close to the
Finke River approach current day atmospheric
concentrations of 100 pmC and suggest a
groundwater residence time of less than 60
years. SF6 and CFC concentrations in these
bores corroborate the presence of modern
groundwater. Carbon-14 concentrations
100
80
60
C (pmC)
14
40
20
0 -11
0 25 50
Distance from Finke River recharge zone (km)
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
decrease uniformly as distance from the Finke
River increases, indicating longer groundwater
residence times in the order of thousands of
years. The pronounced trend between 14C
concentrations and distance from the Finke
recharge zone indicates that the Finke River is an
active source of recharge to the J Aquifer.
A comparison of 14C and δ18O concentrations
(Figure 3.15B) reveals that bores with higher
14
C (greater than 70 pmC) are more depleted
in δ18O (-8.7 to -10.9‰), whereas bores with
lower 14C concentrations (less than 20 pmC) are
less depleted in δ18O (-4.6 to -8.2‰). Results
indicate that as mean residence time increases,
δ18O concentrations in groundwater become
less depleted. A potential explanation may be
that older groundwater was recharged under a
different palaeo-climate, one in which winter and
spring rainfall dominates (winter/spring rainfall is
less depleted in δ18O, Figure 3.14). Alternatively,
the trend may suggest older groundwater was
emplaced via a different recharge mechanism.
The ERR mechanism is characterised by very
depleted δ18O signatures resulting from the rapid
infiltration of water from high rainfall events.
Under diffuse recharge mechanisms, recharging
water may spend more time in the shallow soil
zone resulting in greater evaporation and a less
depleted δ18O signature.
Figure 3.15: Carbon-14 in
A -5 B
groundwater versus distance from
Finke River
-6
δ18O (‰V-SMOW)
-7
-8
-9
-10
75 100 80 60 40 20 0
14
C (pmC)
57
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge

3.3.3.6 Recharge estimates based on 14C
horizontal flow velocities
The mean residence time of groundwater can
be used to determine groundwater velocities
and, in certain circumstances, be used to
approximate recharge rates. In contrast to
hydraulic estimates, groundwater residence time
derived velocities are independent of hydraulic
conductivity, a parameter that is difficult to
constrain on a regional scale and one which can
vary by several orders of magnitude (Herczeg
& Love 2007). The following technique was
pioneered by Vogel (1967) and further developed
by Appelo and Postma (1993) and Cook and
Bohlke (2000).
Applying the Dupuit-Forchheimer assumption
that horizontal groundwater flow in an
unconfined aquifer is constant with depth,
recharge (R) in m/yr can be estimated if the
mean residence time of groundwater is known at
where H is the constant unconfined aquifer
thickness (m), θ is the porosity, t is the apparent
groundwater residence time (yr) and z is the
vertical travel distance (m) (see Figure 3.16 for
schematic).
In confined aquifers, assuming the aquifer is of
constant thickness, uniform porosity (unitless)
and bounded by an impermeable aquiclude,
groundwater residence time will increase with
distance along a flow line (Herczeg & Love
2007). If the groundwater samples are collected
from the same aquifer at the same depth along
a groundwater flow path, then the horizontal
flow velocity between those two points can be
determined:
x2 – x1
v h=
t2 – t1
3.2

a discrete depth using the following equation: where vh is the horizontal velocity (m/yr), x2-x1 is
the horizontal distance between sampling points
(m) and t2-t1 is the difference in residence time
Hθ H
R=
t
ln (H–z ) between the two samples (yr). The horizontal
flow velocity is directly proportional to the
3.1 width of the recharge area , the recharge rate

Figure 3.16: Conceptual models

Unconfined Unconfined Confined
of two recharge scenarios
(Herczeg & Love 2007)

R (recharge) R (recharge)

x x x*
x0 x’
F l ow pa
F lo
w
pa

z
th

th

z
H H

A: Diffuse recharge to an unconfined aquifer B: Recharge to an unconfined aquifer that

becomes confined down gradient

58
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3

Table 3.2: Carbon-14 travel time, horizontal velocities and recharge rates

Recharge rate (mm/

time between bores
Groundwater travel

Horizontal velocity

Average saturated
Distance between

Width of recharge

aquifer thickness

Porosity**
beds (m)*
bores (m)
Bore pair

(years)

(m/yr)

(m)
Vh

yr)
H

θ
RN003992 1921 120 6.5 x
370 120 0.23 490
RN012945

RN004015 1716 180 7.6 370 180 0.23 850

RN012363

RN017434 6492 170 3.6 370 170 0.23 380

RN018304

* Taken from average width of Finke River channel over the recharge beds
** Mean porosity for the Algebuckina Sandstone from Radke et al. 2000

and inversely proportional to the height and greater than 60 years (verified by CFC and SF6
porosity of the aquifer (Cook & Bohlke 2000). concentrations) ensuring the bomb peak was
This equation can be rearranged to solve for the not influencing 14C concentrations. Three pairs of
recharge rate as follows: bores in the Finke region met these criteria; their
locations are provided in Figure 3.17.

Carbon-14 results were not corrected for

vh – Hθ
R=
x
where x is width of the recharge beds (m).
This method is conventionally applied to
confined aquifers downstream of an unconfined
recharge zone. The J Aquifer is unconfined
both along and down gradient of the Finke
River recharge zone, however, given the arid
environment, it is assumed that the recharge
flux down flow path of the river recharge sink is
negligible. On this basis the confined recharge
solution is considered more applicable as long
as H is taken as the saturated aquifer thickness
rather than the total aquifer thickness.
For the Finke River case study, C was adopted
isotopic fractionation and chemical dilution
on the basis of Fontes (1983). The J Aquifer is
3.3 considered a non-carbonate aquifer with high
porosity and is assumed to be an open system
with respect to CO2. In such systems, Fontes
(1983) considers the application of 14C correction
models unnecessary. Carbon-14 concentrations
were calibrated using Oxcal Version 4.1 (Bronk-
Ramsey 2009) and applying the SHCal04
Southern Hemisphere calibration curve
(McCormac et al. 2004). Any error associated
with the lack of correction or calibration will
be minimised as the relative groundwater age
between two bores has been calculated. This
technique minimises the uncertainty associated
with 14C ages because it does not require an
initial 14C concentration.
14

as the dating tool to estimate the horizontal

velocity between measurement points. Bore
pairs were selected that met the following
criteria: both bores had to be along a flow
path, downstream of the recharge sink and
have a mean groundwater residence time

59
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge

Figure 3.17: Bore pairs used in 14C Vogel Recharg

134 134 135 135 135 135 135
recharge calculations Groundwa
direction
Vogel Recharge Estimation
134 134 135 135 135 135 135 (
! Bore used
Groundwater flow
Vogel Recharge Estimation direction
Legend
Groundwater flow (
! Bore used in recharge estimate
-25

-25
direction !
( Bore J Aq
(
! Bore used in recharge estimate Legend (
! Town/Co
-25

-25
!
( Bore J Aquifer CREEK
Legend RIVER
!
( (
! Town/Community !
(
-25

!
( Bore J Aquifer Potentiom
CREEK
-25

-25
(
! Town/Community RIVER Finke Re
!
(
180
!
(
CREEK Potentiometric Contours Formation Outc
-25

-25
!
(
RIVER J aquifer
!
(
Finke Recharge Zone
Potentiometric Contours 180 !
(
!
( Rolling D
Finke !
(!(!(!( Formation Outcrop
-25

Finke Recharge Zone

RN017434
!
(
!
(
Crown P
J aquifer
-26

-26
!
(
175 (
!
!
( RN004015
Formation Outcrop J aquifer
!
(
!
( (
!
!
( Rolling Downs Group
Finke !
( !
!
(
(
!
( RN017434 Crown Point Formation
J aquifer
J aquifer !
(
J aquifer
-26

-26
175 (
!
!
( RN004015
Rolling Downs Group 170 J aquifer unsaturated
RN003992 RN012963
k !
(
!
(
Crown Point Formation r ee (
! J!(aquifer unconfined 0 5 1
rC
-26

(
!
!
( !!
(
e (
J aquifer confined
J aquifer unsaturated yd
Go
-26

-26
170 !
(
J aquifer
k unconfined RN003992 RN012963 Kilom
ee

´
Cr (
! 0 5 10 15 20
erJ aquifer confined
!
(
!
( !!
((
!
(
Produced by NRET
d RN018304
oy Map Projection Lam
-26

G -26
!
(
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´
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!
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-26

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-26

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( Fin February 2012 | Data Sources Watercourse Lines Geological Survey a
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Produced by NRETASm, Natural 16 Geology 1:250 000 1997 Northern Territory

February 2012 | Data Sources Watercourse Lines
Resources Division !
( Geological Survey and Geosciences Australia.
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Map Projection: Lambert Conformal Conic Locality Areas 2008 DPI NTG,
-26

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5 1997 Northern Territory
16 Geocentric
-26

-26
Map Datum:
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and Geosciences of
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Locality Areas 2008 DPI NTG, lin C
re ek
Date: February 2012
-26

-26

0
Data Sources: Watercourse Lines Geodata 16 Cog
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-26

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Geological Survey and Geosciences 16 134 134 135 135 135 135 135

Australia. Locality Areas 2008 DPI NTG,

134 134 135 135 135 135 135

60

Photo: Simon Fulton
Inputs and results for the recharge calculations
are summarised in Table 3.2. Carbon-14
recharge rates for the Finke River ranged from
380 to 850 mm/yr (5100 to 11300 ML/yr across
the recharge zone).
3.3.4 Focus recharge study site
3.3.4.1 Site description
In April 2010, a series of targeted bores aimed
at quantifying ERR in the Finke River were
constructed. An investigation site, referred to
as the focus recharge study site, was selected
on New Crown Station approximately 15 km
east of Apatula Community. At this location the
Finke River bed consists of medium- to coarse-
grained, well-sorted quartz sand greater than
4 m in thickness. The river bed directly overlies
the J Aquifer, which outcrops in the river bank
adjacent to the study site (Figure 3.18).
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
Figure 3.18: J Aquifer outcrop
adjacent to focus recharge study
site (April 2010)
A transect was established roughly
perpendicular to the Finke River and parallel
to assumed local groundwater flow lines.
Three bores were constructed at depths of
65 m (RN018593), 80 m (RN018592) and
95 m (RN018591) as a nested group directly
adjacent to the river and two bores (RN018589,
RN018590) were completed to depths of 95 m
down gradient at distances of 150 m and 250 m
respectively. An aerial and section view of the
transect is provided in Figure 3.19.
All bores were constructed with cemented 6"
Class 12 PVC (RN018589, 91, 92, 93) or 8" steel
casing (RN018590). Three-metre stainless steel
screens were telescoped through the base of
the cased interval to ensure the discrete interval
was screened. The standing water level at time
of drilling was approximately 67 mBNS. All five
bores were equipped with pressure/temperature
loggers and an additional pressure/temperature
logger was installed in the Finke riverbed
adjacent to the bore site.
61
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge

Figure 3.19: Aerial view of Finke

River in no-flow condition and
transect view of piezometers in
Finke River recharge focus site

250 Finke River RN018591/92/93 RN018589 RN018590

225
Elevation (mAHD)

200

176 175

175 150

174 125
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
RWL (mAHD)

173 Distance (m)

172

171

170

169

Figure 3.20: Water level response 176

168
at
Maythe
10 focus recharge
Jun 10 Jul 10studyAug
site
10 Sep 10 Oct 10 Nov 10 Dec 10 Jan 11 Feb 11 Mar 11 Apr 11
May 2010–April 2011 (mAHD) 175

174
RN018593
RWL (mAHD)

RN018592 173

RN018591
172
RN018589
RN018590 171

170

169

168
May 10 Jun 10 Jul 10 Aug 10 Sep 10 Oct 10 Nov 10 Dec 10 Jan 11 Feb 11 Mar 11 Apr 11

RN018593
RN018592
RN018591
RN018589
RN018590

62

A. 16 October 2010
Photo: Ian McMasters
3.3.4.2 Hydraulic observations
Time-series water level data from the focus
recharge study site, May 2010 to April 2011,
are presented in Figure 3.20. At the time the
bores were drilled, the static level in the J Aquifer
was declining after large surface water flows
in January and late February 2010. Significant
recharge events occurred in October 2010,
February 2011 and March 2011. These events
resulted in a net water level rise of 6.75 m
in RN018593 (the shallowest nested bore
adjacent to the river channel). Vertical gradients
are downward within the nested site with a
maximum gradient between RN018593 and
RN018591 (deepest nested bore) of 0.09.
Darcy's Law was used to estimate the vertical
flux by adopting a hydraulic conductivity (K)
of 10 m/day (estimated from the time lapse
between the flow event and groundwater
response) and a porosity of 0.23 (Radke et al.
2000). Calculations yield a maximum recharge
flux of 208 mm/day. Vertical gradients reduce
rapidly as the flow events cease and infiltration
diminishes. Horizontal gradients indicate
groundwater flow is away from the Finke River
towards the bores RN018589 and RN018590.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
Figure 3.21: Two flow events in
the Finke River at the study site
B. 23 November 2010 (minor flow)
Photo: Simon Fulton
3.3.4.3 Recharge estimation
In the 48 hours to the 16 October 2010, 110 mm
of rainfall was recorded at the New Crown
Station Homestead (Bureau of Meteorology
Station 15600). A flow event in the Finke River
resulted with a bank to bank flow observed in
the recharge reach of the river (Figure 3.21A);
note the width of the river in this image is
approximately 400 m.
The surface water gauging and groundwater
response at RN018593 are presented below
in Figure 3.22 with the stage height of the river
(blue) and groundwater level response in the J
Aquifer (green). The second, smaller event was
restricted to a single channel flow which was
recorded on 23 November 2010 (Figure 3.21B).
While the October flow event produced a 3.4 m
rise in groundwater levels, the November flow
only resulted in a flattening of the decay curve
from the earlier event. These observations
suggest that, though less frequent, large flow
events are more significant with respect to
recharge to the J Aquifer.
63
 4 173

Reduced water level J Aquifer (mAHD)

3 172
Stage height Finke River (m)

Chapter 3: Ephemeral river

recharge
2 171

3 1 170

0 Figure 3.22: Groundwater 4 169

173

response
25 Septo October 2010 flood
9 Oct 23in
Oct 6 Nov 20 Nov 4 Dec 18 Dec 1 Jan
the Finke River

Reduced water level J Aquifer (mAHD)

3 172
Stage height Finke River (m)

J Aquifer RN018593

Finke River

Modelled response 2 171

1 170

0 169
25 Sep 9 Oct 23 Oct 6 Nov 20 Nov 4 Dec 18 Dec 1 Jan

J Aquifer RN018593
Focusing on the October recharge event, where a is the length of the recharge area in y
the water Finke River
table rise, duration of the surface direction (m), h is the head beneath the mound
water flow Modelled
and lagresponse
time between the flow (m), h0 is the head before recharge commences
and water table response can be used to (m), K is hydraulic conductivity (m/day), l is the
calculate a recharge rate by applying an length of the recharge area in the x direction (m),
analytical groundwater mounding model based Sy is specific yield of the aquifer (dimensionless),
on Hantush (1967). Hantush presented the t is time (days), t1 is time used in successive
following analytical solution for predicting the approximations (days), w is the recharge rate
maximum height of a groundwater mound (m/day), x and y are the coordinates of the
beneath a recharge zone: observation point (m).

∫ (erf ( √4vt ) +erf ( √4vt ))(erf ( √4vt ) +erf ( √4vt ))

vw t l
/ 2+ x l
/ 2– x α
/ 2+ y α
/ 2– y
h2 – h20 = Z (x, y,t) =
Kw 0

3.4

Kb
v= b = 0.5(hi (0) + h(t1))
Sy
3.5 3.6

64

The analytical mounding solution of Hantush
(1967) involves several key assumptions, namely
that the aquifer is unconfined, homogeneous,
isotropic, of infinite extent and that all flow
is horizontal. The J Aquifer is a well sorted
sandstone aquifer and, for the purposes of this
modelling scenario, it was reasonable to assume
homogeneous and isotropic conditions. The J
Aquifer is a large regional aquifer and, given the
very local scale of the modelling, it is assumed
to behave as an aquifer of infinite extent. Water
level data at the nested site (RN018591/2/3)
revealed a component of vertical flow during
the recharge event, however it is insignificant
compared to the horizontal flow component.
The mounding model also assumed that the
groundwater observation point was located
directly under the middle of the groundwater
mound. In reality, the three nested bores are
located on the river bank approximately 150 m
from the centre of the river. It is probable that
the head rise observed under the middle of
the channel would have been greater than that
observed at the nested site and consequently
the modelling results will underestimate the
recharge rate.
Photo: Dennis Low
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
The equations can be rearranged to solve for
the recharge term (w). Due to the absence of
aquifer test data, the greatest uncertainty in the
input terms was associated with the hydraulic
conductivity (K) and the specific yield (S y).
Hydraulic conductivity was estimated at 10 m/
day, which was calculated using the lag time
between the commencement of surface water
flow and the groundwater response. Specific
yield was estimated at 0.20. Sensitivity testing
was undertaken on both K and Sy to examine
the impact they had on the modelled water level
response. The length of the recharge event was
8.5 days, equating to the duration the logger
registered the stage height to be above 1 m.
For heights below 1 m, flow was expected to
be restricted to a single channel and potential
recharge is significantly lower. Modelled water
table response is shown as a red dashed line
in Figure 3.22. Model calibration resulted in
a recharge rate of 150 mm/day and a total
recharge of 1275 mm for the flow event.
65
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge

3.3.4.4 Groundwater chemistry and
environmental tracers
All five bores at the focus recharge study site
were sampled and analysed for a range of
chemical and isotopic analyses. Key results
are shown in Figure 3.23 and Figure 3.24.
Groundwater dating techniques revealed 14C
concentrations greater than 100 pmC, while
both SF6 and CFC concentrations indicate
groundwater was recharged in the last 25
years. In concert with the hydraulic evidence,
the presence of modern groundwater is further
evidence of the active operation of ERR at the
site.
Data from the nested site display decreasing
residence time with depth in both the 14C and
CFC data. These results are counter-intuitive,
as the shortest residence time is expected for
RN018593 which is closest to the recharge
source. There is no clear increase in residence
time between the nested and down gradient
sites. Results indicate the mixing of groundwater
from different recharge events within the study
site and complex flow paths within the aquifer at
a local scale.

Figure 3.23: Groundwater dating 250

at the recharge focus site

Nested site RN018589 RN018590

225
Finke River
Elevation (mAHD)

200 LEGEND
14
C pMC
CFC age
175
SF6 age
74 1989

92 1991
150
93 1989
101 >1998 1991
94 >1998 1992

125
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Distance (m)

Figure 3.24: Chloride-to-bromide 250

ratios in groundwater at recharge
focus site
Nested site RN018589 RN018590
225
Finke River 2136
Elevation (mAHD)

200 LEGEND
Cl/Br Ratio

175
2010

1537
150
1336
1628 1387

125
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Distance (m)

66

Cl/Br ratios (shown in Figure 3.24) include values
for Finke River surface water and are significantly
elevated above normal meteoric values of
550–700 (Herczeg & Edmunds 1999). The Cl/
Br ratio decreases with depth in the nested
bore site, which supports the vertical mixing of
groundwater within the profile. Eight surface
water samples from flows between November
2008 and November 2010 report Cl/Br ratios
of between 586 and 2136. A further 14 water
samples were taken from permanent waterholes
upstream of the GAB where the Finke River
flows across the Amadeus Basin sequence, Cl/
Br ratios of up to 2442 were recorded in these
waterholes. Evaporite deposits are described
in several geological formations within the
Amadeus Basin (e.g. Bitter Springs Formation).
The dissolution of halite from these formations
and subsequent mobilisation and dilution from
floods within the Finke River are a likely source
for the elevated Cl/Br ratios in the J Aquifer at
the recharge focus site.
3.4 Northern rivers case studies
3.4.1 Plenty River
The Plenty River Catchment is located around
200 km north-east of Alice Springs on the north-
western edge of the Lake Eyre drainage basin.
The headwaters of the river rise in the Harts
Ranges and the river extends for over 200 km
before intersecting the margin of the GAB on
Atula Station. The Plenty River splits into an east
and west branch 20 km upstream of the GAB
margin and forms two separate watercourses
through the recharge zone before reforming
into a single channel around 55 km downstream
(Figure 3.25). Major tributaries of the Plenty River
include Entire Creek in the upper catchment and
Huckitta and Atula Creeks in the mid-catchment;
the latter two streams flow into the western
branch of the Plenty River at the margin of the
GAB. There are no active gauging stations on the
Plenty River and although historic gauging and
flow data are available for the upper catchment
(Harts Range, Entire Creek, Jinka Homestead),
these stations provide very limited information on
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
the frequency, duration and size of flow events
where the Plenty River crosses the GAB 100 km
downstream.
In the Plenty River region the J Aquifer—locally
classified as Longsight Sandstone—comprises
a fine to medium quartz sandstone with minor
clayey sandstone, mudstone and lignite
(Mond & Yeates 1973). The formation lies
unconformably on Proterozoic metasediments
of the Arunta Block and dips basin-ward to the
south-east. The outcrop that defines the edge
of the Eromanga Basin is largely discontinuous
and is not connected to the greater J Aquifer,
which is obscured by a veneer of Quaternary
and Tertiary sediments. The J Aquifer is overlain
and confined by mudstone and shale of the
Wallumbilla Formation (Rolling Downs Group),
which was first recorded in investigation bore
RN018593 approximately 10 km south-east of
the basin margin. An undifferentiated Tertiary
formation consisting of clayey quartz sandstone,
mudstone and thin beds of marl overlies the J
Aquifer along the basin edge and the Wallumbilla
Formation down dip. A fluvial facies of poorly
sorted river sands and Quaternary aeolian red
quartz sands form a superficial surface over the
Tertiary and Mesozoic sequence (Yeates 1971).
Groundwater flow direction in the J Aquifer is to
the south-east, roughly parallel to the course of
the Plenty River. Groundwater gradients are low,
in the order of 0.0002. Standing water levels for
the J Aquifer range from approximately 50 mBNS
in the recharge zone to 5 mBNS 50 km down
gradient of the recharge zone.
67
 AGSO GAB Boundary
Station Road
Formation Outcrop
Proterozoic Basement
J aquifer
Rolling Downs Group
Quaternary Sands
Chapter 3: Ephemeral river Quaternary Alluvium
recharge RN014504 110
86

´
RN018789
-23

-23
0 2.5 5 7.5 10
RN017121 Southern Extent of Recharge Zone
100 Kilometres

3 RN018791

Produced by NRETAS | Natural Resources Division |

Map Projection Lambert Conformal Conic | Map
Datum Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date
February 2012 | Data Sources Watercourse Lines
90 Geodata V3 2006 Geoscience Australia, Digital
Figure 3.25: Plenty River RN018793 Geology 1:250 000 1997 Northern Territory
136 136 137 137
Geological Survey and Geosciences Australia.
recharge zone
-23

-23
Bores by Scre
-23

-23
" Basemen
(
! J Aquifer
Bores by Screened Aquifer 77
RN012781 (
! Tertiary
-23

" Basement
97 110 Carbon-1
(
! J Aquifer RN015056
(
! Tertiary 83
RN002607 Legend
110 Carbon-14 Concentration 95
CREEK
-24

-24
RN002496
PLENTY
-23

-23
Legend AGSO G
CREEK Station R
PLENTY RIVER Formation Outc
Proteroz
-23

AGSO GAB Boundary

J aquifer
Station Road
Rolling D
Formation Outcrop
98 Quatern
Proterozoic Basement RN002606 Quatern
J aquifer
-24

-24
Rolling Downs Group RN014504 110
Quaternary Sands RN018789 86
-23

-23
0 2.5 5
Quaternary Alluvium RN017121 Southern Extent of Recharge Zone
100 Kilome
RN018791

´
-23

0 2.5 5 7.5 10 104

Produced by NRET
RN016276
Kilometres Map Projection Lam
Datum Geocentric D
February 2012 | Da
Produced
Produced by NRETAS
by NRETAS Natural
| Natural Resources
Resources Division |
90 Geodata V3 2006 G
RN018793
-24

-24

Division
Map Projection Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Geology 1:250 000
Datum Geological Survey
Map Geocentric
Projection:Datum of Australia
Lambert 1994 | Date
Conformal Conic
-23

-23
February 2012 | Data Sources Watercourse Lines
Map Datum Geocentric Datum of Australia
Geodata V3 2006 Geoscience Australia, Digital
1994
Geology 1:250 000 1997 Northern Territory
Date February
Geological 2012
Survey and Geosciences Australia. RN004369
-23

Data Sources Watercourse Lines Geodata

RN011355
77
V3 2006 Geoscience Australia, Digital RN012781
Geology 1:250 000 1997 Northern Territory
Geological Survey and Geosciences
Australia. 136 136 137 137
83
RN002607
-24

-24
-24

98
RN002606
-24

-24
-24

104
RN016276
-24

-24
-24

RN004369
RN011355

136 136 137 137

68

3.4.1.1 Drilling program results
Three investigation bores (RN018789,
RN018791 and RN018793) were constructed
along the Plenty River during August 2011. The
objective of the drilling program was to confirm
the presence of the J Aquifer and investigate the
level of connection between the J Aquifer and
the Plenty River. All three investigation bores and
an additional eight stock bores were sampled
between June 2010 and September 2011.
Drilling and sampling results revealed modern
groundwater in two of the investigation
bores, with 14C concentrations of 110 pmC
in RN018789 (drilled on the bank of the east
channel) and 100 pmC in RN018791 (drilled on
the bank of the west channel). Both locations
contain groundwater with 14C activities indicating
a groundwater residence time of less than 60
years. The J Aquifer was unconfined at both
sites, however unlike the Finke River, which is in
direct connection with the J Aquifer, the Plenty
River is separated from the J Aquifer by 50 m of
undifferentiated Tertiary and Quaternary fluvial
sediments. Investigation bore RN018593 drilled
8 km to the south-east encountered confined
conditions in the J Aquifer and reported a 14C
concentration of 90 pmC.
Results from the drilling program and
stratigraphic information from previous studies
(Yeates 1971; Burger & Mond 1973; French
1980) were compiled into a hydrostratigraphic
section (Figure 3.26) and used to approximate
the extent of the recharge zone along the Plenty
River (shown in Figure 3.25).
3.4.1.2 Plenty River recharge zone
The Plenty River recharges the J Aquifer
along both its east and the west branches as
evidenced by 14C results. A review of mineral
exploration and unsuccessful water bores to
the north of RN018791 indicates the J Aquifer
is either discontinuous or unsaturated in this
area. Proterozoic metasediments occur both in
outcrop and subsurface, and form a bounding
edge to the J Aquifer. The recharge boundary
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
in this area has been estimated at 5 km north
of RN018791. Along the eastern branch of the
Plenty River bore data are limited, the northern
recharge extent has been taken as 3 km north of
RN018789, roughly parallel to the first basement
outcrop along the river channel. The J Aquifer
becomes confined approximately 2 km south of
RN018591. The unconfined/confined boundary
has been adopted as the southern limit of the
Plenty River recharge zone.
The river bed area between the northern and
southern recharge limits was digitised using
SPOT imagery to estimate an effective recharge
area. The recharge zone along the east branch
of the Plenty River covers an area of 1.88 km2,
while the recharge zone along the west branch
covers 0.96 km2. The total area of the Plenty
River considered to contribute the recharge to
the J Aquifer is estimated at 2.84 km2.
3.4.1.3 Hydrostratigraphy and groundwater
tracers
Figure 3.26 provides a hydrogeological section
parallel to the Plenty River commencing
25 km up gradient and terminating 60 km
down gradient of the GAB margin. Multiple
aquifer systems can be identified from the
section. A shallow aquifer located in Tertiary/
Quaternary sediments is present close to Atula
Homestead in the first 10 km of the transect.
The groundwater elevation in this aquifer is over
50 m higher than the reduced water level in the
J Aquifer. The contrast in groundwater elevation
coupled with the presence of an intervening
bedrock high suggests that there is limited lateral
connection between the shallow Tertiary aquifer
and the J Aquifer.
No shallow groundwater was encountered
during drilling in the recharge zone, however,
40 km down gradient, stock bore RN016276
appears to access groundwater from the Tertiary
and/or upper Rolling Downs Group. Elevated
14
C concentrations (104 pmC) in the J Aquifer at
this location suggest active recharge from the
Plenty River. Connection between this upper
69
 Chloride (mg/l)
300

200

100
Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge 0

400

3 300

Sulfate (mg/l)
200

100
Figure 3.26: Plenty River
hydrostratigraphic section and 300 0
hydrochemistry
Kilometres
200

Quaternary Sand
mAHD

Tertiary Sand and Clay

Rolling Downs Group

100

J Aquifer

Proterozoic Basement
0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

110

100

C (pmC)
90

14
80

70

60

-5

δ18O (‰V-SMOW)
-7

-9

-11

-13

-15
400

Chloride (mg/l)
300

200

100

400

300
Sulfate (mg/l)

200

100

Kilometres

Quaternary Sand

Tertiary Sand and Clay

Rolling Downs Group

J Aquifer

Proterozoic Basement

70
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the 0 recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
-20

aquifer and the J Aquifer is considered limited
due to around 75 m of intervening Wallumbilla
Formation Shale.
Carbon-14 concentrations in the J Aquifer peak
overlying Rolling Downs Group is a possible
source of the additional chloride and sulfate.
Stable isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) for both the J
-40
Aquifer and the Tertiary aquifer are all highly

δ2H (‰ V-SMOW)
at 110 pmC in the recharge zone and decrease depleted and plot along a trend parallel to
with a linear trend down flow path. Elevated 14C the modern-day Alice Springs LMWL (Figure 100-150mm/month

in the recharge zone coincides with low chloride
and sulfate concentrations and groundwater
depleted in δ O. These observations support
18
the conceptual model of ERR operating along
the Plenty River, where low chloride surface
3.27). Results suggest groundwater has
undergone negligible evaporation prior to and
-60
during recharge and are consistent with a rapid
recharge mechanism. Groundwater around the
Plenty River has an average δ18O of -10.3 ‰ and 150-200mm/month

water rapidly infiltrates to the J Aquifer over a
spatially discrete reach of the river. Both chloride
and sulfate concentrations increase down
gradient of the recharge zone, the downward
flow of poorer quality groundwater from the
δ2H of -72.4 ‰. Comparison with Alice Springs
mean monthly rainfall composition suggests
-80
groundwater recharge is linked to flow events in
months with total rainfall exceeding 100 mm.
>200mm/month

-100

-14 -12 -10 -

0 Figure 3.27: Plenty River
stable isotopes
0-50mm/month

J Aquifer Plenty River

J Aquifer <25km from Finke River

Alice Springs weighted mean rainfall

-20 8)
.4
-4
18 O
50-100mm/month δ
86
6.
=
2H
(δ
L
W
LM
s
ri ng
-40 Sp
e
ic
Al
δ2H (‰ V-SMOW)

100-150mm/month

-60

150-200mm/month

-80

>200mm/month

-100

-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0

δ18O (‰V-SMOW)

J Aquifer Plenty River 71

J Aquifer <25km from Finke River
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge

3.4.1.4 Recharge estimation Investigation bore RN018593 and down-gradient

Radiocarbon concentrations have been used to
estimate average annual recharge rates applying
both unconfined and confined solutions (Vogel
1967); for further detail on the method and its
application see Section 3.3.3.
Investigation bores RN018789 and RN018791,
located in the unconfined portion of the J Aquifer
reported C concentrations of 110 and 100 pmC
14
respectively, indicating modern groundwater in
the recharge zone. Carbon-14 concentrations
were calibrated using Oxcal Version 4.1 (Bronk-
Ramsey 2009) and applying the Bomb04SH
Southern Hemisphere Bomb series calibration
curve (Hua & Barbetti 2004). Oxcal reported a
mean recharge date of 1997 (97% confidence)
for RN018789 with a maximum mean recharge
date of 1958 (3% confidence) and a mean
recharge age of 1955 (99% confidence) for
RN018791. Recharge rates have been estimated
using Equation 3.1; all inputs are summarised in
Table 3.3. Carbon-14 unconfined recharge rates
to the J Aquifer from the Plenty River range from
24 to 92 mm/yr.
stock bores RN012781 and RN002607 were
used to calculate average horizontal velocities
for the confined J Aquifer. The horizontal velocity
is proportional to the recharge rate and length
of the recharge area and inversely proportional
to the aquifer thickness and porosity. Provided
these inputs can be estimated, the relationship
can be rearranged to solve for the recharge term
(see Equation 3.3). Carbon-14 concentrations
were calibrated using Oxcal Version 4.1 (Bronk-
Ramsey 2009) and applying the SHCal04
Southern Hemisphere calibration curve
(McCormac et al. 2004) to approximate travel
time between the bore pairs. Groundwater flow
is parallel to the course of the Plenty River and
the recharge zone is estimated to cover a 6 km
reach along both the east and west branches
of the Plenty River. Average aquifer thickness
is based on fully penetrating stratigraphic
investigation holes (RN012781 and RN004400).
An average porosity for the Algebuckina
Sandstone of 0.23 has been assumed (Radke
et al. 2000). Inputs and results for the recharge
calculations are summarised below in Table
3.4. Carbon-14 confined recharge rates for the
Plenty River ranged from 17 to 56 mm/yr (50 to
160 ML/yr across the recharge zone).

Table 3.3: Unconfined Vogel recharge estimates for the Plenty River

t z H θ R

Average
Bore
14
C mean
Depth of sample saturated Recharge rate
residence time Porosity
in aquifer (m) aquifer (mm/yr)
(years)
thickness (m)

RN018789 14 5.5 130 0.23 92

(min. age)

RN018789 53 5.5 130 0.23 24

(max. age)

RN018791 56 7.5 80 0.23 32

72
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
Photo: Roland Purtschert

3.4.2 Hale River In October 2011, a drilling program was

The Hale River rises in the Proterozoic basement
rocks of the Harts Range approximately 75 km
to the north-east of Alice Springs and flows in
a south-east direction crossing the margin of
the GAB on Numery Station. There are limited
existing stratigraphic data as no published
mineral exploration has targeted the Mesozoic
sequence in this area. Several stock bores
penetrate sedimentary sequences underlying the
Hale River, however drilling logs were too basic
to confirm the presence of the J Aquifer.
undertaken to better define the stratigraphy
along the GAB margin and identify the
presence/absence of the J Aquifer and its
potential connection with the Hale River. Three
groundwater investigation bores were completed
on the bank of the Hale River within a 25 km
reach south of the GAB margin. A summary of
drilling conditions and observations at the three
sites is provided in Table 3.5, the location of the
investigation and pre-existing stock bores is
provided in Figure 3.28.

Table 3.4: Confined Vogel recharge estimates for the Plenty River

Vh x H θ
Ground-
Distance Average
water travel Horizontal Width of Recharge
Bore pair between saturated
time between velocity (m/ recharge Porosity rate (mm/yr)
bores (m) aquifer
bores (years) yr) beds (m)
thickness (m)

RN018793 1293 8000 6.2 6000 70 0.23 17

RN012781

RN018793 621 13 000 20.9 6000 70 0.23 56

RN002607

73
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge

Table 3.5: Summary of results from Hale River investigation drilling program

Location
Site Summary
(km from GAB margin)

RN018818 2 Drilling did not confirm the presence of the J Aquifer at this site. Drilling
encountered 70 m of undifferentiated Tertiary sediments consisting
of quartz sands and gravels, calcareous sandy clay and clay. A
comparison of gamma logs with RN018815 and RN018817 did not
identify consistently low response that is characteristic of the J Aquifer.
RN018818 was constructed at a depth of 70 m, the Tertiary aquifer is
confined and the static water level is 11 mBNS. Groundwater sampling
results reported a 14C concentration of 75 pmC, indicating limited
connection between the Hale River and the Tertiary aquifer.

RN018815 6 Drilling encountered 65 m of undifferentiated Tertiary sediments

consisting of calcareous sands, gravels, cobbles, clay and sandy clay.
25 m of J Aquifer consisting of a white kaolinitic quartz sandstone
overlies consolidated basement (Heavitree Quartzite). Groundwater
was intersected within the Tertiary sequence and J Aquifer. An adjacent
stock bore RN015351 screens the Tertiary at a depth of 42 m. RN018815
was constructed in the J Aquifer at a depth of 70 m. Both aquifers are
confined with a standing water level of 15 mBNS. Groundwater analysis
reported a 14C of 79 pmC for the Tertiary aquifer and 33 pmC for the J
Aquifer. Results indicate recharge to the Tertiary aquifer is limited and no
direct recharge is reaching the J Aquifer at this location.

RN018816 12 40 m of undifferentiated Tertiary was encountered comprising quartz

RN018817 sand, calcareous lithic gravels and cobbles, clay and sandy clay. The
Tertiary sequence overlies 85 m of Rolling Downs Group consisting
of blue shale of the Wallumbilla Formation with minor interbedded
glauconitic sands. Gamma logging revealed the top of the J Aquifer at
approximately 135 mBNS. Hole collapse prevented bore construction
and sampling in the J Aquifer. However, the aquifer is clearly confined
at this location and no potential for recharge from the Hale River exists.
A shallow bore was constructed in the Tertiary at 30 m (RN018816);
the groundwater level in this bore was 14 mBNS, indicating the shallow
aquifer is also confined. Groundwater in the Tertiary aquifer reported 14C
concentration of 84 pmC, suggesting connection between the shallow
aquifer and the Hale River is limited.

74
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
RN002297 ( !
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
95
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3

-24
135 136 136 Figure 3.28: Hydrogeology of the
Hale River GAB margin
Bores by Screened Aquifer
" Basement
135 136 136 (
! J Aquifer
! Tertiary
(Bores by Screened Aquifer
BasementConcentration
110" Carbon-14
(
! J Aquifer
59 " RN015858
( Tertiary
Legend
!

110 HALE RIVERConcentration

Carbon-14
Station Road

-24
-24

-24
AGSO GAB Boundary
Legend
Formation Outcrop
HALE RIVER
Proterozoic Basement
Station Road
J aquifer
-24

-24
AGSO
Rolling GAB Boundary
Downs Group
Quaternary
Formation Sands
Outcrop
Quaternary Alluvium
Proterozoic Basement
J aquifer
0 1 Rolling
2 3 Downs 4
Quaternary Sands
Kilometres
Group

Quaternary Alluvium
´
´
RN002297 (
! 0 1by NRETAS
Produced 2 3 | Natural
4 Resources Division |
95 Map Projection Lambert Conformal Conic | Map
Kilometres
Datum Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date
February 2012 | Data Sources Watercourse Lines
Geodata V3 2006 Geoscience Australia, Digital
RN002297 (
! Produced by000
NRETAS | Natural Territory
Resources Division |
Geology 1:250 1997 Northern
Produced by NRETAS, Natural Resources
95

-24
Map Projection
Geological Survey Lambert Conformal
and Geosciences Conic | Map
Australia.
-24

-24
Division
Datum Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date
Map Projection:
February Lambert
2012 | Data ConformalLines
Sources Watercourse Conic
Geodata
Map V3 2006
Datum: GeoscienceDatum
Geocentric Australia,
ofDigital
Geology 1:250 000 1997 Northern Territory
Australia 1994
Geological Survey and Geosciences Australia.
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Date: February 2012

RN018818 Data Sources: Watercourse Lines Geodata

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( 75 V3 2006 Geoscience Australia, Digital
Geology 1:250 000 1997 Northern Territory
RN013046
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75
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge
3.4.2.1 Key findings
The J Aquifer was identified at the southern two
investigation sites but was not encountered
at the northern most drilling site, located 2 km
from the mapped GAB margin. The J Aquifer is
presumed to pinch out in the intervening 10 km
between bores RN018815 and RN018818.
No direct connection was identified between
outcropping or shallow sub-cropping J Aquifer
and the Plenty River.
The J Aquifer is confined at both the southern
sites, with the standing water level at least
50 m above the top of the aquifer. Carbon-14
concentration in the J Aquifer at RN018815 was
33 pmC, which corresponds to an uncorrected
calibrated groundwater residence time of 10
ka. Findings indicate that there is no direct
connection between the Hale River and the
J Aquifer and that contemporary recharge is
negligible relative to the Finke and Plenty River
systems.
A shallow aquifer was identified at all sites
in the undifferentiated Tertiary sediments,
14
C concentrations in the Tertiary aquifer
ranged from 79 to 95 pmC, corresponding to
uncorrected groundwater residence times of 450
to 2250 years. It is possible that the J Aquifer
may receive some downward flow and/or lateral
flow in the up basin section from the shallow
Tertiary aquifer. However, 14C residence times
in the J Aquifer suggest this flow contribution is
relatively limited.
3.4.3 Other western margin river systems
3.4.3.1 Hay River
The Hay River is located in the north-east of
the Northern Territory GAB and has very limited
hydrogeological data and infrastructure as the
region is remote and largely inaccessible. Only
two registered exploration holes (BMR Hay
River 1 and 2) have been drilled within the GAB
boundary along the Hay River; both are Bureau
of Mineral Resources (BMR) stratigraphic holes
drilled in 1971 (Yeates 1971). BMR Hay River 1
76
is located on the Hay River on the edge of the
Geoscience Australia defined GAB boundary;
the bore encountered 72 m of undifferentiated
Tertiary geology and 50 m of weathered Allaru
Mudstone (Rolling Downs Group) before
terminating in Proterozoic Basement at
123 m. No J Aquifer was encountered at this
location. BMR Hay River 2 is situated 40 km
to the south-east and intersected 51 m of
undifferentiated Tertiary and more than 110 m
of Allaru Mudstone. Burger and Mond (1973)
reinterpreted the stratigraphic profile in this bore
on the basis of palynology and described 33.5 m
of Longsight Sandstone (J Aquifer) overlying
basement which was intersected at a depth of
192 m. BMR Hay River 2 was constructed with
PVC casing but unfortunately only accesses
shallow groundwater from the upper Tertiary
limestone aquifer. This bore was sampled
in 2010 and reported a 14C concentration
of 36 pmC, indicating that the Hay River is
disconnected from the shallow aquifer at this
location.
In contrast to the south-west GAB margin
around Finke along the Hay River, the Rolling
Downs Group appears to onlap onto the
Proterozoic Arunta Block. Low permeability
mudstone and shale of this formation overlie the
J Aquifer and inhibit any potential recharge from
surface water flows in the Hay River.
3.4.3.2 Illogwa Creek
A series of historical groundwater and mineral
exploration holes have been drilled along Illogwa
Creek where it crosses the mapped GAB
boundary. Two of these pastoral bores were
located and rehabilitated in October 2011 to
investigate potential connection between Illogwa
Creek and the J Aquifer.
Caterpillar Bore (RN015152) is located 2 km
upstream of the GAB boundary, a review
of Senior et al. (1995) indicates the bore is
constructed in the Tertiary sequence of the
Cainozoic Aremra Basin. This is supported
by historical drilling logs from RN004091

Photo: Dennis Low
located 5 km to the south-east. A geological
log of RN004091 implies a 50 m sequence of
unsaturated Tertiary sediments. Carbon-14
concentrations of 88 pmC were reported for
Caterpillar Bore reported suggesting sub-
modern groundwater within the Tertiary aquifer.
Coolibah (RN015151) bore is located 8 km
south-east of the GAB margin and is presumed
to be screening the J Aquifer. The drilling log for
Coolibah bore yields little information, however
stratigraphic drilling undertaken in the vicinity by
French (1980) indicates the bore intersects at
least 50 m of Wallumbilla Formation (equivalent
of the Bulldog Shale). The water strike and
static water level recorded during drilling also
suggest this bore is confined. A groundwater
sample taken in December 2011 recorded a 14C
concentration of 17 pmC. This result indicates
the J Aquifer is not receiving active recharge
from Illogwa Creek, and furthermore that there
is limited connection or through flow to the J
Aquifer of younger groundwater from the Tertiary
Aremra Basin.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
3.4.3.3 Todd River
No groundwater data exist in the region where
the lower Todd River cuts across the GAB
aquifer. An assessment of topographic maps
and satellite imagery shows that the lower flood
out of the Todd system is limited in size and
extent in comparison to the neighbouring Hale,
Finke and Plenty systems. It is proposed that
under modern-day conditions, flooding within
the Todd River would rarely reach a level where
surface water flow is carried over the edge of the
GAB. Consequently, potential for ephemeral river
recharge through the Todd River is limited.
3.4.3.4 Alberga River
Limited groundwater infrastructure is available
to assess the degree of connection between
the Alberga River and the J Aquifer on the
unconfined edge of the GAB. A series of bores
downstream of the GAB margin where the J
Aquifer is unconfined but capped with Rolling
Downs Group report 14C concentrations of
between 2 and 11 pmC (uncorrected residence
times of between 20.6 to 36.5 ka). These results
77
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge
suggest that there is not a significant recharge
flux from the up gradient unconfined portion of
the aquifer.
3.4.3.5 Stevenson Creek
Stevenson Creek drains a small catchment
between the Finke and Alberga Rivers in
the Northern Territory / South Australia
border region. Groundwater infrastructure
in the J Aquifer is limited along Stevenson
Creek because most pastoral bores access
groundwater from the Tertiary Hamilton
Basin. The Cretaceous Rolling Downs Group
(Oodnadatta Formation and Bulldog Shale)
outcrops extensively and occurs in close
proximity to the margin of the GAB. Both the
Tertiary and Cretaceous units overlie the J
Aquifer and restrict direct connection with
surface water flows in Stevenson Creek.
Consequently, potential for ERR to the J Aquifer
through Stevenson Creek is considered limited.
3.5 Summary and discussion
The Finke River recharge zone is estimated to
cover 13 km2, commencing approximately 6 km
west of the Finke Community and terminating
36 km downstream near the margin of the
confining beds. Surface water flows through the
Finke River recharge zone occur as either full
(bank to bank) or smaller (in channel) flows; the
latter are shorter lived and occupy less than 25%
of river bed width. Hydraulic and environmental
tracer data indicate that recharge resulting from
smaller flow events is negligible in comparison
to the larger bank to bank flows. While this might
seem self-evident, the return time for large flow
events (decadal) is much longer than small flow
events (bi-annual). The theory that recharge
may be occurring through the fractured Bulldog
Shale beneath the Finke River (Radke et al.
2000) is unlikely, as hydraulic and geophysical
data indicate this formation acts as an effective
aquitard and, where present, prevents surface
water flows from infiltrating into the J Aquifer.
The recharge zone along the Plenty River is
estimated to cover 2.8 km ; recharge occurs
2
78
along both the east and west branches of the
river but is restricted to a 6 km reach between
the basin margin and the subsurface edge of the
Rolling Downs Group.
Modern groundwater has been identified
adjacent to both the Finke and Plenty Rivers
with elevated 14C concentrations in concert
with CFC and SF6 data indicating active ERR
in these systems. Carbon-14 concentrations
along both rivers decrease in a linear fashion
down flow gradient from the recharge zones
and facilitate the estimation of recharge rates
using groundwater dating techniques. Recharge
rates for the Finke River are estimated at 380
to 850 mm/yr from 14C data. Recharge rates for
the Plenty River are estimated at 17 to 92 mm/
yr. The estimated total contribution from ERR
ranges from 5150 to 11 560 ML/yr. Recharge
rates calculated from hydraulic data gathered
during a discrete flood event in October 2010
were in the order of 150 mm/day with a total
recharge of 1275 mm for the flood event.
Stable isotope (δ18O and δ2H) values in the J
Aquifer around the Finke and Plenty Rivers
indicate that recharge events are correlated to
summer monsoonal rainfall. Comparison of δ18O
and δ2H in the J Aquifer with the Alice Springs
LMWL shows groundwater has undergone
minimal evaporation during recharge. In such an
arid environment, this indicates a rapid recharge
mechanism consistent with the conceptual
ephemeral river recharge model. Recharge is
most strongly associated with rainfall events
from January to March in months that exceed
rainfall totals of 100 mm total rainfall.
There is a strong correlation between 14C and
δ18O concentrations. Younger groundwater is
more depleted in δ18O while older groundwater
is less depleted. Results suggest a step change
in the data around 25 km from the Finke River
recharge sink. This may represent the extent of
influence of the Finke River recharge within the
J Aquifer. Less depleted δ18O concentrations
beyond 25 km may result from groundwater
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
Photo: Roland Purtschert

recharged under different palaeo-climatic both systems. Potential for ERR along the Todd
conditions, through a different recharge River, Alberga River and Stevensons Creek is
mechanism (diffuse as opposed to ERR) or the considered unlikely although the availability of
mixing of different groundwater sources. data is very limited in these systems.

The J Aquifer was identified underneath the Hale The investigations have led to significant
River, however, the presence of overlying Tertiary development in both conceptual understanding
deposits are thought to inhibit connection and knowledge of the physical operation of the
between the river and the J Aquifer, and 14C recharge mechanism along the western margin
concentrations indicate that no modern recharge of the GAB, as summarised in Table 3.6.
is entering the systems. No recharge potential
from ERR exists along the Hay River or Illogwa
Creek as the J Aquifer is isolated from surface
water flows by the Rolling Downs Group in

79
 Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
recharge

Table 3.6: Summary of ERR conceptual model development

Original ERR model Revised ERR model

Finke River

Finke River is operating
as an active recharge sink
to the J Aquifer, identified
through elevated 14C and
lower concentrations of Cl,
Ca, SO4, K and alkalinity.
Recharge mechanism
operates where the river
intersects outcropping
Algebuckina Sandstone and
potentially through fracture
planes in the Bulldog Shale
(Radke et al. 2000).
Extent of recharge zone defined for Finke River covering a 36 km stretch and an
approximate surface area of 13 km2. Where Bulldog Shale is present beneath the
river channel, it operates as an effective aquitard and prevents surface water flows
from reaching the J Aquifer.
Modern groundwater was identified in J Aquifer in proximity to Finke River using
modern tracers (CFC, SF6 and 14C).
δ18O and δ2H concentrations in groundwater link significant recharge to rainfall
events with greater than 100 mm monthly rainfall. Although recharge was observed
from smaller flow events, the isotopic signature of regional groundwater indicates
the recharge contribution of small events is relatively insignificant.
Annual recharge rates through Finke River are estimated at between 380 and
850 mm/yr (from 14C). Recharge from a single event in October 2010 is estimated at
1275 mm (from hydraulic data).
Pumping test and time-series temperature data suggest dual porosity behaviour in
the J Aquifer.

Other western margin GAB river systems

Other western margin rivers Plenty River

have potential for ERR but Modern groundwater identified in J Aquifer adjacent to both eastern and western
no conclusive data. branches of the Plenty River.
Annual recharge rates estimated at between 17 and 92 mm/yr.
δ18O and δ2H concentrations in groundwater link significant recharge to rainfall
events with greater than 100 mm monthly rainfall.

Hale River
Limited recharge potential; no direct connection identified between the Hale River
and J Aquifer due to over 50 m of intervening Tertiary sediments.
Uncorrected 14C groundwater residence time in J Aquifer is on the order of 10 000
years. Residence times are shorter in the Tertiary water table aquifer (on the order
of 4500–2250 years). The J Aquifer may be receiving downward flow from the
shallow aquifer, however rates are slow and relative to the Finke River the Plenty
River cannot be considered an active source of modern recharge.

Illogwa Creek and Hay River

No recharge potential; J Aquifer does not directly sub-crop beneath either Illogwa
Creek or Hay River but is isolated by intervening Rolling Downs Group. Carbon-14
concentrations in J Aquifer on Illogwa Creek suggest presence of a fossil resource.

Todd River, Stevensons Creek, Alberga River

Limited recharge potential. Presence of J Aquifer under the lower Todd floodout
is not confirmed. The Tertiary Hamilton Basin overlies J Aquifer along Stevenson
Creek and the Alberga River restricting direct recharge. Carbon-14 concentrations
in J Aquifer along Alberga River indicate fossil groundwater and no active recharge.

80

3.6 Conclusions
The ERR investigation has identified active
recharge sources along two river systems in the
Northern Territory, but other western margin
rivers do not contribute significant groundwater
recharge to the J Aquifer. With the exception of
the Finke and Plenty River region, groundwater
within the J Aquifer along the western margin
is a fossil resource. Annual modern recharge
occurring through ERR is estimated to represent
less than 0.002% of storage within the J
Aquifer in the Northern Territory. The revised
potentiometric surface and detailed chemical
and isotopic characterisation of the J Aquifer
between the Finke River and Dalhousie Springs
has confirmed the Finke River recharge zone as
the dominant source of groundwater feeding
the spring complex. A significant reduction
in recharge rates to the J Aquifer through the
Finke River will affect the rate of discharge at
Dalhousie Springs, however, due to the distance
between the recharge/discharge zones there
will be a lag time before any impact from the
dimished recharge is observed at the springs.
From a groundwater management viewpoint, the
Dalhousie Springs should be considered a fossil
resource and managed accordingly.
From a Northern Territory perspective, the
enhanced understanding of recharge and
quantification of ERR rates has facilitated a shift
in water allocation policy in the Northern Territory
GAB. The Northern Territory Water Allocation
Plan (WAP) is moving toward managing
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 3: Ephemeral river
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
3
groundwater allocations in line with a percentage
of recharge as opposed to a storage-based
allocation policy; this is only practical because of
improved recharge estimates provided from data
collected in this investigation. Drilling undertaken
on New Crown Station has confirmed the
presence of poorer quality groundwater in
the overlying Bulldog Shale and has led to
construction requirements within the GAB Water
Control District mandating pressure cementing
of casing within confined portions of the aquifer.
This requirement is aimed at preventing inter-
aquifer connection between the Rolling Downs
Group and the J Aquifer to preserve water quality
within the GAB.
On a local scale, the best quality and potable
water resources in the J Aquifer are largely
coincident with the Finke and Plenty River
recharge zones. Water quality in these zones
is strongly influenced by the ERR mechanism
which is linked almost exclusively to intense,
high rainfall events. There is a local vulnerability
to climate cycles, as any decrease in monsoonal
influenced rainfall will lead to a reduction in the
number of recharge events. While there is little
likelihood of these potable resources being
diminished under existing levels of extraction,
this may bear relevance for any future large-scale
groundwater extractions in these areas.
81
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

4 in the Great Artesian Basin

Mountain system recharge

Daniel Wohling Department for Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Government of South Australia
Simon Fulton Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sport, Northern Territory Government
Andrew J Love School of the Environment and The National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training,
Flinders University of South Australia
Meghan Dailey Boone Pickens School of Geology, Oklahoma State University
Todd Hallihan Boone Pickens School of Geology, Oklahoma State University
Volmer Berens Department for Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Government of South Australia
Roland Purtschert University of Bern
Paul Shand CSIRO Water for a Healthy Country Flagship

4. Mountain system recharge
4.1 Introduction
In arid and semi-arid environments, groundwater
recharge is one of the more difficult hydrological
parameters to estimate due to the spatial and
temporal variability of the small water fluxes
that occur. Mountain system recharge (MSR) is
arguably the most difficult arid zone recharge
mechanism to quantify, given that arid mountain
ranges can be relatively inaccessible and
consequently lack the required infrastructure for
data collection.
MSR is the contribution of groundwater recharge
from mountains to adjacent aquifers (Wilson &
Guan 2004). MSR recharge mechanisms can
be categorised into two processes: mountain
block recharge (MBR) and mountain front
recharge (MFR) (Wahi et al. 2008). In general
terms, MBR describes subsurface inflows from
the consolidated mountain block and MFR
describes infiltration (or seepage) from streams
(either perennial or ephemeral), at the mountain
front (Figure 4.1).
The objectives of this chapter are to:
• identify whether or not MSR processes are
operating within the western margin of the
Great Artesian Basin (GAB)
• undertake a detailed characterisation of MSR
mechanisms along the Peake and Denison
Inlier
• provide relative mixing fractions between
MSR process and the adjacent aquifers.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4
4.1.1 Peake and Denison Inlier—a mountain
block setting within the GAB
No published reports explicitly investigate
MSR in detail along the western margin of the
GAB, although Beyerle et al. (1999) presented
geochemical data (carbon‑14 (14C) and tritium
(3H)) suggesting that modern MBR may be
occurring in the vicinity of Marla. Potential exists
for MSR to contribute inflow to the adjacent
sedimentary J Aquifer along the Peake and
Denison Inlier and other areas abutting the GAB,
including the Willouran Ranges near Marree, the
Northern Flinders Ranges near Arkaroola and
the Everard and Musgrave Ranges near Marla
(Figure 4.2). The Peake and Denison Inlier, an
outcrop of crystalline Precambrian fractured rock
bounded by the J Aquifer, presented the most
favourable conditions for investigating MSR,
with a selection of springs and wells that align
along general groundwater flow paths. Station
tracks also provide good access to sites within
the Peake and Denison mountain block for the
investigation drilling.
Photo on facing page: Daniel Wohling
Peake & Denison Inlier, The Peake Station
83
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge
Figure 4.1: Conceptualised
section of mountain system
recharge at the Peake and
Denison Inlier
MFR
Faults
LEGEND
Mountain block
J Aquifer
Direction of water movement
Confining beds
4.1.2 Geology of the Peake and Denison
Inlier and surrounding units
The Peake and Denison Inlier (or Davenport
Ranges) are crystalline Precambrian rock
interpreted to be the northern extension of
the Adelaide Geosyncline. Groundwater yield
is highly variable and dependent on localised
fracture density since primary porosity is
limited within this fractured rock aquifer. The
adjacent sedimentary Jurassic and Cretaceous
aquifer (J Aquifer) of the Eromanga Basin
84
Precipitation
MFR
MBR
Faults
Water
flow
MOUNTAIN BLOCK
Q and T formations MFR Mountain front recharge
P aquifer MBR Mountain block recharge
Potentiometric surface
Springs
laps unconformably onto the older basement
blocks or forms a partly faulted contact with
outcropping rocks of the Peake and Denison
Inlier (Kreig et al. 1995). The confining Bulldog
Shale is expressed at surface around the Peake
and Denison Inlier and reaches a thickness
of up to 400 m to the east of the range. For a
more detailed description of the geology of the
western margin of the GAB refer to Volume I:
Hydrogeological Framework of the Western
Great Artesian Basin (Keppel et al. 2013).
 -2
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Everard and
Musgrave Ranges
MARLA

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"

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Everard and OODNADATTA

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Musgrave Ranges "
133 133 134 134 135 135 136 136 137 137 138 138 139 139 140 140 Figure 4.2: Potential locations
Everard and "MARLA
MSR operates within the western

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Musgrave Ranges

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FINKE OODNADATTA

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MARLA " "

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" margin of the GAB
Legend
OODNADATTA
"
Lake Eyre Limit of artesian flow

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Peake and

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Denison Inlier Legend
Eromanga Basin Bounday
WILLIAM CREEK Lake Eyre Limit of artesian flow
LegendOutcropping J aquifer

-27
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COOBER PEDY Peake and"

-29 -28
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"

-29
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Denison Inlier Lake Eyre Eromanga
Limit of artesian Bounday
Basinflow
Outcropping confining units
Peake and Lake
WILLIAM CREEK
COOBER PEDY Denison Inlier" Lake Eyre South Outcropping
Eromanga J aquifer
Basin Bounday

-27
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Everard and Blanche Outcropping basement units
"

-29 -29
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-30
-30
Musgrave Ranges WILLIAM CREEK MARREE
MARLA " " Outcropping
OutcroppingJconfining
aquifer units
COOBER PEDY
" "
Lake
Lake Eyre South Blanche units
OODNADATTA Outcropping
Outcroppingconfining
basementunits

-28
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"

-30 -29
-30 -29
Lake

-30
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MARREE
Willouran Ranges
Lake Eyre South " Blanche Outcropping basement units
ARKAROOLA
MARREE "
"

-28
-28

-30 -30
-30 -30
Northern Flinders Ranges 0 30 60 90 120

-31
-31
Willouran Ranges Legend
Lake
ARKAROOLA Kilometers ´
Lake Eyre Willouran Ranges " Frome Limit of artesian flow
Produced by Department for Water | Science
Peake and
GLENDAMBO

-29
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Northern Flinders Ranges 0 30 60 90 120
"

-31 -30
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ARKAROOLA

-31
-31
Denison Inlier Lake Monitoring & Information
Eromanga Division
Basin | Map Projection
Bounday
" Lake
Produced Kilometers
by for ´
WILLIAM CREEK Torrens Northern Flinders Ranges Frome 0
Lambert30 60Department
Conformal Conic
90 | Map120
Datum
COOBER PEDY "
GLENDAMBO
Lake Lake Produced by Department
Outcropping
Water Science J for Water
aquifer | Science
"

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" Kilometers
Geocentric Datumof
Monitoring Australia 1994 | Date April
& Information ´

-31 -31
-31 -31
Lake Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

-32
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Gairdner Frome Outcropping confining
Produced
Division by Department for Water |units
Science
GLENDAMBO Torrens Lake 2012
" Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum

-31
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133 133 134 134 135 135 136 136 137 Lake 138
137 Eyre South 138
Lake 139 139 140 140 Map Projection:
Monitoring Lambert
Division | Map Projection
Lake Blanche Outcropping
& Informationbasement units
Geocentric Datumof
Conformal ConicAustralia 1994 | Date April

-30
Torrens -30

-32
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Gairdner MARREE Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
Lake " Map
2012
Datum: Geocentric
133 133 134 134 135 135 136 136 137 137 138 138 139 139 140 140 Datumof Datumof Australia
Geocentric Australia 19941994 | Date April

-32
-32

Gairdner
Date:
2012
April 2012

-30
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133 133 134 134 135 135 136 136 137 137 138
Ranges
Willouran138 139 139 140 140
in the Great Artesian Basin

ARKAROOLA
"
Northern Flinders Ranges 0 30 60 90 120

-31
-31

Lake
Western Great Artesian Basin

Kilometers ´
Frome
Produced by Department for Water | Science
GLENDAMBO
"
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,

-31
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Lake Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

Torrens Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum

Lake
Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April

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Gairdner
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the

2012
133 133 134 134 135 135 136 136 137 137 138 138 139 139 140 140
recharge
Chapter 4: Mountain system

85
4
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge
4.2 Methodology
4.2.1 Previous work
MSR can be estimated using a number of
methods including empirical water balance
relationships (Maxey & Eakin 1949), application
of Darcy's Law (Maurer & Berger 1997), chloride
mass balance (Anderholm 2001) or basin-wide
groundwater models (Tiedemann et al. 1998).
Unfortunately, many of these methods do not
offer sufficient means to distinguish between
MBR and MFR or provide an understanding of
the predominant recharge location or temporal
information (Wahi et al. 2008). The availability
of existing data and accessibility or ability to
86
gather new data directs the choice of method.
Integrating multiple techniques (e.g. Manning
& Solomon 2005) has the potential to increase
accuracy and reduce the uncertainty of MSR
estimates. Geochemical measurements improve
the conceptual and quantitative understanding
of MSR (Wahi et al. 2008) and, as such, the
application of environmental tracer techniques
enable a spatial and temporal understanding
of MSR. Heterogeneities along mountain block
groundwater flow paths become integrated,
meaning that groundwater collected after it has
passed through the mountain block effectively
carries an integrated tracer signal (Manning
2002).
Photo: Travis Gotch
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4

4.2.1.1 Noble gas and excess air
Dissolved noble gas concentrations provide a
tool to identify MBR due to their dependence
on the groundwater temperature at the point
of recharge (Manning 2002; Manning &
Solomon 2003). The assessment of recharge
contributions from mountainous regions using
noble gas data has been determined routinely
at higher elevations (in the mountain range) may
be distinguished from recharge occurring at
lower elevations (along the basin floor).
At altitudes typically found within Australia, the
atmospheric lapse rate describes the reduction
of air temperature with increasing altitude
and will vary depending on the local ground 0.25

where the mountain land surface is elevated
more than 1000 m above the basin proper (e.g.
Manning & Solomon 2003). Groundwater noble
gas concentrations allow recharge temperatures
to be estimated and then correlated with a
temperature and the moisture content (humidity).
Under normal conditions, the environmental
0.2
lapse rate is approximately 0.6°C/100 m. When
the air mass is less than 100% humidity, the dry
0.15
adiabatic lapse rate describes the temperature

Solubility
recharge elevation due to the dependence of reduction of a dry air mass which expands
noble gas solubility on water temperature and and cools as it rises, typically 0.98°C/100 m. 0.1

salinity. The lapse rate of a wet (100% humidity) air

mass slows once dew point is reached and 0.05

The solubility of noble gases in water is a condensation begins to form. This saturated
function of temperature (Figure 4.3, Stute et al.
0

1992) and salinity (Figure 4.4, Stute & Schlosser 0.25

0
O
5 10 15 20 25

Figure 4.3: Noble gasTemperature

solubility ( C)
2000). As shown by Figure 4.3, solubility
as a function of temperature
increases with atomic mass, e.g. xenon (Xe, (Stute et al. 1992)
0.2
atomic weight 131.29) is more soluble than
Xe
helium (He, atomic weight 4) and decreases
Kr
0.15
with temperature. The solubility of heavier
Solubility

1.0
Ar
noble gases is more influenced by temperature Ne
change (more sensitive to temperature with 0.1 0.9
He
increasing mass). Figure 4.4 shows the solubility
Relative Bunsen cocefficient

0.8
of noble gases in water is dependent on its salt 0.05

content, with solubility decreasing when salinity 0.7

increases. 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.6
Temperature (OC)
In general, for an unconfined aquifer system
0.5
where the depth to the water table is less
than 100 m, the ground temperature near the 1.0
Xe Figure
0.4 4.4: Noble gas solubility
water table and thus the noble gas recharge 0 0.5
as a function of salinity
1 1.5
Kr
NaCI concentration (mol L-1)
temperature are closely correlated with the mean 0.9
Ar
(Stute & Schlosser 2000)
air temperature at the surface above (Manning
Relative Bunsen cocefficient

Ne
0.8 Xe
2002; Mazor 1992; Stute & Sonntag 1992). He
Kr
Therefore, a noble gas recharge temperature 0.7
Ar
is essentially equal to the mean annual air
Ne
temperature at the time of recharge. As mean air 0.6
He
temperature generally decreases with increasing
0.5
elevation, groundwater recharge at increasing
elevations will have lower noble gas recharge
0.4
temperatures. Consequently, recharge occurring 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

NaCI concentration (mol L-1)

Xe

Kr
87
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge
adiabatic lapse rate ranges from 0.4ºC/100 m
to 0.9°C/100 m. The decrease in mean annual
air temperature with elevation (atmospheric
lapse) should result in MBR inflow having a lower
noble gas recharge temperature than water
recharged in the valley (Manning & Solomon
2003) and therefore enable correlation of a
recharge elevation. Manning (2002) showed that
for the Wasatch Mountains, Salt Lake Valley,
Utah the recharge temperature decreased with
elevation at about the same rate as the mean
annual air temperature, but on average at about
2ºC cooler. The nature of this correlation cannot
be assumed; it must be derived for a study area
(Manning & Solomon 2003).
Complicating the interpretation and therefore
capability of noble gas temperatures to assess
recharge elevation and subsequently recharge
contribution from the mountain block is the
apparent age of groundwater at the mountain
range boundary. Radiocarbon-derived mean
residence times (see Section 4.3.4.4) in
the surrounding basin suggest substantial
groundwater recharge occurred during the
Pleistocene, prior to the Last Glacial Maximum
(LGM). A cooler and more humid climate was
experienced during the late-Pleistocene (Beyerle
et al. 2003), therefore groundwater recharge
during this period may comprise similar noble
gas temperatures as those originating along
88
Photo: Adrian Costar
an elevated mountain block. The Peake and
Denison Inlier represents an opportunity to test
whether recharge temperatures, and therefore
recharge elevations can be applied in the GAB to
determine MSR.
The noble gas concentration of groundwater can
be in excess of the solubility equilibrium, termed
'excess air'. An addition of excess air may occur
during recharge due to the dissolution of small
air bubbles by very rapid infiltration or fluctuation
of the water table, resulting in the enrichment of
heavy noble gases in the excess air component
relative to atmospheric air (Aeschbach-Hertig
et al. 1999). Excess air may be lost via gas
stripping during sampling as the gas comes out
of solution due to pressure changes from deep
within the aquifer to the surface (Klump et al.
2005). In either case, correction of the excess air
component is necessary.
Aeschbach-Hertig et al. (1999), Aeschbach-
Hertig et al. (2000), Beyerle et al. (1999),
Manning (2002) and Manning and Solomon
(2003) provide detailed summaries of the theory
and models used to correct noble gas data into
recharge temperatures and account for excess
air.
In addition to the quantification of groundwater
recharge temperatures allowing for an

interpretation of fluid source, dissolved noble
gases have been used as tracers of subsurface
mass transport allowing for semi-quantitative
evaluation of groundwater residence times. In
old groundwater, the radiogenic helium-4 (4He)
component often exceeds the atmospheric
equilibrium concentration by orders of
magnitude (Andrews 1985) due to the terrigenic
4
He component being continuously produced
in the subsurface from natural alpha decay of
uranium (U) and thorium (Th). Subsequently, the
dissolved noble gas concentration generally
increases along groundwater flow lines as a
result of increased residence time.
The rate of 4He production is a function of the
U and Th content of the aquifer material and
transfer mechanisms from the aquifer material
to the groundwater (Gardner et al. 2012).
Using known production rates of 4He (P4He ) in a
closed volume of rock and assuming completely
saturated aquifer material, the 4He accumulation
rate (A4He ) can be estimated (after Beyerle et al.
1999):
P4He = 2.33E – 13·U *
= 1.2 x 10-13 ·U*+ 2.9 x 10-14 ·Th
(cm STP/grock·yr)
3
(4.1)
where U and Th concentrations are in μg/g and:
( ( U ))
Th
U* = U · 1 + 0.123 · –4
1–θ ρrock
A4He = P4He · · · Λi
θ ρwater
(cm3STP/gwater·yr)
4.2
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4
where θ is the porosity of the aquifer, ρrock is the
rock density (g/cm3), ρwater is the water density
and Λi is the transport efficiency of 4He from rock
to water (a number between 0 and 1, depending
on grain size and generally assumed to be 1)
(Beyerle et al. 1999).
Subsequently, if it is assumed that only in-
situ production adds radiogenic 4He, the
groundwater age (τ4He ) can be estimated by:
C4rad
He
τ4He =
A4He
(years)
4.3
rad tot init
where C 4He =C 4He –C 4He is the non-atmospheric
radiogenic concentration (cm3STP/gwater),
defined as the difference between the
tot
measured noble gas concentration (C4He ) and
init
the initial atmospheric concentration (C4He ) in
groundwater (Beyerle et al. 1999).
Lehmann et al. (2003) calculated 4He
production rates for the J Aquifer (6.9 x 10-13
cm3STP/grock·yr) and Bulldog Shale (1.5 x 10-12
cm3STP/grock·yr) near Oodnadatta (Figure 4.2).
Lehmann et al. (2003) then compared the 4He
concentration of groundwater from the J Aquifer
to the apparent groundwater age of the J Aquifer
(using krypton-81 analysis) and the 3He and
4
He concentrations of groundwater from the
J Aquifer to 3He/4He production rates in the J
Aquifer and Bulldog Shale to conclude that there
was an additional source of helium originating
from the Bulldog Shale. This additional source
of helium may also be derived from deep crustal
origins along faults contacts. Helium-4 may not
be suitable for indicating groundwater residence
time along flow paths in the J Aquifer unless all
sources of 4He can be identified. Radiogenic
4
He may not be uniquely derived via in-situ
production, as the measured production rate
is greater than the theoretical production rate.
However, 4He may be a useful indicator of
mixing along groundwater flow paths within the
J Aquifer.
89
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge
4.2.1.2 Stable isotopes of water
Due to orographic effects, a mountain range
may receive more rainfall than the basin floor,
and in addition have reduced evapotranspiration
potential due to lower temperatures (Wilson
& Guan 2004). Under these conditions, for
example, the altitude and temperature effect
may deplete the heavy isotopes of water with
increasing altitude and decreasing temperature.
Stable isotopes of hydrogen (1H and 2H) and
oxygen ( O and O) behave as conservative
16 18
tracers in groundwater systems provided there
are no phase changes or fractionation along the
groundwater flow path (Clark & Fritz 1997) and
therefore can be used to estimate the relative
contribution of recharge from precipitation and
the elevation at which recharge occurred. Of
particular importance in mountainous regions is
the altitude effect where precipitation δ18O values
decrease with increasing altitude. Wahi et al.
90
Photo: Roland Purtschert
(2008) indicates that, across studies worldwide,
the altitude effect ranges between -0.1‰ to
-0.5‰ (δ18O) per 100 m rise in elevation. The
latitudinal effect (decreasing δ18O with increasing
latitude), continental effect (more negative δ18O
further inland), seasonal effect (more negative
δ18O during winter for temperate climate regions
and more negative δ18O during summer for arid
climate regions—see Chapter 3), and amount
effect (more negative δ18O in heavy storms) all
influence the stable isotope composition to
some degree.
The seasonality effect on the stable isotopes
of rainfall may deliver uncertainty to the MSR
estimates. Along the Peake and Denison Inlier,
an elevation change (altitude effect) may give
similar magnitude δ18O variation to any difference
between winter and summer rainfall (seasonal
effect), making it difficult to distinguish between
altitude and seasonal effects.
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4

4.2.1.3 Radiocarbon and Darcy's Law The uncertainty of the MSR rate calculated
MSR can be estimated by applying a by Equation 4.4 therefore depends on the
Darcy's Law calculation to carbon-14 ( C)14
measurement errors ∆:
measurements, assuming flow through a
porous medium (Vogel 1967). The mountain

( )( )( )
2 2 2
block is known to be a fractured rock aquifer,
Δ(v) Δ(θ) Δ(b)
therefore Wahi et al. (2008) calculated the bulk Δ(MSR) = MSR + +
v θ b
rate of MSR based on measurements away
from the mountain block and assumed no other
significant inputs up gradient, which gave a 4.5

reasonable assumption of porous media flow. Using the relative C activities (pmC) of
14

If two points are selected at some distance
from the mountain block so that those points
correspond to the mountain front, the flux
through that vertical surface (S) may be equated
to MSR (Wahi et al. 2008):
groundwater sampled from two wells (R1 and R2)
on opposing sides of S, at a distance (x) apart,
the linear groundwater velocity (v) through S can
then be calculated using uncorrected 14C ages:

x
v=
L
R1
∫
MSR = v(l)θ(l)b(l)dl = v θ bL
O
8267ln (R )
2

4.4 4.6

where v is the average linear velocity; θ is In unconfined aquifer systems, it is important

porosity; b is the saturated thickness; l is the
distance along the surface; L is the length of
the surface section; and the bar over each
parameter indicates its average value from 0 to
L.
The advantage of the integrated form is
that it does not require local estimates of
all three parameters for every segment dl;
average parameter values may be estimated
independently from different sources and
numbers of measurements (Wahi et al. 2008).
S can be defined in whatever way is most
convenient, such that L is exact. Therefore, the
accuracy of Equation 4.4 depends only on the
best understanding of the three parameters: v,
θ and b, which have relatively narrow ranges
of plausible values for which independent
estimates are available (Wahi et al. 2008).
to consider the depth of the screened interval
at both the up and down gradient wells to
ensure that R1 and R2 apply to the same flow
path. Similarly, to minimise the occurrence or
magnitude of vertical mixing during sampling,
ideally the screen length of each well should be
relatively short. Uncorrected 14C ages represent
a maximum groundwater residence time.
Measurements of δ13C in groundwater along a
flow path are an efficient indicator of carbonate
exchange processes and facilitate model
corrections that often lead to younger ages
(Fontes & Garnier 1979).

91
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge

Table 4.1: First-order MSR estimate

Recharge
Author Method used Location Rainfall (mm/yr)
estimate (mm/yr)

Anderson et al. 1992 Basin-scale water South-central 140 0

MFR = 0.042(PM – 203)0.98 balance Arizona
175 (+25%) 0

105 (-25%) 0

Maurer & Berger 1997 Chloride mass Carson Basin, 140 5

MFR = 2.84 x 10 P -5 2.43 balance and Nevada
m
Darcy's Law 175 (+25%) 8

105 (-25%) 2

Maxey & Eakin 1949 Maxey-Eakin White River 140 1

MFR = 9x10-9 Pm3.72 method (modified Basin, Nevada
water balance) 175 (+25%) 2

105 (-25%) 0

4.3 Case study: Peake and Denison Inlier
Given the moderate elevation differences
between the Peake and Denison Inlier and
surrounding landscape (maximum 350–450 m)
noble gas and stable isotope alone may not
provide precise or robust recharge contributions.
However, by utilising major ion chemistry, stable
and radiogenic isotope data to support hydraulic
head data, it may be possible to distinguish
a unique groundwater contribution from the
mountain block to the J Aquifer. For that reason,
sampling and analysis of groundwater from 19
wells and 10 springs along a transect (Figure 4.5)
across the Peake and Denison Inlier were used
to develop the overall understanding of MSR
on the western margin of the GAB and provide
mixing ratio contributions from mountain block
to the J Aquifer.
4.3.1 Constraining the order of magnitude
using empirical equations
A series of empirical equations were applied
to the Peake and Denison Inlier area to assess
the probable magnitude of MSR. Table 4.1
outlines the result of this first-order MSR
assessment which uses relationships between
evapotranspiration (ET) and rainfall, based on
studies in the USA (Anderson et al. 1992; Maurer
& Berger 1997; Maxey & Eakin 1949). These
authors typically used basin scale water balance,
chloride mass balance and application of
Darcy's Law methods to formulate relationships
to estimate MFR. For each relationship specified,
an estimate or measure of precipitation at the
mountain front (Pm) is required to formulate a
recharge rate. Bureau of Meteorology (BoM)
weather station 17004 is located less than
5 km south of the southern extent of the Peake
and Denison Inlier (near William Creek, Figure
4.5) and experiences a mean annual rainfall of
140 mm (1900 to 2010). For each relationship
the mean annual rainfall ± 25% (105 and
175 mm) was applied to produce a reasonable
range of uncertainty.

92
 134 134 135 135 136 136 137 137 138 138
134 134 135 135 136 136 137 137 138 138
160
134 134 135 135 160 136 136 137 137 138 138

134 134 135 136 136 137 137 138 138

-27
-27
160135 Figure 4.5: Site location map for

-27
-27
160 MSR investigation along the Peake

-27
-27
and Denison Inlier

-27
-27
150 150 !
! MSR
MSR sampling wells
samplingwells
#

2
# MSR
MSR sampling springs
samplingsprings

1
150

210
0
! MSR sampling wells

0
0

19
150 !

-27
-27

-27
-27
!! Marla
Marla Monitoring
Monitoring
sampling wells Network
Network

0
190
#MSR

15
15
160 160 MSR sampling springs

210
#)MSR
) springs

1
Investigation
sampling drill
Investigation drillsites
sites

0
180

9
0
130 130

-27
-27
290 290 ! Marla Monitoring Network

0
0

15

-27
-27
! Marla Monitoring Network

190
MARLA
160

15
MARLA

150
160

2
"0 Investigation drill sites

0
"0

5
0
130

20
290 ))Investigation drill sites

21080
30

0
0
30 130
290

0
MARLA

0
2
MARLA

150 150
Legend

28
-28
"0

5
OODNADATTA

150
Legend

28
"0

-28
-28
OODNADATTA
"

0
12810 128500 260
23 240 0
30

270
30 "

20202

2
^

0
_ BoM rainfall site 17004

0
230 24203 240
^
_ BoM rainfall site 17004

23 240
Legend

-28
-28
OODNADATTA Legend

28

-2880
-28
OODNADATTA
"

260 260
"

270 270-28
220500 20 260

270
Limit of artesian flow

220
_^
^ Limit of artesian flow

220
_ BoMBoM rainfall
rainfall sitesite
1700417004

80
Potentiometric surface (m AHD)

80
Potentiometric surface

-28
80 Limit of artesian
Limit of artesianflow flow (m AHD)

-28
-28-28
Cross section transect

80

80
80
Potentiometric
Cross section
Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
transect
surface (m AHD)

-28
-28
Eromanga Basin Bounday

-28
-28
80 80
Cross section
Eromanga
Cross section transect
Basin Bounday
transect

120
0 Outcropping J aquifer

120
10 11 Lake Eyre Eromanga Basin Bounday
0 Outcropping
Eromanga Basin J aquifer
Bounday

-29
0
Lake Eyre Outcropping confining units

120
10

160
110 100

120

-29
-29 -29
0 Outcropping J aquifer
Lake Eyre Outcropping
Outcropping confining
J aquifer units

160
0
Peake
0 10 1and
Lake Eyre 100 Outcropping basement units

-29
-29
1 11 10
Outcropping confining units

-29
-29

160
Denison
Peake and
0 Inlier 100 Outcropping
Outcropping basement units
confining units
90

160
WILLIAM CREEK 100
Peake
Denison _
and^
Inlier " Outcropping basement units

140
COOBER PEDY

80
90 Outcropping basement units
" Peake and WILLIAM CREEK

-29
-29

Denison "
_ Inlier
^ WILLIAM CREEK 90
COOBER PEDY

80
"
Denison Inlier^
_
"

-29
WILLIAM CREEK 90

140
COOBER PEDY

80
0 " _
^ "

-29
-29 -29

60
17

140 140
COOBER PEDY

80
" 70

-29
-29

Lake Eyre South 0 20 40 60 80

in the Great Artesian Basin

11
0

0
17 0 12 40 Kilometers ´

50
17 0 Lake Eyre South
60 70
0 20 40 60 80

-30
-30

70 40

11
0 Lake Eyre
1
10
South 0 Produced
20 by Department
40 60for Water
80 | Science

0
6060 60

11
17 40 0 MARREE
Western Great Artesian Basin

0
12 6 7 0 Kilometers

50
0 12 Lake40 Eyre South 06 30 " Monitoring
0 20& Information
40 Division
Kilometers 60 | Map 80 Projection
´´
20

50

-30
-30

0 0 40

11
Department for Water | Science

-30
-30

10 40 Produced
Produced byby Department for Water

0
1 0 1 Produced Department | Science
12 40 10 0 6 MARREE Lambertby
Conformal Conic
Kilometers
for |Water
Map Datum ´

50
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,

0 0 MARREE
" Science Monitoring & Information Division
30
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

-30
-30

20
40 "
30

Monitoring & Information Division Map Projection

Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

70
Produced by Department Water | Science

20
Geocentric
Map Datumof
Projection: Australia
Lambert for1994 | Date
| Conformal April Conic
10
10
MARREE Lambert Conformal Conic | Map
" Map
LambertDatum:
ConformalGeocentric
Conic | Map Datumof
DatumDatum Australia

-30
-30

30

2012
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection
134 134 135 135 136 136 137 137
20 138 138 1994

70
Geocentric Datumof Australia | Date

70
Geocentric Datumof Australia 19941994
| Date April April
Lambert
Date: Conformal
April 2012 Conic | Map Datum
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the

-30
-30

-30
-30

2012
2012

70
134 134 134 134 135 135 135 135 136 136 136 136 137 137 137137 138
138 138 Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April

-30
-30

2012
134 134 135 135 136 136 137 137 138 138
recharge
Chapter 4: Mountain system

93
4
 200

0 Chapter 4: Mountain system

recharge
-200

-400

4
-600

-800

-1000
Figure 4.6: Peake and Denison
200
-1200 Inlier and J Aquifer cross-section
0
-1400 Interpreted groundwater flow lines
(black lines with arrow heads) -200
-1600
are shown between bores (black
vertical line indicating depth and -400
-2000
0length of screen
50 interval,
100 adjacent150 200 250 300 350 400
-600
number corresponds to relative
hydraulic head (m)).
-800

J aquifer potentiometric surface -1000

Mountain block spring location

-1200

-1400

-1600

-2000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Using meanJ aquifer

annual potentiometric surface
rainfall and ±25% uncertainty
Mountain block spring location
of that rainfall, the application of USA-based
empirical equations on arid GAB data presented
a MSR range between 0 and 8 mm/yr. Further
analysis of the long-term rainfall record (BoM
weather station 17004) reveals that 38% of
the mean annual rainfall record is greater than
the average 140 mm and 34% of the record is
greater than 175 mm (high uncertainty band).
Annual rainfall exceeded 300 mm for 4.5% of the
record. MSR during these high rainfall periods
are calculated to be 4 to 30 mm/yr (assuming
an annual rainfall of 300 mm). Although annual
rainfall in the arid GAB is spatially and temporally
variable, and the empirical equations applied
are derived from studies in the USA, the first-
order estimate provides a useful range of likely
MSR estimates to constrain this investigation.
However, it must be clarified that the high rainfall
events are rare in the arid interior of the western
margin of the GAB and the recharge flux under
average rainfall conditions is predicted to be
negligible.
4.3.2 Hydraulics—mountain block
spring elevation compared with regional
potentiometric surface elevation
Hydraulic head data indicate that groundwater
discharging from a series of springs within
the mountain block occurs at elevations up to
100 m higher than the potentiometric surface
of the J Aquifer (Figure 4.6), providing evidence
that supports a revised MSR conceptual model
for the Peake and Denison Inlier. Specifically,
groundwater discharging from the 'mountain
block' springs is not sourced from the J Aquifer,
rather via a localised flow system through the
fractured rock. Evidence of local flow systems
through the mountain block and downward
head gradient from the mountain block to the
J Aquifer supports the potential for interaction
and recharge from the mountain block to the J
Aquifer.

94

4.3.3 Drilling and groundwater sampling
4.3.3.1 Drilling program
A drilling program was undertaken to support the
investigation of MSR processes occurring in the
western margin of the GAB, in particular along
the Peake and Denison Inlier (Figure 4.7).
The intention of the drilling program was to
construct a nested piezometer site (MSR1) in the
fractured rock of the Peake and Denison Inlier for
water chemistry and water level readings, where
no other reliable data existed. The objectives of a
nested piezometer completion were to:
• develop an overall understanding of vertical
flow characteristics through the mountain
block
• provide an end member for groundwater
chemistry.
As the drilling program evolved, the objectives of
this drilling program expanded.
Only one reliably constructed bore was available
for sampling the adjacent sedimentary basin
to the west of the Peake and Denison Inlier
within the non-artesian portion (Nilpinna HS
Bore, 6041-181). 6041-181 is completed in
the Mt. Toondina Formation (of Permian age),
a geologically older unit than the J Aquifer
(Cadna-owie Formation and Algebuckina
Sandstone). Subsequently, an additional site
(MSR2) was constructed into the Permian unit
and J Aquifer midway between the mountain
block-sedimentary basin boundary (where
6041-181 is located) and artesian limit (Figure
4.2). A nested site at MSR2 allowed for a
characterisation of flow between the J Aquifer
and Permian sediments. At this location, it was
discovered that the Cadna-owie Formation was
not saturated and saturation of the Algebuckina
Sandstone above the confining clays of the
Permian units was limited to approximately 3 m.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4
A continuous core of the fractured mountain
block (MSR1A) and sedimentary units (MSR2A)
was planned to:
• improve conceptual understanding of the
geological units within both the mountain
block and sedimentary basin, including an
evaluation of fracture density and orientation
at MSR1A
• allow noble gas collection from pore waters.
Generally, very good recovery rates were
achieved at MSR1, however minimal success
was attained for the sedimentary coring at
MSR2.
A top head drive drill rig using a wire-line winch
recovery system with HQ diamond coring bit
enabled sampling of continuous core at MSR1A.
A surface pre-collar was installed with pressure
cement from ground surface to 18 m, then
continually cored to 122 m and subsequently
completed as a monitoring well (117–120 m).
Very good core recovery was achieved at
MSR1A. Subsequent geophysical logging of
MSR1A indicated considerable fracturing and
potentially reasonable water flow at 56–59 m.
MSR1B and MSR1C were not cored and were
completed using a mud rotary drilling technique;
with MSR1B completed across the fracture zone
(56–59 m) and MSR1C completed at the water
table (26–29 m).
At MSR1, the upper 10 m was drilled through
Holocene alluvium and colluvium; then from 10 m
to the base of each hole (maximum of 122 m for
MSR1A), drilling encountered Duff Creek Beds, a
Neoproterozoic aged siltstone with inter-bedding
sandstone and mudstone.
95
-28
-28
4
Wood Duck 2

96
80
recharge
136 136 137
! MSR sampling wells

-28
-28
# MSR sampling springs
136 136 Wood Duck 137
902
) Investigation drill sites

-28
-28
Wood Duck 2

80
136 136 Milne NOS001 137
NTV001

80

-28
-28
80 Twelve Mile ! MSR sampling wells
Wood Duck 2 New Johnsons No 3
Chapter 4: Mountain system

Kempes
90 # MSR sampling springs
136 136 NPB001 137Johnsons No 3 Bore Figure 4.7: Drilling and
! MSR sampling
Investigation
)groundwater wells
drill sites
sampling locations

-28
-28

80
Wood Duck
90 2 Legend
# MSR sampling springs
PWE006 Kelpie Bore
Eitzens
Milne NOS001 ) Limit of artesian
Investigation flow
drill sites
PES001 PWA001 NTV001

80
! MSR sampling wells
80 Twelve Mile New Johnsons No 3
Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
Milne 110
Kempes # MSR sampling springs
MSR 2A MB002 NOS001 90Macleans
Williams Bore Nilpinna HS George Creek NTV001 NPB001 Johnsons No 3 Bore Basin
Eromangadrill Bounday
Weedina Bore )! Investigation sites
MSR 2B MSR 1A 80 MSR sampling wells

-29
Twelve Mile

-29
120 New Johnsons No 3
MSR 1B MB001 Kempes Legend
# MSR
Outcropping
sampling Jsprings
aquifer
PWE006 90
MSR 1C NPB001 Kelpie Bore
Milne Hope Creek
NOS001 3 Eitzens Johnsons No 3 Bore
) Limit of artesian
Investigation flow
drill sites
Outcropping confining units
PES001 PWA001 100 NTV001
80 Legend
PWE006 Twelve Mile New Johnsons No 3
Kelpie Bore Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
Kempes110 Outcropping basement units
MSR 2A MB002
Milne Limit of artesian flow
Williams Peake and NOS001 MacleansEitzens Sunny Creek 2
NPB001
PES001 Bore PWA001 Nilpinna HS
Denison Inlier George Creek NTV001 Johnsons No 3 Bore Eromanga Basin Bounday
Weedina Bore MSR 2B MSR 1A

-29
-29
80 120 Twelve Mile New Johnsons No 3 Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
MSR 1B Kempes
110 Legend Outcropping J aquifer
PWE006 MSR 2A MB002 MB001
Williams Bore MSR 1C Macleans NPB001
Hope Creek 3 Johnsons Bore
KelpieNo 3 Bore
Nilpinna HS George Creek Eitzens Eromanga Bounday
Weedina Bore Limit of artesian
Outcropping
Basinflow
confining units
MSR 2B MSR 1A

-29
-29
PES001 PWA001
120100
Legend
PWE006 MSR 1B MB001 Outcropping J aquifer
Kelpie Bore Potentiometric surface (m
Outcropping basement AHD)
units
MSR 1C 110 Hope Creek 3 Eitzens
Peake and
MB002 Sunny Creek 2 Limit of artesian flow
PES001 MSR 2A Macleans 0 10
5Outcropping 15 20
Williams Bore PWA001 Nilpinna HS Denison InlierGeorge Creek Eromanga Basin confining
Boundayunits
100
Weedina Bore MSR 2B MSR 1A Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
Kilometers ´

-29
-29

120110
MSR 2A MSR 1B MB002
MB001 Macleans Outcropping Jbasement units
Williams Bore Peake and Sunny Creek 2 ProducedOutcropping
by Department for aquifer
Water | Science
Nilpinna
MSR 1C HS George Creek
Hope Creek 3 Eromanga Basin Bounday
Weedina Bore MSR 2B Denison
MSR 1A Inlier

-29
-29

120 & Information Division Projection

100
MonitoringOutcropping confining
| Mapunits
MSR 1B MB001100 Outcropping J aquifer
MSR 1C Hope Creek 3 Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
0 Outcropping
5 10 basement
15 units
Peake and WILLIAM CREEK Outcropping confining
20 units
100 Sunny Creek 820 Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
Denison Inlier "
Kilometers ´
2012 Outcropping basement units
Peake and Sunny Creek Produced by Department for Water | Science
136 136 137 2
Denison Inlier 0 5 10 15 20
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

100
Kilometers
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum ´
Produced by Department for Water | Science
WILLIAM CREEK 80 Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
"
0
Monitoring 10
5 & Information 15
Division 20
| Map Projection

100
2012
136 136 137 Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
Kilometers ´
0 5 10 15 20
WILLIAM CREEK Produced by Department for Water | Science
80 Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
" Kilometers ´
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

100
2012
Produced by Department for Water | Science
136 136 137
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

100
WILLIAM CREEK 80 Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
" Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum

WILLIAM CREEK 2012

80 Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
136 136 " 137
2012
136 136 137

An attempt to core MSR2 had very limited
success. Initial drilling to secure surface
casing failed to find reasonable competent
sediments through the Holocene alluvium and
unconsolidated J Aquifer sediments to a depth
of 48 m. At the base of the J Aquifer sediments,
a hard bar was encountered followed by clay
of the Permian units. MSR2A was completed
into the Permian sands (115–118 m) following a
further 60 m of conventional mud rotary drilling
through Permian clay. MSR2B was completed
near the base of the J Aquifer (41–44 m).
The unconsolidated nature of the J Aquifer
sediments above 48 m triggered sands to 'flow'
to the base of the MSR2B, therefore not allowing
final completion between 45–48 m.
4.3.3.2 Groundwater sampling program
Artesian wells were allowed to freely discharge
until pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and
temperature stabilised. Non-artesian wells were
sampled using a stainless steel pump lowered
immediately above the well screen interval; each
well was then purged until a minimum three
well volumes had been discharged and pH, EC
and temperature stabilised. Spring samples
were taken via a stainless steel pump attached
to nylon tubing with the pump lowered directly
into the main vent of the spring. EC, pH and
temperature were measured in the field using
a multi-parameter instrument. EC and pH were
calibrated against standard solutions for a
precision of ±0.5% and ±0.1 units respectively.
Alkalinity (HCO3) was determined in the field
using a digital titrator and reagents with a relative
precision of ±5%.
Table 4.2: Mountain block investigation well water level
Measured DTW*
Site ID
(December 2011)
MSR1A 24.85
MSR1B 25.17
MSR1C 24.65
*DTW – depth to water (m)
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4
Water levels at MSR1A, MSR1B and MSR1C
(December 2012) are provided in Table 4.2.
Note that well casing and ground surface were
not surveyed and therefore water levels are
not referenced to the Australian Height Datum
(AHD). In order to determine vertical flow
characteristics at the investigation site, water
level readings required an analysis against a
reference datum. With no survey equipment
available, a field technique using water and
clear plastic tubing referenced the height of well
casing at MSR1B and MSR1C back to the well
casing height of MSR1A. Clear plastic tubing
attached to each well casing was filled with
water until equilibrium was reached. The height
of water in the tubing above the well casing of
MSR1B and MSR1C determined the height of
each well casing below MSR1A. This height
differential was added to the water level reading
of MSR1B and MSR1C to allow comparison
against a common reference level (Figure 4.8)
Water levels at MSR1 indicate a potentially
intricate groundwater flow system with
downward flow potential from the water table
(MSR1C) to MSR1B (56–59 m) and MSR1A
(117–120 m), and an upward flow potential
from MSR1A to MSR1B. However, it is not
known whether water levels at each interval
have returned to equilibrium since drilling
operations ceased. Equilibrium may not return
for many years and will be reliant on fracture
aperture, density and connection. Therefore,
head measurements over the coming years may
imply a downward head gradient indicative of
recharge.
Referenced DTW*
(December 2011)
24.85
25.27
24.91
97
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge
Figure 4.8: Common reference
datum at the MSR investigation
drill site
0.1m
MSR1A
MSR1B
MSR investigation drill site
4.3.4 Environmental tracers and isotopes
Environmental tracers and isotopes of
groundwater, groundwater mixing models and
geophysical techniques were used to improve
and constrain a revised conceptual model of
MSR occurring across the Peake and Denison
Inlier.
4.3.4.1 Major ions
To allow for a comparison and analysis of major
ion composition, groundwater sampled from
wells and springs was separated to match
similar source types (spring or well), source
aquifer where screened interval was known (J
or P), and geographic location (west or east
of, or from the Peake and Denison Inlier (or
mountain block, MB)). As such, J Aquifer wells
to the west of the Peake and Denison Inlier are
labelled 'J Aquifer – west' and so on. Rainfall
major ion composition was collected during field
investigations from Macumba, Atula and New
Crown Stations and Dalhousie Springs. Rainfall
data collected during these field investigations
has highly variable major ion chemistry,
indicating the continental influence on rainfall
across the western margin of the GAB.
A piper diagram (Figure 4.9) provides a
summary of the major ion composition. As
mentioned, the major ion composition of rainfall
is highly variable. The major ion composition of
98
0.16m 0.26m
MSR1C
groundwater from the MB springs and Nilpinna
HS Bore (P Aquifer – west) plot closest to the
variable rainfall data and may represent an
averaging of rainfall composition. The Nilpinna
HS Bore is located at the junction of the Peake
and Denison Inlier and sedimentary basins.
Significant drainage lines stemming from the
Peake and Denison Inlier pass within 100 m
of the Nilpinna HS Bore. It was hypothesised
that contemporary MFR is occurring to the P
Aquifer (west) from the Peake and Denison
Inlier at the mountain front, as the major ion
composition of the Nilpinna HS Bore appears to
be representative of contemporary rainfall.
The second P Aquifer – west well has a
chemistry composition similar to the MB wells
and may indicate MBR processes occurring
to the P Aquifer. MBR or MFR to the J Aquifer
to the west of the Peake and Denison Inlier
is not known with any certainty. Given the
limited saturation of the J Aquifer at MSR2,
either MBR or MFR seem unlikely, however
further investigation is warranted beyond this
investigation.
Springs west and J Aquifer – west have similar
groundwater compositions indicating that the
probable main source of groundwater feeding
the springs west of the Peake and Denison
Inlier is the J Aquifer. Furthermore, the major
 10

Mg
0
100

10
90
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
20
80
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
30
Western Great Artesian Basin 70

40
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs 60

in the Great Artesian Basin 50 4

50

40 60

30 70

100 20
100 Figure 4.9: Piper diagram of
90 10
90
groundwater near the Peake and
80 0 Denison Inlier and rainfall across
80 100the 90 80 margin
western 70 60of the
50 GAB
40 30 20 1
70 Ca
70
60 Springs west
60
50 J Aquifer wells west
50
40
P Aquifer wells west
40
MB springs
30
30 MB wells
20
20 J Aquifer wells east
10
10 Rainfall
0
0
Mg SO4
0 0
100 100
10 10
90 90
20 20
80 80
30 30
70 70
40 40
60 60
50 50
50 50
60 60
40 40
70 70
30 30

20 80 80
20
90 90
10 10

0 100 100
0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ca Na HCO3 CI

Springs west
J Aquifer wells west
P Aquifer
ion chemistry wellsthe
from westP Aquifer (MRS2A) is Aquifer east of the Peake and Denison Inlier.
dissimilarMBtosprings
both J Aquifer – west and springs MB springs, MB wells, J Aquifer – west and
MB wells
west, suggesting that there is limited connection springs – west have a marginally elevated Cl/
J Aquifer wells east
between the P and J Aquifers in this area. Br ratios compared to oceanic values, however
Rainfall
the ratios for the J Aquifer – east clearly increase
Groundwater from the J Aquifer – east displays as chloride increases, again concluding that
a tendency towards more Na-Cl type waters, different flow systems persist within the western
indicative of very mature groundwater with margin of the GAB. The Cl/Br ratios of the P
long residence times, compared to all other Aquifer – west varies considerably. The data
groundwater types sampled near and from point towards the lower end of the chloride
the Peake and Denison Inlier. This reinforces range (Nilpinna HS Bore) has a Cl/Br ratio lower
the assumption that the significant differences than the seawater line, trending towards a
between groundwaters east and west of the rainfall composition and interpreted as direct
Peake and Denison Inlier have evolved due to rainfall recharge representative of active MFR
contrasting recharge mechanisms, flow paths processes. In contrast, the second P Aquifer
and timescales. – west data point (MSR2A) has an elevated Cl/
Br ratio indicative of the addition of chloride,
The chloride-to-bromide (Cl/Br) ratio against potential from the diffusion of clays which
chloride plot (Figure 4.10) indicates that separate the P and J Aquifers.
there may be an addition of chloride to the J

99
Cl/Br (mol
1500

1000
Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge

500

4
0
0 20 40 60

Figure 4.10: Cl/Br versus Cl 3000 Cl (mmol/L)

Springs west
MB springs
2500
J Aquifer west
J Aquifer east
MB wells
2000
P Aquifer west
Rainfall
Cl/Br (molar)

Sea water line

1500

1000

500

0
0 20 40 60
Cl (mmol/L)

4.3.4.2 Strontium isotopes (87Sr/86Sr)

Springs west
The ratio of strontium
MB springs isotopes ( Sr/ Sr) (Figure
87 86
4.11) define distinct sources of groundwater at
J Aquifer west
the MB springs in comparison
J Aquifer east to the J Aquifer
– west and springs
MB wells – west which are relatively
P Aquifer
non-radiogenic west
compared to the MB springs.
To the east ofRainfall
the Peake and Denison Inlier,
Sea water line
J Aquifer – east generally plot slightly more
radiogenic than J Aquifer – west and springs
– west, although the Sr/ Sr ratio at Eitzens
87 86
plots similar to MB002. This suggests a potential
mountain block contribution from the Peake
and Denison Inlier to the J Aquifer, east of the
Peake and Denison Inlier. Further evidence of
mountain block contribution is provided within
Chapter 2, Volume III: Groundwater Discharge
of the Western Great Artesian Basin (Love et
al. 2013). Analysis of water chemistry from
springs along a 340 km transect of the 'mound
springs line' indicates an increase in radiogenic
Sr in the area near Levi and Hawker Springs.
Likewise, an increase was evident in the Ca and
K composition of groundwater. The region east
of the Peake and Denison Inlier which exhibits
increasing Sr, Ca and K compositions from
springs is coincident with the mounding of the
potentiometric surface at George Creek (Figure
4.5).
4.3.4.3 Stable isotopes of water (δ2H & δ18O)
Contemporary precipitation along the western
margin of the GAB is controlled by two sources;
the southern area is influenced by weak winter
cold fronts, whereas further north, rainfall is
generally dominated by summer monsoonal
weather patterns. Analysis of four BoM weather
stations (Marree (17037), Anna Creek Station
(17004), Oodnadatta (17043) and New Crown
Station (15600)) highlights the dominance of
summer rainfall from south (Marree) to north
(New Crown Station) with 35–40% occurring
during the three months of summer (December
to February) compared to 16–21% during winter
(June to August). An analysis of two 6-month
periods (October to March compared with April
to September) presents more evidence of a
summer dominate climate in the western margin
of the GAB. Between October and March,
60–67% of the mean annual rainfall occurs
compared to 33–40% from April to September.

100
 Sr/86Sr
87
0.712

Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system

Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
0.710
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4
0.706
0.1
0.718 Figure 4.11: 87Sr/86Sr versus 1/Sr

Springs west
MB springs
0.716
J Aquifer west
J Aquifer east
MB wells
P Aquifer west
0.714
Sea water
Sr/86Sr
87

0.712

0.710

0.706
0.1 1 10
1/Sr

Class A Pan Evaporation

Springs west
is approximately
3200 mm/yr across the western margin of the
MB springs
GAB. J Aquifer west
J Aquifer east
The remoteness of the
MB wells Peake and Denison
Inlier, and thePspatial and temporal variability
Aquifer west
Sea water
of rainfall across the western margin of the
GAB limited any rainfall data collection to
opportunistic collection during on-ground field
work. Therefore, neither seasonal nor altitude
effects are included in a discussion of deuterium
( H) and oxygen-18 ( O) variation in the MSR
2 18
investigation. Furthermore, climate variations
on century to millennia scale may induce
temperature and amount effects on 2H and
18
O that can mask or be masked by altitude or
seasonal effects (Beyerle et al. 2003).
Aquifer – west, springs – west and MB springs
all show an evaporative signature, indicating that
during the recharge process these recharging
water pulses were subjected to partial
evaporation. Conversely, J Aquifer – east and
springs – east are generally more depleted and
have no significant trend. Recharge conditions
for the J Aquifer – east and springs – east were
likely to be under cooler and/or wetter conditions
and most likely represent palaeo-waters. A
simple conclusion from these observations
may be that groundwater from the J Aquifer to
the east of the Peake and Denison Inlier was
recharged by different recharge mechanisms
and/or during different climatic periods to
groundwater within the J Aquifer to the west of
the Peake and Denison Inlier.

A plot of stable isotopes of water (Figure 4.12)
collected from springs and wells (J Aquifer
and P Aquifer) on either side (west and east)
of and from the Peake and Denison Inlier (MB)
illustrates the variable nature of groundwater
compositions. Furthermore, the stable isotope
compositions provide a valuable insight as to
the likely recharge conditions or mechanisms. J
Groundwater within the P Aquifer – west has
variable isotopic composition. One data point
(MSR2A) plots equivalent in composition to the J
Aquifer – west and MB springs and indicates an
evaporative influence with parallels in recharge
mechanisms to the J Aquifer – west. The second
P Aquifer – west data point (Nilpinna HS Bore)
plots coincident with the Global Meteoric Water

101
 -30

Chapter 4: Mountain system

-40
recharge

4 -50

-80
Figure 4.12: Stable isotope values 0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
for spring and wells collected δ18O (‰VSMOW)
near the Peake and Denison Inlier

Springs west -10

δ2H (‰ VSMOW)

MB springs

J Aquifer west

J Aquifer east -20

Springs east

MB wells

P Aquifer west -30

Adelaide LMWL

GMWL

Alice Springs LMWL -40

-50

-80
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
δ18O (‰VSMOW)

Line (GMWL)Springs
and thewestAdelaide and Alice Springs isotope. Assuming that there were no errors in
Local Meteoric
MBWater
springs Lines (LMWL) and has sampling or analytical methods, it is assumed
a more depleted δ O
J Aquifer composition. Nilpinna
west
18
that the results are correct and accurate.
HS Bore is located
J Aquiferat the contact between
east
the Peake and Denison
Springs east Inlier and P Aquifer. Carbon-14 activities from the MB wells and
Significant drainage
MB wells lines coming off the Peake mountain block springs range between 94.42
and Denison PInlier meander
Aquifer west within 100 m of the ± 0.25pmC and 25.62±0.16pmC, which
Nilpinna HS Bore.
AdelaideThis
LMWLevidence suggests that give uncorrected groundwater ages from the
MFR mechanisms
GMWL have been, and/or may still Peake and Denison Inlier that range from 300
be, active to Alice
the west
Springsof the Peake and Denison
LMWL years to 11ka years BP. In the J Aquifer – east,
Inlier. It is hypothesised that any contemporary 14
C activities vary between 3.46 ± 0.12 and
influence of MFR is localised west of the Peake 1.97 ± 0.1 pmC, implying a range of uncorrected
and Denison Inlier, as no indication of MFR was groundwater ages between 28 and 32 thousand
provided by the stable isotopic composition of years (ka) BP. Correction models can be applied
MSR2A, less than 5 km away. to the 14C activities measured in groundwater
to account for any carbon chemistry evolution
All MB wells plot adjacent to the GMWL and along a groundwater flow path, for example
LMWLs, although MSR1A (117–120 m) is far isotopic exchange or the dissolution of
more enriched, a possible indication of recharge carbonate aquifer material. For the purposes of
occurring during a different climatic regime. this investigation, corrected 14C apparent ages
are not required as the uncorrected age provides
4.3.4.4 Radiocarbon (carbon-14) the necessary level of information to distinguish
Groundwater samples were analysed for between younger and older groundwater
radiocarbon ( C) using accelerator mass
14
sources.
spectrometry (AMS) techniques considered
to be current best practice for measuring this

102
 136 136 137

-28
-28
136 136 137

-28
-28

80
(
! J aquifer - east
136 136 137 4.13. Carbon-14 activities
136 136 137 (Figure
! J aquifer - west

80
(

-28
-28
#(pmC)
*! J aquiferspring
- east and wells collected

-28
-28
Springfor- west
(
near
(!
! J aquifer
the Peake
MB well
- westand Denison Inlier and
90
#* Spring - west
interpreted
*# MB spring groundwater velocities
!
(!(
! MB well
within the Aquifer

8080
90 (!JPaquifer
aquifer - -east
Jwest
(
#
* JMBaquifer
spring- east
!
(!(J aquifer - west
136 136 137
#
*#(
!
Blue
JP aquifer
Spring
aquifer -- west
= -carbon-14
west
west activities (pmC)
* Spring - west

-28
-28
!
(!Black
MB well = interpreted groundwater
90 ( MB well
velocities
80 90 #
*#*MB spring
MB spring
80
3.46
!
(! P aquifer - west
aquifer - west

80
(
!
( PJ aquifer - east
0.32 m/yr 3.46 !
( J aquifer - west
Legend

80
#
* Spring
Legend
- west
Limit of artesian flow
0.32 m/yr
10.35 80
2.2 !
( MB well
90
10.35 94.42 110 3.46 #
* MB Limit
springof artesian
Potentiometric surface
flow (m AHD)
31.15 2.2
0.09 m/yr 3.46 !
( P aquifer - west
1.53 Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
1.64 94.42 110 Legend Eromanga Basin Bounday
25.62 0.32 m/yr

100
2.38 31.15 1.97 0.09 m/yr Legend

-29
-29
1.53 120
0.32 m/yr
1.64 37.12
25.62 53.96 Eromanga
Limit Basin
of artesian flowBounday
Outcropping J aquifer

100
10.35 2.38 1 0.05 1.97
m/yr

-29
-29
73.99
37.12
20
2.2 Limit of artesian flow
10.35 53.96 J aquifer
73.99 8 0 2.24110 0.05 m/yr 2.2 Potentiometric
Outcropping surface
Outcropping confining (m AHD)
units
94.42 Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
1.53 31.15 94.42 110 0.09 m/yr
2.24 0.09 m/yr Outcropping
Eromanga Basinconfining
Bounday units
1.53 1.64 31.15 25.62
1.97 3.46 Outcropping basement units
2.38

-29
-29
1.64 25.62 Peake and 120 Eromanga Basin Bounday
37.12

100100
2.38 1.97 Outcropping basement units

-29
Denison Inlier 53.96 -29 Outcropping J aquifer
120
37.12
73.99 Peake and53.96 0.05 m/yr 0.32 m/yr Legend
Denison Inlier 0.05 m/yr Outcropping J aquifer
73.99 Outcropping confining
2.24 Limit of artesian flowunits
10.35 2.24 Outcropping confining units
2.2
110 Outcropping basement
Potentiometric surfaceunits
(m AHD)
Peake and94.42 Outcropping basement units
1.53 31.15 Denison Inlier
0.09 m/yr
Peake and Eromanga Basin Bounday
1.64 25.62 Denison Inlier 0 5 10 15 20

100
2.38 1.97

-29
-29

120
37.12 53.96 0 10 15 20
in the Great Artesian Basin

5Outcropping
73.99 0.05 m/yr Kilometers J aquifer
Produced by Department
Kilometersfor Water | Science
´´
2.24 Outcropping confining units
Produced by Department for Water | Science
Monitoring & Information Projection
Western Great Artesian Basin

100
Produced by Department
Division | for
MapWater Science
5 Outcropping
Monitoring & 10
Information basement
15 Division units
| Map Projection

100
0 Monitoring & Information 20Division
Peake and Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
Map Projection:
0 Lambert
15 Conformal
20 Conic
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,

WILLIAM CREEK
Denison Inlier 5Conformal
LambertKilometers
10 Conic | Map Datum
80
" Geocentric Datumof
Map Datum: Australia 1994
Geocentric Datum April
| Date of Australia
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

WILLIAM CREEK Produced by Department for Water | Science

80
´´
" Geocentric Kilometers
1994 Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
2012
Produced
Monitoring Department
& Information for Water
Division Science
| Map |Projection

100
136 136 137 Date
2012
April
by 2012

136 136 137 Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

100
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the

Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum

WILLIAM CREEK
Conformal
80
" Geocentric
LambertDatumof Australia
Conic 1994
| Map| Datum
Date April
WILLIAM CREEK 80 0 5 10 15 20
" Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
2012
136 136 137 Kilometers ´
2012
136 136 137 Produced by Department for Water | Science

Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

100
recharge

Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum

WILLIAM CREEK 80
" Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April

2012
136 136 137
Chapter 4: Mountain system

103
4
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge
In general, groundwater ages in the J Aquifer
– east become younger (14C activity increase)
with distance away from the Peake and Denison
Inlier (Figure 4.13). The exception to this is a
marginally younger age (higher 14C activity)
at Hope Creek, which is coincident with
the mounding of the potentiometric surface
10–15 km directly east of the MB springs.
Groundwater flow velocities (0.05 to 0.32 m/y)
of the J Aquifer calculated using the C data
14
correlate well with the implied hydraulic direction
of flow from both the mountain block and the
east towards the Mound Spring Line (for more
details on the Mound Spring Line, see Chapter
2, Volume III (Love et al. 2013)). The J Aquifer
14
C data combined with hydraulic data compare
favourably with major ion and Sr isotope data,
suggesting that the Peake and Denison Inlier
contributes MBR to the J Aquifer system.
Groundwater samples collected from within the
J Aquifer, east of the Peake and Denison Inlier, all
provide uncorrected groundwater ages greater
than 28 ka BP, indicating a major proportion of
recharge would have occurred before the LGM
(recharge occurring during the Pleistocene).
Carbon-14 activities from the J Aquifer range
from 10.35 ±  0.13 pmC to 1.53 ± 0.11 pmC and
imply uncorrected groundwater ages from 18
to 34 ka BP (includes both the J Aquifer – west
wells and springs – west). From the major ion
analysis, it was recognised that the springs west
of the Peake and Denison Inlier are dominantly
sourced from the J Aquifer. The two P Aquifer 14C
104
activities are 31.15 ± 0.19 and 2.38 ± 0.05 pmC,
with the second (MSR2A, 2.38 pmC) being of
similar uncorrected age to the J Aquifer both
east and west of the Peake and Denison Inlier.
The Nilpinna HS Bore 14C activity (31.15 pmC)
converts to an uncorrected age of 9 ka BP,
clearly indicating a more recent contribution
of recharge to the groundwater system than
either the J Aquifer (east or west of the Peake
and Denison Inlier) or P Aquifer away from the
Peake and Denison Inlier. In fact, the 14C activity
at Nilpinna HS Bore clearly falls within the range
of 14C activities of groundwater sourced from
the Peake and Denison Inlier and reinforces the
inferences from major ion chemistry that MFR
processes have been, and potentially still are,
active along the western portion of the Peake
and Denison Inlier.
The 14C activity of groundwater sampled from
within and surrounding the Peake and Denison
Inlier alludes to younger groundwaters in the
mountain block, compared to the regional
sedimentary basins (except for P Aquifer at
Nilpinna HS Bore, were MFR mechanisms are
likely to have contributed to the groundwater
resource more recently) and implies more
localised groundwater flow paths within the
mountain block.
A depth profile of 14C activities at MSR1 (Figure
4.14) implies a downward age gradient, with age
increasing from the water table to 120 m.
 Depth (m)
60

Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter

80 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
4
100
in the Great Artesian Basin

120

0 Figure 4.14: 14C activities at

20 30 40
MSR1 from the Peake and
Denison Inlier

20 14C MB well profile

40
Depth (m)

60

80

100

120

20 30 40 50 60 70 80
14
C (pmC)

14C MB well profile

4.3.4.5 Stable isotopes of water and
radiocarbon
A comparison between δ18O and 14C (Figure
4.15) of groundwater from springs and wells
either side of and from the Peake and Denison
Inlier shows a general trend towards a more
enriched δ O signature with increasing C
18
(or younger apparent groundwater age). More
specifically, this analysis supports different
recharge mechanisms and timescales between
the mountain block, J Aquifer – west and
J Aquifer– east. More specifically, the less
depleted stable isotope signature of the J
Aquifer – west compared to J Aquifer – east
suggests that recharging waters to the J Aquifer
– west may have undergone greater evaporation,
a finding consistent with diffuse recharge
mechanisms.
The general trend of less depleted δ18O values
with younger groundwaters is contrary to the
findings of the ephemeral river recharge (ERR)
investigations (see Section 3.3.3), where older
groundwaters (lower 14C) have a less depleted
δ18O signature. At the mountain front, one P
14
Aquifer – west well (Nilpinna HS Bore) displays
a stable isotope signature consistent with the
findings of the ERR investigation, having a more
depleted stable isotope signature with a more
modern 14C signature (greater than 30 pmC).
This result is consistent with the rapid infiltration
of water from heavy rainfall events and supports
the notion that MFR processes have occurred to
the west of the Peake and Denison Inlier.

105
 10

C (pmC)
14

Chapter 4: Mountain system

recharge
1

100
Figure 4.15: δ18O versus 14C of
groundwater collected from
0.1
springs
20 and wells near
30 the Peake 40 50 60 70 80
and Denison Inlier δ18O (‰, V-SMOW)

Springs west

MB springs

J Aquifer west
10
J Aquifer east

Springs east
C (pmC)

MB wells
14

P Aquifer west

0.1
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
δ18O (‰, V-SMOW)

4.3.4.6 Noble gases

Springs west
Noble gas
MB data
springswere collected using two
methods, the first
J Aquifer westsampling noble gas
concentrations of the hard rock matrix and the
J Aquifer east
second sampling
Springs east noble gas concentrations of
groundwater from wells and springs in both the
MB wells
Peake and Denison
P Aquifer west Inlier and J Aquifer.
During the drilling and installation of a nested
monitoring wells investigation site along the
Peake and Denison Inlier, pore fluid 4He and
20
Ne concentrations were collected via routine
sub-sampling of recovered continuous core
at MSR1A (Figure 4.7). At regular intervals
down the continuously cored hole, sub-cores
were extracted, and then cleaned, weighed
and placed in air-tight stainless steel vessels.
Each stainless steel vessel was then purged of
atmospheric gases (Osenbrück et al. 1998) via a
process that sequentially introduced ultra-high
pure nitrogen followed by vacuum extraction
(after Ali et al. 2011). Groundwater noble gas
concentrations were collected using copper
tubes (Weiss 1968) from springs and wells
following standard sampling protocols (Section
4.3.3.2).
Six sub-cores were taken at MSR1A for noble
gas analyses. During subsequent transport, the
cooper inlet tube connected to the stainless
steel vessels on three of the six samples was
damaged. The 4He/20Ne ratio core profile from
MSR1A (Figure 4.16) has a close to linear
relationship with depth with a slight concave
downwards. In contrast, the groundwater
samples collected for each site (screened
intervals do not precisely match the depth at
which core was sampled) plot along a near-
vertical line. The movement of fluid through the
aquifer matrix can be interpreted using similar
profiles (e.g. chloride) where advection, diffusion
and dispersion influence the characteristics
of the profile. A profile displaying an upward
concave is interpreted to represent discharge
and, conversely, a downward profile may be
representative of recharge. Further investigation
is required to make definitive statements
regarding the 4He/20Ne profiles, albeit minimal
recharge is predicted.

106
 Depth (m)
60

Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter

80 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
100
4
120
0
Figure 4.16: 4He/20Ne profile for
0 1
MSR1A

4
20 He/20Ne core profile
4
He/20Ne MB well profile

40
Depth (m)

60

80

100

120

0 1 2 3 4 5
4
He/20Ne

Radiogenic
4 helium
He/20 Ne core concentrations
profile can be supported by hydraulic data, which recognised
normalised
4 toNeatmospheric
He/20 MB well profile concentration using that the head of each mountain block spring
the fraction factor: is considerably higher (greater than 70 m)
than the J Aquifer. A measurable difference
in the terrigenic 4He concentration of the
Fw = ( Hem / Nem ) / ( Heeq / Neeq )
4 20 4 20
MB spring water would be expected, even if
a minute amount if groundwater from the J
4.7 Aquifer was added. This was not found to be
where the measured concentrations (m) of 4He the case. Using Equations 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3,
and Ne are normalised by the equilibrium
20
and 4He accumulation rates from Lehmann
concentration (eq) of 4He and 20Ne at 20°C and et al. (2003), an analysis of groundwater
100 m elevation. 4
He concentrations provides a quantitative
estimation of groundwater age from the J Aquifer
The terrigenic 4He component of groundwater of between 55 to 300 ka BP. A comparison of
sourced from the mountain block and J 14
C activities from the same region, which implies
Aquifer – east (Figure 4.17) range from close to an uncorrected groundwater age of 28 to 30 ka
atmospheric equilibrium BP, with the 4He data may imply a mixing fraction
(~7.25 x 10-8 ccSTP/ gH2O ) at the MB springs of older groundwaters and much younger
to more than 1000 times enriched above groundwaters.
atmospheric equilibrium
(~5.67 x 10-8 ccSTP/ gH2O ) from the J Aquifer
– east. A simple inference is made from
the terrigenic 4He evidence that there is no
contribution of J Aquifer water to the springs
discharging within the mountain block. This is

107
 4
136 136 137

-28
-28

108
136 136
10106 Wood Duck 2 137
136 136 137

-28
-28
recharge

-28
-28
10106 Wood Duck 2

80
10106 Wood Duck 2

80

80
136 136 137 ! MSR sampling wells
136 136 90 137 # MSR sampling springs 4

-28
!Figure 4.17: Terrigenic
MSR sampling wells He (µcc/kg)

-28
-28 -28
10106 Wood Duck 2 90
10106 Wood Duck 2
) groundwater
Investigation
#ofMSR sampling drillcollected
sites
springs
! MSR sampling wells
from
90 )springs
#Investigation wells
anddrill
MSR sampling
near the Peake
sites
springs
Chapter 4: Mountain system

80
Milne NOS001 and Denison Inlier

80
Milne NTV001
NOS001
) Investigation drill sites
80 Twelve Mile New Johnsons No 3
NTV001
8Kempes
Milne 0 NOS001 Twelve Mile New Johnsons No 3
NPB001 Johnsons No 3 Bore !
! MSR
MSRsampling wells
samplingwells
29948 KempesNTV001
90 90 NPB001 Johnsons No 3 Bore #
# MSR
MSRsampling springs
samplingsprings
80 29948
Twelve Mile New Johnsons No 3
Kempes Legend
)
) Investigation
Investigationdrill sites
drillsites
PWE006 Kelpie Bore
Eitzens
NPB001 Legend
PWE006 29948 Johnsons No 3 Bore
Kelpie Bore
Eitzens Limit of artesian flow
PES001 PWA001 Milne Milne NOS001 56530 Limit of artesian flow
PES001 PWA001 NOS001 56530
NTV001 Legend
PWE006 110 NTV001 Kelpie Bore Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
MB002 80 110 Eitzens Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
Nilpinna HS 8 MB002 Twelve Mile
Macleans NewNew Johnsons
Johnsons NoNo3 3
Williams Bore Williams Bore Nilpinna HS -10 0George KempesTwelve Mile Macleans Limit of artesian flow
PWA001 -10 Kempes
George
Creek Creek 56530 Eromanga Basin Bounday
PES001Weedina BoreWeedina Bore MSR 1A 1 36449 36449 NPB001 Johnsons No 3 Bore Eromanga Basin Bounday
3290

-29
-29
3290 MSR 1A 20 2994812

-29
-29
29948
NPB001 Johnsons No 3 Bore
241 MSR241 1B MSR 1B MB001 MB001 110 48192 0 48192 Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
MSR MB002 Outcropping
Outcropping J aquifer
J aquifer
-1386
Nilpinna HS
-1386
1C MSR 1C 6 6 Hope Creek 3Macleans
Hope Creek 3 Legend
Williams Bore PWE006 -10 George Kelpie Bore
PWE006Weedina Bore Creek Eitzens LegendEromanga Basin Bounday
001 0 0 36449 Eitzens Kelpie Bore Outcropping
Outcropping confining
confining
Limit of artesian units
flowunits
3290 MSR 1A 2 1

-29
-29
1
PES001 PWA001 241 MSR 1B MB001
0 48192 56530 Limit of artesian flow
PES001 PWA001 56530 Outcropping
Outcropping J aquifer
basement
-1386 MSR 1C 6 Hope110Creek 3 Sunny Creek 2 Potentiometric
Outcropping surfaceunits
basement (m AHD)
units
Peake and Peake and MB002
Macleans Sunny Creek 2 Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
Williams Bore Nilpinna HS Denison Inlier-10 110
MB002
Denison Inlier 00 Creek Outcropping confining units
1George Macleans Eromanga Basin Bounday
Williams Bore Weedina Bore Nilpinna HS 36449

-29
3290 MSR 1A -10 George Creek 120
Weedina Bore 241 MSR 1B MB001 48192
36449
Eromanga Basin Bounday
basement units
3290 MSR 1A MSR 1C 12 Outcropping
OutcroppingJ aquifer

-29
-29 -29
-1386 Peake and 6 0 48192Hope Creek 3 Sunny Creek 2
241 MSR 1B MB001 Outcropping J aquifer
Denison Inlier
-1386 MSR 1C 6 Hope 0 0
1 Creek 3 Outcropping confining units

100 0 Outcropping
5 Outcropping
10 confining
15 basement
20 units
units
Peake and Sunny Creek 2
0 5 10 15 20
Denison Inlier Kilometers
Outcropping basement units
Peake and Sunny Creek 2
Department for Water | Science
Produced byKilometers
´´
Denison Inlier
Monitoring Department
Produced &byInformation for Water
Division Science
| Map |Projection

100
0 5 10 15 20
Produced
Monitoring Department
& Information Division | for
MapWater, Science
Projection

100
Lambert Conformal
byConic | Map Datum
WILLIAM CREEK Monitoring Kilometers
& Information Division ´
80
" Geocentric
Lambert Datumof Australia
Conformal
Produced Conic | 1994 Date April
Map |Datum
Conformal
| Science Conic
0Map Projection:
5 by Department
10 Lambert
15for Water
20
WILLIAM CREEK Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994
80 2012
" Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
& Information Division | Map Projection

100
136 136 137
MonitoringKilometers ´
Date April: 2012
0Produced5by Department
2012 10 for15Water | 20
Science
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
136 136 137
WILLIAM CREEK Information Division | Map Projection

100
80 Monitoring &Kilometers ´
" Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
Produced by Department
Lambert Conformal for Water
Conic | Map Datum| Science
2012
WILLIAM CREEK 80
136 136 " 137 Geocentric Datumof
Monitoring Australia
& Information Division
1994 | |Date
MapApril
Projection

100
2012
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
136 136 137
WILLIAM CREEK 80
" Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April

2012
136 136 137
 EFS032 ! Sampling points
! Sampling points

28°4'0"S
28°4'0"S
EFS071
EFS088
EFS071
135°54'0"E 80135°55'0"E
! Sampling points
80
135°54'0"E EFS071 135°55'0"E
10 Figure 4.18: ERI lines at the Freeling
0
6041-36 Spring Complex

90
EFS032 EFS088 ! 80 10
0
100

80
90
EFS032
!EFS017 6041-36
EFS071! Three ERI lines and geochemical
EFS001
EFS088
EFS032 ! 100
MB002 sampling locations and main spring

80
Peake and !EFS017
EFS071!
!
EFS032 EFS001 MB002 0 EFS-001

90

28°4'0"S
28°4'0"S

110
Denison Inlier EFS032 12 Legend
Peake and EFS088 EFS017 ! 100
0

110
Denison Inlier 12

28°4'0"S
28°4'0"S
EFS017 Legend Potentiometric
! Sampling points surface (m AHD)
EFS088
MB002
Peake and ! ! Potentiometric
Eromanga
Sampling surface
Basin
points (m AHD)
Bounday
EFS071 0

110
Denison Inlier 12
EFS017 LegendEromanga Basin Bounday
Outcropping basement units
EFS071 80
PK303 Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
Outcropping basement units
80
PK303 Eromanga Basin Bounday
EFS001
Outcropping basement units

90
EFS032
EFS001 100

90
PK303 EFS032
PK255 100 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
MB002
Peake and Kilometers ´
PK255 EFS001 ! MB002 0 0Produced 0.2
0.1 by Department 0.3 0.4
for Water | Science

110
DenisonPeake
Inlier and
EFS017 ! 12
0
Legend
Kilometers ´

110
Denison Inlier 12 Monitoring
Legend & Information Division | Map Projection
EFS017 Produced by Department for Water, Science
(m AHD)
ProducedPotentiometric
by Department for surface
Water | Science
PK255 Lambert
Monitoring
0 Conformal
0.1 Conic
& Information
0.2
Potentiometric | Map Datum
Division
0.3surface0.4 (m AHD)
PK345 Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection
Map Projection:
Eromanga Lambert Conformal Conic
Basin Bounday
Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
Geocentric Kilometers ´
Map Datum:
EromangaGeocentric
Basin Datum
Bounday of Australia
Lambert Conformal
Produced by Conic
Department Map
|for Datum
Water | Science
PK345 1994
2012 Outcropping basement units
135°54'0"E 135°55'0"E
Geocentric
Date: Datumof
Outcropping
April
Monitoring & 2012 Australia
Information basement
Division Date
1994| |Map April
units
Projection
PK303
PK303 2012
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
135°54'0"E PK345 135°55'0"E
Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
EFS001
EFS001
in the Great Artesian Basin

2012
135°54'0"E 135°55'0"E

PK255 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Western Great Artesian Basin

PK255 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Kilometers
Kilometers ´´
Produced by Department for Water | Science
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,

Produced by Department for Water | Science

Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
PK345 Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
PK345
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the

Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April

Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April

2012
2012
135°54'0"E
135°54'0"E 135°55'0"E
135°55'0"E
recharge
Chapter 4: Mountain system

109
4
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge

4.3.5 Groundwater mixing discharge. Electrical resistivity imaging (ERI),

4.3.5.1 ERI and a mixing model—
contribution of groundwater from the
mountain block to springs at the Freeling
Spring Complex
The Freeling Spring Complex (Figure 4.18) is a
spring group consisting of 98 individual springs,
with discharge rates ranging from less than 1 L/s
to small seeps which discharge barely enough
to support small stands of vegetation. These
springs emerge at, or adjacent to, the Kingston
Fault, which separates the J Aquifer to the east
and Peake and Denison Inlier to the west. The
majority of the springs emerge east of the fault
and discharge across a travertine platform.
Springs have also been observed emerging from
the fractured granite within 500 m west of the
fault.
The J Aquifer potentiometric surface is between
10–40 m above the land surface at the Freeling
Springs Complex. The Freeling Spring Complex
may provide a location where waters from
the regional J Aquifer and mountain block of
the Peake and Denison Inlier converge and
a geophysical technique, was used to identify
potential groundwater flow paths and attempt to
distinguish the source of water to springs within
the Freeling Spring Complex. Mixing models
are used to estimate potential mixing between
two or more different sources. Possible water
sources are presented schematically in Figure
4.19.
Electrical resistivity imaging
Data collection comprised three ERI lines using
10 m electrode spacings that extended 550 m
laterally, generating 110 m of vertical penetration.
All lines passed through one central point
coincident with a high-flowing spring (EFS-001,
0.23 L/s) located towards the southern extent
of the Freeling Spring Complex. EFS-001 was
inferred to discharge from the fault zone, in
contrast to many other high-flowing springs that
discharge from mounds within the travertine
platform east of the primary fault. Survey lines
were orientated in a radial pattern on bearings
of 255, 303 and 345 degrees. Line PK345 aligns
with the main Kingston Fault, line PK255 was
perpendicular to the Kingston Fault and line

Figure 4.19: Conceptualised West Freeling Spring group East

section through the Freeling 100
Spring Complex

50 Rolling Downs
Group
Vertical distance (m)

Peake and Denison Inlier J Aquifer

-50

-100

-150
-1000 0 1000
Horizontal distance (m)

Legend

Mountain block sourced water

J Aquifer sourced water
Mixed mountain block and J Aquifer contributions

110

PK303 was diagonal to the Kingston Fault. Both
PK255 and PK303 crossed over the mountain
block and J Aquifer material.
In the mountain block areas, a salt solution was
added to the electrode points to improve contact
resistance. ERI data acquisition and processing
were completed using the proprietary Halihan-
Fenstemaker method (Halihan & Fenstemaker
2004). Data exceeding a repeatability error of
2% or that had inversion model misfits greater
than 50% were eliminated from the dataset.
The Freeling Spring Complex site had a root
mean square inversion error that ranged from
7.8 to 10.4%. The lowest errors were achieved
along the line of the Kingston Fault, as electrode
contact resistance was generally better than
compared to the mountain block line sections.
Interpretation of the geophysical profiles implied
potential flow paths from unique water sources
for the Freeling Spring Complex (Figure 4.20 and
Figure 4.21). Subsequent water sampling and
geochemical analysis were used to refine the
geophysical interpretation and evaluate a mixing
model based on end member source waters.
50
-50
0 50 100 150 200 250
50
-50
0 50 100 150 200 250
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4
ERI measured resistivity ranged from 0.1–
2500 Ω.m. At locations coincident with the
Kingston Fault (e.g. PK345), ERI resistivities
have a smaller range of values, 0.3–84 Ω.m.
The resistivity of mountain block areas west of
the Kingston Fault (PK255 and PK303 (PK303
profile not shown)) was markedly greater
than the J Aquifer sediments east of the fault.
The two profiles (PK255 and PK303) which
cross perpendicular and diagonal to the fault
respectively are generally similar in character and
clearly define the boundary between resistive
Proterozoic rocks and the less resistive J Aquifer
sediments.
More discrete features were resolved orthogonal
to the Kingston Fault (PK255), where three
prominent conductors exist. The least
conductive of these three features were on the
west side of the Kingston Fault. The yellow arrow
represents an inferred mountain block flow path
while the blue arrows represent inferred flow
paths from the J Aquifer.
Figure 4.20: Freeling Spring
Complex ERI Profile 1—PK255
300 350 400 450 500 550
Figure 4.21: Freeling Spring
Complex ERI Profile 3—PK345
300 350 400 450 500 550
111
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge
Contours are provided at resistivities of 100, 15
and 5 Ω.m to investigate areas that: 1) would
not have significant fault fluids (greater than
100 Ω.m), 2) would be strongly influenced by
fault zone or other fluids (less than 15 Ω.m), and
3) may host more saline fluids (5 Ω.m).
West of the Kingston Fault, the PK255 ERI line
traverses the base of a valley slope within the
mountain block and was largely characterised
by resistivities greater than 15 Ω.m (up to
2500 Ω.m). This large resistivity range was not
expected if the mountain block is considered
a homogeneous granite block. The lower
resistivities possibly represent regions of
fracturing and may contain fluid of relatively
low salinity. Between 200 and 225 m (at the
base of the PK255 ERI line), a distinct diagonal
anomaly of lower resistance (5–10 Ω.m) extents
towards the surface. This zone of low resistivity
represents a potential fluid pathway from the
mountain block to the spring complex.
East of the Kingston Fault, the PK255 ERI line
profiled resistivities of the J Aquifer sediments
and the EFS001 spring tail. Resistivities were
found to be typically lower (less than 15 Ω.m)
112
Photo: Adrian Costar
than those observed over the mountain block.
Two conductive features are apparent to the
east of the Kingston Fault. The first was a lateral
feature up to 70 m in thickness extending down
from the ground surface, the second stretched
diagonally from the base of the profile (between
360 and 400 m). The two low resistive zones
are interpreted as water-bearing regions (fluid
pathways) from the J Aquifer, split by a region
of high resistivity. At the surface of the PK255
profile, a thin region of high resistivity is observed
and interpreted as consolidated or dry material
such as travertine deposits.
Line PK345, orientated along the Kingston Fault,
has notably different characteristics to the two
lines which cross the fault (PK255 and PK303).
PK345 is generally of lower resistivity, the central
portion predominately 0–15 Ω.m. Conductive
areas below 5 Ω.m are constrained to the
upper portions of the profile. The fault zone was
interpreted as region of preferential fluid flow/
upwelling. High resistivity values seen at the
north and south end of the profile are artefacts of
the line diverging off the fault.
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4

Groundwater chemistry and mixing models
A mixing model (Equation 4.8) using the ratio
specific electrical conductance (SpEC) to
chloride (assumed to be conservative) was
used to determine the fraction of groundwater
emanating from the Freeling Springs Complex
that was sourced from the mountain block:
Cn – CGAB
MB = (C – CGAB
) Equation 4.8. According to the mixing model,
MB
4.8
where MB is the fraction of water sourced from
the mountain block, Cn is the ratio of SpEC to
chloride (molar concentration) for a sample,
CGAB is the ratio of SpEC to chloride (molar
concentration) for the end-member J Aquifer
sample, and CMB is the ratio of SpEC to chloride
(molar concentration) for the end-member MB
sample.
Chloride and electrical conductivity were chosen
as the variables for the mixing model due to the
conservative nature of chloride and the large
contrast in electrical conductivity seen across
the site using the ERI data (PK255).
Water samples from a series of discharge
locations (Figure 4.18) were collected to identify
different source water mixtures. All sites were
estimated to have a discharge rate greater than
0.003 L/s. The SpEC and chloride composition
of the mountain block (MB002), J Aquifer (6041-
36) and Freeling Spring Complex samples are
provided in Table 4.3, along with the fraction of
mountain block groundwater calculated using
MSR contributes between 1% and 12% of
groundwater flowing from within the Freeling
Spring Complex. Naturally, this implies that
between 88% and 99% of groundwater flowing
from the springs at the Freeling Spring Complex
was derived from the J Aquifer, thus providing
evidence of complex groundwater interactions
within the spring complex.
The ERI imaging technique highlights the
multiple groundwater flow paths and sources
to the springs at the Freeling Spring Complex,
which has been confirmed by the mixing model
calculations. The implications of these findings
are that the springs along the Freeling Spring
Complex are potentially vulnerable to increased
extraction from the J Aquifer.

Table 4.3: Mixing model results—Freeling Spring Complex

Site ID SpEC (µS/cm) Cl (mmol/L) SpEC/Cl MB fraction

6041-36 3971 27.87 142 0.0

MB002 1295 4.23 306 1.0

EFS001 3968 26.63 149 0.04

EFS017 3952 27.33 145 0.01

EFS032 7087 45.13 157 0.09

EFS071 4155 25.75 161 0.12

EFS088 4785 29.61 162 0.12

113
 136 136 137
Wood Duck 2Wood Duck 2

-28
-28
4

114
80
136 136 137

recharge
Wood Duck 2Wood Duck 2

-28
-28
! MSR sampling wells
90 # MSR sampling springs
136 136 137
2 ) Investigation drill sites

80
Wood Duck 2Wood Duck

-28
-28
Milne NOS001
136 136 136 136
NTV001 137 137 sampling
Figure
! MSR4.22: of
δ18Owells

80
Wood DuckDuck Duck
2Wood
2Wood Duck 2
Chapter 4: Mountain system

80 Wood Twelve New Johnsons No 3

2 90Mile

-28
-28
# MSR sampling

-28
-28
Kempes groundwater collected
springs from
NPB001 -6.71 Johnsons No 3 Bore springs and wells
) Investigation drill near
sites the
Peake and Denison Inlier
! MSR sampling wells
Legend

80

80
PWE006 Milne NOS001 90 Kelpie Bore # MSR sampling springs
Eitzens
NTV001 Limit of artesian flow
PES001 PWA001 8 Twelve-6.41
Mile 80-85 % New Johnsons No 3
) Investigation drill sites
100 Kempes
110 ! MSR Potentiometric
! MSR sampling
sampling surface (m AHD)
wellswells
MSR 2A MB002 Macleans NPB001 -6.71 Johnsons No 3 Bore
Williams Bore Milne NOS001
90 90 # MSR
# MSR sampling
sampling springs
springs
Nilpinna HS George Creek Eromanga Basin Bounday
Weedina Bore MSR 1A -4.86 NTV001
-6.43

-29
-29
80
120 Legend
) Investigation
) Investigation drill sites
drill sites
PWE006 MSR 1B MB001 Twelve Mile Kelpie Bore
New Johnsons No 3
Kempes Eitzens Outcropping J aquifer
MSR 1C Hope Creek 3 Limit of artesian flow
PES001 -4.18 15-20 % NPB001 -6.71 Johnsons No 3 Bore
PWA001 NOS001
NOS001 -6.41
MilneMilne 00
1 80-85 % Outcropping confining units
-6.2 Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
110 NTV001 NTV001 Legend
PWE006 MSR 2A 8MB002
0 80 Macleans
Twelve
Twelve Mile Mile Kelpie Outcropping basement units
Williams Bore George Creek EitzensSunny Creek 2 New New Johnsons
Johnsons No 3
No 3Bore
Nilpinna HS Peake and Kempes
Kempes Eromanga Bounday
Weedina Bore -4.86
MSR 1ADenison Inlier -6.43 Limit of artesian
Basinflow
NPB001

-29
-29

PES001 PWA001
120 NPB001
-6.41 -6.71 Johnsons
Johnsons
-6.71 No 3 No 3 Bore
Bore
MSR 1B 0 80-85 %
MB001
10 Outcropping J aquifer
MSR 1C 110 Hope Creek 3 Potentiometric surface (m AHD)
MSR 2A -4.18 MB002 15-20 % Macleans Legend
Legend
Williams PWE006
PWE006
Bore KelpieKelpie
Bore Bore
Nilpinna HS Creek
George-6.2 Eitzens
Eitzens Outcropping
Eromanga Basin confining units
Bounday
Weedina Bore MSR 1A -4.86 -6.43 LimitLimit of artesian
of artesian flow flow

-29
-29

120
PES001 PWA001
PES001 PWA001
MSR 1B 0 00 -6.41-6.41 80-85
80-85 % % Outcropping
1
10 MB001 Sunny Creek 2 Outcropping basement
J aquifer units
MSR 1C Peake and 110 110 Hope Creek 3 Potentiometric
Potentiometric surface
surface (m AHD)
(m AHD)
MB002
Denison MB002
Inlier
-4.18 15-20 % 0 5 10 15 20
MSR MSR
2A 2A Macleans
Macleans
Williams
Williams Bore Bore Nilpinna
Nilpinna HS HS GeorgeGeorge
CreekCreek Outcropping confining units
-6.2 Eromanga
Eromanga BasinBasin
Kilometers Bounday
Bounday ´
Weedina
Weedina Bore Bore MSR MSR
1A 1A -4.86-4.86 -6.43

-29
-29

-29
-29

120 120-6.43
MSR MSR
1B 1B Department for Water
Produced byOutcropping | Science
basement units
Peake MB001
and MB001 Sunny Creek 2 Outcropping
Outcropping J aquifer
J aquifer
MSR MSR
1C 1C HopeHope
CreekCreek
3 3 Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

100
Denison Inlier
-4.18-4.18 15-20
15-20 % %
Outcropping
Outcropping confining
confining unitsunits
-6.2 -6.2 Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
WILLIAM CREEK 80 0 5 10 15 20
" SunnySunny
CreekCreek
2 2
Outcropping
Outcropping
Geocentric Datumof Australiabasement
basement1994 | unitsunits
Date April
PeakePeake
and and Kilometers ´
Denison
Denison Inlier Inlier 2012
136 136 137 Produced by Department for Water | Science

Monitoring
0 5 & Information
10 15 | Map Projection
Division 20

100
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
Kilometers ´
WILLIAM CREEK 80 Produced by Department for Water | Science
" Geocentric Datumof Australia 1994 | Date April
Monitoring & Information Division | Map Projection

100
0 0 5 5 10
2012 1015 15 20 20
136 136 137
Lambert Conformal Conic | Map Datum
Kilometers
Kilometers
"
WILLIAM CREEK 80 Produced
Produced
Geocentric Department
by Department
byDatumoffor for Water
Water
Australia Science
|1994
´´
|| Science
Date April

Monitoring & Information Division Map Projection

100
Monitoring Division | Map |Projection

100
2012 & Information
136 136 137
Lambert
Lambert Conformal
Conformal Conic Conic Map Datum
| Map |Datum
WILLIAM
WILLIAM CREEKCREEK 80
"
80
" Geocentric
Geocentric Datumof
Datumof Australia
Australia 1994 |1994 Date April
Date| April

2012 2012
136 136 136 136 137 137
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4

4.3.5.2 A regional mixing model— recommendations on how best to expand the

contribution of groundwater from the
mountain block to the regional aquifer
Using Equation 4.8 and substituting δ18O
concentration for the variable, a regional end-
member mixing model provides an estimate of
the MBR contribution to the Mound Spring Line
area (Figure 4.22). This model suggests that
between 15 and 20% of groundwater along the
mound springs line may have originated from the
mountain system.
4.4 Significance of research for other
mountain block areas
10
In order to evaluate the potential for MSR
occurring in other areas, groundwater chemistry,
environmental tracers, water level and elevation
11
data is required. However, this information is
extremely limited across the western margin
of the GAB. Recently an artesian monitoring
12
network was commissioned and installed. The
SWL (m)
monitoring network to the non-artesian portion
of the western margin.
Presently, a water level monitoring network
exists in the area surrounding Marla (Figure
4.5). The J Aquifer is very thin (less than 10 m)
surrounding Marla and is directly underlain by
undifferentiated Archaean to Devonian rock.
The Marla monitoring network commenced
in the early 1980s following a town water
supply investigation and comprised of up to
16 monitoring wells, the majority of which
are screened across both the J Aquifer and
basement rock. The Marla monitoring network is
comprised of six wells.
Figure 4.23 illustrates two representative
hydrographs; both monitor a combined J Aquifer
and basement rock water level. It is assumed
that water table fluctuation is associated
with MSR from the neighbouring Everard and

status of the groundwater monitoring network Musgrave Ranges which outcrops less than
has been reported as part of this project with 10 km to the north-west (and forms the boundary
13

10 14
Figure 4.23: Hydrographs
(WNT010 and WNT014)
representative of the Marla
Groundwater Monitoring
15
2006Network
11
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2008 2010

WNT010

WNT014
12
SWL (m)

13

14

15
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

WNT010

WNT014

115
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge

Figure 4.24: Histogram of monthly 250

rainfall totals 1980–2010

200
Frequency

150

100

50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Monthly rainfall (mm)

Figure 4.25: Histogram of daily 10000

rainfall totals 1980–2010

1000

100
Frequency

10

0.1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Daily rainfall (mm)

116

of the Eromanga Basin). Diffuse and focussed
recharge may contribute, however between 3
and 18 m of confining Bulldog Shale overlies the
J Aquifer units.
Two significant responses are featured on both
hydrographs, one during 1984 and the other
1989. The rainfall record from 1980 through to
the end of 2010 (31 years) was used to establish
if any correlation between rainfall events and
observed water level response exists.
A histogram of monthly rainfall totals over
the 31-year record is shown in Figure 4.24.
Importantly, two monthly rainfall totals stand out,
both exceeding the next highest monthly rainfall
total of the record by over 120 mm. The two
totals (299.5 mm in January 1984 and 298 mm in
March 1989) align with the two significant water
level responses.
Photo: Daniel Wohling
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4
A further histogram (Figure 4.25) illustrates the
influence of large, consecutive, daily rainfall
totals. During January 1984, two consecutive
days had daily rainfall exceeding 100 mm, the
only time in this record that this occurs. On days
either side of the 100+ mm rainfall events were
20+ mm and 30+ mm events, then a further four
days of minor rainfall (less than 5 mm). In March
1989, a prolonged rainfall period (10 days of
recorded rainfall in a 15-day period) gave totals
of: one day of 80+ mm, one day of 60+ mm, two
days of 50+ mm, one day of 20+ mm and five
days of less than 10 mm events.
This assessment concludes that heavy,
prolonged rainfall events that produce upwards
of 200 mm provide the required volume of water
to generate significant MSR to the surrounding
sedimentary aquifer.
117
 Chapter 4: Mountain system
recharge
4.5 Summary and discussion
4.5.1 Major findings
This study indicated that MSR mechanisms
have been in operation in the past and are likely
to still be in operation. Specifically, the study
identified that recharge has occurred to the J
Aquifer east of the Peake and Denison Inlier and
at Marla, and to the P Aquifer along the western
flank of the Peake and Denison Inlier. Although
this study has only focussed on fractured rock
environments associated with Marla and the
Peake and Denison Inlier, the authors suggest
that MSR mechanisms may be important in other
areas where fractured rock aquifers abut the
GAB, for example the Northern Flinders Ranges.
MSR processes are complex from the Peake
and Denison Inlier to the adjacent sedimentary
basins. For the first time, evidence of MFR to
the P Aquifer west of the Peake and Denison
Inlier has been recognised and provided,
although minimal propagation of this recharge
volume further west is evident based on the
available hydrogeochemical data. Drilling results
established that the J Aquifer directly west of the
Peake and Denison Inlier has limited saturation,
indicating minimal MSR contribution to the J
Aquifer to the west.
The majority of groundwater flowing from springs
west of the Peake and Denison Inlier is most
likely sourced from groundwaters travelling from
west to east, with the majority of those springs
having similar chemistries to the J Aquifer wells
in that region. Although there is a hydraulic head
gradient to west, it appears that there is only
a minor contribution from the P Aquifer to the
springs.
Small local flow systems in the mountain block
are evident by dissimilar groundwater chemistry
and relatively young 14C activities, indicating
short residence times and localised flow paths.
118
Although within the J Aquifer to the east of the
Peake and Denison Inlier, groundwater chemistry
identified groundwater flow lines converging
from the north-east with flow from the mountain
block (refer to Chapter 2, Volume III (Love et al.
2013)). A regional mixing model supports this
finding, suggesting that between 10 and 15%
of groundwater flow to the George Creek area is
contributed by mountain block mechanisms.
Detectable radiocarbon data to the east of the
Peake and Denison Inlier indicates recharge
to the J Aquifer approximately 20 to 30 ka BP.
If these results are assumed to be correct, it
indicates that groundwater recharged the J
Aquifer under a different hydraulic regime to
the one observed today, as these data indicate
downward flow. Assuming a groundwater
velocity of 0.05 to 0.3 m/yr (from 14C data),
these groundwaters are likely to have been
recharged between 6–12 km to the north-east.
This also assumes that the generalised direction
of groundwater flow has been continuous for
the past 30 ka. This represents a very important
conclusion in regard to basin hydraulic and inter-
aquifer mixing, however further work is required
including sampling of additional wells to increase
confidence of this conclusion.
On the basis of hydraulics and groundwater
chemistry, mountain block springs on the east
of the Peake and Denison Inlier were identified
as being non-GAB and exclusively Proterozoic-
sourced springs. In contrast, the springs at
the Freeling Spring Complex were identified
using geophysics and chemistry as having
distinct mixtures of groundwater sourced from
both the mountain block and J Aquifer. Finally,
the presence of distinct chemical signatures
representative of the J Aquifer either side of
the Peake and Denison Inlier indicate that the
mountain block acts as an east to west barrier
to groundwater flow; consequently, localised
partitioning of the flow systems has been found
to exist.

Photo: Simon Fulton
4.6 Conclusion
Local-scale work illustrates the complexity of
spring systems (GAB springs, MBR springs,
mixed source springs). Understanding
the source of spring water and discharge
mechanisms is critical for effective management
(e.g. there would be no point applying drawdown
limits to the J Aquifer around a spring if source
water is from MSR). Furthermore, the Peake and
Denison Inlier act as a groundwater flow barrier
separating J Aquifer into local and intermediate
flow systems. Any assessment of impacts
of water use on groundwater-dependent
ecosystems needs to consider these constraints
(particularly in selecting appropriate model
boundary conditions).
The study recognised the effectiveness of
terrigenic 4He and simple mixing models as
a tool to indicate the dominant groundwater
source and mixture fraction at an individual
spring level.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 4: Mountain system
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the recharge
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
4
Most recharge identified in the MSR study is
considered palaeo-recharge, with rates and
magnitude consistent with diffuse recharge.
Conversely, contemporary MSR events were
identified in the vicinity of Marla and are
associated with monthly rainfall amounts greater
than approximately 180 mm.
A limitation to this study was the lack of existing
precipitation data. It is highly recommended that
any further investigation into MSR processes
along the Peake and Denison Inlier should
invest in automated precipitation collectors at
various heights along the mountain block and
across the basin floor to test the isotopic (δ18O,
2
H, 36Cl), environmental tracer (Cl, Br) or noble
gas (4He) variability of rainfall at this location.
To progress an overall understanding of MSR,
the hydrologic processes above the mountain
front require further complete examination
and should consider the entire mountain block
system. This might include rainfall variation
(spatially and temporally), vegetation-controlled
evapotranspiration and surface runoff, which
were not investigated during this study.
119
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

5 in the Great Artesian Basin

Groundwater flow and

hydrodynamics

Pauline Rousseau-Gueutin School of the Environment, Flinders University of South Australia

Szilvia Simon Department of Physical & Applied Geology, Eötvös Loránd University
Andrew J Love School of the Environment and the National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training,
Flinders University of South Australia
Vincent Post School of the Environment and the National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training,
Flinders University of South Australia
Camille Doublet School of the Environment, Flinders University of South Australia
Craig T Simmons School of the Environment and the National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training,
Flinders University of South Australia
Daniel Wohling Department for Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Government of South Australia
Simon Fulton Natural Resources, Environment, the Art and Sport, Northern Territory Government

5. Groundwater flow and hydrodynamics
5.1 Introduction
In order to manage any aquifer system properly,
it is crucial to understand and estimate the
native groundwater flow systems. Groundwater
flow can be driven by variations in gravity,
compaction or density which, in turn, can result
in changing boundary conditions through time. It
is particularly important to know whether or not
a groundwater system is in a steady state (often
referred to as hydraulic equilibrium).
The purpose of this chapter is to infer
groundwater flow based on hydrodynamic
analyses. These interpretations will later be
compared to hydrochemistry data (Chapter 6).
Groundwater flow occurs in three dimensions,
meaning both the vertical flow and horizontal
component of groundwater flow need to be
considered. This chapter will focus on the
horizontal and vertical components separately.
An analysis of the horizontal flow component has
been based on a fully corrected potentiometric
surface, while the vertical flow component has
been analysed using pressure-elevation—p(z)—
plots and hydraulic cross-sections.
In a groundwater system such as the Great
Artesian Basin (GAB), large differences in fluid
density can be found. These differences can
be due to differences in salinity, temperature
or pressure. In the case of the GAB, the main
factor influencing density is temperature.
Groundwater temperature from the J Aquifer
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
can range from 20ºC to more than 100°C.
This difference in temperature and ultimately
density impacts on the measured hydraulic
head and, in order to compare hydraulic head
measurements of different density, a correction
needs to be performed (refer to Section
5.3.2). Previous potentiometric surfaces have
normalised hydraulic heads to a temperature of
25°C (Habermehl 1980; Welsh 2000) and were
produced for the entire GAB. Nevertheless,
the correction applied for artesian bores was
not satisfactory, as it does not consider the
variation of the temperature in the bores. This
study has applied a new methodology to correct
the measured hydraulic heads for variations in
density as a function of temperature, salinity and
pressure. This procedure involved correcting
pressures, taking into account density effects,
then converting the corrected pressures into
reference heads. This new methodology has
produced the most accurate potentiometric
surface for the western GAB (see Section
5.4.2). This revised potentiometric surface has
significant implications for groundwater flow
within the J Aquifer and alters the conceptual
understanding of groundwater flow in the
western GAB.
The same corrected database was used to infer
the vertical component of groundwater flow from
p(z) plots and cross-sections. This is the first
time that the p(z) plot methodology has been
used in the GAB to estimate cross-formational
flows (refer to Section 5.5).
Photo on facing page:
Daniel Wohling
121
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
5.2 Theoretical background
Several driving forces are known to cause large-
scale migration of fluid in sedimentary basins
(Bethke 1985; Bjørlykke 1993; Garven 1995;
Person et al. 1996) including topography, density
and compaction, while the hydrodynamic state
of large sedimentary basins plays a crucial role in
determining whether that basin is in equilibrium
or not.
5.2.1 Topography-driven flow
Topography is the most important driving force
for groundwater flow in groundwater systems
(Tóth 1963; Freeze & Witherspoon 1967).
Topography or gravity-driven groundwater
flow is induced by elevation differences in the
water table (Tóth 1963). Flow occurs because
hydraulic head decreases from a high-elevation
recharge area (high hydraulic head) to a low-
elevation discharge area (low hydraulic head).
In sedimentary basins, different orders of flow
systems can exist, namely local, intermediate
Figure 5.1: Nested flow
system created by a
hummocky ground surface
(from Tóth 1963)
Local flow systems
Intermediate flow system
Regional flow system
122
and regional flow systems (Figure 5.1, Tóth
1963). The type of groundwater flow system
depends highly on the distribution of topography,
the characteristics of the aquifer such as
permeability, heterogeneity and anisotropy, and
recharge.
In recharge areas, the hydraulic head decreases
with depth. Inversely for discharge areas, the
hydraulic head increases with depth. The only
area where the hydraulic head is constant as
function of the depth is the region of purely
lateral flow (Tóth 2009). In very general terms,
areas of high rainfall and variable topographic
relief have a propensity for the development of
local systems. Conversely, in areas of low rainfall
and flat topography there is the propensity
for the development of regional flow systems.
However, it must be pointed out that there
are many exceptions to this general rule. For
example, even in arid zones it is still possible to
develop a hierarchical flow system under certain
conditions.
Direction of flow

Np
Np
A: Aquifer with a topography-controlled water table (from Haitjema 1995)
Np >> Na  k is low   Np = potential recharge rate  Na = actual recharge rate
Np
Np
B: Aquifer with a recharge-controlled water table (from Haitjema 1995)
Np >> Na  k is high   Np = potential recharge rate  Na = actual recharge rate
In his conceptual model, Tóth (1963) assumed
that the water table was a subdued replica of
topography. Haitjema and Mitchell-Bruker (2005)
showed that two systems can be differentiated,
depending on whether topography or recharge
controls the position of the water table. They
defined a dimensionless criterion to assess the
likelihood for either a topography or recharge
controlled water table:
RL2
> 1 topography controlled
mkHd
RL2
< 1 recharge controlled
mkHd
5.1
where R is the areal recharge rate (m/day), L is
the distance between boundary conditions (m),
m is 8 or 16, depending on the flow problem
being 1D or radial, k is the hydraulic conductivity
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
Figure 5.2: Aquifers with
Np topography-controlled and
Np recharge-controlled water tables
(from Haitjema 1995)
Na
Na
Np
Np
Na
Na
(m/day), H is the average aquifer thickness (m)
and d is the maximum terrain rise (m)
The water table is controlled by the topography
when the recharge is high or the hydraulic
conductivity of the subsurface is small (Figure
5.2). This means that aquifers under wet
climates are more likely to present topography-
controlled water tables than in arid and semi-arid
climates where recharge controlled water tables
are more likely.
5.2.2 Density-driven flow
The density of groundwater varies as a function
of salinity, temperature and pressure. Differences
in density can induce groundwater flow via
convection and impact on hydraulic head
measurements. Density-driven flow is presented
with regard to 'free' and 'forced' convection
processes and their implications in large
sedimentary basins.
123
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
Figure 5.3: Thermally-
driven free convection cells
in a confined aquifer
(from Donaldson 1962)
Confined aquifer
Legend
Convection cells Isotherms
Free convection is defined as a movement of
water due to a difference in density (Figure 5.3).
Forced convection is when groundwater flow
is caused by external forces such as hydraulic
heads. The potential for mixed convection can
exist when free and forced convection occur
simultaneously (Massmann et al. 2006).
In sedimentary basins, with optimal conditions,
free convection will occur spontaneously due
to the geothermal gradient which is always
unstable with respect to density. If cool, denser
water sits above warm, lighter waters, the
system is unstable and will have a tendency
to convect. Convective cells develop with the
warm, lighter fluid moving up and the cold,
denser fluid sinking (Figure 5.3). Horton and
Rogers (1945) were the first to assess the
conditions required for free convection to occur
in fluids. For free convection in porous media,
the threshold is given by the macroscopic Ra
defined as (Holzbecher 2000):
gkv H∆ρ
Ra=
μα
5.2
where g is the gravitational acceleration (m/s2),
kv is the vertical intrinsic permeability of the rock
(m2), ∆ρ = ρtop– ρbottom is the density difference
between the heaviest (top) and lightest (bottom)
124
fluid (kg/m3) over a distance of H (m), μ is the
dynamic viscosity (kg/s/m), α is the thermal
diffusivity of the saturated rock (m2/s).
The thermal diffusivity is defined as (Pestov,
2000):
λ
α=
ρ cp
5.3
where λ is the rock thermal conductivity (W/m/K)
and cp is the water specific heat capacity at
constant pressure and temperature
(4200 J/kg/°C).
When the Ra is higher than its critical value of
39.478, there is a potential for free convection
to occur. For this definition of the Ra, an aquifer
with horizontal layers and static water was
assumed.
In sedimentary basins, it was recognised
(Raffensperger & Vlassopoulos 1999) that
free convection is unlikely to happen unless
particular conditions are present, such as a thick
permeable aquifer with a high basal heat flow
(Raffensperger & Garven 1995), near igneous
intrusions (Norton & Knight,1977) or in salt
domes (Evans & Nunn 1989). A system is more
likely to have mixed convection where free and

forced processes occur simultaneously. It is
possible to assess the dominance of either of
the two driving forces by calculating the mixed
convection ratio. This is the ratio of density-
driven flow velocity to advective-driven flow
velocity and is expressed by the ratio of the Ra
on the Péclet number, Pe (Holzebecher 2000):
vH kh ρg ∆h
P e= where v=
α μ l
5.4
Then the mixed convection ratio is defined as:
∆ρ kv l
M=
ρ kh ∆h
5.5
where v is the horizontal velocity of groundwater
(m/s), kh is the horizontal permeability of the
rock (m2), ρ is the density of the water (kg/m3)
an average value or reference value is usually
∆h
used, is the hydraulic head gradient (unitless).
l
When M < 1, the advection dominates, inversely
when M > 1 density-driven flow dominates.
In a case of an isotropic and homogeneous
medium, Equation 5.5 simplifies to (Massman et
al. 2006):
∆ρ l
M=
ρ ∆h
5.6
Thermal convection can create large
groundwater flows and has been recognised
as a major process to explain diagenetic
alteration as well as the transfer of high-volume
hydrocarbons and mass transfer.
In the case of a mixed convection system, Prats
(1966) showed that the Ra threshold for free
convection to occur was still 39.478 and that
only the shape of the cell changes.
Density-driven flow can be due to a difference
in salinity and/or temperature. The term
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
thermohaline describes the process where
density variation occurs according to
simultaneous salinity and temperature variation.
The heterogeneity of a sedimentary sequence
is of great importance to the occurrence of free
convection. Variations in hydraulic conductivity,
in turn, modify the Ra and subsequently
influence whether free or mixed convective cells
exist.
5.2.3 Compaction-driven flow
Compaction-driven flow is thought to be an
important mechanism in geological processes
such as petroleum migration or generation
of overpressures. When rapid sedimentary
deposition occurs, pore waters in some
circumstances cannot escape, resulting in
the sedimentary pile being compacted and
overpressures potentially developing.
Bethke (1985) emphasised that compaction-
driven flows are small, although flow due to
compaction was considered to be important
during the Jurassic and Cretaceous in the
GAB (Toupin et al. 1997). The most important
consequence of the presence of these flows is
that they limit the circulation of meteoric water
into deep aquifer.
5.2.4 Hydrodynamic state of aquifers
In addition to the driving forces of aquifers, it
is crucial to recognise the hydrodynamic state
of aquifers in order to fully understand their
behaviour. The hydrodynamic state can be
categorised as a steady state when recharge
is equal to discharge or a transient state when
recharge does not equal discharge.
Transient groundwater behaviour results in
changes to boundary conditions that cause
the system to be in disequilibrium until a
new steady state is reached. Hydrodynamic
boundary conditions can change due to geologic
processes (Luo 1994; Neuzil 1995; Gonçalvès et
al. 2004) or morphologic and climatic variations
(Gonçalvès et al. 2004; Jost et al. 2007). The
125
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
dissipation of the pressure pulse induced by a
change of boundary conditions mainly depends
on the diffusivity of the aquifer and ratio of
transmissivity to storativity.
The time to reach a new equilibrium is given
by the time 3τ, where τ, the time constant, is a
characteristic time of transient behaviours and
depends on the storativity, transmissivity and
length of the aquifer. It is crucial to estimate this
time in order to assess the hydrodynamic state
of the system (e.g. transient versus steady state)
and enable appropriate modelling.
Domenico and Schwartz (1998) and Reilly
and Harbaugh (2004) proposed two analytical
solutions to estimate the time constant for
confined and unconfined aquifers, respectively.
For a confined aquifer the time constant is
defined as follows:
SsL2T SL2T
τ c= = 5.9
K T
5.7
where τc is the time constant for a confined
aquifer (s), Ss is the specific storage (1/m),
LT is the aquifer length (m), K is the hydraulic
conductivity (m/s), S is the storativity (unitless)
and T is the transmissivity (m2/s).
For an unconfined aquifer, τ is defined as follows:
SyL2T
τ u=
T
5.8
where τu is the time constant for a unconfined
aquifer (m) and Sy is the specific yield (unitless).
126
The J Aquifer on the western GAB is a large
unconfined and confined sedimentary aquifer
in the order of several hundreds of kilometres.
The time for such a large system to reach
a new equilibrium will range between the
confined and unconfined portions, with the
confined equilibrium time being shorter than the
unconfined.
5.3 Flows in variable-density aquifer
5.3.1 The three different hydraulic heads
The hydraulic head (h, in m) is a variable
composed of two terms, namely the pressure
head (P/ρg) and elevation head (zi, in m) (Figure
5.4). Darcy's Law relates the gradient of the
hydraulic head to the specific discharge (q) (de
Marsily 1986):
 P 
q   K  grad  grad zi    K h
 g 
where q is specific discharge (m/s) and P is
pressure.
Different hydraulic heads have been defined in
the literature (Luscinsky 1961; Post et al. 2007).
The measured hydraulic head, or the point
hydraulic head, is the elevation reached by the
water inside a piezometer at the density of the
measurement point (Figure 5.4A). The second
hydraulic head is the fresh water hydraulic head,
which is the elevation that fresh water will reach
inside a piezometer to compensate for the
pressure in the aquifer (Figure 5.4B). The last
hydraulic head is the environmental hydraulic
head, which is the elevation reached by the
water inside a piezometer with a variable density
of the same as the adjacent aquifer (Figure
5.4C).

A.
Point water head
Water table
hf,i
hi
zi Pi zi
ρi g
5.3.2 Correction of hydraulic heads
Potentiometric surfaces are great tools to
assess groundwater flow directions and rates.
Their interpretation is based on Darcy's Law,
which assumes that density is constant in
the aquifer. In variable density environments,
Darcy's Law (expressed as function of the
hydraulic head) is not valid and the interpretation
of a potentiometric surface can lead to
misinterpretation. The measured hydraulic head
will depend on the pressure in the aquifer as
well as the density of the water column in the
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
Figure 5.4: Schematic
representation of the three
different hydraulic heads
(from Post et al. 2007)
B. C.
Fresh water head Environmental head
Reference datum
he,i
Pi zi
ρf g
well. As a consequence, the hydraulic head is
not an accurate representation of the pressure
pattern in the aquifer. Therefore, in a variable-
density environment, measured hydraulic heads
need to be corrected for the variability of density
to be properly interpreted on a potentiometric
surface. The aim of the correction is to express
measured hydraulic head as a function of a
reference density and then produce a corrected
potentiometric surface for a constant reference
density.
127
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics

Figure 5.5: Importance of

A. B.
correction for variable salinity and
temperature environments h1 = 1.25m h2 = 1.20m hf1 = 1.11m hf2 = 1.18m

Reference datum Reference datum

Groundwater flow direction Groundwater flow direction

z1 = -40m
T = 35°C T = 25°C
р = 994.8kg.m-3 р = 997.8kg.m-3

The freshwater density is commonly used to
normalise hydraulic heads. However, Bachu and
Michael (2002) have emphasised that, in the
case of sedimentary basins, the areal average
density is the best reference to use in order to
obtain the most accurate potentiometric surface.
In the following sections, the importance of
appropriate correction methods is illustrated by
comparing correction methods applied by other
authors with this study's density correction.
5.3.2.1 Importance of correction
This section utilises a similar example to that
used by Post et al. (2007) to illustrate the
importance of correcting in a temperature
variable environment.
Two bores, a certain distance apart, with
the same screen depth tapping a horizontal
aquifer are considered (Figure 5.5). Hydraulic
heads of 1.25 and 1.20 m have been measured
respectively in the bores. Groundwater flow
from Bore 1 to Bore 2 is inferred from these
rate. The corrected hydraulic heads (hf1 and
hf2) are 1.11 m and 1.18 m respectively for Bore
1 and Bore 2. Therefore, groundwater flow is
inferred from Bore 2 to Bore 1 as opposed to
case (a) (Figure 5.5B).
Neglecting the effect of density on the measured
hydraulic head can lead to an incorrect
interpretation of groundwater flow direction and
rates.
5.3.2.2 Previous correction methodology
Although, Habermehl (1980) and Welsh (2000)
produced temperature-corrected potentiometric
surfaces for the GAB, the method they used
neglected density variations that occur in a well
as a result of temperature variation. Rather,
they used a correction to a freshwater head as
proposed by Luscinsky (1961):
ρi ρi – ρf
hf ,i = hi – zi
ρf ρf
5.10

measurements (Figure 5.5A). where hf ,i is the freshwater hydraulic head (m), ρi

However, if this aquifer has a density variation
due to temperature variations, the difference
in density has to be considered to correctly
estimate the groundwater flow direction and
is the water density at the measured point (kg/
m3), ρf is the density of the freshwater (kg/m3),
hi is the measured hydraulic head (m), zi is the
elevation head (m).

128

The effect of temperature on hydraulic head
measurements may be more complex than
the salinity effect. Indeed, hydraulic head
measurements in density variation environments
due to salinity variation, only depends on the
density at the measurement point. On the other
hand, when temperature is considered, the
density in the bore is not constant due to the
loss of heat from the bore column. Therefore,
temperature stratification exists within the bore
and subsequently density stratification exists.
To estimate the density in the bore column,
temperature stratification due to the geothermal
gradient needs to be known.
A hydraulic head correction based on Equation
5.10 is accurate when ρI equals the average
density in the bore. However, when the
temperature in a bore column varies, due to the
loss of heat, applying a constant temperature
and density in the bores may be incorrect.
5.3.2.3 Density calculation
Several algorithms exist to calculate density
from salinity, temperature and pressure (Adams
& Bachu 2002). In this study, the algorithm from
Batzle and Wang (1992) has been used:
ρw=1+1x10–6(–80T–3.3T 2+0.00175T 3+489P-2T P+0.016T 2P–1.3x10–5T 3 P–0.333P 2–0.002T P 2 )
and
ρB= ρw +S { 0.668+0.44S+1x10–6(300P–2400PS +T (80 + 3T – 3300S – 13P + 47PS))}
5.11
where ρw and ρb are the densities of water and
brine (g/cm3), S is the weight fraction (ppm/106),
P is the pressure (MPa) and T is the temperature
(°C).
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
This algorithm is valid for a temperature range of
20 to 350°C, salinities less than 320 000 mg/L
and a pressure range of 5 to 100 MPa. It gives
similar results to the algorithm used by McCain
(1991) which is valid for pressures as low as
0.69 MPa. The two density surfaces using
Equation 5.11 are presented in Figure 5.6 for the
assumptions of: a) constant temperature, and
b) variable temperature in the bore. The areal
mean density for the assumption of a constant
temperature is 984.9 kg/m3 and 992.9 kg/m3
for the assumption of a variable temperature in
bores.
Salinity
On the western margin of the GAB, the salinity
varies from 43 mg/L to 69 500 mg/L. The salinity
is generally higher in the non-artesian portion
of the basin. The water in the artesian portion
is generally fresh. Only bores with salinity
information have been used to create the
potentiometric surface.
129
 29°S

29°S
Coober Pedy

Marree
30°S

30°S
Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
Roxby Downs
Tarcoola
31°S

31°S
5 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

A. Constant temperature
areal mean density =
24°S

24°S
Figure 5.6: Density estimated Density (kg/m
992.8 kg/m3 133°E 134°E
Lake Eyre
135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
from the salinity, temperature 1001.5
Density (kg/m
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
24°S 24°S

24°S 24°S
and pressure, assuming that the areal mean density = 1001.5
temperature is constant (A) or 984.8 kg/m3 932.11
25°S

25°S
variable (B) in each bore areal mean density =
984.8 kg/m 3 Lake
Lake Eyre South 932.11
Blanche
Legend
25°S 25°S

25°S 25°S
3
Density (kg/m Territory
Northern ) Queensland Data
Legend
26°S

26°S
1001.5 GAB B
South Australia Data
24°S

Waterb
Northern Territory Queensland GAB B
932.113 Town
26°S 26°S

26°S 26°S
Lake Waterb
Northern Territory Queensland Borders
South Australia Frome Town
27°S

27°S
Lake Borders
Legend South Australia Torrens
25°S

Marla
Data
Oodnadatta
27°S 27°S

27°S 27°S
GAB Boundary Lake Gairdner 0 60
Waterbodies Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum
Marla
28°S

28°S
Town
Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February 0 60 Kilo
Oodnadatta
26°S

2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/

Borders Marla Water bodies Department for Water Kilo
Oodnadatta
28°S 28°S

28°S 28°S
29°S

29°S
Coober Pedy
27°S

´
0 60 120 180 240
29°S 29°S

29°S 29°S
Kilometres Coober Pedy
Marree
30°S

30°S
Coober Pedy
28°S

Marree
Produced by Flinders University
Roxby Downs
30°S 30°S

30°S 30°S
Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of Tarcoola Marree
Australia 1994
31°S

31°S

Date: February 2012

Roxby Downs
29°S

Data source: Data/GAB

133°E Boundary/
134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°ETarcoola 139°E 140°E 141°E
Water bodies Department for Water Roxby Downs
31°S 31°S

31°S 31°S
Tarcoola
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
30°S

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

B. Variable temperature133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

areal mean density =
24°S 24°S

24°S 24°S
31°S

992.8 kg/m3 Lake Eyre

areal mean density =
992.8 kg/m3 Lake Eyre
25°S 25°S

25°S 25°S

Lake
Lake Eyre South
Blanche
Lake
24°S

Lake Eyre South

Northern Territory Blanche
Queensland
26°S 26°S

26°S 26°S

Northern Territory
South Australia Queensland

South Australia
25°S

Lake
Frome
27°S 27°S

27°S 27°S

Lake Lake
Marla Torrens Frome
Lake
Oodnadatta
26°S

Marla Lake Gairdner Torrens

Produced by Flind
Oodnadatta
28°S 28°S

28°S 28°S

Lake Gairdner Geocentric Datum

2012 | Data
Produced bysourc
Flind
Water bodies
Geocentric Dep
Datum
27°S

2012 | Data sourc

Water bodies Dep
29°S 29°S

29°S 29°S

Coober Pedy
Coober Pedy
Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum
28°S

Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February Marree

2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/
30°S 30°S

30°S 30°S

Water bodies Department for Water Marree

Roxby Downs
29°S

Tarcoola
Roxby Downs
31°S 31°S

31°S 31°S

Tarcoola
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
30°S

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

130
31°S

Temperature
A spatial distribution of temperature is presented
in Figure 5.7 using the maximum recorded
temperature from each bore and represents the
temperature in the J Aquifer for the purposes
of this investigation. Some caution has to be
exercised when viewing this temperature.
As shown by Moss and White (1959), the
temperature gradient in an injection bore
depends on flow rate, depth of the bore, thermal
properties of the aquifer, geothermal gradient
and duration of the sampling event. Using the
same calculation method as Moss and White
(1959) but for the pumping well, temperature
gradients were obtained (Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8 shows clearly that the temperature
recorded at the surface of a pumping well does
not always accurately represent the aquifer
temperature and depends mainly on the depth
of the well and flow rate. This difference of
temperature is due to the fact that the water
flowing up through the well exchanges heat with
the surrounding aquifer. For shallow wells (Figure
5.8a and 5.8b), even for a slow flow rate, the
difference between the temperature recorded at
the surface and the aquifer temperature is less
than 1°C. On the other hand, for deep bores, in
the range of 1000 m (Figure 5.8c), the difference
in temperature may be in the order of 20°C. The
deeper the well and/or the lower the flow rate the
more the temperature gradient within the bore
column tends towards the geothermal gradient.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
This study assumed that the measured
temperature is representative of the aquifer
temperature. To infer the aquifer temperature
from the measured temperature, the flow rate,
depth of the well and geothermal gradient must
be known. Despite some studies on geothermal
gradients in the GAB (Polak & Horsfall 1979;
Cull & Conley 1983), their lateral resolution
is not good enough to estimate the aquifer
temperature on this study's scale.
The assumption of measured temperature being
representative of aquifer temperature allows the
estimation of the temperature for bores without
temperature information. It is important to note
that, due to the differences in screen depth
between different bores (for those bores with
and without temperature data), a temperature
has been estimated for bores without
temperature data based on an interpolation of
the geothermal gradients calculated from the
bores with temperature information. In the case
of artesian bores, surface temperature depends
on flow rates and depth. Two assumptions
will be presented in this study. Under the first
assumption (high flow rate or shallow bore), the
temperature in the well is constant, e.g. there
is no temperature stratification, as presented
by Habermehl (1980) and Welsh (2000). Under
the second assumption (low flow rate or deep
bore), a temperature stratification is present that
follows the geothermal gradient.
131
 Temperature (°C)
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
123.402
23°S

23°S
Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
15.4388
and hydrodynamics

Legend
24°S

24°S
Data
5 GAB Boundary
Waterbodies
Town
25°S

25°S
Borders

Figure 5.7: Temperature in the Temperature

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
Northern Territory
J Aquifer Queensland 123.402
26°S

26°S
´
23°S

23°S
0 60 120 180 240
South Australia
Kilometres 15.4388
Temperature (°C)
123.402
Legend
27°S

27°S
23°S

24°S

24°S
Data
15.4388 Marla
GAB Bo
Oodnadatta
Waterbo
Legend Town
28°S

28°S
24°S

25°S

25°S
Data Produced by Flinders University| Map Datum Borders
Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February
GAB Boundary Lake Eyre
2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/
Waterbodies Waterbodies Department for Water
Town Northern Territory Queensland
29°S

29°S
25°S

Coober Pedy
26°S

26°S
Borders Lake 0 60 1
South Australia Lake Eyre South Blanche
Kilom
Marree
30°S

30°S
26°S

´
27°S

27°S
0 60 120 180 240

Kilometres Marla
Roxby Downs Lake
Oodnadatta
Tarcoola Frome
Lake
31°S

31°S
27°S

28°S

28°S
Produced by Flinders Universit Torrens Produced by Flind
Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of Geocentric Datum
Lake Eyre
Australia 1994 2012 | Data sourc
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E Waterbodies Depa
Date: February 2012
28°S

29°S

29°S
Data source: Data/ GAB Boundary/
Produced by Flinders University| Map Datum Coober Pedy
Waterbodies Department for Water Lake
Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February Lake Eyre South Blanche
2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/
Waterbodies Department for Water Marree
29°S

30°S

30°S
Roxby Downs Lake
Tarcoola Frome
30°S

Lake
31°S

31°S
Torrens

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

31°S

132
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5

Pressure For non-artesian bores, with a hydraulic head (hi)

The pressure at the screen depth is required to and a screen depth (zi), the pressure (Pi) is:
estimate the density and calculate the pressure
head (Figure 5.4). The pressure in a well hi

increases with depth according to: ∫

Pi = – ρw(z)g dz
zi

5.13

P(z)= – ∫ ρw(z)g dz For artesian bores, the pressure at the surface

is read from a pressure gauge. To calculate a
5.12 pressure head, the pressure at the screen depth
where P(z) is the water pressure relative to is obtained as follows:
the atmospheric pressure (Pa), ρw(z) is a
function that describes the vertical variation zg

of the density of the water inside the well (kg/ ∫

Pi = Pgauge– ρw(z)g dz
zi
m3) and g is the gravitational acceleration
constant (m/s2). ρw(z) has been estimated from 5.14

Equation 5.11 assuming, in one case, constant where Pgauge is the pressure (Pa) relative to the
temperature in the bores and, in another case, atmosphere read from a gauge located at the
a variable temperature in the bores following the elevation zg (m).
geothermal gradient.
Two pressures have been estimated for each
bore, one for the assumption of constant
temperature and thus constant ρw and one for 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0 20
0 0
the assumption of variable temperature. 10 20
20 40
30 60
Depth (m)

40 80
50 100
60 120
A. 100 m deep well B. 200 m deep well C. 1000 m deep well Figure
70 5.8: Steady-state 140
20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 temperature as a function of
80 160
0 0 0 depth in a pumping well for
90 180
10 20 100
different pumping rates
100 200
20 40 200 Temperature (oC)
30 60 300
Depth (m)

40 80 400 W=1 l/s

50 100 500
60 120 600
W=5 l/s
70 140 700 W=10 l/s
80 160 800
90 180 900 Geothermal gradient
100 200 1000
Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC)

W=1 l/s

W=5 l/s

W=10 l/s

Geothermal gradient

133
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics

5.3.2.4 Corrected hydraulic heads is suitable to describe groundwater flow in

The pressure head can be calculated as follow, horizontal and nearly horizontal aquifers.
using a reference density:
5.3.3 Variable-density flow in sloping aquifers
As mentioned above, for horizontal or nearly
Pi
hp, i = horizontal aquifers, groundwater flow direction
ρr g
and rate can be inferred from a corrected
5.15 potentiometric surface. On the other hand, for
for non-artesian bores: sloping aquifers the variability of density can
induce density-related gravity flow (Davies
hi
1987; Oberlander 1989; Dorgarten & Tsang
∫
– ρw(z)g dz
zi
1991; Bachu 1995). In the last few decades,
hp, i = numerical models, using the primary variables
ρr g
(pressure, temperature, salinity) and rock and
water properties, have been used to assess
5.16 groundwater flow direction and rates rather
for artesian bores: than a freshwater hydraulic head derived
potentiometric surface. The issue with numerical
zg models is that a lot of knowledge of the aquifer
∫
Pgauge– ρw(z)g dz
zi
system is required to properly conceptualise the
hp, i = system. In the case of complex systems or when
ρr g
data are sparse, a potentiometric surface is still
considered an appropriate tool. Recognising
5.17 this fact, Davies (1987) and Bachu and Michael
where ρr is an appropriate reference density (2002) derived the following equivalent of
(kg/m ). Here, areal average densities for the
3
Darcy's Law for variable-density flow along
constant temperature (984.9 kg/m3) and variable sloping aquifers:
temperature (992.9 kg/m3) have been used
respectively.
∆ρ
(
q = – K ∇hr+
ρr
∇E )
The equivalent hydraulic head for a reference
density is then: 5.19

where hr is the equivalent hydraulic head for

hr = zi + hp ,i
5.18
The elevation head (zi) has been determined from
the ground elevation and the depth of the middle
of the screen. When the middle of the screen
depth was not available, the bottom of the bore
has been used to estimate zi. Two corrected
hydraulic heads have been estimated, one for
the assumption of constant temperature and
one for the assumption of variable temperature.
The hydraulic head defined by Equation 5.18
a reference density (m), ∆ρ is the density
difference between the actual density and the
reference density ρr (kg/m3) and E(x,y)is the
surface describing the sloping aquifer.
This expression shows that groundwater flow
in sedimentary basins is driven by a potential
force caused by pressure and/or topography
differences and by a buoyancy force caused by
density differences. The potential force drives
the flow along the higher hydraulic gradient,
whereas the buoyancy force drives the flow in
the direction of maximum slope. This equation

134

emphasises the fact that the absolute magnitude
of the density-related gravity effects is not the
most important to determine their significance,
but more their relative magnitude compared to
the freshwater hydraulic gradient. To determine
the importance of the density-related gravity
effect, Davies (1987) proposed to calculate the
Driving Force Ratio (DFR). The DFR is defined as
the ratio of the magnitude of the gravity term to
the magnitude of the pressure term:
∆ρ| ∇E |
DFR=
ρ | ∇hr|
5.20
When the DFR is less than a specific threshold
value, the main driving force is the topography
and so the potentiometric surface provides a
good representation of the groundwater flow rate
and direction. On the other hand, when the DFR
is greater than a specific value, density-driven
flow can be as important as topography driven
flow and, in such cases, the potentiometric
surface is not a good representation of the
groundwater flow rate and direction. The
threshold value for the DFR depends on the
problem to be handled (Davies 1987; Bachu &
Michael 2002); Davies (1987) used a value of 0.5
and Bachu and Michael (2002) used a value of 1.
This investigation used a value of 1.
5.4 Horizontal flow / potentiometric
surface
This section presents the potentiometric
surfaces for the upper aquifer (first groundwater
occurrence) and J Aquifer (uncorrected and
corrected surfaces for a pre-development
dataset (1900–1940) and an actual dataset
(1990–2011)). Two corrected potentiometric
surfaces are presented, one based on the
assumption that temperature and density
are constant, and a second based on the
assumption of temperature and density
stratification.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
5.4.1 Upper aquifer water table surface
5.4.1.1 Methodology
The upper aquifer was defined as the first
occurrence of groundwater encountered in a
sedimentary sequence; it could be unconfined
or confined. Data for the upper aquifer within
the South Australian portion of the GAB were
obtained from the online Drillhole Enquiry
System (DFW 2010). Data for the upper aquifer
located in the Northern Territory were obtained
from the Statement of Bore reports acquired
through NRETAS Maps, the Northern Territory
Government online map and data sharing
platform.
In order to constrain the interpolation near lakes,
it has been assumed that the lakes (e.g. Lake
Eyre North, Lake Eyre South, Lake Blanche and
Lake Frome) are in connection with the water
table and when surface water is present, lose
water to the water table. Furthermore, it was
assumed that the water table was 2 m below the
lake elevation.
5.4.1.2 Surface
For the upper aquifer, only an uncorrected
surface is presented (Figure 5.9). Although
salinity differences can be very important in
the upper aquifer (55 mg/L to 222 000mg/L),
the difference between the uncorrected and
corrected hydraulic heads are minimal (maximum
2 m, mean 0.1 m). This small correction can be
explained because the bores with high salinity
are mainly very shallow (less than 5 m) and the
density effect on measurements is minimal.
135
 Legend

225
24°S

24°S
0
0 Data

20
25

5
17
Town
Borders
GAB Boundary
0
Chapter 5: Groundwater flow 20 Waterbodies
25°S

25°S
and hydrodynamics

Northern Territory Queensland

25
26°S

26°S
5 0 20
0

´
South Australia

175
0 60 120 180 240

125
25
Kilometres

50
5
27
5
32
27°S

27°S
225
300

Figure 5.9: Uncorrected water 150 Groundwate

Marla Oodnadatta
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
table surface of the upper aquifer Possib
5

175
32

225

23°S

23°S
5

75
12

Water l
28°S

28°S
Groundwater flow
150

E
225

Possible water level (m AHD)

23°S

25
Lake Eyre

0
Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum
Water level (m AHD) Legend
Groundwater flow

225
E Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February
24°S

24°S
0
175 0 Data
0

20
Possible water level (m AHD) 25 2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/

5
15

50
17
29°S

29°S
23°S

Water level (m AHD) Coober Pedy Waterbodies Government of South Australia Town
Legend Lake
25 75 Border
12 Blanche
24°S

Data 5 GAB B
500 75
Town
Legend 50 Marree
20 Waterb
25°S

25°S
150
100

Borders 75 150
30°S

30°S
24°S

Data 0 25
GAB Boundary 15

175
Town
Waterbodies
25°S

Borders Northern TerritoryRoxby Downs Queensland

Lake
50

GAB Boundary Tarcoola

0
25 Lake
26°S

26°S
Frome

100
0 200
Waterbodies Torrens
31°S

31°S
25°S

South Australia
175
0 60
125
25
Kilo
26°S

50
5
27
5
32

´
0 60 133°E 180
120 134°E
240 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
27°S

27°S
225
300
26°S

Kilometres
150

´
0 60 120 180 240 Marla Oodnadatta
27°S

175
32

225

125

Kilometres
75
28°S

28°S
150
27°S

225

25

Lake Eyre

0
Produced by Flin
28°S

Geocentric Datum
175
0

2012 | Data sour

15

50
29°S

29°S
Coober Pedy Waterbodies Gov
Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum Lake
28°S

Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February 25 75

12 Blanche
2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/ 5
50 75
29°S

Waterbodies
Produced Government
by Flinders of South
University Australia
| Map Datum 50 Marree
150
100

Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February

150
75
30°S

30°S
0 25
2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/
15
29°S

175
Waterbodies Government of South Australia

Roxby Downs Lake

50
30°S

Tarcoola Lake Frome0

100

Torrens
31°S

31°S
30°S
31°S

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

31°S

136

5.4.2 Potentiometric surface of the J Aquifer
5.4.2.1 Pre-development potentiometric
surface of the J Aquifer
The purpose of a pre-development
potentiometric surface was to assess the
potentiometry of the GAB before any major
perturbation, in order to ascertain, as best as
possible, the impact of anthropogenic activities.
Some potentiometric surfaces have already been
published for the GAB (Habermehl 1980; Welsh
2000), but they have covered the whole GAB
and their resolution for the western margin is
low. The main issue encountered in producing a
pre-development potentiometric surface was the
lack of data. Indeed, for the period 1900–1920,
approximately twenty data points were available
for the western GAB. To increase data coverage,
a second surface was produced for the period
1900–1940, where 42 data points were
available. A comparison of the 1900–1920 and
1900–1940 surfaces identified relatively small
differences, likely to be due to data coverage
rather than any change in aquifer potentiometry.
The general trends were consistent between
surfaces, therefore only 1900–1940 is presented
(Figure 5.10).
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
5.4.2.2 Present potentiometric surface of
the J Aquifer
The last two decades (1990–2011) have
been chosen to represent the present-day
potentiometric surface. Although data coverage
is superior to the pre-development surface (379
data points), data scarcity remains a limitation
to producing a precise surface. No data were
available west of a Marla to Coober Pedy
line, while very few data points were available
towards the centre of the basin.
The potentiometric surface from Habermehl
and Lau (1997) (HL potentiometric surface)
is presented on Figure 5.11 for comparison.
This potentiometric surface was derived using
a combination of observed and modelled
data corrected to a temperature of 25ºC. The
Habermehl and Lau (1997) potentiometric
surface implies continuous groundwater flow
from Queensland, Northern Territory and
western margin to the Lake Eyre South area.
From this potentiometric surface, two discharge
areas can be identified—one near Lake Eyre
South and another near Lake Frome.
5.4.2.3 Uncorrected potentiometric surface
of the J Aquifer
The uncorrected potentiometric surface is
presented in Figure 5.12. This surface does not
show smooth, continuous groundwater flow
as inferred by the Habermehl and Lau (1997)
potentiometric surface.
137
 131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

26°S 131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

26°S
South5:
Australia

Queensland
Chapter Groundwater flow

250
and hydrodynamics
27°S

27°S
200
300
Marla
10Oodnadatta
0

5
28°S

28°S
50
Lake Eyre

150

50
29°S

29°S
Coober Pedy
A. Uncorrected hydraulic heads Lake
Lake Eyre South Blanche Groundwate
Figure 5.10: Potentiometric 131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
Marree Groundwate
Potenti
surface for the 'pre-development' 131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
30°S

30°S
50 Potenti
26°S26°S

26°S26°S
stage (1900–1940) of the J Aquifer

100

50
150
South Australia Legend

Queensland
Roxby Downs Lake
Tarcoola
South Australia Frome Legend

250250
Data

Queensland
Lake
31°S

31°S
Groundwater flow Torrens Town
Data
27°S27°S

27°S27°S
200200
300300
Potentiometric level (m AHD) Border
Town
Marla 139°E 100
Oodnadatta
26°S

131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 140°E 141°E Border
GAB B
Marla 50
Legend 100
Oodnadatta 50
Waterb
GAB B

50 50
28°S28°S

28°S28°S
Data
131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E C horizon ele
Waterb
Lake Eyre

150150
Town C horizon ele
27°S

Lake Eyre

0 0
26°S

26°S

5 5
Borders

25 25

-2 -2
0 0
29°S29°S

29°S29°S
SouthBoundary
GAB Australia
Coober Pedy Lake

Queensland
Coober Pedy Lake Eyre South Blanche
Lake
250

Waterbodies
28°S

Lake Eyre South Marree Blanche

27°S

27°S
C horizon elevation
200
0
0 30

Marree
30°S30°S

30°S30°S
50 | Map Datum
Produced by Flinders University
0 80
-1 0
-1 0
-2 0

100100
Marla 150150
0
00
50
00
25
50
00

50 1994 | Date September

0

1Oodnadatta
00 Geocentric Datum of Australia
5
25

-2
-5
-7
-1

0 80
0

Lake
29°S

50 Roxby Downs 2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/ Ki

Tarcoola
28°S

28°S
Lake
Roxby Downs Frome
Waterbodies/C horizon
Lake elevation Department for
Ki
31°S31°S

31°S31°S
Tarcoola Torrens
Lake
Water
Frome
Lake Eyre
50
150

Torrens
30°S

´
0 80 160 240 320 131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
29°S

29°S
Coober Pedy Lake
131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
Kilometres B. Corrected Lake Eyreheads
hydraulic South assuming
Blanche
a constant temperature
131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
Marree
31°S

131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
30°S

30°S
50 Groundwate
31°S31°S31°S 30°S30°S30°S 29°S29°S29°S 28°S28°S28°S 27°S27°S27°S 26°S26°S26°S

31°S31°S31°S 30°S30°S30°S 29°S29°S29°S 28°S28°S28°S 27°S27°S27°S 26°S26°S26°S

100

Produced by Flinders University 131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
150

South Australia Potenti

Queensland
Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of
Roxby Downs Lake
Australia 1994 Tarcoola
South Australia Frome

Queensland
250250250

Lake
31°S

31°S

Date: September 2012 South Australia Legend

Torrens

Queensland
0 0
20020 20
303000300

Data source Data/GAB Boundary/

Marla Data
Waterbodies/C horizon elevation,
0Oodnadatta
26°S

131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E

Marla
139°E 0
140°E
1
141°E Town
Department for Water
10Oodnadatta
0 Border
Marla
50 0 0

100
Oodnadatta 50 GAB B
5 5

Lake Eyre
0 0

Waterb
27°S

15015 15

Lake Eyre C horizon ele

50 50

Coober Pedy Lake Eyre Lake

Coober Pedy Lake Eyre South Blanche

5
Lake

25

-2
0
28°S

Coober Pedy Lake Eyre South Marree Blanche

Lake
Lake Eyre South Marree Blanche 50
100100100

Marree
50 50

50
150151050

Lake
29°S

Roxby Downs 50
Tarcoola Roxby Lake
Downs Frome
Lake 0 80
Tarcoola RoxbyTorrens
Lake
Downs Frome
Lake Ki
Tarcoola Torrens
Lake Frome
30°S

131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E Torrens

138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
131°E
131°E 132°E
132°E 133°E
133°E 134°E
134°E 135°E
135°E 136°E
136°E 137°E
137°E 138°E
138°E 139°E
139°E 140°E
140°E 141°E
141°E
C. Corrected hydraulic heads134°E
assuming variable temperature in bore to account for density
31°S

131°E 132°E 133°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
31°S31°S31°S 30°S30°S30°S 29°S29°S29°S 28°S28°S28°S 27°S27°S27°S 26°S26°S26°S

31°S31°S31°S 30°S30°S30°S 29°S29°S29°S 28°S28°S28°S 27°S27°S27°S 26°S26°S26°S

131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

South Australia
Queensland
250250250

South Australia
Queensland

South Australia
Queensland
200200200
300 300300

Produced by Flin
Marla
1Oodnadatta
26°S

00 GeocentricbyDatum
Produced Flin
Marla 50
2012 | DataDatum
sour
1Oodnadatta
00 Geocentric
Marla 2012 | Data sourh
Waterbodies/C
10Oodnadatta
0 50 Water
Waterbodies/C h
Lake Eyre
500 50
150150150
27°S

Water
Lake Eyre
5

Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum

Coober Pedy Lake Eyre
Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date September Lake
2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/ Coober Pedy Lake Eyre South Blanche
Lake
50
28°S

Waterbodies/C horizon elevation Department for

Coober Pedy Lake Eyre South Marree Blanche
Lake
Water
Lake Eyre South Marree Blanche 50
100100100
150150 15

Marree 50
29°S

Roxby Downs Lake 50

Tarcoola Frome
Roxby Lake
Downs Lake
50

Tarcoola
RoxbyTorrens
Downs
Lake Frome
Lake
0

Tarcoola Torrens
Lake Frome
30°S

131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E Torrens

138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
31°S

138 131°E 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
°S

°S
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin 133°E 134°E
5
135°E

23°S
Groundwater
Figure 5.11:flow
Potentiometric
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

24°S
Potentiometric
surface producedlevel (m AHD)
from
23°S

23°S
Rechargepoints
observation Areas and modelling
0 130
13 110 (fromDischarge
HabermehlAreas& Lau 1997)
0
20

120

25°S
0 Groundwater flow
133°E 134°E 135°E 0
136°E 137°E 138°E 10139°E 140°E 141°E Legend
24
23°S24°S

23°S24°S

0
Potentiometric level (m AHD)

20
GAB Boundary

14 0
15
Recharge Areas
0 0
0 139°E13
Waterbodies
20 136°E Northern Territory
0
Groundwater flow

0
16 Discharge Areas
13 110
133°E 134°E 135°E 137°E 138°E 140°E 141°E

280

19 22
0 Town
Potentiometric level (m AHD)

26°S
20

0
Borders

120
23°S

23°S
South Australia
Recharge Areas

23

0
24°S25°S

24°S25°S
0 100 130 Legend
C horizon elevation
24 0 Discharge Areas
13 110

0
0

150

0
GAB Boundary

13
160
20

14 0 14 0

00 0
20

2251
-1 0
-1 0
0
0
15

-126

50
00
0
00
50
0

120

5
Waterbodies
20 0
0

25
Queensland
0

-2
-2
-5
-7
100

27°S
Northern Territory

0
16
0

Legend
24
280

19 22

Town Marla
24°S

24°S
120
25°S26°S

25°S26°S
GAB Boundary
Borders
0

15

South Australia 0
0 23

0
0

Waterbodies
20
0

C horizon elevation

17
16
0

Town
0

150

160
20

170
13

100

28°S
0

-1 0
-1 0
-2 0
0
0 21

00
25
50
00
0
00
1-8750
Borders

0
26

0
14

5
25
Queensland

-1
25°S

25°S

-2
-5
Northern Territory

0
0

11
26°S27°S

26°S27°S
0
C horizon elevation
19 2219 22

´
Marla 120
8

0 60 120 180 240

150

160
20
2

-1 0
-1 0
-2 0
0
0

00
25
50
00
50
00
50
South Australia
23 0 23

0
00

Oodnadatta90

25
Queensland
0

-1
Kilometres

-2
-5
-7
Northern Territory

0
17

29°S
Coober P

13 0

200
21 0

170
80 100120
8

13
26°S

26°S
0

0
2
27°S28°S

27°S28°S
26

14
0
0

South Australia
18

11
80

70 0

´
Marla 0 60 120University
180 | Map240
0

Produced by Flinders Datum

Lake Eyre

170
10

13

100
0

Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February

30°S
26

14
02

Oodnadatta90 60 Kilometres

150
2012 | Data source GAB Boundary/Waterbodies/
11
27°S

27°S
17

01

130
28°S29°S

28°S29°S
Coober Pedy 0 C horizon elevation Department for Water,
200

´
30

Marla 8 0 Lake Eyre South Lake 0 60 levels

Potentiometric 120Habermehl
180 and240 Lau (1997)
40 Blanche
0

80
18

Oodnadatta90 30 Tarcoola
0

Produced Kilometres
by Flinders University
80
17

70
13

Marree

31°S
Produced by Flinders UniversityDatum
| Map Datum
80 Lake Eyre 80 Map Datum: Geocentric of
0

Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February

28°S

28°S

70 50 13
0 Australia 1994
29°S30°S

29°S30°S
0

60
70

2012 | Data source GAB Boundary/Waterbodies/

18

40 60
90
150

Date February
elevation2012
80

Coober
130Pedy
70

70 C horizon Department for Water,

200

Lake 50 70 Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum

80

LakeLake
EyreEyre South Lake Data source
Potentiometric Data/GAB
levels HabermehlBoundary/
and Lau (1997)
0
4Roxby Blanche Geocentric Datum of133°E
Australia 1994 | 134°E 135°E
Downs Date February
80

3060 Frome Waterbodies Department for Water

30

Tarcoola 130 2012 | Data source GAB Boundary/Waterbodies/

Potentiometric levels Habermehl and Lau
Lake Marree 1
29°S

29°S
20

Coober Pedy Lake0 80

C horizon elevation Department for Water,
200
30°S31°S

30°S31°S
0

70 50 40 Lake Eyre South (1997)

Torrens 0 Potentiometric levels Habermehl and Lau (1997)
13 Blanche
70
80

30 40 60
90
150

130
70

Marree Lake80 50 70
80

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E Roxby Downs

70 50137°E 138°E 139°E
0 140°E
Frome
141°E
13
31°S 30°S

31°S 30°S
70 30

Tarcoola
70

130 60
90

4
150

1 0
20

130 Lake 0
50 70
80

Torrens Lake
Roxby Downs Frome
30

Tarcoola 130
10
20

Lake
31°S

31°S

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E Torrens

138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

139
 Groundwater flow
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
23°S
Potentiometric level (m AHD)

23°S
Possible potentiometric
level (m AHD)

Chapter 5: Groundwater flow

Legend
and hydrodynamics
24°S

24°S
GAB Boundary
210
Data
200 130
Waterbodies

5
180 Town
150 Borders
25°S

25°S
C horizon elevation

0
160

00

25

50

00
0

0
0

5
25

-1

-1

-1

-2
-2

-5

-7
0
Northern Territory Queensland
26°S

26°S
Groundwater
Figure 5.12:flow
Present-day 160 136°E Groundwate
170

133°E 134°E 135°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

South Australia
Potentiometric
uncorrected level (m AHD)
potentiometric Potentio
15
23°S

23°S
23°S

160

16
Possible
surface potentiometric
of the J Aquifer 0 Possibl

0
0

level (m
16

level (m AHD)
27°S

27°S
140
23 2

180 200
0 50

Legend Legend
Groundwater flow Marla
24°S

24°S
23°S 24°S

GAB Boundary GAB Bo

Potentiometric level (m AHD) Oodnadatta 210
Data Gidgealpa Data
Possible potentiometric 260 0 130

0
13

´
200

11
depression

0
Waterbodies 0 50 100 150 200 Waterbo
28°S

28°S
11
level (m AHD)
180
190

Town Town

120
130
Kilometres
120

Borders 150 Borders

25°S

25°S
24°S 25°S

Legend 100 110 C horizon elev

C horizon elevation Produced by Flinders University| Map Datum
100
GAB Boundary Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February
160
0

90
29°S

29°S
Coober Pedy
00

25

50

00
0

0
Data
0

5
5

2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/

25
25

-2
-1

-1

-1

-2
-2

-5

-7

60

0
Queensland
0

Waterbodies Northern Territory 60 Waterbodies Department for Water

60
26°S

26°S
50
25°S 26°S

40
90

Town 12 30 160
170

80
0
Marree
70 80

Borders South Australia 70

160 15

16
C horizon elevation 0
25 30°S

30°S
0
130

0
16
0

0
00

25

50

00
0
00

50
0

60
27°S

27°S
-1

-1

-1

-2
-2

-5

-7
26°S 27°S

140
0

23 2

Roxby Downs
180 200

50 70
0 50

Tarcoola Marla
31°S

31°S
Oodnadatta
40
26 0 Gidgealpa

0
0 13

11
depression

0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 10
28°S

28°S
11
27°S 28°S

190

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

120
130
Kilometres Kilom
120

100 110
Produced by Flinders University| Map Datum 100 Produced by Flin
Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February Geocentric Datum
90
29°S

29°S
28°S 29°S

2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/ Coober Pedy 2012 | Data sour
60

´
0 50 Department
Waterbodies 100 150 200
for Water 60 Waterbodies Dep
60 50 40
90

12 30

80
Kilometres 0
Marree
70 80

70
30°S

30°S
29°S 30°S

Produced by Flinders University| Map Datum

130

Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February

2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/ 60
Waterbodies Department for Water Roxby Downs 50 70
Tarcoola
31°S

31°S
30°S 31°S

40
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
31°S

140
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin 133°E 134°E 135°E

23°S
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5

24°S
Groundwater
Figure 5.13: flow
Present-day 1
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

Groundwater
corrected flow level (m AHD)
Potentiometric
potentiometric surface
23°S23°S

23°S23°S

25°S
of thePossible potentiometric
Potentiometric
J Aquifer level
for the(mconstant
AHD)
level (m AHD)
Possible potentiometric
temperature assumption
DFR>1
level (m AHD)
DFR>1
Northern Territory
22

190
24°S24°S

24°S24°S
Legend

26°S
0 11

170
22 0 120
Legend
GAB Boundary

180
0 11 140 South Australia
0 120
190 14 Data
GAB Boundary
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 0 140°E 141°E
Groundwater flow 0
190 Waterbodies
Data 16
Potentiometric level (m AHD)

22
Town
Waterbodies
25°S

25°S

27°S
25°S23°S

25°S23°S

0
Possible potentiometric
Borders
Town (m AHD)

200 2
level

250 260
Borders Marla

150
DFR>1
O

10
Northern Territory Queensland

14 14

230
190 190

22 Queensland
26°S

26°S
Northern Territory

28°S
26°S24°S

26°S24°S
Legend

0 0
0
170 170

130110

140
120
180 180

South Australia 14 GAB Boundary 12

130 0 0
South Australia 190 110 Data

130
0
16 Waterbodies
110
22 222

0 120
16

100
Town
27°S

27°S
0 050 226

29°S
27°S25°S

27°S25°S
Coober Pe
200 202

120 Borders
Marla
150 150

Marla Oodnadatta 50
010 21
500 26109

70 70
Northern Territory Gidgealpa
Queensland
Oodnadatta 90 50

10 10
110

´´
depression

60 60
230 230
0

0 50 100 150 200

14

Gidgealpa
28°S

28°S

30°S
28°S26°S

28°S26°S
1390
140

110

130
0
140170

80 80
0

0 depression 0 50Kilometres
100 150 200
11 11
180

South Australia 12
0 0

10 1
0

0 00
90 90

90 Kilometres
130 130

12 110
0 0 Produced by Flinders University| Map Datum
16 90 Tarcoola
Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February
22

100 100

120 Produced by Flinders University| Map Datum

29°S

29°S
Coober Pedy

31°S
29°S27°S

29°S27°S
90 90
0

80 2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/

Geocentric Datum of Australia
Produced by Flinders University1994 | Date February
200 2

50
90 90

Coober Pedy Waterbodies Department for Water

250 260

60 60

Marla 5080 60
2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/
Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994
150

60 50 Waterbodies Department for Water

30
50 50

Oodnadatta 50 100
70 0

Date: February133°E2012
70
10

70 7800 80

50 Marree 134°E 135°E

10 7

60 60 Gidgealpa
310
20 20

90 100 Data source: Data/GAB Boundary/Waterbodies

´
10 Marree depression
60
230

0 50 100 150 200

30°S

30°S
30°S28°S

30°S28°S

Department for Water

130 130
140

80
11

12 Kilometres
0

10

0 60 70
0
90

Roxby Downs 90
130

Tarcoola 600 70
4
Produced by Flinders University| Map Datum
Roxby Downs 50 Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February
100

Tarcoola
31°S

31°S
31°S29°S

31°S29°S

Coober Pedy 40
90

80 2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/

50
50
90

Waterbodies Department for Water

60

60 50 60
137°E 30
50

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 100 141°E

70
70 80

Marree
20

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

30°S

30°S
130

60 70
Roxby Downs
Tarcoola 40
50
31°S

31°S

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

141
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
5.4.2.4 Corrected potentiometric surface of
the J Aquifer
The potentiometric surface corrected for
constant and variable temperature assumptions
are shown on Figures 5.13 and 5.14 respectively.
Both corrected potentiometric surfaces can be
used to infer groundwater flow direction and
rates, since the calculated DFRs are less than 1
throughout the majority of the study area. The
area where DFR is greater than 1 is larger for the
constant density corrected surface compared
to the variable density surface, however both
areas are small. The difference between the
uncorrected and corrected hydraulic head for
the constant temperature assumption was
a maximum of 123 m and median of 1.1 m.
Twenty-two bores had a discrepancy greater
than 10 m. For the variable temperature
assumption, the maximum difference was 42 m
and a median of 0.48 m. Fourteen bores had a
difference greater than 10 m.
This investigation has concluded that the
variable temperature surface is the most
appropriate to describe the current-day
groundwater flow systems within the J Aquifer
of the western GAB. This outcome is based on
a comparison between the DFR variable and
constant temperature assumptions.
The major features that can be interpreted from
the variable temperature corrected surface
(Figure 5.14) are described below.
A large regional groundwater divide occurs in
the central portion of the western GAB that
extends from the northern rivers recharge area
in the Northern Territory to the Lake Eyre South/
Marree region of South Australia. To the east of
this divide, groundwater flows from the Northern
Territory towards Queensland, where likely
discharge occurs in the Mulligan River Spring
Group and diverges in a south-easterly direction
through South Australia.
To the west of this large regional divide there is
another groundwater divide that occurs on an
142
approximate line between Marla, Oodnadatta
and William Creek, extending to the southern
margin. From Oodnadatta southwards, this
divide corresponds to part of the Mound Spring
Line and Peake and Denison Inlier. Groundwater
flows from north-west South Australia and
south-west Northern Territory in a generalised
south-easterly direction until it is partitioned
either side of the Peake and Denison Inlier. South
of Marla groundwater flows in an east and south-
easterly direction.
Several isolated depressions of the surface
occur to the east and south-east of the major
regional north-south groundwater divide. The
depression near Innamincka is a reflection
of groundwater extraction associated with
petroleum and gas industries. A depression
approximately 200 km to the east of Marree most
likely represents a conversion of groundwater
recharge from the Northern Flinders Ranges and
a spring discharge zone associated with Lake
Blanche.
A comparison between this study's final
potentiometric surface (Figure 5.14) and
previously published surfaces indicates that
the contribution of groundwater through flow
from the eastern states to the western GAB is
less than previously recognised (Figure 5.15).
The total surface area is up to 30% less than
previously described. In terms of groundwater
flow, this represents a reduction of volume in the
range of 20%. These numbers are indicative at
this point and should only be used with caution
in any water allocation policy. Further work
is required before a more definitive reduction
of flow can be determined. Additional work
would require additional wells in areas of data
scarcity, as well as using the newly developed
methodology for determining the potentiometric
surface of the J Aquifer through the GAB.
Importantly, the new interpretation indicates
that the springs to the west of Marree are very
unlikely to be sourced from groundwater from
the eastern states under the current hydraulic
regime.
 133°E 134°E 135°E
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow

23°S
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
5

24°S
in the Great Artesian Basin
2

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

Groundwater flow

25°S
Potentiometric level (m AHD)
23°S

23°S
Groundwater
Figure flow
5.14:potentiometric
Possible Present-day

0
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

16
level (mpotentiometric
corrected AHD) level (m AHD)
Potentiometric surface

170
23°S

23°S
DFR>1 potentiometric
Possible
of the J Aquifer
Northern for the variable
Territory
level (m AHD)

26°S
temperature assumption
22 DFR>1
24°S

24°S
0
110
South Australia
Legend
20220 14 GAB Boundary
0
24°S

24°S
0 Legend
110 Data

180
201080136°E
Groundwater
GAB flow
Boundary
Waterbodies

27°S
133°E 134°E 135°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 14 140°E 141°E
0
Data
Potentiometric level (m AHD)
Town

220
25°S

25°S

28
Marla
25°S 23°S

25°S 23°S

170
180 Waterbodies
Possible
Borders potentiometric

150
0

210
0

level (m AHD) O

260
16

Town
270
170

DFR>1
Borders

190
0

Queensland

28°S
Northern Territory
16
170

200
26°S

26°S
22 150

120
26°S 24°S

26°S 24°S
0 Legend
Northern Territory
South Australia 110 Queensland
GAB Boundary
200 150 140
140 Data
South Australia Coober Pe

29°S
180 Waterbodies
180
27°S

27°S
140 Town
27°S 25°S

27°S 25°S
220 2200

Borders
180
28

Marla
170 170

130
0
150
0

16
210 210

Oodnadatta
26

170

Gidgealpa
28

270
Northern Territory Marla

30°S
131020 Queensland
150
0

´
190 0 190

depression

90
0 50 100 150 200
28°S

28°S
Oodnadatta
260

0
28°S 26°S

12

28°S 26°S
270 150 Gidgealpa

12

90
20

Kilometres

´
0
120

South Australia 11012 90 depression

0
0 50 100 150 200

110
0

0
10 Tarcoola

12
0

12
140 100

90
180 20

Produced Kilometres
by Flinders University| Map Datum

31°S
100 100
120

0
110 ProducedDatum
by Flinders University

110
0 Geocentric of Australia 1994 | Date February
Coober Pedy 10 90
29°S

29°S
Map| Datum:
2012 Geocentric
Data source Datum of
Data/GAB Boundary/
29°S 27°S

29°S 27°S
100 Produced by Flinders University| Map Datum
90

Waterbodies Department for Water

Australia Datum
1994
60 90
60
220

Geocentric of Australia 1994134°E

| Date February 135°E
Coober Pedy 80 133°E
28

Marla 60
170

130 40 Date| February

2012 Data source2012
Data/GAB Boundary/
40 30
150
0

80
50
210

90

Marree
70 8070 80

Oodnadatta
260

100

560 70 Waterbodies
Data source Department
Data/GAB for Water
Boundary/
60

0 0 8
270 60 40 Gidgealpa Waterbodies Department for Water
40 30

´
190

80

120
30°S

30°S
50

depression
90

Marree 0 50 100 150 200

30°S 28°S

30°S 28°S
100
0

50 70
12
200

12

70
90

Kilometres
120

110 60
110

0 Roxby Downs
10
Tarcoola 100 70 40 Produced by Flinders University| Map Datum
100

60 50
31°S

31°S

Coober Pedy Roxby Downs

90 Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February
31°S 29°S

31°S 29°S

Tarcoola 40
2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/
90

50 Waterbodies Department for Water

60
60

0 80
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 6 137°E 138°E 139°E 40
140°E 141°E
40 30
80
50

Marree
70 80

100

50 70
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
30°S

30°S

70
60
Roxby Downs
Tarcoola 40
50
31°S

31°S

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

143
 60
Coober Pedy

70
200
29°

29°
40

80
30
Marree 80

0
50 20 100 90
30°S

30°S
70

90
40 60

150

60
130 50 70

80
Chapter 5: Groundwater flow Roxby Downs

30
Tarcoola 130
and hydrodynamics 10

20
31°S

31°S
132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

5 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

2 10

200

130

110
170
20 1

150
24°S

24°S
180
A. Inferred by Habermehl and Lau (1997) potentiometric

140
120 surface

160
200 210 120
Groundwater
Figure 5.15: Approximate area 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 130 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
influenced by groundwater flow 18 190 Groundw
132°E 0

14
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E Groundwater
0137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

120 120
Approxim
from eastern states 19

100 100
25°S

25°S
Groundw
240 0
originate
24°S 24°S

24°S 24°S
Approxim
0 0 0 19 110

0
2
170

2 24 18 originate

15 15

0 0
14 14
0
110 Legend
180

16 16
0 Queensland

0
Northern Territory
Groundwater flow 150 22 18 GAB Bou
26°S

26°S
150

0
Legend
170

Groundwater elevation contours Waterbo

25°S 25°S

25°S 25°S
190

South Australia 14 GAB Bou

Approximative area of groundwater 0 130 Town

0
Waterbo

160 160
150 150
20 20
originates from Queensland
0

Borders
16
24°S

23

0 Town

0
12
0 2
27°S

27°S
Queensland

00 0
Northern Territory Borders

19 1922 22
21 21 280 280
Legend 120
26°S 26°S

26°S 26°S
190
40

Marla 130 110 Queensland

Northern Territory 100
150

30 30
GAB Boundary South Australia Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum
Oodnadatta
0 20 2

120
250

110 Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February

110
Waterbodies 0 60 12
25°S

0
260 South Australia 120 80
13 13

170 170
2012 | Data source Data/GAB boundary/
0
0 0

10
180
28°S

28°S
Town 0 0
26 26

14 14
13
Waterbodies Department for Water, Potentiometric 0 60 Kilom
12
0
27°S 27°S

27°S 27°S
0 0
Borders levels map a) Habermehl and Lau (1997)
120

220 110 100

Marla Kilom
100

0 100
18

100
26°S

Marla 90 Oodnadatta
0 0
17 17
140
29°S

29°S

13 13
Coober Pedy
70 8
70 600
Oodnadatta

0 0
´
70
28°S 28°S

28°S 28°S
0 60 120 180 2401 70
150

60 70 80 4800
40 30 5
80
Kilometres Marree 70 70

100
50

0
27°S

20
80 209

70
30°S

30°S
80
70

40 60
50
140

29°S 29°S

29°S 29°S
Coober Pedy
70 70
120

70
150

Produced by Flinders University

70

70 60
00200

Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of Roxby Downs 4600

130

Coober Pedy
80 80
110

Tarcoola 30
28°S

Australia 1994
50 40 5
40 0 Marree 80
31°S

31°S
0

Date: February 2012

90

50 20 30 100 90
30°S 30°S

30°S 30°S
Data source: Data/GAB boundary/ Marree
70 70

4080 60
90
0
150 150

132°E Department
Waterbodies 133°E for Water,
134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E
50 141°E
100

0 0
130 20 5 9070

30 360 6
80

Potentiometric levels map a) Habermehl 60 0

90
40
29°S

Roxby Downs
and Lau (1997) Tarcoola130 130 50 70
80

10

20 20
Roxby Downs
31°S 31°S

31°S 31°S
Tarcoola 130
132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E
1140°E
0 141°E
30°S

132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
B. Inferred
132°E by133°E
corrected surface135°E
134°E for a variable
136°E density
137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
31°S

22 0
11
200 200

130 130

110 110
170 170

150 150
24°S 24°S

24°S 24°S
180 180

0
140 140

120
160 160

10 120 0
222000 2 11
130 120
210
128000 19 120
14 14

130
0

0
180 19
25°S 25°S

25°S 25°S
0
170 170
24°S

180 180

Northern Territory Queensland

150
26°S 26°S

26°S 26°S

150
170 170

Northern Territory Queensland

190 190

South Australia 14 150

0 150 130
25°S

South Australia 14
0

0 130
16 16
23 23

0
12
0 2 0 2
27°S 27°S

27°S 27°S
150 150 0
190 190
40 40

Marla 130 0
12 100 Produced by Flinde
26°S

Oodnadatta
250 250

Marla 1300 Geocentric Datum

110 110

12 100
260 Oodnadatta 80 Produced
2012 | Databysource
Flinde
180 180
28°S 28°S

28°S 28°S

0 Geocentric
Waterbodies Datum
Depa
120 13
2600 80 2012 | Data source
levels map a) Habe
120 120

22 110 0 Waterbodies Depa

100 100

13
27°S

0 100 levels map a) Habe

220 18
100 100

110
90 100
140 140
29°S 29°S

29°S 29°S

Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum

0 180 Coober Pedy
Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February 17 70 70 60
7090
150 150

2012 | Data source Data/GAB boundary/

0 Coober Pedy 60 80 40
70 40 30 70 60
28°S

80 80

Waterbodies Department for Water, Potentiometric 17 Marree

100 100

50
50

levels map a) Habermehl and Lau (1997) 60 20 70 80 40

40 30 5
80 8090 90
30°S 30°S

30°S 30°S

Marree 80
70 70
50

40 2 0
50 50
140 140

0
120 120

70
150 150

80
70 70

40 70
29°S

Roxby Downs
130 130

60
110 110

Tarcoola 70 40
7500
Roxby Downs 60 50
31°S 31°S

31°S 31°S
90 90

Tarcoola 40
50 50
132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
30°S

132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

144
31°S

5.5 Vertical flow
The characterisation of groundwater flow
systems requires an understanding of horizontal
and vertical flow directions. A potentiometric
surface from different horizontal depth intervals
may give insight about vertical flow, but hydraulic
cross-sections and pressure-elevation (p(z))
profiles are more effective at depicting vertical
water movement. Hydraulic cross-sections and
p(z) profiles not only help delineate governing
flow systems, but also provide an estimate
of vertical communication between aquifers
in a multi-layered aquifer-aquitard system.
Both methods are based on plotting pressure
or hydraulic head values against elevation.
Corrected hydraulic heads using the variable
temperature assumption were used for the
evaluation of vertical flow using hydraulic cross-
sections and p(z) plots.
5.5.1 Pressure-elevation profiles
5.5.1.1 Methodology
Pressure-elevation profiles represent the fluid
pore pressure versus topographic elevation
along a vertical line at any given location (Figure
5.16). These profiles display the vertical gradient
of pore pressure, which is the change in pore
pressure per unit of vertical length.
In a hydrostatic environment, where only
horizontal flow movement exists, the vertical
pressure increases proportionally to the specific
weight of the given fluid:
γst = dPdz = ρg
5.21
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
where γst is hydrostatic pressure (Pa), P is fluid
pressure (Pa), z is topographic elevation above
a datum level (m), ρ is fluid density (kg/m3) and g
is gravitational acceleration (m/s2). If flow has a
vertical component, this equation is not valid and
the pressure values will differ from hydrostatic
pressure at different depths (Tóth 2009). In this
case, where a vertical pressure gradient exists,
it may be larger or smaller than the hydrostatic
pressure (e.g. dynamic pressure γdyn > γst or γdyn
<γst, which indicates a force component driving
the fluid upward or downward, respectively (Tóth
& Almási 2001)).
The pressure distribution (e.g. shape of
the pressure gradient) is a function of the
surrounding rock media. Abrupt changes or
breaks on the pressure gradient line usually
originate from changes in rock permeability
(Tóth & Almási 2001) or reflect the presence of
different driving forces (Figure 5.16).
145
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics

Figure 5.16: Pressure versus Fluid pressure (arbitary units)

elevation/depth profile 1 2 3 4
(after Almási 2001)

1
(δp/δd)D = γD>γst
Superhydrostatic
Elevation (arbitary units)

(δp/δd)R = γR<γst
Subhydrostatic
Upward flow

M
4
Downward flow
(δp/δd)M = γM=γst
R

Ideally, p(z) profiles are compiled from data
measured simultaneously along a vertical
line below one surface point; this information
could be determined from nested piezometers.
However, in practice, data from multiple wells
in a relatively small area are often used, where
variation of the water table elevation and rock
heterogeneities are minimal. For the analysis, p(z)
profiles were compiled where data distribution
was large and variation in groundwater elevation
of the upper aquifer was less than 30 m.
Data were measured relative to atmospheric
pressure, therefore the zero pressure value
represents atmospheric pressure and the zero
elevation is equal to the water table elevation in
the figures.
As hydrostatic pressure gradient is a function
of density, the hydrostatic pressure lines were
calculated using average well density and
groundwater elevation of the upper aquifer.

146

5.5.1.2 Application for the study area
For the identification of vertical groundwater
movement in the western margin of the GAB,
p(z) profiles were compiled for two time periods;
'pre-development' (1900–1940) and 'current'
(1990–2011). These two time periods are
intended to represent the initial stage where
minimum groundwater extraction had occurred
and present flow conditions in the area. An
important caveat to the following analyses is
that very limited information was available on
how artesian heads were measured in the field
in the data set from 1900–1940. It is possible
that many wells were not shut-in prior to
measurements of pressure. If pressure readings
were taken while the well was flowing or not
shut-in for an appropriate time period then these
readings would have recorded a well pressure
lower than the actual aquifer pressure.
Pre-development dataset (1900–1940)
The pre-development dataset contains a limited
number of measurements, therefore only five
profiles have been compiled (Figure 5.17).
Plot 1 is located north of Oodnadatta (Figure
5.17). At this location, pressure values between
-100 m and -300 m are slightly superhydrostatic
as the pressure gradient is larger than
hydrostatic, reflecting an upward flow (Figure
5.18). The continuous pressure increase implies
no considerable heterogenities in the rock matrix
between this depth interval.
Plot 2 was complied to the north-western side
of the Peake and Denison Inlier, a localised
topographic high point in the basin (Figure
5.17). Pressures are slightly subhydrostatic,
nevertheless the pressure gradient represents a
clear upward flow movement from -50 mAHD up
to the surface (Figure 5.18), since γdyn > γst.
Plot 3 near Marree indicates pressures slightly
above the hydrostatic pressure line (Figure 5.18).
Pressures increase with depth over a slightly
smaller gradient (9.6302 MPa/km) than the
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
hydrostatic gradient (9.7556 MPa/km) implying
downward flow. No significant permeability
changes can be observed at this location. It
is important to highlight that this p(z) plot is
localised near what is today considered to be
a discharge area. Incorrect methodology for
measuring aquifer pressure may have caused
errors in hydraulic head. No conclusions can be
made about this plot.
Plot 4 represents the flow conditions in the
southern part of the study area (Figure 5.17). At
this location, the pressure values are observed
to be slightly superhydrostatic and upward
flow conditions exist (10.1949 MPa/km). Data
are scattered along the trendline implying
permeability heterogenities.
Plot 5 depicts pressure conditions at larger
depths (-700 to -1000 mAHD) (Figure 5.18). At
this depth, the pressure gradient implies upward
flow conditions.
Although each p(z) profile implies the potential
for either upward or downward flow conditions,
generally data plotted close to and on a gradient
similar to the hydrostatic line, essentially implies
hydrostatic conditions in the upper ~1200 m of
the basin and a dominance of horizontal flow.
Moreover, the data distribution does not imply
any considerable overpressure or subhydrostatic
pressure in the area. These analyses imply
gravity-driven flow caused by variations in water
elevations and topography.
147
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics

5
132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
Legend
! Data
23°S

23°S
Town
Figure 5.17: Hydraulic cross- 132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
Legend
W-E cross-section
section and p(z) plot locations 23°S
location
! Data

23°S
(1900–1940) Southern cross-section
Town
! !
location W-E cro
24°S

24°S
!
location
!
SW-NE cross-section
! ! location ! Souther
location
Birdsville cross-section
24°S

24°S
!
Legend
E !
location SW-NE
! Data location
25°S

25°S
Location! p(z) plot
23°S

!
Town !
! Birdsvill
Borders
W-E cross-section ! !!
! location
location
! ! !
GAB Boundary
25°S

25°S
!
!
!! !
! !
!
! ! ! ! Location
Northerncross-section
Southern Territory !!
!
!! ! ! !
Queensland Waterbodies
!
! !! ! Borders
26°S

26°S
location ! ! ! !
! Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
24°S

! ! !
!
(m AHD) GAB Bo
South cross-section
SW-NE Australia !
!! !
!
! ! ! ! !
1 !
!
Northern Territory !! ! 1294 Queensland Waterbo
location ! ! !! !
!
!
!
26°S

26°S
! ! !
Digital Elevati
Birdsville cross-section ! !
South Australia
! (m AHD)
location !
!
! -40
!
1 1294
27°S

27°S
! ! !!
! !
25°S

Location p(z) plot !!

!! !
! !
5
! Marla
! !! ! ! !
! !
Borders

´
! ! !
! ! 0 60 120 180 240 -40
Oodnadatta ! !
27°S

27°S
! ! ! !!
GAB Boundary ! !
! ! !
!! ! !
!! ! ! ! 5
Waterbodies !! ! ! ! !! ! !
Kilometres
Marla
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
28°S

28°S
!! !
!
!! !! !
! ! ! ! ! !!
!! ! ! !
0 60 1
26°S

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) !

! !
!! ! !! !
! !!
!! !
!
! Oodnadatta
!! !
! !
!
!
!

(m AHD) ! !!!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !
!! !! !
1294
!!!!
! ! !!! !!
!! !!
!! Lake Eyre !
!! ! !
!
Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum Kilom
2
! ! ! !
28°S

28°S
!! !! !! ! ! ! !!
! ! ! !! ! !! !
! ! ! ! Geocentric
! Datum of
! Australia 1994 | Date February
! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! 2012 | Data source! Data/GAB Boundary/ !
!
!!! !
!
! ! !!! ! !
!! ! ! !!
29°S

29°S
!
-40 Coober Pedy
! ! ! !!!!!! ! ! !!
Lake Eyre Waterbodies Department for Water Produced by Flind
27°S

!! ! !!!! !!
2 Lake
! !! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! !
!! !
3
! !
! ! !!
!! !!
! Lake Eyre South
!
!
!!!!
! ! ! !
!! ! ! !
!
Blanche
! Geocentric Datum
! ! !
! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 2012 | Data sourc

´
! !!
! ! ! !!! ! !
29°S

29°S
!
Coober Pedy
!!!! ! !
0 60 120 180 240
! !!
!
!!
!
!!!!
! !!!! ! ! ! !
!!!! ! !
!
Marree
!! ! ! ! !
!
! ! ! ! Waterbodies Depa
Lake
! ! ! ! !! ! ! !
! ! ! ! !
3
! ! ! !
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! !! !
!
Lake Eyre South
! ! ! !
!! ! ! !
Blanche
Kilometres
30°S

30°S

!!!
!!! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! !!!
! !
! !!!
28°S

4
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! !! ! ! !
! ! !!
!
!!
! !!!
! !!!
! !!!! ! ! !
Marree
! !
!
!
!!
! !
! ! !!!!! ! ! !! !!
!
! !
! ! !
! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! !
Roxby Downs
!
Lake
30°S

30°S
! !
Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum !!! !! ! ! ! !
!
Tarcoola 4
! !
!!
Frome
! !
Produced
Geocentric by Flinders
Datum University
of Australia 1994 | Date February !
!
! ! !
!
! !
!
Lake
31°S

31°S

2012
Map| Data source
Datum: Data/GAB Boundary/
Geocentric Datum of ! !
29°S

!
Waterbodies Department for Water
Australia 1994 Torrens Roxby Downs Lake ! !
! !

Date: February 2012

Tarcoola ! Frome ! !!
! !
!
!
Lake
31°S

31°S
!
Data source Data/GAB Boundary/ !
132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E Torrens
141°E
Waterbodies Department for Water
30°S

132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
31°S

148
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5

Pressure (MPa) Pressure (MPa) Figure 5.18: p(z) plots for

200 200
1 2 1900–1940
100
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 γ50>z>-50 = 10.8846 MPa/km
-100
γ-100>z>-300 = 9.8600 MPa/km 0
5
z (mAHD)

z (mAHD)
0 1 2 3 4
-200

-300 -100

-400
γst= 9.7402 MPa/km -200
-500
γst= 9.7715 MPa/km
-600
-300
-700

-800 -400

Pressure (MPa) Pressure (MPa)

200
200
3 4
100
100

0
0 0 2 4 6 8 10
0 2 4 6 8 10
-100
-100
γ0>z>-500 =9.6302 MPa/km γ-250>z>-500 =10.1949 MPa/km
-200
z (mAHD)

z (mAHD)

-200

-300
-300

-400
-400

-500
-500

-600
-600
γst= 9.7556 MPa/km γst= 9.7339 MPa/km
-700
-700

-800
-800
Pressure (MPa)
5
0
0 5 10 15 20

-500

γ-700>z>-1000 =10.1949 MPa/km

z (mAHD)

-1000

-1500

γst= 9.7339 MPa/km

-2000

149
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
Current dataset (1990–2011)
Eleven plots were compiled for the present
database (1990–2011), as more data were
available (Figures 5.19 and 5.20).
In the north-western margin of the basin, Plot 1
represents an unambiguous downward flow. In
Plot 2, data are slightly superhydrostatic, but the
pressure gradient is smaller than the hydrostatic
gradient, implying the potential for downward
flow. Plot 3 reflects a change in the vertical
flow direction. The data on the profile show
a steady superhydrostatic pressure increase
with depth, implying upward flow. Plots 4 and
5 indicate upward flow potential and, since
there is no wide scatter in data, this represents
relatively homogeneous permeabilities. On Plot
6, pressure values show a superhydrostatic
increase with depth. The gradient does not
differ significantly from the hydrostatic gradient,
but still represents an upward flow direction.
Plots 7 and 8 reflect superhydrostatic pressure
and upward flow potential. The higher gradient
of Plot 7 reflects faster pressure dissipation
than Plot 8, which could be an effect of higher
permeabilities at the shallow depths of Plot
7. Slightly superhydrostatic pressures can
be observed on Plot 9. In addition, the data
show a subhydrostatic pressure increase with
depth, representing a local zone of potential
downward groundwater flow. However, this
interpretation should be treated with caution
due to lack of data in this region. Plot 10 has a
superhydrostatic pressure with a gradient close
to hydrostatic, implying a moderate potential
for upward water movement. Plot 11 represents
unambiguous upward flow movement
The present database enabled a more detailed
data process than the pre-development
dataset. Unfortunately, the majority of data
have been collected on the J Aquifer, making
150
characterisation of cross-formation flow difficult.
The data reflect close to hydrostatic pressure
conditions in the J Aquifer, indicating the
importance of horizontal flow. Gravity has been
inferred to be the main driver of groundwater
flow, as the areas associated with upward and
downward flow potential can be correlated
with topography, e.g. the presence of local
flow systems originating from local topographic
differences (as implied by potential for upward
flow on Plots 5 and 6) may be a result of
localised recharge at the Peake and Denison
Inlier. On the southern margin of the basin, the
potential for upward flow conditions prevail.
A lack of data inhibits an assessment of the
pressure distribution from ground surface
through the full thickness of the J Aquifer and
deeper units at any one particular location. As
a result, it is not possible to make definitive
conclusions about vertical groundwater flow in
or out of the J Aquifer. Generally, wells that have
been drilled for water supply are completed in
the upper portion of the J Aquifer as depth and
cost may become restrictive. For similar reasons,
the J Aquifer has been the main target for water
supply across the western GAB, therefore
only a limited amount of data was available for
aquifers above and below it. Subsequently,
assessing the vertical communication between
different aquifers and aquitards was difficult. The
authors propose that gravity is the main driving
force for groundwater flow in the area but, due
to data limitations, this cannot be absolutely
proven. If more aquifer information becomes
available, further investigation is required to
verify this supposition. It is recommended that
future investigations target all aquifers that may
possibly have an influence on groundwater flow
in the J Aquifer.
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
132°E 133°E 134°E
5
135°E

23°S
132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
Legend
Figure 5.19: p(z) plot and cross-
sections locations
Location p(z) plot(1990–2011)

24°S
23°S

23°S
Vertical flow direction
Finke to Dalhousie cross-section
132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
Legend
location
!
Location
Northern p(z) plot
cross-section
!
location

25°S
23°S

23°S
Vertical flow direction
24°S

24°S
! !
!
W-E cross-section
Finke to Dalhousie cross-section
! location
location ! ! !
!
1 ! !!

! !
!! !
Southern cross-section
Northern cross-section !
! ! ! ! !
!!
! ! Northern
location
location Territory ! ! !
!
!

26°S
24°S

24°S
! ! !
25°S

25°S
! ! ! SW-NE
W-E cross-section
cross-section
! South
location Australia
location
1
! !! ! !
!
! ! !
!
!
Birdsville cross-section
Southern cross-section
!
!! !
!
! ! ! ! ! location
location
!

Northern Territory !! !
! ! ! !
Queensland ! !
Data

27°S
25°S

25°S
! ! !
SW-NE cross-section
26°S

26°S
! ! ! ! ! !!
!
location
GAB Boundary !! ! !
South Australia !
1 !! !
! Marla
! ! !
! ! !
!!
Birdsville cross-section
Waterbodies
!
!! !
! ! !
3!
!
! ! ! ! ! location
Town
Queensland
! ! ! ! !!
Northern Territory !! !
! ! !
Data 4
!! !
! !! 2 !
Borders

28°S
! !! !!
26°S

26°S
! ! ! ! !! !
27°S

27°S
! !!
!!
!
GAB Boundary ! !
!! ! !! !
South Australia !
!
! !
!
!! ! ! !
!! ! !
Marla! Waterbodies
!
!
! ! ! !
!
9 !!!! !
! !
! ! ! !!! !
3! ! !Oodnadatta! !
!
! Town

´
! ! ! !
!!
!! !
! !!
! !! ! 2 !
10 0 60
Borders 120 180 240 !
! !
4

29°S
Coober
27°S

27°S
! !! ! !
28°S

28°S
!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !
!! !! ! !
!! ! ! ! !
! !
!!! !!!! ! ! ! !! !
!! ! !
!! !
! ! Kilometres
!
! Marla! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !
!
9 ! !
!!!! !
! ! !!! 3 !!! 5
!!
Oodnadatta! !! !!
!!
!!! Lake Eyre !
Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum
!
!

´
! ! ! ! ! ! Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February
!!
!! ! ! !
! ! ! !
10 0 60 120 180 ! 240
4 ! ! ! 8!
2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/
! !

30°S
! ! ! ! !
!!
28°S

28°S
!! !! ! ! ! !!
6 !!! ! ! !
29°S

29°S
!! !
Coober Pedy !! ! ! ! !
! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! WaterbodiesKilometres
Department for Water
Lake
! ! ! !!
! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !
! ! !! ! ! !
! !! ! ! !
!!!! !
!! !
! ! !!Lake Eyre South ! ! ! !
!! ! ! !
Blanche
Lake Eyre
!
5
!! !! !!!
! ! !!! !! !! ! ! ! ! !!!
! ! !! ! ! ! ! Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum
!! ! !!
! ! ! !! ! !
! ! ! !!!!
! !!! Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February
Tarcoola
! ! ! !
Marree8
!!!
!
!!!! !!! ! !! ! !
! ! !!!! ! ! ! !! !
! !
! !
! ! 2012 | Data source
Produced Data/GAB
by Flinders Boundary/
University
7
! ! ! ! ! !
6
31°S
! !!!! ! ! !
29°S

29°S

!
Coober Pedy
! ! !
30°S

30°S

! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! Waterbodies Department for Water

! !
! ! ! ! !! ! ! !
! Lake 11 ! !
! !
! Map Datum: Geocentric Datum of
! ! !!
!! !!
Lake Eyre South
!
!
!!!
!!
!
! ! ! !
!! ! ! !
!
!
Blanche ! ! Australia 1994
!
! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! !
!
!!!!
! ! !!! Date: February 2012
Roxby Downs Marree
! ! ! !
!Lake
!!!
!
!!!! !!! ! !! ! ! ! !
! !!!! ! ! ! !! ! ! !
132°E 133°E Boundary/
134°E 135°E
Tarcoola Data source Data/GAB
! ! !
7 !! !
Frome
! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! !
30°S

30°S

!!! !!
!
Waterbodies Department for Water
Lake
! !
31°S

31°S

11 !! !
!
!
!

Torrens !
!
! !
!

Roxby Downs Lake ! !

! !

132°E 133°E 134°E

Tarcoola
135°E ! 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E Frome !
140°E
!!
! !
!
141°E
!
Lake
31°S

31°S

!
!
Torrens

132°E 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

151
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics

Figure 5.20: p(z) plots for

1990–2011
Pressure (MPa) Pressure (MPa)
400 200
1 2
100
200
0
γ155>z>-75 = 9.4268 MPa/km 0 2 4 6 8 10
-100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 γ-50>z>-600 = 9.6871 MPa/km
z (mAHD)

z (mAHD)
-200

-200 -300

γst= 9.7556 MPa/km -400

-400
-500

-600
-600 γst= 9.7386 MPa/km
-700

-800 -800

Pressure (MPa) Pressure (MPa)

200 200
3 4
100 100

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
-100 -100
γ60>z>-350 =10.6453 MPa/km γ50>z>-250 =10.5044 MPa/km
z (mAHD)

z (mAHD)

-200 -200

-300 -300

-400 -400

-500 -500

-600 -600
γst= 9.7564 MPa/km γst= 9.7714 MPa/km
-700 -700

-800 -800

Pressure (MPa) Pressure (MPa)

200 200
5 6
100 100
γ100>z>-150 =9.8174 MPa/km
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
-100 -100
γ50>z>-200 =10.4060 MPa/km
z (mAHD)

z (mAHD)

-200 -200

-300 -300
γst= 9.7872 MPa/km
-400 -400

-500 -500
γst= 9.7647 MPa/km
-600 -600

-700 -700

-800 -800

> Figure continued on next page

152
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5

< Figure continued from previous page

Pressure (MPa) Pressure (MPa)

200 200
7 8
100
0
0 5 10 15
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 -200
-100
γ0>z>-250 = 11.3713 MPa/km
z (mAHD)

-400

z (mAHD)
-200

-300 -600
γst= 9.7732 MPa/km
-400
-800

-500
-1000
-600 γ-550>z>-900 = 10.1625MPa/km
-1200
-700
γst= 9.7100 MPa/km
-800 -1400

Pressure (MPa) Pressure (MPa)

0 9 0 10
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40

-500 -500

-1000 γ-700>z>-1500 =9.2353 MPa/km -1000

γ-1500>z>-3200 =9.7097 MPa/km
z (mAHD)

z (mAHD)

-1500 -1500

-2000 -2000

-2500 -2500

γst= 9.6220 MPa/km

-3000 -3000
γst= 9.6524 MPa/km
-3500 -3500

Pressure (MPa)
200
11
100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
-100
γ-100>z>-500 =10.8036 MPa/km
z (mAHD)

-200

-300

-400

-500
γst= 9.7485 MPa/km
-600

-700

-800

153
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
5.5.2 Hydrogeological cross-sections
5.5.2.1 Methodology
Hydrogeological cross-sections are the
representation of subsurface hydraulic head
distribution in a vertical plane. Cross-sections
are chosen to follow inferred groundwater flow
paths allowing flow conditions of an area to be
depicted. Due to the reduced number of data,
only potential equipotential lines have been
delineated. They have been delineated from the
hydraulic head and the water table values.
Six cross-sections were compiled in the study
area using the corrected hydraulic heads for
the variable temperature assumption (refer to
Section 5.3 for more details). Head values for
the cross-sections originate from point values
located a maximum distance of 10 or 20 km
(10 km for 1990–2011, 20 km for 1900–1940)
either side of the transects. These values are
projected horizontally to the section lines.
In addition, the potentiometric surface was
projected to the section. In the present case,
sparse data distribution only allowed compilation
of reliable hydraulic head contour lines in the
shallow sections. In the sections with deeper
profiles, only values of hydraulic head are
provided.
5.5.2.2 Application for the study area
In the study area, four cross-sections were
compiled for the pre-development dataset
and six cross-sections for the present time
dataset. The location of cross-section lines
are represented on Figures 5.17 and 5.19. The
cross-section lines were chosen to represent
main groundwater flow paths.
154
Pre-development dataset (1900–1940)
For the pre-development interval, due to sparse
data distribution, only four sections were
compiled (Figures 5.21A–D).
On the southern cross-section (Figures 5.17 and
5.21A), a south-west to north-east flow direction
was delineated in the J Aquifer. The flow
direction follows the surface elevation decrease
along the section, reflecting that the flow is
controlled by topography. The west–east section
(Figure 5.21B), is approximately parallel to the
southern section and west-to-east groundwater
flow may be inferred.
For the SW–NE section (Figures 5.17 and 5.21C)
only four data points were available for the
compilation. A small upward flow below Lake
Eyre South can be observed. The Birdsville
section (Figure 5.17 and Figure 5.21D) is a
north–south oriented representation of the flow
systems in the western GAB. The small amount
of data does not allow drawing equipotential
lines, nevertheless the data imply a south-to-
north flow direction.
Present time dataset (1990–2011)
More data were available for the section
compilation of the recent time period and, as a
result, six cross-sections are presented (Figures
5.22A–F). On the northern section, data have
been obtained for the J Aquifer, overlying Bulldog
Shale, basement and Mt Toondina Formation
(Figure 5.22A). Based on the data, a continuous
hydraulic head decrease can be identified from
north-west to south-east, correlating with the
elevation decrease. The data suggest recharge
on the western side of the section and near
horizontal flow along the main J Aquifer.
 Elevation (m
-2000

Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter

-3000 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
-4000 5
0 100 200 300
A. Southern cross-section Figure 5.21: Hydraulic cross-
SW NE sections with hydraulic data from
Evelyn downs H.S.

400 1900–1940

LHDH 15 (New Peake)

C.B.

Ross

Woodys
+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD)

Ricky #2
Robyns 2
Bulldog Sh

Paulines
200

Nicks
150 Water table

Fergys
+

Leos
Potential flow line
+
77 Potential equipotential line
116
0 + + Cadna
+ Owie Fm
+ 84
Elevation (m AHD)

Mt Toondina Fm 103 100 +

123 Algebuckina Sst
80
120

100
Basem.

-200

-400
Stuart Fm

-600

-800
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Distance (km)
B. W–E cross-section
W E
p(z) 5
p(z) 2
250+ Lake Eyre Cooryanna Dome
200+
127+
0 123+ 100+

GMI
Ridge

48+
-1000
50+
Boorthanna Trough 50+
Elevation (m AHD)

-2000

-3000

-4000

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Distance (km)

+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD)

Water table

Potential flow line continued on next page >

Potential equipotential line

155
 + +
Elevation (m AHD)
48
+
-1000

Chapter 5: Groundwater flow

-1500
and hydrodynamics

5 -2000

< Figure continued from previous page

C. SW–NE cross-section
-2500 Figure 5.21: Hydraulic cross-
0sections with hydraulic100
data from SW 200 300 400 NE
1900–1940 500 Distance (km)

150
150 p(z) 3
+ Cooryanna Dome
+ Lake Eyre South
+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD) 0 100

Water table 9
+
-500 18 50
Potential flow line + +

-1000
Elevation (m AHD)

-1500

-2000

-2500

-3000

-3500

-4000

-4500
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Distance (km)
D. Birdsville Ridge cross-section
SW NE

71
+

44
+
45
+
-500 18
+
26 22
+ +
Elevation (m AHD)

48
+
-1000

-1500

-2000

-2500
0 100 200 300 400
Distance (km)

+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD)

Water table

Potential flow line

156
 -600
0 50

B. Southern cross-section
SW
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow

Evelyn downs H.S.

400
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics

C.B.
Western Great Artesian Basin

Ross
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs Bulldog Sh

5
200
in the Great Artesian Basin
+ 12
125 +

Elevation (m AHD)
Mt Toondina Fm

The southern section (Figure 5.19 and 5.22B) The west–east section is shown in Figure 5.22C.
represents the same flow conditions than for In the upper 400 m, a west-to-east flow can be
-200
the pre-development dataset. A south-west inferred from the western part of the section,
to north-east directed flow can be deduced gravity-driven flow is identified in this depth
from the head values, which are targeting the J interval. A potential recharge area is located in -400
Aquifer and Bulldog Shale. On the eastern end of the higher elevated western part of the section
the cross-section, upward flow can be observed and the main discharge is situated on the west of
in the upper 200 m. Lake Eyre, where the springs are located. In the -600

A. Northern cross-section Figure 5.22: Hydraulic cross-

sections
-800 with hydraulic data from
0 50
p(z) 3 1990–2011
(Ellis Soak Bore)

Warrungadinna

New Lambina
Lambina H.S

Lambina Soak

Oodnadatta town bore

NW SE
Murdarinna No. 2

400 +124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD)

Mary’s Well

Watson Creek 2
New Yardinna

Cain.
Sed.
Water table

Allendale

Duck Hole 2
Midway

200 Potential flow line

160
190190
+ + 148 Potential equipotential line
+
Elevation (m AHD)

140 137 Bulldog Sh.

162 + Oodn.
+ Frm
1 00
0 135 CO
+ Frm
Mt 117
Toondina + 114
Frm +
-200 Algebuckina
Basement
120

136 Sst
+

-400

-600
0 50 100 150 200
Distance (km)
B. Southern cross-section
SW NE
Evelyn downs H.S.

400
LHDH 15 (New Peake)
C.B.

Ross

Woodys

Ricky #2
Robyns 2

Paulines

200 Bulldog Sh
Nicks

Fergys
Leos

+ 122
125 +
110
120122 +
+ + 98 96
0 Cadna
+ Owie+Fm + + + + + 91
+
112
Elevation (m AHD)

Mt Toondina Fm 114 85 90 78 83
Algebuckina Sst 0
10
Basem.

-200

-400
Stuart Fm

-600

-800 50 100 150

0
Distance (km)

Figure continued on next page >

+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD)

Water table

Potential flow line

Potential equipotential line 157

 +76 +102 +100

-1000

+125
-1500 +100 +100 +147
Elevation (m AHD)

+126
-2000 +113
Chapter
300 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
-2500 200
125 + 100
+ ++ 125 + + 91
100 131 127 + + +75
114 62+
-3000 98 +

5 0
75

-3500 -100

150 200 250 300

< Figure continued from previous page
-4000

Figure 5.22: Hydraulic cross- C. W–E cross-section

sections
-4500 with hydraulic data from p(z) 9 p(z) 10
0 100 200 300 W 400 500 600 700 E
1990–2011 500 p(z) 4 p(z) 5
Distance (km)
Cooryanna Dome
Lake Eyre
+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD) 0
100+
105+
Water table

Potential flow line -500 GMI

Ridge

113+
-1000
Boorthanna Trough
119+
75+
Elevation (m AHD)

-1500 112+
100+

-2000
114+ 8++70

-2500
300
274+ p(z) 4
200 250 p(z) 5
-3000 + + 158
267+ ++ + 80+
100 200 150 144 125 90+
120+ + 76+
0 100+
-3500
119+
120+ 104+
-100
150 200 250 300 350
-4000

-4500
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Distance (km)

D. SW–NE cross-section
SW NE
500
p(z) 7 p(z) 8
Cooryanna Dome
Lake Eyre South
0
+35
+50

-500 +75 +100

+80 +89 +100
+81 +96
+76 +102 +100

-1000

+125
-1500 +100 +100 +147
Elevation (m AHD)

+126
-2000 +113
300

-2500 200
125 + 100
+ ++ 125 + + 91
100 131 127 + + +75
114 62+
-3000 98 +
75
0

-3500 -100

150 200 250 300

-4000

-4500
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Distance (km)
Figure continued on next page >
+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD)

Water table

Potential flow line

158
 170 +167
+160

Elevation (m AHD)
0

Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow

-100
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs -200
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
-300
< Figure continued from previous page

E. Birdsville Ridge cross-section Figure 5.22: Hydraulic cross-

SW NE sections
-400
0
with hydraulic data from
20 40 60
1990–2011

+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD)

42
0 42
+
+ Water table
73 78 Potential flow line
++76 +
+
79 Potential equipotential line
+

-500
83
+
117 133
+ +

113
+
Elevation (m AHD)

-1000

-1500

-2000

-2500
0 100 200 300 400
Distance (km)

F. Finke to Dalhousie cross-section

NW SE
300 Finke river

200 +216

+177 +170 +175

Dalhousie
+182
100
170 +167
+160
Elevation (m AHD)

+148

+145
-100

-200
+168
+156

-300

-400
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance (km)

+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD)

Water table

Potential flow line

Potential equipotential line

159
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
area around the GMI ridge there are a number of
faults that vertically displace the J Aquifer. Flow
conditions here are complex with the potential
for both upward and downward flow; this may
have resulted in local compartmentalisation of
the aquifer flow systems. However, this region
may also be impacted by drawdowns from the
oil and gas fields of the Cooper Basin, rendering
definitive interpretation difficult.
Section SW–NE represents larger depth intervals
(Figure 5.22D). The data distribution does not
facilitate a continuous characterisation of the
flow systems along the cross-section. The data
are located in groups in the western, middle
and eastern part of the section. In the western
segment of the cross-section, a south-west
to north-east directed gravity-driven flow can
be observed in the upper 200 to 300 m. The
middle part of the section is represented by data
from -600 to -800 mAHD. The data distribution
shows an upward flow below Lake Eyre. In the
eastern part of the cross-section, downward
flow condition can be seen below -1000 mAHD,
which may be the result of anthropogenic impact
in the area.
The Birdsville section (Figure 5.19 and 5.22E)
depicts the flow conditions in a closely north–
south direction, in the southern part of the study
area. The upward decreasing values on the
southern end of the section denote discharge
conditions to the surface.
The Finke to Dalhousie cross-section (Figure
5.19 and 5.22F) shows a downward flow from
the Finke area to greater depth. Unfortunately,
not enough data are available to draw a full
interpretation on the cross-section.
160
Conclusion on cross-sections
The cross-sections for the two different time
intervals did not allow a thorough investigation
of the flow systems in the area. Due to a
lack of data, only segments of the basin can
be characterised, which does not allow the
delineation of basin-scale flow systems.
Nevertheless, for both time intervals, the effect
of gravity-driven flow systems could be assumed
for the western part of the study area.
5.5.3 Conclusions on vertical flows
Vertical communication and cross-formational
flows cannot be clearly identified, as only a small
proportion of data is sourced from formations
either above or below the main J Aquifer.
Based on the available dataset, gravity is the
main driving force in the western margin of the
GAB.
Hydrodynamic data interpretation supported the
presence of recharge in the Peake and Denison
Inlier.
5.6 Mixed convection ratio
Previous studies on the potential for free
convection, driven by variations in density
using Rayleigh number analyses, have been
presented by Pestov (2000), but this is the first
time that mixed convection ratios have been
calculated for this region. The Ra is the ratio of
buoyancy forces to viscous resistance. When
the Ra exceeds the critical Rayleigh number (Rc)
of 39.478 for porous media filled with fluid, the
onset of thermo-haline convection is predicted
to occur (Equation 5.2). Pestov (2000) estimated
the Ra based on constant parameters such as

density, viscosity and thermal diffusivity. Thermal
diffusivity (Equation 5.3) depends on the thermal
conductivity, density and water heat capacity.
These three parameters depend on temperature
as well. In this study, only the variation of the
density as function of the temperature will be
considered. A value of 3 W/m/C has been used
for the thermal conductivity in the GAB (Cull &
Conley 1983). The vertical permeability has been
assumed constant. The thickness of the aquifer
has been estimated from the maps of the C
horizon (top of the J Aquifer) and the P horizon
(top of the Permian, assumed to be the bottom
of the J Aquifer). The temperatures at the top
and bottom of the J Aquifer have been estimated
from the surface temperature and geothermal
gradient value for each location.
Ra is highly sensitive to the rock vertical
permeability. In order to capture this
dependence, two calculations have been
performed. For the first, it has been assumed
that the rock is isotropic and then the horizontal
permeability estimated by Welsh (2000) has
been used (kv = kh = 8.1x10‑12 m2) (Figure 5.22A).
For the second case, it has been assumed that
the medium was anisotropic, with an anisotropy
factor of 10, then kv = 8.1 x 10-13 m2 (Figure
5.22B).­
Photo: Simon Fulton
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
On a large part of the western margin of the
GAB, free convection is theoretically predicted to
occur, since Ras are higher than 39.478 (Figure
5.23A–B). Although a lower vertical permeability
changes the area of possible occurrence of free
convection, it can still possibly occur through a
large portion of the western margin. The possible
areas of free convection are larger than those
estimated by Pestov (2000), which located
possible free convection only on the Poolowanna
trough. These differences may be explained by
the vertical permeability used in the calculation.
Nevertheless, even the anisotropic case (Figure
5.23B) presents possible free convection
areas much larger than those estimated by
Pestov (2000). A lack of knowledge on vertical
permeability does not allow for the accurate
inference of the potential of free convection.
Vertical permeability is a crucial parameter in the
estimation of the occurrence of free convection.
Indeed, in the case of kv = 8.1 x 10-12 m2, a
thickness of approximately 75 m is sufficient for
free convection to occur in some part of the GAB
where the geothermal gradient is in the order
of 110°C/km. On the other hand, the smallest
thickness required to have free convection when
kv = 8.1 x 10-13 m2 is more than 200 m (Figure
5.24).
161
 Marree
30°S

30°S
Roxby Downs
Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Tarcoola
and hydrodynamics
31°S

31°S
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

5 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

kv = 8.1x10-13 m2
Figure 5.23: Localisation of free 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E Convection
A
25°S

25°S
and mixed convection processes Rayleigh
for different vertical rock kv = 8.1x10-12 m2 Mixed co
permeabilities
Northern Territory Queensland
Legend
25°S

25°S
26°S

26°S
Data
South Australia
GAB Bo
E Convection
Northern Territory Queensland Waterbo
Rayleigh number > 39.478
Town
26°S

26°S
27°S

27°S
Mixed convection ratio > 1
South Australia Borders
Marla
Legend Oodnadatta
25°S

Data
27°S

27°S
28°S

28°S
GAB Boundary Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum 0 60 1
Waterbodies Marla Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February
Kilom
Town Oodnadatta 2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/
26°S

Waterbodies Department for Water

Borders
28°S

28°S
29°S

29°S
Coober Pedy
27°S

Marree

´
0 60 120 180 240
29°S

29°S
Coober Pedy
30°S

30°S
Kilometres

Roxby Downs Marree

28°S

Produced by Flinders University Tarcoola

30°S

30°S
31°S

31°S
Map Datum Geocentric Datum of Australia
1994
Date: February 2012
Roxby Downs
29°S

Data source: Data/GAB

133°E Boundary/
134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E
Tarcoola
138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
Waterbodies Department for Water
31°S

31°S
30°S

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

B 133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

kv = 8.1x10-13 m2
31°S

25°S

25°S
E

E
Northern Territory Queensland
26°S

26°S

South Australia
25°S

27°S

27°S

Marla
Oodnadatta
26°S

28°S

28°S

Produced by Flinde
Geocentric Datum
2012 | Data source
27°S

Waterbodies Depa
29°S

29°S

Coober Pedy

Marree
28°S

Produced by Flinders University | Map Datum

30°S

30°S

Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 | Date February

2012 | Data source Data/GAB Boundary/
Waterbodies Department for Water
Roxby Downs
29°S

Tarcoola
31°S

31°S
30°S

133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E

162
31°S

0.12
0.1
Geothermal gradient (oC/m)
0.08
0.06
39
.47
8
0.04
0.02
50 100 150
Mixed convection ratios are presented in Figure
5.23. Areas where the horizontal groundwater
flows stabilise the groundwater system are
identified where Ras are higher than 39.478 but
the mixed convection ratios are smaller than 1.
In these areas, free convection should not occur
except in instances where hydraulic conditions
change.
The areas with a mixed convection ratio higher
than 1 will present a vertical flow due to free
convection and horizontal flow due to forced
convection. This area is quite large in the case
of an isotropic aquifer (Figure 5.23A). On the
other hand, when an anisotropic aquifer is
considered (Figure 5.23B), mixed convection
ratios are rarely higher than 1, which means that
forced convection prevails and stabilises the
groundwater flow system.
The results presented in Figure 5.23A and
5.23B show the sensitivity of the Ra and mixed
convection ratio to the vertical permeability.
In order to estimate mixed convection ratios
properly, a thorough understanding of anisotropy
is required.
The theoretical calculations suggest that, in
addition to gravity-driven flow, density-driven
flows due to mixed convection may occur in
the western GAB. Future work, including field
verification of this theory, is required.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
Figure 5.24: Effect of the vertical
kv=8.1x10-12 m2 kv=8.1x10-13 m2
hydraulic conductivity value on
the occurrence of free convection
Free convection Free convection
39
.47
8
200 250 300 200 400 600 800
Thickness (m)
5.7 Hydrodynamic state
In this section, two analytical solutions for
confined and unconfined time constant
(Equation 5.7 and Equation 5.8) have been used
to estimate the range of time to reach a new
equilibrium for the western and eastern GAB.
The length of the aquifer, hydraulic conductivity,
specific storage and specific yield used for the
calculation are provided in Table 5.1.
This method gives a wide range of time to reach
a new equilibrium. In fact, it ranges between
4.8 x 102 and 1.9 x 106 years for the western
margin and between 5.3 x 103 and 3.3 x 107 years
for the eastern part; this difference is due to a
greater length of the aquifer on the eastern part.
The ranges obtained are quite wide and suggest
that the time to reach a new equilibrium could be
in the order of thousands of years (effect of the
last climate transition, around 10 thousand years
(ka) ago, already dissipated) to millions of years
(aquifer never in equilibrium with the climate) for
the western margin.
Numerical model simulations have been used
to provide an estimate of the time to reach a
new steady state on the western margin. Figure
5.25 provides the simple conceptual model on
which the simulations were based. It was based
loosely on an idealised representation of the
western GAB. The GAB on the western margin
163
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics

is considered to be a homogeneous single layer
with both unconfined and confined portions. The
recharge occurs only on the unconfined portion
as diffuse recharge; this means that no vertical
flows occur through aquitards in the confined
portion of the aquifer.
The purpose of this model is not to model the
whole complexity of the GAB on the western
margin (fault, leakage etc.), but rather to
estimate the behaviour of a simple aquifer
with the same hydrogeological and size
characteristics as the western GAB.
This modelling exercise considered only the
J Aquifer; vertical connections through the
aquitard have not been considered (no vertical
flows). The average thickness of the J Aquifer
on the western margin is 200 m. The J Aquifer
has been estimated to be unconfined where the
confining layer (the Bulldog Shale) is absent,
which represents around 75 km. The discharge
area is spread over a distance of 50 km, close to
Lake Eyre, where the springs occur. The model
is 500 km long, 10 km wide and 200 m thick, with
diffuse recharge occurring along 75 km of the
outcrop and a discharge area of 50 km (Figure
5.25). Values obtained by Welsh (2007) for the
hydraulic conductivity, specific storage and
specific yield have been used (Table 5.1).
The purpose of this model is to estimate the
time to reach a new steady state after hydraulic
perturbation. An initial state has been assumed
where the aquifer was full with a water table
close to the ground surface on the unconfined
part (Figure 5.25). The hydraulic perturbation
assumed in this model was the cessation of
recharge. The time to reach a new steady state
for this model is around 55 ka after the hydraulic
perturbation. In such a system, a cessation of
recharge occurring at 10 ka BP would result in
a declining hydraulic head to the present day
and beyond. These results do not represent
the actual situation on the western margin.
These results suggest that systems of similar
size and hydraulic characteristics to that of the
GAB western margin are likely to be currently
in a transient state as a consequence of the
last climate transition. Additionally, current day
hydraulic heads are likely to be the product of
both past and present climatic conditions.
In modelling work, a steady state is often
assumed prior to anthropogenic activities
(Hearne 1985; Luckey et al. 1986; Anderson
& Woessner 1992). For aquifer systems with
long transient behaviours, steady-state model
calibration may result in incorrect water balances
and poor estimation of hydraulic parameters.
Two steady-state calibrations of the hydraulic

Table 5.1: Hydrodynamic parameter values for the western portion of the GAB and for the eastern part of
the GAB

3τ confined 3τ unconfined
T (m2/s) S (unitless) Sy (unitless)
Aquifers L (km) (years) (years)

min. max. min. max. min. max. min. max. min. max.

GAB – 450 1.5 x 1.0 x 2.5 x 5.0 x 0.1 0.15 4.8 x 6.4 x 1.9 x 1.9 x
western 10 -3
10 -2
10 -4
10 -4
10 2
10 3
10 5
106

GAB – 1500 1.5 x 1.0 x 2.5 x 5.0 x 0.1 0.23 5.3 x 7.1 x 2.1 x 3.3 x
eastern 10-3 10-2 10-4 10-4 103 104 106 107

L = length of the aquifer; T = transmissivity; S = storativity; Sy = specific yield

164
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5

Figure 5.25: Two-dimensional

cross-section of the conceptual
model used in the study,
Recharge area Discharge area indicating the boundary
Well 1 Well 2 Well 3 Well 4 conditions and the initial hydraulic
75km 50km heads assumed at the end of the
Initial hydrau Pleistocene
lic
∂h/∂z = 0

heads
b K h, Sy
h = h0
∂h/∂x = 0

∂h/∂z = 0
K h, Ss
Unconfined part

∂h/∂x = 0 Confined part

heads 10 ka after the hydraulic perturbation have
been undertaken to highlight this point:
• SS1: For the first case, it was assumed
that the recharge rate was known and the
calibration has been done on hydraulic
conductivity. A diffuse recharge value of
0.16 mm/yr has been used (Love et al. 2000).
• SS2: For the second case, it was assumed
that the hydraulic conductivity was known,
and a similar value to that of the transient
simulation has been used. The calibration has
been done on the recharge rate.
calibrated values are erroneous. Consequently,
by assuming steady-state conditions to explain
modern hydraulic heads in large aquifers that in
reality exhibit transient behaviour, errors in the
calibrated recharge to hydraulic conductivity
ratio may be introduced.
The use of this conceptual model emphasises
the fact that the western portion of the GAB has
been in a transient state since the last climate
transition and assuming a steady state prior to
anthropogenic activities is probably erroneous.

The recharge rate (R) and the hydraulic 5.8 Discussion

conductivity (K) for the three models (transient,
SS1 and SS2) are presented in Table 5.2. For
SS1, a hydraulic conductivity ten times smaller
than the one used in the transient model was
required to match the data. On the other hand, in
SS2 a recharge rate of 1.5 mm/yr was required
to reproduce the data. In both cases, the
As mentioned in the introduction, it is crucial to
identify the existing driving forces in the GAB in
order to properly manage it. Indeed, knowledge
of existing driving forces allows mathematical
descriptions of the groundwater systems as well
as its conceptualisation in numerical modelling.

Table 5.2: Comparison of hydraulic parameters between the transient and the both steady-state
simulations

R (mm/yr) K (m/s)

Transient 0 8.1 x 10-5

SS1 0.16 8.6 x 10-6

SS2 1.5 8.1 x 10-5

165
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
This work indicates that three driving forces
seem to be important. The first one is
topography, as shown by the p(z) profile analysis.
This result is in agreement with the modelling
results from Toupin et al. (1997), which describe
the current hydrodynamic system as topography
driven flow. In their modelling, Toupin et al.
(1997) identify different hydrodynamic regimes
since the deposition of the GAB. Indeed, from
their results, it appears that during the Jurassic
and Cretaceous, compaction-driven flows
dominated. Since early-Tertiary, the main driving
force they identified was gravity induced by
variations in topography.
The second driving force which could be of
great importance in the western part of the
GAB is density-driven flow due to variation in
temperature in the aquifer. The horizontal and
vertical directions need to be distinguished in
this discussion. For the horizontal direction,
flow is due to difference in density as well as the
slope of the aquifer, with denser water sinking
down the slope of the aquifer. This potential
density-driven flow is highlighted by DFR > 1. In
the vertical direction, the density-driven flow is
due to vertical differences in density between
the top and bottom of an aquifer. The potential
density instability is inferred from theoretical
calculation of the Ra. Previous work on the Ra
in the GAB was undertaken by Pestov (2000).
On the western margin of the GAB, Pestov
(2000) identified only a very small area (above the
Poolwonna Trough) where the Ras were higher
than the onset for potential free convection. The
areas of possible free convection inferred from
this study are much larger and cover the majority
of the western margin. The difference between
the two results is probably due to the vertical
hydraulic conductivity used. Here, two different
vertical hydraulic conductivities have been
used, for isotropic and anisotropic aquifers (see
Section 5.6). This difference between the results
for different hydraulic conductivities and results
from Pestov (2000) highlights the importance
166
of the hydraulic conductivity on the Ra values.
It is then crucial to have a very accurate
description of the geology of the aquifer, with a
precise description of clay lenses and accurate
estimation of the hydraulic conductivity as well
as aquifer thickness. The presence of aquitards
can highly modify the occurrence of free
convection.
Finally, climate change on a geological time scale
is an important control relating to groundwater
flow in the western GAB. As the frequency of
change in climate is greater than the time to
reach a new equilibrium, not only do steady state
conditions not exist now but it is unlikely ever
to have existed along the western GAB. In the
case of the area west of the Mound Spring Line,
the time to reach a new equilibrium can be in the
order of 50 to 60 ka. Any other change in the
boundary conditions during this time will initiate
a new transient stage
5.9 Gaps and uncertainties
The main gap in assessing the hydrodynamics
of the GAB is the lack of data, particularly where
the depth to the J Aquifer is large. For the
analysis of vertical flows, data from above and
below the J Aquifer are very rare.
The corrected potentiometric maps depend
on temperature. In certain locations there is
a paucity of data on aquifer temperature and
measured geothermal gradients.
The Ras and mixed convection ratio depend
on the vertical and horizontal permeabilities.
Knowledge of these is crucial to gaining a proper
estimation of the possible groundwater flow
due to density-driven flows. Moreover, a precise
description of the geology with permeability
values is required in order to properly estimate
the possibility of free convection. Also,
knowledge of the thickness of individual aquifers
within the J sequence is often absent.

Photo: Daniel Wohling
5.10 Conclusions
The correction of hydraulic head for density is
crucial for estimating groundwater flow direction
and rates. Previously published potentiometric
surfaces for the J Aquifer (e.g. Habermehl & Lau
1997) did not fully account for density variations,
correcting to a freshwater head. The correction
scheme used during this study accounts for
variations in density due to salinity, temperature
and pressure, allowing for the first fully corrected
potentiometric surface of the J Aquifer in the
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
western GAB. The methodology developed in
this study may have far wider application for
groundwater systems, particularly those with
high geothermal gradients.
This variable temperature-corrected
potentiometric surface indicates that the
through-flow of groundwater from the eastern
recharge zone into the western margin of the
GAB is volumetrically less than inferred by
previously published potentiometric surfaces.
Based on the available dataset, gravity is
167
 Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
and hydrodynamics
supposed to be the main driving force, as
topographic heights and lows correlate with the
vertical movement of water in the J Aquifer.
The results indicate that variations in density due
to temperature can have a significant impact
in local areas. As a result, local interpretation
of flow can be different to that implied without
density corrections for hydraulic head. In some
cases, this can be dramatic and result in reversal
of flow directions. However, due to the sparse
nature of wells, it is important to be careful in
applying what may only be local-scale variability
and not basin-scale flow.
Despite this potential for convective-driven
flow, gravity-driven flow by variations in water
elevation is considered to be the dominant
groundwater flow mechanism operating today.
168
However, analyses by Toupin et al. (1997)
indicate that throughout the geological history
of the GAB a range of different flow mechanisms
operated, driven by gravity, compaction and
density.
The Ra analyses, including the mixed convection
ratio, indicate that it is theoretically plausible
for free convention to occur. These results are
highly sensitive to vertical permeability and
thickness of individual sandstone units within the
J Aquifer. As limited information is available on
the extent and magnitude of these parameters,
future work would be required before any final
conclusion about the relative importance of free
convection compared to forced convection can
be determined.
Due to a scarcity of hydrogeological data
on formations that lie above and below
the J Aquifer, a clear description of vertical

communication and potential for cross-
formational flow was not possible. Hydraulic
cross-sections and pressure-elevation
analyses suggested localised partitioning of the
groundwater flow systems are associated with
faulting.
Hydrodynamic analyses support the presence
of recharge processes in the Peake and Denison
Inlier area as identified in Chapter 4.
As a result of the hydrodynamic analyses, the
authors conclude that the J Aquifer is not in a
steady state north and west of the Mound Spring
Line. Numerical modelling under steady-state
conditions implies an overestimation of the
recharge to hydraulic conductivity ratio. This is
supported by the fact that recharge is much less
than discharge in this area and the time to reach
a new equilibrium would take in the order of
50 ka to 60 ka.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 5: Groundwater flow
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the and hydrodynamics
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
5
Photo: Daniel Wohling
As a result of the transient analyses, an
interesting question arises: how useful are
steady-state models in predicting hydraulic
behaviour in large regional aquifer systems?
In such systems, where changes in recharge
rates (induced by geological climate cycles) are
smaller than the time to reach a new hydraulic
equilibrium, steady-state conditions are unlikely
to have ever occurred. Under this scenario, it
is very unlikely that steady-state models will
provide any reliable prediction of hydraulic
response. Consequently, the use of steady-state
models in large arid zone aquifers is considered
questionable and any subsequent application
with respect to water allocation planning
should be preceded by detailed analyses to
determine their efficacy. This may have important
implications for other regional groundwater
basins in Australia.
169
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

6 in the Great Artesian Basin

Hydrochemistry

Stacey Priestley School of the Environment, Flinders University of South Australia

Paul Shand CSIRO Water for a Healthy Country Flagship
Andrew J Love School of the Environment and the National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training,
Flinders University of South Australia
Laura Crossey Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of New Mexico
Karl E Karlstrom Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of New Mexico

6. Hydrochemistry
6.1 Introduction
The hydrochemical variations of groundwaters
and spring discharges provide important clues
to the geochemical processes responsible for
water quality and evolution across the J Aquifer.
The dissolved components (solutes) also act
as natural tracers which can provide important
information on the origin of springs and provide
constraints on groundwater flow systems within
the Great Artesian Basin (GAB).
Natural hydrochemical tracers, including
solute concentrations, solute ratios and
isotope applications have been studied to help
understand the regional heterogeneity and
complexity of the western margin of the GAB.
Standard hydrochemical techniques, such as
elemental ratios and equilibrium constraints,
are used to characterise groundwater samples.
Isotope tracers are also used to help understand
groundwater origin and source. Regional spatial
variations for major solutes and isotopes are
presented to demonstrate changes along
inferred flow paths and assess the dominant
hydrochemical processes.
This study builds on hydrochemistry work by
Radke et al. (2000). The data used comprise a
comprehensive analysis of new project samples
and samples compiled from existing reports
(Schultz & Tyler 2006; Radke et al. 2000), peer-
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
6
reviewed literature (Torgersen & Clarke 1985;
Torgersen & Clarke 1987; Collerson et al. 1988;
Zeider & Ponder eds. 1989; Herczeg et al. 1991;
Torgersen et al. 1991; Love et al. 2000; Pirlo
2004; Zhang et al. 2007; Mahara et al. 2009)
and databases (DFW 2010). Initial analysis of the
data indicated some data points were incorrect
when compared to results from the same bore or
spring from other sources. To confirm that these
results are truly incorrect, a major ion balance
was calculated and results were compared to
monitoring data, which indicated that some
erroneous chemistry results had been incorrectly
entered into databases. These erroneous results
were then removed and the resulting analyses
were completed on the updated database.
Comprehensively understanding the
hydrochemistry of an aquifer and decoding
information of flow system dynamics requires
not only data from the main aquifer of interest
but also data from aquifers that lie above and
below. There is a paucity of data that lies in
aquifers other than the J Aquifer, which can
limit verification about flow system dynamics.
The specific objectives of this chapter are to
investigate hydrochemical characteristics of the
J Aquifer on the western margin of the GAB,
investigate chemical evolution and assess
the dominant hydrochemical processes along
inferred flow paths in the J Aquifer in the western
margin.
171
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

6.2 Piper diagram major anions (Figure 6.1). The remaining samples
100
100 are mostly mixed Cl and HCO3 type waters,
90
The piper diagram
90 is a useful tool for displaying however a few samples show sulfate (SO4) as
80
variations in water80type or hydrochemical the dominant anion. Sodium (Na) is generally the
70
facies, but provides70no information on absolute dominant major cation, with only a minority of
60
concentrations. As observed
60
in Figure 6.1, samples showing calcium (Ca) as the dominant
50
there is a wide variation 50
in hydrochemical cation. The remaining samples are of mixed type.
40 facies which reflects myriad different possible The majority of the groundwaters are of Na-Cl or
40
30 processes, including different recharge origins Na-HCO3 type, which is consistent with previous
30
20 and variation in antecendent recharge conditions data over the whole Basin (Radke et al. 2000).
20
10 through time. Furthermore, the data may reflect The groundwaters in the project area have a
10
0 geochemical evolution along flow paths or range of compositions from Na-Cl towards Na-
0
Mg mixing of different water bodies. Mixing
SO may be HCO3, Ca-HCO3 and Ca-SO4 type waters.
4
0 0
100 particularly important along the Mound
100 Springs
10 10
90 Line. 90 The springs show similar trends to the bores with
80
20 20
80 a range of compositions from Na-Cl toward Na-
70
30 Specifically, the Piper diagram
30 for the all GAB70 HCO3 type, and a group towards Ca-SO4 type

60
40 groundwater data of springs
40 and bores shows
60
(Figure 6.1).
50 that chloride (Cl) or bicarbonate
50 (HCO3) are the
50 50
60 60
40 40
70 70
30 30
80 80
20 100 20
100
90 90
10 90 10
90
100 100
0 80 0
100Figure
90 6.1:
80 Piper
70 plots
60 displaying
50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
80
Ca bore and spring data for the GAB Na HCO3 70 CI
70
60
Bore waters 60
50
Spring waters 50
40
Seawater 40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
Mg SO4
0 0
100 100
10 10
90 90
20 20
80 80
30 30
70 70
40 40
60 60
50 50
50 50
60 60
40 40
70 70
30 30
80 80
20 20
90 90
10 10
100 100
0 0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ca Na HCO3 CI

Bore waters
172 Spring waters

Seawater
 100000

10000

1000

Na (mg I-1)
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
100
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
10
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin 1
10 100 1000
6
10000
CI (mg I-1)

100000

6.3 Major elements 10000

There is considerable overlap between the J

1000
The groundwaters in the western GAB display Aquifer bore waters and springs, both for water

Ca (mg I-1)
100
an extremely wide range of concentrations types and concentrations, consistent with
(Figure 6.2), with Cl concentration varying over a dominant source of spring water from the 10

four orders of magnitude and maxima higher underlying J Aquifer. Most solutes correlate with 1

than seawater. In Figure 6.2, the ranges for Cl to a large degree, highlighting the importance 0.1
major elements are plotted against Cl along of evapotranspiration and/or mixing with 10 100 1000 10000
with a seawater dilution line. If the rainfall had more saline water. The importance of mineral CI (mg I-1)

similar composition to dilute seawater, then weathering is highlighted for some samples for 10000

compositions above this line suggest inputs a number of solutes, including Na, K, Ca, SO 4
1000
from the aquifer (e.g. mineral dissolution) and and especially HCO3, where samples sit above
compositions less than this line suggest losses the dilute seawater line. Sulfate concentrations

HCO3 (mg I-1)

100

from groundwater (e.g. precipitation). are very low in many samples as a consequence
10

100000 1000 Figure 6.2: Major element–

chloride
0.01 plots for groundwaters
10 100 1000 10000
10000 and spring discharges in the
100 western GAB CI (mg I-1)

1000
Na (mg I-1)

K (mg I-1)

10 Bore waters
100 Spring waters

1 Seawater dilution line

10

1 0.1
10 100 1000 10000 100000 10 100 1000 10000 100000
CI (mg I-1) CI (mg I-1)

100000 10000

10000 1000

1000 100

10
Mg (mg I-1)
Ca (mg I-1)

100

1
10
0.1
1
0.01
0.1
0.001
10 100 1000 10000 100000 10 100 1000 10000 100000
1
CI (mg I- ) CI (mg I-1)

10000 100000

10000
1000
1000

100
HCO3 (mg I-1)

100
SO4 (mg I-1)

10
10
1

0.1
1
0.01

0.01 0.001
10 100 1000 10000 100000 10 100 1000 10000 100000

1 1
CI (mg I- ) CI (mg I- )

Bore waters

Spring waters
173
Seawater dilution line
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
of removal, most likely by SO4 reduction. Low
Ca and Mg relative to the seawater dilution line
may be due to carbonate precipitation or ion-
exchange.
6.4 Regional major element concentration
maps
There is a large degree of spatial variability in
the data for most solutes in GAB groundwater,
reflecting different recharge areas, flow
pathways, aquifer materials and residence
times in the aquifer. The patterns noted in
the groundwaters for water types and solute
concentrations are consistent with the
postulated flow pathways as indicated from the
potentiometric surface (Figure 6.3). The density
of data points is however, variable: it is well
represented to the west and south of Lake Eyre
and also along the Birdsville Track east of Lake
Eyre up to Queensland; the area north of Lake
Eyre (Simpson and eastern Pedirka Basins) is
very poorly represented, possibly due to the
depth to the aquifer. This study focuses on the
main characteristics of the chemistry in several
areas along the groundwater flow paths (Figure
6.3):
• north to south incorporating the Birdsville
Track Ridge
• Finke to Lake Eyre South, east of the Peake
and Denison Inlier
174
• Marla to Lake Eyre South, along the western
Peake and Denison Inlier
• west to east in the south-west of the area.
These potential flow paths merge in the area
south of Lake Eyre South, a major discharge
zone.
The pH of groundwaters displays significant
regional trends. Those in the eastern part are
generally alkaline (Figure 6.4). In the south-west,
north of Tarcoola, many of the groundwaters
have relatively low pH, whilst further north, the
groundwaters are mainly circumneutral, with a
tendency for increasing pH along inferred flow
paths.
6.4.1 Chloride concentrations
Groundwaters in the east and north-east
typically have low concentrations of chloride
(Figure 6.5). Chloride remains relatively low
from the recharge area on the Great Dividing
Ranges (Herczeg et al. 1991) in Queensland
continuing to near Marree in South Australia.
The groundwater in the Cooper Basin in the
north-east of South Australia is relatively high
suggesting that westward flow is very limited.
Concentrations are also low in the potential
recharge area near the Finke River and increase
southwards towards the Peake and Denison

Inlier and Lake Eyre South, where they meet the
fresher waters from the east of Lake Eyre. South
of Coober Pedy, chloride is moderately high,
although lower concentrations are found near
the margin of the basin in the far south.
6.4.2 Alkalinity concentrations
Waters flowing along the eastern flow region of
the GAB generally have much higher alkalinity
(as HCO3) concentrations than the western flow
region waters (Figure 6.6) (Herczeg et al. 1991).
Alkalinity, like chloride, is highest at the end of
the flow path south of Lake Eyre South. The
highest HCO3 concentrations (up to 7137 mg/L
or 117 meq/L) are extremely high and unusual for
groundwaters worldwide. There are a number
of possible mechanisms that may give rise
to such high HCO3 concentrations, including
addition of CO2 and conversion to HCO3, and
reduction reactions such as SO4 reduction or
methanogenesis. High CO2 contents, very low
SO4 concentrations and very high positive δ13C
signatures suggest that all of these processes
are operating in different parts of the aquifer.
Waters coming from the western margin have
lower alkalinity which displays an increase along
the flow path due to water–rock interactions,
with the highest concentrations occurring south
of Lake Eyre South in the main discharge area.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
6
6.4.3 Sulfate concentrations
Groundwaters in the eastern part of the GAB
have low SO4 concentrations (Figure 6.7). The
concentration appears to increase slightly
southwards along the Birdsville Track Ridge,
but low concentrations are found again south of
Lake Eyre South. This low concentration in SO4
at the bottom of Lake Eyre South is most likely
due to reduction of SO4 (noting the increase in
HCO3 in this same area). Western flow region
waters are much higher in SO4 concentration
and show a slight increase along the flow path.
Waters in the south-western margin unconfined
area show especially high SO4 concentrations,
which could be due to SO4 leaching from the
overlying Bulldog Shale.
6.4.4 Cation concentrations
All of the major cations (Na, Mg, K and Ca)
show very similar trends throughout the western
margin of the GAB (Figures 6.8–6.11). Waters
in the eastern flow region, around the Birdsville
Track Ridge, have low cation concentrations.
The Na and K concentrations appear to increase
slightly along the Birdsville Track Ridge, but Mg
and Ca concentrations appear to stay the same
or increase only very slightly. In the western
175
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

6
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E 141°E
Potentiometric surface and Basins
Chemistry samples
Figure 6.3: Western margin of Potentiome
133°E 134°E 135°E 136°E 137°E 138°E 139°E 140°E flow paths
Generalised 141°E
the GAB showing the location of Chem
Potentiometric surface
the chemistry samples in relation Gene
22°S

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50
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 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
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177
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

Figure 6.5: Western margin of

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178
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
6
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179
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

6
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180
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
6
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181
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

Figure 6.9:133°0'0"E
Western margin of
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182
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
6
133°0'0"E 134°0'0"E 135°0'0"E

Figure 6.10:
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(mg/L)

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183
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

6
Calcium (mg/L)
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Figure 6.11: Western margin of 44.3 - 62.6140°0'0"E Calcium (mg
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184

areas, there is a much more pronounced
increase in cation concentration along the flow
direction. These follow the trends for Cl. Waters
in the south-western margin unconfined area
show especially high cation concentrations,
although lower concentrations are present close
to the GAB boundary.
6.5 Regional major ion percentage maps
The percentage of each ion is calculated from
the major ions, which are Cl, SO4 and HCO3 for
the anions and Na, Ca, Mg and K for the cations.
Looking at percentage rather than concentration
gives a better indication of changes in relative
amounts of ions along flow paths.
6.5.1 Chloride percent
Cl is a major ion throughout the whole western
flow region with the proportion of Cl increasing
along the flow lines towards and after the
Peake and Denison Inlier (Figure 6.12). Waters
from the eastern flow region of the GAB have
considerably lower Cl percentages. The
proportion of Cl to other anions only increases
slightly at the end of the flow line south of Lake
Eyre South.
6.5.2 Alkalinity percent
HCO3 is relatively low throughout the western
flow region (Figure 6.13). There is a tendency for
decreasing HCO3 concentrations along the flow
direction from Marla at the basin margin towards
the southern discharge zone. HCO3 is typically
the major ion throughout the whole eastern flow
region. The proportion of HCO3 doesn't appear
to decrease until the end of the flow line at the
bottom of Lake Eyre, however this is at the same
location that HCO3 concentration increases due
to SO4 reduction (see Section 6.4.2).
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
6
6.5.3 Sulfate percent
The proportion of SO4 seems to be fairly low
throughout both the western and eastern
margins of the GAB (Figure 6.14). The waters
from the eastern flow region have the lowest
contents, similar to SO4 concentrations (mainly
less than 10%). Western flow region waters have
a significantly higher proportion of SO4 (10–20%)
which increases slightly as it travels along the
flow path. The proportion of SO4 in the south-
western margin unconfined area is also high, and
there are differences east and west of the Peake
and Denison Inlier consistent with flow and
evolution along the suggested flow pathways.
The low proportion of SO4 at the bottom of Lake
Eyre South may also indicate mixing of high SO4
western and low SO4 eastern waters.
6.5.4 Cation percent
Sodium is the major cation throughout almost
the whole eastern and western margin (Figure
6.15). The proportion of Na generally increases
along the flow path from the western flow
region. The proportion of Na in waters from the
eastern flow region starts fairly high and seems
to increase along the Birdsville Track Ridge and
stay relatively high at the bottom of Lake Eyre
South. Potassium generally makes a very small
proportion of total cations throughout both the
eastern and western margins of the GAB, with
only a very slight increase in the recharge beds
around Marla. Ca and Mg show very similar
trends throughout the western and eastern
flow zones of the GAB. Waters coming from the
eastern flow region of the GAB have low calcium
and magnesium proportions which appear to
stay consistent along the flow path. Waters
coming from the western flow region have
slightly higher proportions in the recharge areas
and these proportions seem to decrease along
the flow path.
185
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

6
133°0'0"E 134°0'0"E 135°0'0"E 136°0'0"E 137°0'0"E 138°0'0"E 139°0'0"E 140°0'0"E 141°0'0"E Chloride (%)
7 - 29
30 - 50
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186
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin 133°0'0"E 134°0'0"E 6
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187
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

6 sulfate (%)
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0.01 - 0.05
0.06 - 0.10
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22°0'0"S
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Figure 6.14: Western margin of 500 0.18 - 0.20 sulfate (%)
50 133°0'0"E 134°0'0"E 135°0'0"E 136°0'0"E 137°0'0"E 138°0'0"E 139°0'0"E 140°0'0"E 141°0'0"E
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188
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
6

133°0'0"E 134°0'0"E 135°0'0"E 136°0'0"E 137°0'0"E 138°0'0"E 139°0'0"E 140°0'0"E 141°0'0"E

Figure
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189
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
6.6 Regional isotope maps
6.6.1 Carbon-14
Most of the GAB waters are very old with ages
of 200–600 thousand years (ka) for flow paths
with water recharge in the western margin (Love
et al. 2000) and ages greater than 1 million years
(Ma) for flow paths with water recharged in the
Great Dividing Ranges (Bentley et al. 1986;
Torgersen et al. 1991). The groundwater ages
increase along the flow paths from the recharge
margins toward the centre of the basin (Figure
6.17). Bores sampled in the north around the
Finke River and Plenty River give much younger
groundwater ages. These are most likely due to
isolated recharge pulses when these rivers flow
(see Chapter 3). Apart from a few exceptions,
the springs have high groundwater ages similar
to the bore results around them (Figure 6.16).
Dalhousie main pool gave a younger age than
expected, but this is a large pool and the 14C
may not represent the source water. Sulphuric
Spring also had a high 14C activity which may
be due to its location near the Flinders Ranges,
a local source of younger recharge. The other
two springs with very young groundwater ages
are MB002 and MB001 springs, which sit on
190
the edge of the Peake and Denison Inlier. This
would indicate that all or some of the water for
these springs is due to mountain block recharge
rather than GAB water discharging; see Chapter
4, Volume I: Hydrogeological Framework of the
Western Great Artesian Basin (Keppel et al.
2013).
6.6.2 Terrigenic helium
Helium-4 (4He) is produced in the subsurface by
the decay of U and Th. The concentration of 4He
in groundwater is related to its production rate
and the time that the parcel of water has been
isolated from the atmosphere. 4He increases
with increasing residence time. This study uses
4
He to identify the type of spring, whether it is
derived solely from groundwaters of the GAB
aquifer or whether its source is adjacent to
recharge from fractured rock aquifers such as
the Peake and Denison Inlier. Springs MB001
and MB002 are examples where the terrigenic
helium is low and with corresponding high 14C
activities indicates that the groundwater is
sourced from the juxtaposed Peake and Denison
Inlier (see Chapter 4). Refer to Chapter 2, Volume
III: Groundwater Discharge of the Western Great
Artesian Basin (Love et al. 2013) for a more
comprehensive review of the subject.
Photo: Simon Fulton
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs 133°0'0"E 134°0'0"E 135°0'0"E
in the Great Artesian Basin
6

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191
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

6
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192

6.7 Cross-sections
Hydrochemical changes along potential
flow paths previously studied by Love et al.
(2000), along the Birdsville Track Ridge and
Finke River to Dalhousie have been plotted to
help determine geochemical evolution of the
groundwater in the J Aquifer and potential end-
member sources (Figure 6.18). Bores within
a 15 km radius of the cross-section line were
selected along the flow lines, as shown in Figure
6.18. Information on groundwater flow along
these transects is provided in Chapter 5.
The northern cross-section (Love et al. 2000)
shows similar trends for Cl, SO4 and Na, whereas
HCO3 appears to stay relatively stable (Figure
6.19). Na, Cl and SO4 all displayed a decrease
at about 60 km along the flow path. This may be
related to differences in evaporation in the past,
however the change occurs close to a major
fault and it is possible that compartmentalisation
or mixing may have played an important control.
Na and Cl subsequently showed an increase,
whilst SO4 decreased. The decrease in SO4,
along with increased HCO3 may be due to sulfate
reduction.
Some of the other concentration changes along
the flow path also appear to coincide with the
presence of faults (e.g. there is an increase in
concentrations after 160 km following a fault just
before this). The faults may be facilitating mixing
between aquifers above or below the J Aquifer,
however not all faults may allow this to happen.
The higher concentrations at the beginning
of the northern transect may represent more
modern recharge, which would have higher
initial ion concentrations compared to greater
recharge in the past.
The southern cross-section (Love et al. 2000)
also shows similar trends in chloride and
sodium, with alkalinity and sulfate showing less
variation along the flow path (Figure 6.20). The
groundwaters close to the recharge area are
very fresh, much lower than for the northern
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
6
cross-section, although there are no data for
the initial part of the flow path and therefore the
study may not be capturing the more modern
waters. Chloride, sodium and initially sulfate
concentrations increase steadily from the start
of the flow path, however sulfate appears to
plateau at about 40 km. Chloride and sodium
continue to increase until approximately 90 km,
which is followed by a sudden decrease in
concentration which then plateaus for the
remainder of the cross-section, even around
the Peake and Denison Inlier. Most of the bores
involved in the decrease in concentration are
from the Cadna-owie Formation. However the
drop in concentration does appear to coincide
with the reintroduction of the Algebuckina
Sandstone below the Cadna-owie Formation.
Therefore, this sudden drop and then plateau in
concentration may be due to mixing of waters
from the Cadna-owie and Algebuckina aquifer
units.
Figure 6.21 shows the Birdsville Track Ridge
cross-section flowing from north to south.
Borehole depths increase, followed by a
decrease as flow traverses part of the Simpson
Basin, and finishes in the regional discharge
zone south of Lake Eyre. The groundwaters
are initially fresh and increase gradually in most
major solutes (e.g. Na and Cl, until close to the
discharge area where there is a large increase).
Such changes are typical of regional discharge
zones where cross-formational flow and mixing
occur. SO4 concentration is generally low at the
start of the selected flow path. Very low SO4/Cl
ratios suggest that SO4 has been lost from the
waters, most likely by SO4 reduction. An increase
in SO4 (and SO4/Cl ratio) occurs at approximately
300 km. The addition of SO4 implies either a
major change in aquifer mineralogy, cross-
formational flow or recharge to the aquifer. The
region correlates with a decrease in groundwater
head, hence downward leakage or recharge
are possibilities. Further work on the chemistry
of overlying and underlying aquifers will be
undertaken to assess the source of this SO4.
193
 Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
The Finke River to Dalhousie Springs cross-
section flowing from north to south is shown on
Figure 6.22a. Chloride, sodium and sulfate all
follow the same trend, however alkalinity shows
no clear trend along the cross-section. The
chloride, sodium and sulfate concentrations start
low in the unconfined recharge area beneath the
Finke River. The concentrations increase rapidly
at the unconfined/confined boundary, at around
40 km. Following this there appears to be a slight
drop in concentration further along the flow path
at approximately 80–100 km, although there
are too few data points to confirm this trend.
Figure 6.22b shows 14C concentrations along
the flow path. 14C concentrations are elevated in
194
groundwater close to the Finke River, suggesting
a groundwater residence time of less than 60
years. 14C concentrations decrease uniformly
along the flow path away from the river until
approximately 60 km, after which concentrations
continue to decrease at a much slower rate.
The decrease in 14C concentrations indicate a
groundwater residence time of thousands of
years. This indicates that the Finke River is an
active source of recharge to the J Aquifer with
rates of recharge calculated between 380–
850 mm/yr (Chapter 3).
Photo: Simon Fulton
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
6

133°0'0"E 134°0'0"E 135°0'0"E 136°0'0"E 137°0'0"E 138°0'0"E 139°0'0"E 140°0'0"E Cross-sections

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 0
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Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
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196
 3000

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Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

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197
SO4 (mg /L
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Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry

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198
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Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin 0

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Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
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300
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20
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0.8
250
SO4 (mg /L)

100

50

1400

1200

1000
Na(mg/L)

800

600

400

200

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance (km)

+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD)

Water table

Potential flow line

Potential equipotential line

199
El
-200 +156 +168

-300
+

-400
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
100

80
C (pmC)

6
60

40
14

20

Figure 6.22b: Schematic geologic NW SE

0
Finke-Dalhousie
0 20cross-section
40 60 80 Direction100
of flow 120 140 160
Finke river
300
with carbon-14 (pmC) of the bores Distance (km)

200 +216
+175
Elevation (m AHD)

+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD) +182 +177 +170 Dalhousie

100 170 +167
+160
Water table
0
Potential flow line +148
Potential equipotential line +145
-100

-200 +156 +168

-300
+

-400
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

100

80
C (pmC)

60

40
14

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance (km)

+124 Corrected hydraulic head (m AHD)

Water table
6.8 Conclusions Regional variations across the aquifer can be
Potential flow line
explained as a series of discrete flow systems
Potential equipotential line
Groundwater chemistry is extremely variable from the margins (recharge areas) towards a
across the western margin of the GAB, with regional discharge zone south of Lake Eyre
many solutes varying over four orders of South, which represents a convergence of flow
magnitude and salinity varying from very fresh systems. Proposed flow pathways as indicated
to hyper-saline. The GAB groundwater data from the potentiometric surface are as follows:
of springs and bores show that Cl or HCO3 • north to south incorporating the Birdsville
are the major anions and Na is generally the Track Ridge
dominant major cation. Therefore the majority • Finke to Lake Eyre South east of the Peake
of the groundwaters in the western part are and Denison Inlier
of Na-Cl type whilst the eastern flow region is • Marla to Lake Eyre South along the western
predominantly Na-HCO3 type. The western flow Peake and Denison Inlier
region waters are sometimes referred to as SO4- • west to east in the south-west of the area.
rich although Cl is the dominant anion. However,
SO4 does make up approximately 20–40% in the This is reflected in the groundwater chemistry,
flow region west of the Peake and Denison Inlier. with most major solute concentrations increasing
The reason for the spatial variability of these along the flow paths, especially the flow paths
and most other solutes reflects myriad potential running either side of the Peake and Denison
processes and water–rock interactions as well Inlier and, to a smaller extent, the Birdsville
as variations in evaporation over time, increased Track Ridge. The area south of Lake Eyre South
periods of rainfall and interruptions in the flow appears to be where these potential flow paths
path by upward or downward flow. finally merge, as a major discharge area. The

200

Photo: Simon Fulton
density of data points is highly variable with the
areas to the west and south of Lake Eyre and
along the Birdsville Track up to Queensland
being well represented. However, the whole
central section of the western margin of the
GAB is very poorly represented, possibly due to
the depth to the aquifer. In addition, the cross-
sections show that although there are major
regional solute trends that follow proposed flow
paths, there is still a large amount of variability,
which requires further sampling and analysis to
attempt a fuller understanding of groundwater
chemistry and flow.
The information from detailed transects can be
extrapolated with the aid of regional spatial plots
of groundwater chemistry. These are largely
consistent with the detailed transects and the
regional flow system as suggested in Chapter
5 (e.g. the Peake and Denison Inlier cause a
divergence of groundwater flow, forming different
evolutionary sequences incorporating different
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 6: Hydrochemistry
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
6
recharge areas and histories, and there is a
convergence of flow paths towards the south of
the area, complicated by cross-formational flow
along major fault systems). The groundwater
study presented here forms a baseline with
which to assess the origin of spring waters in the
western part of the GAB from Dalhousie to Lake
Eyre South; see Chapter 2, Volume III (Love et al.
2013).
This work has provided for the first time
a regional synthesis of the distribution of
hydrochemical species in the western margin
of the GAB. Future work should concentrate on
obtaining data in the central part of the study
area. Furthermore, additional efforts should also
concentrate on data above and below the J
Aquifer including drilling of nested piezometers
and coring of aquitards.
201
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge,
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs

7 in the Great Artesian Basin

Conclusions

Andrew J Love School of the Environment and the National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training,
Flinders University of South Australia
Daniel Wohling Department for Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Government of South Australia
Simon A Fulton Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sport, Northern Territory Government
Pauline Rousseau-Gueutin School of the Environment, Flinders University of South Australia
Samantha De Ritter School of the Environment, Flinders University of South Australia

7. Conclusions
The conclusions discussed below follow the
outline in the summary and are discussed
separately under the main themes of this volume:
determining groundwater mechanisms and
rates, hydrodynamic analyses, hydrochemistry
and environmental tracers, palaeo-hydrogeology
and finally further development of the conceptual
hydrogeological model for the western GAB.
7.1 Groundwater recharge and
mechanisms
This study has involved the use of a number of
different techniques to estimate groundwater
recharge and develop a better understanding
of recharge mechanisms. The use of numerous
techniques has reduced the uncertainty in
recharge estimation such that the magnitude
of rates provided are considered an accurate
reflection of the natural system.
7.1.1 Diffuse recharge
This study has redefined zones where diffuse
recharge mechanisms have the potential to
operate within the western margin of the GAB in
both the Northern Territory and South Australia,
including areas that had not previously been
mapped. A chloride mass balance (CMB)
approach estimated a diffuse recharge rate
that ranged between 0.01 to 1.8 mm/yr with a
mean of 0.15 mm/yr. Estimating low water fluxes
such as these is difficult in arid environments.
The error associated with the mean value
of 0.15 mm/yr may be as large as the value
itself. As a result, the authors consider that
the effective value of diffuse recharge is zero
and, most likely, has been since the beginning
of the latest arid phase within the Holocene.
Unsaturated core profiles imply both upward
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 7: Conclusions
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
7
and downward flux potential, therefore casting
doubt over a critical assumption of the CMB that
fluid and solutes move in a piston-flow manner.
Moreover these profiles suggest that pore water
fluxes are not in a steady state and recharge
entering the groundwater system today is a
result of precipitation events that occurred up to
30 000 years (ka) ago.
7.1.2 Ephemeral river recharge
Ephemeral river recharge (ERR) is an active
mechanism along the Finke and Plenty Rivers
but is not considered significant along other
western margin GAB rivers. The Finke River
contributes recharge over a 42 km reach,
covering approximately 13 km2. Based on a
comparison of oxygen and deuterium stable
isotopes in groundwater and rainfall, active
recharge is associated with summer, monsoonal
rainfall events generally occurring from
January to March that produce monthly rainfall
totals in excess of 100 mm. Stable isotope
concentrations become less depleted both
with distance from the Finke recharge zone and
increasing groundwater residence time. This
suggests that either the dominant recharge
mechanism has changed and/or significant
climate variation has taken place during the
Holocene. Recharge rates for the Finke River
are estimated at between 380–850 mm/yr using
radiocarbon-derived groundwater velocities.
Recharge rates calculated using hydraulic
data from a single flow event estimated daily
accessions of 150 mm/day with a total recharge
of 1275 mm. Annual recharge to the J Aquifer
from the Plenty River was estimated between
17 and 92 mm/yr across approximately 3 km2
of river bed. No significant ERR occurs in South Photo on facing page:
Roland Purtschert
Australia. Gas stripping
203
 Chapter 7: Conclusions
7.1.3 Mountain system recharge
Mountain system recharge (MSR) mechanisms
have been in operation in the past and are likely
to still be in operation today. Specifically, MSR
has occurred to the J Aquifer at Marla and the
P Aquifer along the western flank of the Peake
and Denison Inlier during the Holocene. For
the first time, evidence of MFR to the P Aquifer
west of the Peake and Denison Inlier has been
recognised.
The majority of groundwater flowing from springs
west of the Peake and Denison Inlier is most
likely sourced from groundwater in the J Aquifer
travelling from west to east, as the majority
of those springs have chemistry composition
similar to wells sampled from the J Aquifer in that
region.
East of the Peake and Denison Inlier,
groundwater chemistry of the J Aquifer identified
groundwater flow lines converging from the
north-east with flow from the mountain block.
A regional mixing model supports this finding
suggesting that between 10 and 15% of
groundwater flow was potentially recharged to
an isolated area by mountain block mechanisms.
Further verification of this finding is confirmed
by groundwater mounding of the potentiometric
surface directly east of the Peake and Denison
Inlier and hydrochemistry findings along the
Mound Spring Line; refer to Chapter 2, Volume
III: Groundwater Discharge of the Western Great
Artesian Basin (Love et al. 2013).
Small local flow systems in the Peake and
Denison Inlier are evident by the completely
dissimilar groundwater chemistry and relatively
high 14C activities. Springs within the Peake and
Denison Inlier were identified as being non-GAB
and exclusively Proterozoic-sourced springs. In
contrast, springs at the Freeling Spring Complex
show complex and multi-aquifer water sources.
Detectable radiocarbon data to the east of the
Peake and Denison Inlier may indicate that
groundwater recharged the J Aquifer under
204
a different hydraulic regime to that which is
observed today.
7.1.4 Recharge is much less than discharge
In many cases, recharge along the western
margin is close to zero and is much less than
contemporary discharge. It is important to note
that in the following discussion on recharge
volumes, values stated should not be used in
any way to determine water budgets or be used
in numerical models. This discussion scales-up
estimates of recharge and compares those to
natural discharge.
This investigation found that the potential
volume of recharge entering the J Aquifer via
ephemeral river recharge mechanisms is in the
order of 5150 to 11 560 ML/yr along the western
GAB. In comparison to natural discharge, just
one high flowing spring at the Dalhousie Spring
Complex discharges in the order of 5000 ML/
yr. An estimate of total spring discharge along
the western margin was given by Smith (1989)
as 23 500 ML/yr and by the South Australian
Arid Lands Natural Resources Management
Board (SAALNRMB) (2009) as 24 090 ML/yr. The
current study considers this a lower limit, as it
was based on the existing knowledge of 1700
individual springs in South Australia—whereas
findings in Volume IV: Spatial Survey and Remote
Sensing of Artesian Springs (Lewis et al. 2013)
have identified in the order of 5000 individual
spring vents. Modelled upward vertical leakage
from the South Australian portion of the western
GAB was given as 100 000 ML/yr (SAALNRMB
2009). Even if an assumption is made that 50%
of natural discharge was sourced from the
western recharge area, a conservative value
of total discharge of 62 000 ML/yr (excluding
groundwater extraction) would be obtained.
This corresponds to a recharge/discharge ratio
of between 1:12 and 1:5. Including current
anthropogenic extraction would only result in
a greater imbalance between recharge and
discharge. Therefore, any extraction from the
J Aquifer should be considered as effectively
mining the groundwater resource.

7.2 Hydrodynamics
Hydrodynamic analyses, including a fully
corrected potentiometric surface, multiple
hydrogeological cross-sections and pressure-
elevation plots, have been used to determine
the direction of groundwater flow within the
J Aquifer in the western GAB. Moreover, the
analysis of the potentiometric surface implies
that the magnitude of groundwater flow in
the J Aquifer from Queensland is up to 20%
smaller than depicted by Habermehl and Lau
(1997). Furthermore, a previously unrecognised
groundwater divide partitions flow either side of
the Peake and Denison Inlier.
Hydrogeological cross-sections and pressure-
elevation plots implied a component of vertical
flow within the J Aquifer. However, due to a
lack of aquifer property data for sequences
above and below the J Aquifer, no meaningful
conclusions could be drawn regarding cross-
formational flow. Further strategic drilling and
analysis is required to investigate whether
the inferred vertical flow component within
the J Aquifer is related to cross-formation
flow between aquifers above and/or below.
Conversely, the observed vertical flow
component within the J Aquifer may be a result
of mixed convection due to the observed
geothermal gradients, free convection owing to
the thickness of the aquifer or a combination of
all potential processes. However, it is important
to note that this is a theoretical construct only
and additional field work would be required for
verification.
7.3 Hydrochemistry and environmental
tracers
Chemical variations in groundwater of the J
Aquifer provide constraints on groundwater
flow systems within the GAB and information
on geochemical processes responsible for
water quality and evolution across the aquifer.
The chemistry of groundwater is extremely
variable across the western margin of the GAB,
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 7: Conclusions
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
7
with many solutes varying over four orders of
magnitude, from very fresh to hyper-saline.
Regional hydrochemical variations across the
aquifer can be explained as a series of discrete
flow systems from the margins (recharge areas)
towards a regional discharge zone south of
Lake Eyre South—this zone representing a
convergence of flow systems. This is reflected,
for example, in different water types in the east
and west of the basin, consistent with the flow
directions deduced from the new potentiometric
surface. Changes in salinity along flow paths,
constrained by groundwater ages and isotope
tracers, are largely related to variations in
historic recharge as a consequence of changes
in palaeo-climate. The water quality variations
in reactive solutes across the margin reflect
different sources and pathways, (e.g. easterly-
derived groundwater is typically rich in sodium
and bicarbonate, but strongly depleted in
sulfate, the latter due to loss of sulfate under
very reducing conditions). These waters are
also enriched in fluoride as a consequence
of long residence times and low calcium. In
contrast, groundwater in the west contains
relatively high sulfate; isotope ratios suggest a
homogeneous source which is distinct from the
east or basement aquifers. Limited data from
overlying and underlying aquifers make it difficult
to assess the role of cross-formational flow,
however discrepancies from the general regional
trend along the Oodnadatta Track indicate
an important region of recharge or cross-
formational flow.
7.4 Palaeo-hydrogeology
Groundwater storage in the J Aquifer is a legacy
of past conditions when the climate was wetter
and recharge rates were higher. Diffuse recharge
today is considered to be zero and most likely
has been since the beginning of the latest arid
phase within the Holocene; as a consequence
recharge is much less than discharge since
that time. This raised an interesting question
about the relationship between changes in
boundary conditions due to climate forcing
205
 Chapter 7: Conclusions
(rainfall/recharge) and the time to reach a new
hydraulic equilibrium (recharge = discharge).
A generic model with characteristics similar
to the western GAB was produced to obtain
a broad understanding of the principal driving
forces. Recharge was assumed during the
Pleistocene then followed by zero recharge from
the Holocene boundary. Results indicate a new
steady state would not be reached for 50 ka to
60 ka and that the current-day potentiometric
surface west of the Peake and Denison Inlier
would have been in decline since the onset of
the Holocene. Furthermore, the time to reach a
new steady state is much longer than the climate
forcing frequency. This indicates that not only is
the western GAB not in a steady state today, it
most likely never has been.
7.5 Conceptual model
Diffuse recharge is effectively zero along the
western margin. Annualised ephemeral river
recharge is approximately 11 000 ML/yr and
206
Photo: Roland Purtschert
occurs only beneath the Finke and Plenty
Rivers in the Northern Territory as a result of
northern monsoons migrating to the centre of
the continent. MSR was identified as a recharge
mechanism for the first time from the Peake and
Denison Inlier to the J and P aquifers. However,
its magnitude and zone of influence is relatively
small.
This study has produced the most accurate
potentiometric surface of the J Aquifer in the
western margin to date, using the most rigorous
analysis for correcting hydraulic head. The J
Aquifer potentiometric surface implies several
significant differences, including a markedly
reduced inflow from the eastern states into
South Australia compared to previously
published datasets.
Groundwater within the J Aquifer is not in a
steady state across the western GAB and most
likely never has been, due to the frequency of
the climate forcing cycle being smaller than

the time to reach a new hydraulic equilibrium.
Many current modelling exercises in large
aquifer systems such as the GAB employ
steady-state conditions. However, as a result
of the AWMSGAB Project findings which
considered the transient behaviour of the GAB,
it is recommended that future numerical models
require transient simulations, otherwise errors in
model output may occur.
Analyses of natural hydrochemical tracers
have been used in order to understand the
heterogeneity and complexity of the western
margin of the GAB. This interpretation confirmed
potential recharge source zones, flow paths
and discharge areas which were inferred
from the potentiometric surface. This analysis
complemented the hydrodynamic and MSR
analyses to highlight that the Peake and Denison
Inlier cause a divergence of flow and barrier to
west to east flows.
Limiting the outcomes of the hydrochemical
investigation was the lack of data from aquifers
above and below the J Aquifer, moreover
hindering a full examination into the role of
vertical leakage in the system. Vertical transport
of fluids is extremely important and largely
unrecognised in the western GAB prior to the
AWMSGAB Project. Further investigation is
warranted to improve the understanding of
vertical flow and cross-formational transport.
The classical GAB model implies groundwater
recharge on the eastern margin travelling
thousands of kilometres along a continuous
sand sheet and ultimately discharging at springs
in the south-west. This is not an adequate
conceptualisation of the system. The new
potentiometric surface indicates that only the
most southerly springs could possibly discharge
groundwater originating from the eastern
states. Furthermore, this study has shown
that the groundwater system is partitioned by
many faults—see Volume I: Hydrogeological
Framework of the Western Great Artesian Basin
(Keppel et al. 2013) and Volume III (Love et
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 7: Conclusions
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
7
al. 2013). Furthermore, the presence of 14C in
groundwater from the J Aquifer between the
Peake and Denison Inlier and Lake Eyre North
indicates recharge around 20 ka–30 ka BP.
This suggests that basin hydraulics may have
been very different in the past to allow for such
recharge and downward flow. As a cautionary
note, further work is required to verify this
conclusion.
The long-held view of a classic singular flow path
model has most likely biased data collection and
research, as it ignores groundwater systems
above and below the main GAB aquifers—in
particular the role of vertical connection. It was
not until the seminal contribution of Radke et al.
(2000) that these views began to change.
7.6 Recommendations
Future research should concentrate on studying
all groundwater that can make a contribution to
the GAB, including the important role of vertical
connection via faults. One approach could be to
construct a number of nested piezometers for
research purposes.
A national database is recommended for all GAB
data that is not limited to water well information
but also includes information on petroleum
wells; mineral wells; springs; and spatial, remote
sensing and geophysical data sets. A key
component of this would be to obtain timely
records from private and exploration mining
companies.
The use of steady-state models and its linkage
to water policy requires further investigation, as
the authors believe steady-state models do not
appropriately represent hydraulic predictions in
large-scale aquifer systems.
Monitoring networks need to be established
in the J Aquifer—including aquifers above
and below. This information should be readily
available through a national GAB database.
207
 Chapter 7: Conclusions

Table 7.1: Hydrogeological conceptual model

Existing model(s) This study

Attributes
Pre-1980 Post-1980  

Recharge

Largely restricted Outcrop and sub-crop given Redefined the diffuse recharge zone.
to areas of by Habermehl and Lau (1997) Identified those ephemeral rivers contributing
Recharge zones

outcropping used by Welsh (2007) to recharge and those that do not.

aquifer units in define potential recharge
Defined the extent of the recharge zone for the
Great Dividing areas. 
Finke and Plenty Rivers.
Range and central
Australia. Mountain System Recharge (MSR) potential
occurring along fractured rock environments—
evidence of palaeo MSR contribution.

Infiltration through Matthews (1997) recognised Furthered the work of Matthews (1997) by
outcropping role of intermittent flooding in verifying the Ephemeral River Recharge (ERR)
aquifer units central Australia. mechanisms and providing recharge rates/
volumes/extent.
Diffuse recharge occurring—but at present
should be considered near zero for management
purposes.
Unsaturated zone not in a steady state—diffuse
recharge occurring today result of precipitation
Recharge mechanisms

in the past.
Evidence of MFR west of the Peake and Denison
(P&D) Inlier—but not to J Aquifer, rather the P
Aquifer.
Evidence of MBR to the J Aquifer east of the P&D
Inlier and at Marla.
Most likely, MSR occurring at other fractured rock
environments abutting the GAB.
Detectable 14C activities east of P&D Inlier
suggests recharge in past 30 000 years, 6–12 km
north-east—implications for inter-aquifer mixing
and basin hydraulics.
4
He indicates mixing old and young groundwater
northeast of the P&D Inlier.
Groundwater mixing along P&D Inlier at Freeling
Springs.

  Welsh (2000) modelled Diffuse recharge mean of 0.15 mm/yr (range

transient and steady-state
recharge up to 33 mm/yr with
an average of 2.4 mm/yr.
Love et al. (2000) estimated
recharge rates of 0.16 mm/yr
Recharge rates
0.01–1.8 mm/yr).
No rates provided for MSR—data from Marla
suggest rainfall events greater than 180 mm/
month required.

ERR events linked to rainfall events greater than

(this represented only a small
subset of bores along the
western margin).
100 mm/yr.
Annualised recharge through Finke River
recharge zone—380–850 mm (estimated to
represent less than 0.002% of J Aquifer storage
in the Northern Territory).
Plenty River recharge zone—17–92 mm/yr.
Limited ERR potential to J Aquifer at Hale, Todd
and Alberga Rivers, and Stevenson and Illogawa
Creek.
Table continued on next page >

208
 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Chapter 7: Conclusions
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
7
< Table continued from previous page

Table 7.1: Hydrogeological conceptual model

Existing model(s) This study

Attributes
Pre-1980 Post-1980  

Aquifer flow systems

Porous media Porous media  Dual porosity identified.

Aquifer system
flow type

Largely horizontal Numerous studies: Horizontal flow velocities 0.05–20.9 m/yr based

1–5 m/yr Love et al. 2000 (36Cl) on 14C and hydraulics.
Groundwater flow

(Habermehl 1980) 0.24 ± 0.03 m/yr;

Phillips 1993 (36Cl) 1.3 m/yr;
Beyerle et al. 1999 (4He)
0.3–0.9 m/yr;
Matthews 1997 (14C)
0.8–2 m/yr

Gravity-driven Pestov (2000) used modelling
flow (19th century to demonstrate that thermally
model) induced vertical driven
convection is possible in
some regions.
Flow drivers
On the western margin of the GAB, variations in
climate would result in changes in the location
and gradient of the hydraulic head boundary. This
would ultimately result in the changes to recharge
and discharge zones.

Transient state ~50 ka–60 ka to reach a steady

state—modelling in steady state, therefore
overestimates ratio of recharge to hydraulic
conductivity.
Important groundwater flow drivers include
topography, density and climate change.
Free convection—may be an important impact on
groundwater flow.

Regional (whole Regional (whole basin) Recognition of local, intermediate and regional
basin) flow systems.
Flow scale

Cross-sections and p(z) plots indicate localised

compartmentalisation due to faulting.
Regional hydrochemistry reinforces notion of
convergent flow paths.

Audibert (1976) Habermehl and Lau Corrected for temperature and salinity.
Potentiometric

inferred large- (1997) provided updated Mounding near P&D Inlier—MSR.

scale flow from potentiometric surface.
surface

Flow to western margin generally from Northern

Queensland into Hydraulic head data have
South Australia. either not been corrected
for T (ºC) or salinity or
methodology not explained.
Territory and east from basin margin.
Less flow from eastern states less than previously
determined.

Not recognised Radke et al. (2000) Lack of data to clearly identify vertical
leakage
aquifer
Inter-

or very minor recognised potential for inter- communication between formations.

(Habermehl, 1980) basinal connectivity.

Basin dynamics

Steady state R = D R does not equal D in Palaeo-climatic data imply the possibility of
Basin dynamics

(Habermehl 1980) western margin (Love et al. decreased recharge over the past one million
2000). years as the climate became increasingly arid.
Recharge is much less than discharge. Most
likely the western margin has never been in a
steady state.

209
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Contaminant Hydrology, vol. 10, pp. 19–46.
Scanlon, BR 2000, 'Uncertainties in estimating
water fluxes and residence times using
environmental tracers in an arid unsaturated
zone', Water Resources Research, vol. 36, no. 2,
pp. 395–409.

Scanlon, BR, Keese, K, Reedy, RC, Simunek,
J & Andraski, BJ 2003, 'Variations in flow
and transport in thick desert vadose zones
in response to paleoclimatic forcing (0-
90 kyr): Field measurements, modelling
and uncertainties', Water Resources
Research, vol. 39, no. 7, p. 1179, DOI
10.1029/2002WR001604.
Scanlon, BR, Kubik, PW, Sharma, P, Richter, BC
& Gove, HE 1990, 'Bomb chlorine-36 analyses
in the characterization of unsaturated flow at
a proposed radioactive waste disposal facility,
Chihuahuan Desert, Texas', Nuclear Instruments
and Methods in Physical Research Section B,
vol. 52, pp. 489–492.
Schultz, C & Tyler, M (eds) 2006, Monitoring
program: Great Artesian Basin (GAB) 2006–
2007, BHP Billiton.
Senior, BR, Truswell, EM, Idnurm, M, Shaw, RD
& Warren, RG 1995, 'Cainozoic sedimentary
basins in the eastern Arunta Block, Alice Springs
region, central Australia', AGSO Journal of
Australian Geology and Geophysics, vol. 15(4),
pp. 421–444.
Sharma, ML & Hughes, MW 1985, 'Groundwater
recharge estimation using chloride, deuterium
and oxygen-18 profiles in the deep coastal
sands of western Australia', Journal of
Hydrology, vol. 81, pp. 93–109.
Singh, G & Luly, J 1991, 'Changes in vegetation
and seasonal climate since the last full glacial at
Lake Frome, South Australia', Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology,
Paleoenvironments of Salt Lakes, vol. 84(1–4),
pp. 75–79, 83–86.
Smith, MA, Velen, L & Pask, J 1995, 'Vegetation
history from archaeological charcoals in central
Australia: The late Quaternary record from
Puritjarra rock shelter', Vegetation History and
Archaeobotany, vol. 4, pp. 171–177.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, References
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Smith, PC 1989, 'Hydrogeology. Natural History
of the Dalhousie Springs', W. Zeider and W. F.
Ponder. Adelaide, South Australian Museum.
Sonney, R & Vuataz, FD 2010, Use of Cl/Br
ratio to decipher the origin of dissolved minerals
components in deep fluids from the Alps Range
and neighbouring areas, Centre for Geothermal
Research – CREGE, University of Neuchâel,
Switzerland.
Stuiver, M & Polach, HA 1977, 'Discussion:
Reporting of 14C data', Radiocarbon, vol. 19, pp.
355–363.
Stute, M & Schlosser, P 2000, Atmospheric
Noble Gases. Chapter 11 in Environmental
Tracers in Subsurface Hydrology, Cook, P &
Herczeg, AL (eds), Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Boston.
Stute, M, Schlosser, P, Clark, JF & Broecker, WS
1992, 'Paleotemperatures in the southwestern
United States derived from noble gases in
ground water', Science, vol. 256, pp. 1000–
1003.
Stute, M, and Sonntag, C 1992,
'Paleotemperatures derived from noble gases
dissolved in groundwater and relation to soil
temperature', In Isotopes of Noble Gases as
Tracers in Environmental Studies, IAEA, Vienna.
Stute, M, Sonntag, C, Deák, J and Schlosser, P
1992, 'Helium in deep circulating groundwater
in the Great Hungarian Plain: Flow dynamics and
crustal and mantle helium fluxes', Geochimica Et
Cosmochimica Acta, 56 (5): 2051–2067.
Sullivan, CJ & Opik, AA 1951, Ochre deposits,
Rumbulara, Northern Territory, Record 1963/108
(unpublished), Bureau of Mineral Resources,
Australia.
219
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Tiedemann, CR, Kernodle, JM & McAda, DP
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Methods to a Ground-Water Flow Model
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U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources
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Torgersen, T & Clarke, WB 1985, 'Helium
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Torgersen, T & Clarke, WB 1987, 'Helium
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Torgersen, T, Habermehl, MA, Phillips, FM,
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Tóth, J 2009, Gravitational Systems of
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 Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, References
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin

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221
Glossary and
shortened forms
Glossary and shortened forms
AACWMB: Arid Areas Catchment Water
Management Board
Actual evapotranspiration: The amount of
water that actually evaporates and transpires
from a surface.
Adaptive management: A management
approach often used in natural resource
management where there is little information
and/or a lot of complexity and there is a need to
implement some management changes sooner
rather than later. The approach is to use the
best available information for the first actions,
implement the changes, monitor the outcomes,
investigate the assumptions, and regularly
evaluate and review the actions required.
Consideration must be given to the temporal and
spatial scale of monitoring and the evaluation
processes appropriate to the ecosystem being
managed.
Adiabatic: Relating to or describing a process or
condition in which heat does not enter or leave
a system.
Advection: The transport of dissolved
constituents (i.e., solutes), particulate/colloidal
matter, and/or heat by flowing groundwater.
Aeolian: Pertaining to material deposited by
wind.
AFDW: Ash-free dry weight
AHD: Australian Height Datum
222
AISA Eagle: Airborne hyperspectral (visible–
near-infrared) image sensor operated by Specim
Spectral Imaging Ltd.
Alluvium: sediments deposited by or in
conjunction with running water in rivers, streams,
or sheetwash and in alluvial fans.
Ambient: The background level of an
environmental parameter (e.g. a measure of
water quality such as salinity).
AMS: Accelerator mass spectrometry
AMS 14C: Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS)
Carbon14
ANAE: Australian National Aquatic Ecosystem
Analytical model: A type of mathematical model
that is composed of a closed-form solution (i.e.
the solution can be expressed as a mathematical
analytic function).
Andesite: An extrusive igneous, volcanic rock,
of intermediate composition, with aphanitic to
porphyritic texture.
Anemochory: Dispersal of seeds, fruits or other
plant parts by wind.
Anisotropy: The directional variation of a
property at a point.
Anoxic: Related to or defined by a severe
deficiency in oxygen.

Anticline: A fold formed in strata that is arch-
shaped (convex up) in which the strata slope
downward from the axis.
Anthropogenic: Caused by humans, in
the context of human degradation of the
environment.
Aquatic ecosystem: The stream channel,
lake or estuary bed, water, and/or biotic
communities, and the habitat features that occur
therein.
Aquatic habitat: Environments characterised by
the presence of standing or flowing water.
Aquiclude: A geologic material, stratum, or
formation that contains water (i.e. has porosity)
but does not transmit it (i.e. has zero or
negligible permeability).
Aquifer: An underground layer of rock or
sediment that holds water and allows water to
percolate through.
Aquifer, confined: Aquifer in which the upper
surface is impervious (see ‘confining layer’) and
the water is held at greater than atmospheric
pressure; water in a penetrating well will rise
above the surface of the aquifer.
Aquifer system: Intercalated permeable and
poorly permeable materials that comprise two
or more permeable units separated by aquitards
that impede vertical groundwater movement but
do not affect the regional hydraulic continuity of
the system.
Aquitard: A bed of low permeability adjacent
to an aquifer; may serve as a storage unit for
groundwater.
Aquifer, unconfined: Aquifer in which the
upper surface has free connection to the ground
surface and the water surface is at atmospheric
pressure.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Glossary and
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the shortened forms
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
ARA: Airborne Research Australia
ARC: Australian Research Council
Arenite: A sedimentary rock that consists
of sand-sized particles (0.06–2 millimetres
[0.0024–0.08 inch] in diameter).
Arid: A climatic region that receives little or no
rain. In South Australia, arid lands are usually
considered to be areas with an average annual
rainfall of less than 250 mm and support pastoral
activities instead of broadacre cropping.
Aridification: Drying of an environment from wet
to arid.
Arid lands: In South Australia, arid lands are
usually considered to be areas with an average
annual rainfall of less than 250 mm and support
pastoral activities instead of broadacre cropping.
Artesian: An aquifer in which the water surface
is bounded by an impervious rock formation;
the water surface is at greater than atmospheric
pressure, and hence rises in any well which
penetrates the overlying confining aquifer.
ASD: Analytical Spectral Device
ASS: Acid sulfate soils
ASTER: Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission and Reflectance Radiometer
Asthenosphere: A portion of the upper mantle
that is directly below the lithosphere, in which
there is relatively low resistance to plastic flow
and convection is thought to occur. This weak
zone allows the plates of the lithosphere to slide
across the top of the asthenosphere.
ATREM: Atmospheric removal algorithm
223
Glossary and
shortened forms
Auger: Rotary drilling equipment, used in soils
or poorly-consolidated materials, that removes
cuttings from a borehole by mechanical means
without the use of drilling fluids. Augers operate
on the inclined plane or screw principle.
AUSPOS: Online tool for post-processing GPS
data.
AVH: Australia’s Virtual Herbarium
AWMSGAB Project: Allocating Water and
Maintaining Springs in the Great Artesian Basin
project
Basinal: Pertaining to a basin.
Bicubic: Of or pertaining to the interpolation
in two dimensions using cubic splines or other
polynomials.
Biodiversity: (1) The number and variety of
organisms found within a specified geographic
region; (2) The variability among living organisms
on the earth, including the variability within
and between species and within and between
ecosystems.
Biological diversity: See ‘biodiversity’.
Biological integrity: Functionally defined as the
condition of the aquatic community that inhabits
unimpaired water bodies of a specified habitat as
measured by community structure and function.
Bioregion: Geographical region based on IBRA
classification.
Bioturbated: The displacement and mixing of
sediment particles and solutes by fauna or flora.
BoM: Bureau of Meteorology
Bore: See ‘well’.
BP: Before present
224
Buoyancy: The resultant vertical force exerted
on a body by the static fluid in which it is floating
or submerged.
Caprock: A harder, more resistant rock type
overlying a weaker or less resistant rock type
Carbonaceous: Consisting of or containing
carbon or its compounds.
Clastics: An accumulation of transported
weathering debris.
cm: Centimetre
CMB: Chloride mass balance
CO1: Cytochrome Oxidase subunit 1
Compaction: The processes by which sediment
is densified (reduction of porosity or increase
in bulk density caused by an increase in the
compressive or total stress). In soil mechanics
this term is limited to processes involving the
expulsion of air from the voids.
Complexes: Clusters of spring groups that
share similar geomorphological settings and
broad similarities in water chemistry.
Conceptual model: A descriptive form of model
in which concepts and the relationships between
them are used to describe an overarching idea
or theory.
Cone of depression: A curved water table or
potentiometric surface that forms around a
pumping well.
Confining layer: A rock unit impervious to water,
which forms the upper bound of a confined
aquifer; a body of impermeable material adjacent
to an aquifer; see also ‘aquifer, confined’.

Conformably: Of or relating to, sedimentary
strata that are parallel to each other without
interruption.
Connate: Pertaining to fluids (usually water) that
were trapped in the pores of sedimentary rocks
as they were deposited.
Consequence: The outcome of an event
affecting objectives.
Control Point Network: A set of reference
points of known geospatial coordinates from
which a spatial survey is based.
Critical habitat: Those areas designated as
critical for the survival and recovery of threatened
or endangered species.
Cross-formational flow: Vertical groundwater
flow from one hydrostratigraphic unit to another.
CSIRO: Commonwealth Scientific and Research
Organisation
Cyanobacteria: A form of large photosynthetic
bacteria. Cyanobacteria can produce thick and
extensive mats. Commonly known as “blue-
green algae”, but can also be yellow-green,
brown, or even reddish-purple.
Darcian flow condition: A condition of
groundwater flow in which flow occurs in a non-
turbulent way and complies with the predictable
conditions assumed in the application of Darcy’s
Law of groundwater flow though saturated
porous media.
Darcy’s Law: The discharge of water (Q)
through a unit area of porous medium is directly
proportional to the hydraulic gradient (i) normal
to that area (A). The constant of proportionality is
the hydraulic conductivity (K). Q = KiA
DEH: Department for Environment and Heritage
(Government of South Australia)
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Glossary and
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the shortened forms
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Deltaic: Pertaining to or like a delta.
DEM: Digital Elevation Model
DENR: Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (Government of South Australia)
Density: The mass of a substance divided by its
volume.
Denudation: The long-term sum of processes
that cause the wearing away of the earth’s
surface, leading to a reduction in elevation and
relief of landforms and landscapes.
Depocentre: The deepest point of a
sedimentary basin, normally at a basin’s centre.
Point where thickest accumulation of sediment
collects.
Desorption: A process by which solutes, ions,
and colloids are released from or through a
surface into a liquid of gaseous phase. The
opposite of sorption.
DFR: Driving Force Ratio
DFW: Department for Water (Government of
South Australia)
DGPS: Digital GPS
Diagenetic: The sum of physical and chemical
processes that affect a sediment following
deposition.
Diaspore: A plant dispersal unit consisting of
a seed or spore plus any additional tissues that
assist dispersal.
Diffuse discharge: The discharge of
groundwater by molecular movement from
zones of high head to zones of low head.
Diffuse recharge: The recharge of groundwater
into a groundwater system by molecular
movement.
225
Glossary and
shortened forms
Discharge: (1) The volume of water that passes
a given location within a given period of time.
Usually discussed with respect to springs,
streams or groundwater systems; (2) The water
leaving a groundwater system.
Disconformably: Pertaining to a type of
unconformity in which the rock layers are
parallel.
Diversity: The distribution and abundance of
different kinds of plant and animal species and
communities in a specified area.
Divide: A topographic high (or ridge)
separating surface watersheds (catchments). A
groundwater divide is elevated area, line, or ridge
of the potentiometric surface separating different
groundwater flow systems.
DMITRE: Department of Manufacturing,
Innovation, Trade, Resources and Energy
(Government of South Australia)
DO: Dissolved oxygen
Domal: Dome-like
Down-warping: A segment of the crust of the
Earth that bends downward.
Down-welling: The downward movement of
fluid.
DSC: Dalhousie Spring Complex
DSEWPaC: Department of Sustainability,
Energy, Water, Population and Communities
(Government of South Australia)
DSM: Digital Surface Model
Duricrust: A thin hard layer on or near the
surface of soil.
DW: Dry weight
226
EC: Electrical conductivity; 1 EC unit = 1 micro-
Siemen per centimetre (µS/cm) measured
at 25°C; commonly used as a measure of
water salinity as it is quicker and easier than
measurement by TDS.
Ecological processes: All biological, physical or
chemical processes that maintain an ecosystem.
Ecological resilience: The capacity of a system
to absorb disturbance and reorganise while
undergoing change so as to still retain essentially
the same function, structure, identity, and
feedbacks (Walker et al. 2004).
Ecological values: The habitats, natural
ecological processes and biodiversity of
ecosystems.
Ecology: The study of the relationships between
living organisms and their environment.
Ecosystem: Any system in which there is an
interdependence upon, and interaction between,
living organisms and their immediate physical,
chemical and biological environment.
Efflorescence: The crystallisation of a salt from
a hydrated or solvated state via the loss of water
to the atmosphere on exposure to air.
EFFORT polishing: Empirical Flat Field Optimal
Reflectance Transformation; applies a mild
adjustment to apparent reflectance data so that
spectra appear more like real materials on the
ground surface.
EFZ: Ecological focal zones
Elevation head: Head due to the energy that is
the result of gravity (the elevation of the water
relative to some datum).
Endangered species: Any species in danger of
extinction throughout all or a significant portion
of its range.

Endemic: A plant or animal restricted to a
certain locality or region.
Endogenic: Formed or occurring beneath the
surface of the earth.
Endozoochory: Seed dispersal via ingestion by
a vertebrate animal.
ENSO: El Nino / Southern Oscillation
ENVI: Software for processing and analysing
geospatial imagery.
Environmental water head: The sum of the
elevation head and the pressure head calculated
using the average density of the water over
the whole water column, not just the screened
interval. This is used for calculating the vertical
hydraulic gradient.
EPBC Act: Environment Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
Epeiric sea: A shallow sea that extends over
part of a continental landmass.
Ephemeral: (1) Pertaining to a watercourse
or body flows or contains water only in direct
response to precipitation, and thus discontinues
its flow or becomes dry during dry seasons; (2)
plants with more than one life cycle, which are
often short in duration.
Ephemeral river recharge: A term used
to describe indirect recharge resulting from
episodic flow events in arid zone rivers.
Ephemeral streams or wetlands: Those
streams or wetlands that usually contain water
only on an occasional basis after rainfall events;
many arid zone streams and wetlands are
ephemeral.
Epigenic: Pertaining to a geological change in
the mineral content of rock that occurs after the
rock has formed.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Glossary and
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the shortened forms
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Epizoochory: Seed dispersal where seeds are
transported on the outside of vertebrate animals.
Epoch: Defined periods of time.
ERI: Electrical resistivity imaging
ERR: Ephemeral river recharge
ESU: Evolutionary significant unit
Evapotranspiration: The total loss of water
as a result of transpiration from plants and
evaporation from land and surface water bodies.
Excess head: The level to which water will
rise above ground surface in an artesian well,
measured in metres (m).
Facies: A unit or body of rock with definable
and specific characteristics that can be used in
classification.
FLAASH: Fast Line-of-sight Atmospheric
Analysis of Spectral Hypercubes. An
atmospheric correction algorithm.
Floristic: Of or relating to flowers or flora.
Flow: The rate of water that discharges from a
source expressed as a volume per unit time.
Flow line/flow path: The path a molecule of
water takes in its movement through a porous
medium.
Flow net: A map showing both equipotentials
and streamlines of an aquifer or geological
system.
Flow regime: The character of the timing and
amount of flow in a stream.
Fluvial: Of or relating to inhabiting a river or
stream. Produced by the action of a river or
stream.
227
Glossary and
shortened forms
Fluvio-deltaic: Of or relating to streams rivers
or deltas.
Fm: Formation
FNPWA: Far North Wells Prescribed Area
Fresh water: Water with salinity < 1000 mg/L;
drinkable or potable water is implied.
Fresh-water head: The sum of the elevation
head and the pressure head calculated using the
density of the fresh water (~1000 kg m ). This
-3
is used for calculating the horizontal hydraulic
gradient.
FR FieldSpec® 3: Full range (400–2500 nm)
FieldSpec Pro portable field spectroradiometer
by Analytical Spectral Devices.
Ga: Billion years
GA: Geoscience Australia
GAB: Great Artesian Basin
GDA94: Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994
GDE: Groundwater-dependent ecosystem/s
Geological features: Include geological
monuments, landscape amenity and the
substrate of land systems and ecosystems.
Geomorphic: Of or resembling the Earth or its
shape or surface configuration.
Geomorphology: Study of landforms and the
processes that make them.
Geo-registered: To geographically reference
a remotely sensed image or spatial data to an
Earth model.
GIS: Geographic information system
GL: Gigalitres
228
Glacio-fluvial: Of or relating to a glacial rivers or
streams.
Glaciogene: Formed by glacial activity.
Glacio-lacustrine: Of or related to glacial lakes.
Glauconated: To be altered into the mineral
glauconite. Glauconite is a greenish clay
mineral of the illite group, found chiefly in
marine sands. Chemical formula is (K,Na)
(Fe3+,Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2.
GMI: Gidgealap-Merrimelia-Innaminka
GMWL: Global Meteoric Water Line
GNIP: Global Network of Isotopes in
Precipitation
GNSS: Global Navigation Satellite System
gph: Gallons per hour
Graben: An elongated block of the earth’s
crust lying between two faults and displaced
downward relative to the blocks on either side.
Granitoid: A granite or granitic rock.
Groundwater: Water occurring naturally below
ground level or water pumped, diverted and
released into a well for storage underground.
Groups: Clusters of spring vents that share
similar water chemistry and source their water
from the same fault or structure.
GSD: Ground sample distance
Gypcrete: A gypsum indurated or cemented
duricrust.
Gypsiferous: Containing appreciable amounts
of the mineral gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O).

ha: Hectare
Habitat: The natural place or type of site in
which an animal, plant, or community of plants
and animals lives.
Halophytic: Adapted to living in salty soil,
particularly plants.
Head: Fluid mechanical energy per unit weight of
fluid, which correlates to the elevation that water
will rise to in a well.
Headward: In the region or direction of the head.
Heterogeneity: The condition in which the
property of a parameter or a system varies with
space.
HEVAE: High Ecological Value Aquatic
Ecosystem
Hummocky: Lumpy terrain or land which has an
irregular shape.
Hydraulic conductivity (K): A measure of the
ease of flow through aquifer material: high K
indicates low resistance or high flow conditions,
usually measured in metres per day.
Hydrochemistry: Science that deals with the
chemical characteristics of water.
Hydrochory: Seed dispersal by water.
Hydrogeology: The study of groundwater,
which includes its occurrence, recharge and
discharge processes, and the properties of
aquifers; see also ‘hydrology’.
Hydrology: The study of the characteristics,
occurrence, movement and utilisation of water
on and below the Earth’s surface and within its
atmosphere; see also ‘hydrogeology’.
Hydrostatic pressure: The pressure exerted by
liquid at equilibrium due to the force of gravity.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Glossary and
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the shortened forms
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Hydrostratigraphy: Refers to stratigraphic
classification with respect to the hydrogeological
properties of strata.
HyMap: An airborne hyperspectral image sensor
operated by HyVista Corporation.
Hyperspectral: Imagery or ground data derived
from subdividing the electromagnetic spectrum
into numerous (more than 10) very narrow
bandwidths.
IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency
IBRA: Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for
Australia
Indigenous species: A species that occurs
naturally in a region.
Interbedding: Where layers or rock (or beds) of
a particular lithology lie between or alternate with
beds of a different lithology.
Intercalation: The reversible inclusion of
a molecule (or group) between two other
molecules (or groups).
Intrabasinal: Pertaining to the interior of a basin
Intracratonic: Pertaining to the interior of a
craton
Intraplate: Pertaining to the interior of a tectonic
plate
Isopach Map: A map illustrating variation of
thickness within a tabular unit or stratum. Each
line, or isopach represents where a particular
stratum has the same thickness.
Isopotentials: A vector or region in space where
every point in it is at the same potential.
229
Glossary and
shortened forms
Isotropy: The condition in which the properties
of a system or a parameter do not vary with
direction.
ka: Kilo annum (1000 years)
Kaolinitic: Where the composition has a
significant proportion of the mineral kaolin
(Al2Si2O5(OH)4).
kL: Kilolitre
km: Kilometre
km : Square kilometres
2
Lacustral: Of, or pertaining to, a lake.
Lacustrine: Of, or pertaining to, a lake.
Lag time: The time between the middle of the
precipitation event in a watershed (or catchment)
and the arrival of the flood peak at a given
location.
LAS: LASer file format exchange
LEB: Lake Eyre Basin
Level of risk: Magnitude of a risk, or
combination of risks, expressed in terms of the
combination of consequences and likelihood.
LGM: Last Glacial Maximum
LiDAR: Light Detection and Ranging
Limnological: The study of life and phenomena
of freshwater.
Lithosphere: The rigid, outermost shell of
the Earth. The lithosphere sits on top of the
asthenosphere and is that portion of the Earth
that interacts with the hydrosphere, biosphere
and atmosphere.
230
Lithostratigraphic: Refers to the stratigraphy
with respect to the strata’s rock properties.
LMWL: Local Meteoric Water Lines
Loop closure: A check to assess the cumulative
error generated from moving sites with multiple
base stations.
L/s: Litres per second
Lunette: A sand or sediment dune formed by
wind activity that typically takes the shape of a
crescent.
m: Metre
Ma: Million years
Macro-invertebrates: Aquatic invertebrates
visible to the naked eye including insects,
crustaceans, molluscs and worms that inhabit a
river channel, pond, lake, wetland or ocean.
mAHD: Metres Australian Height Datum.
Defines elevation in metres (m) according to the
Australian Height Datum (AHD).
Mantle-derived: To be derived from the earth’s
mantle.
mBNS: Metres below natural surface
MBR: Mountain block recharge
m/day: Metres per day
Meteoric water: Water that is or has recently
been a part of the atmospheric portion of the
hydrologic cycle.
MF: Matched Filtering
MFR: Mountain front recharge
mg/L: Milligrams per litre

Micaceous: Where the composition has a
significant proportion of mica minerals. Mica can
be one of any group of chemically and physically
related aluminum silicate minerals.
Mining (hydrogeology): This implies extraction
of water from a groundwater system which is not
currently receiving recharge.
MIS: Marine isotopic stage
mL: Millilitres
ML: Megalitres
mm: Millimetre
m/Ma: Metres per million years
mm/yr: Millimetres per year
MNDWI: Modified Normalised Difference Water
Index
MNF: Minimum Noise Fraction
Model: A conceptual or mathematical means
of understanding elements of the real world
that allows for predictions of outcomes given
certain conditions; examples include estimating
storm run-off, assessing the impacts of dams or
predicting ecological response to environmental
change.
MODIS: Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer
MODTRAN: Moderate Spectral Resolution
Atmospheric Transmittance
Monocline: A geologic structure in which all
layers are inclined in the same direction.
Mountain block recharge: A term used to
describe subsurface inflows from a consolidated
mountain block.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Glossary and
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the shortened forms
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Mountain Front recharge: A term used to
describe infiltration (or seepage) from streams
(either perennial or ephemeral), at a mountain
front.
Mountain system recharge: A term to used
to describe the contribution of groundwater
recharge derived from mountains to adjacent
aquifers.
mS/cm: milliSiemens per centimetre
MSL: Mound spring line
MSR: Mountain system recharge
mt: Mitochondrial
MTMF: Mixture Tuned Matched Filtering
Multispectral: Images with multiple
wavelengths, usually between four to 15,
representing broad bandwidths of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
m/yr: Metres per year
NASA: National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (United States of America)
Natural resources: Soil, water resources,
geological features and landscapes, native
vegetation, native animals and other native
organisms, ecosystems.
NCSSA: Nature Conservation Society of South
Australia
NDSMI: Normalised Difference Soil Moisture
Index
NDVI: Normalised Difference Vegetation Index
Neotectonic: Tectonic activity considered to be
current or recent in geologic time.
231
Glossary and
shortened forms
nm: Nanometres
NRM: Natural resource management; all
activities that involve the use or development of
natural resources and/or that impact on the state
and condition of natural resources, whether
positively or negatively.
NSW: New South Wales
NT: Northern Territory
Numerical model: A form of mathematical
model that uses some sort of numerical
time-stepping procedure to obtain a modeled
behavior over time.
NWI: National Water Initiative
Observation well: A narrow well or piezometer
whose sole function is to permit water level
measurements.
Orogen: A section of the earth’s crust that is
subject to the formation of mountains.
Orogenic: In reference to a process in which
a section of the earth’s crust is folded and
deformed to form a mountain range.
Orographic: Of, or relating to mountains,
particularly their form and position.
Orthophotography: A digital photograph that
has been registered to a Digital Elevation Model
that allows for accurate measurement of features
directly from the photograph.
OSL: Optically stimulated luminescence
pa: Per annum
Palaeochannel: Refers to the channel of a river
or stream, or the sediments contained within a
riverbed or streambed that is no longer active.
232
Palaeoclimate: Climate conditions or events
that occurred in the past and is no longer active.
Palaeo-ecology: The study of fossil animals and
plants in order to deduce their ecology and the
environmental conditions in which they lived.
Palaeohydrological: Hydrological changes or
events that occurred in the past and is no longer
active.
Palaeorecharge: Groundwater recharge event
or condition that occurred in the past and is no
longer active.
Palaeo-wind: Wind conditions that occurred in
the past and are no longer active.
Paludal: Of or pertaining to marshes, swamps
or fens.
Palynology: The study of pollen grains and
other spores, particularly those found at
archaeological sites or in geological deposits
Paralic: Pertaining to deposits laid down on the
landward side of a coast.
PCA: Principal Components Analysis
Pericratonic: Of, or pertaining to the boundary
of continental crust and oceanic crust.
Periglacial: Of, or referring to a place at the
edges of glacial areas. Can also be used to
refer to any place where geomorphic processes
related to freezing of water occur.
Permeability: The state or quality of a material
that causes it to allow liquids or gases to pass
through it.
Petroglyphs: Rock engravings created by
removing part of a rock surface by incising,
picking, carving, and abrading.

pH: Standard measurement of acidity/alkalinity
Phenological: Plant growth cycle
Phreatic zone: Water in the zone beneath the
water table where the fluid pressure is equal to or
greater than atmospheric pressure.
Phreatophytic vegetation: Vegetation that
exists in a climate more arid than its normal
range by virtue of its access to groundwater.
Phylogeography: The study of the historical
processes that may be responsible for the
contemporary geographic distributions of
individuals.
Piezometer: A pressure-measuring device. This
typically is an instrument that measures fluid
pressure at a given point rather than integrating
pressures over a well.
Piezometric surface: See ‘potentiometric head
or surface’.
Playa: An arid zone basin with no outlet, which
periodically fills with water to form a temporary
lake.
pmC: Percent modern carbon
Point water head: The sum of the elevation
head and the pressure head calculated using the
density of the water at the point sampled.
Polychory: Seed distribution by more than one
agent.
Porosity: Pertaining to the voids within a
sediment or rock; can also be called void
fraction. Effective porosity is the porosity of a
sediment or rock available to contribute to fluid
flow through the rock or sediment.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Glossary and
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the shortened forms
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Potential evapotranspiration: The amount of
water that would evaporate and transpire from a
surface if sufficient water was available to meet
the demand.
Potentiometric head or surface: The level to
which water rises in a well due to water pressure
in the aquifer, measured in metres (m); also
known as piezometric surface.
PPI: Pixel Purity Index
ppm: Parts per million
ppt: Parts per trillion
Precautionary principle: Where there are
threats of serious or irreversible environmental
damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not
be used as a reason for postponing measures to
prevent environmental degradation.
Pressure head: Head caused by the pressure
(energy) of the fluid.
Probability: Measure of the chance of
occurrence expressed as a number between 0
and 1, where 0 is impossible and 1 is absolutely
certain.
Proponent: The person or persons (who may
be a body corporate) seeking approval to take
water from prescribed water resources.
PSM: Permanent survey mark
Pugging: The trampling of wetland soils into
mud by livestock often resulting in a very uneven
surface of deep hoofmarks in which water pools
and becomes stagnant.
QuickBird: Satellite operated by Digital Globe
that captures very high-resolution multispectral
imagery.
R8: Trimble GPS receiver
233
Glossary and
shortened forms
RADAR: Radio Detection and Ranging
Radiogenic: Related to a stable element that is
product of radioactive decay.
Radionucleide: An atom with a nucleus that is
unstable and is characterised by excess energy.
The nuclide will disintegrate with the emission of
corpuscular or electromagnetic radiations,
Ramsar Convention: This is an international
treaty on wetlands titled The Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance Especially
as Waterfowl Habitat. It is administered by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources. It was signed in the
town of Ramsar, Iran in 1971, hence its common
name. The convention includes a list of wetlands
of international importance and protocols
regarding the management of these wetlands.
Australia became a signatory in 1974.
Rayleigh Number: The ratio buoyancy forces
to viscous resistance and dispersive/diffusive
dissipation.
Recharge: The process by which water enters
the groundwater system.
Recharge zone: The area of an aquifer
or aquifer system where water enters the
subsurface and eventually the phreatic zone.
Red Edge Position: The inflexion point (or
maximum slope) between the red and infrared
wavelength regions.
Residual risk: Risk remaining after risk
treatment.
RGR: Relative growth rates
Rheology: The study of the flow of matter,
primarily in the liquid state, but also as ‘soft
solids’ or solids under conditions in which they
respond with plastic flow rather than deforming
elastically in response to an applied force.
234
Rhyolite: A pale fine-grained volcanic rock of
granitic composition.
Rhythmites: Layers of sediment or sedimentary
rock that are laid down with an clear periodicity
and regularity.
RINEX: Receiver Independent Exchange Format
Risk: The effect of uncertainty on objectives.
Risk analysis: Process to comprehend the
nature of risk and to determine the level of risk.
Risk assessment: Overall process of risk
identification, risk analysis and risk evaluation.
Risk avoidance: Informed decision not to be
involved in, or to withdraw from, an activity in
order not to be exposed to a particular risk.
Risk categories: Overarching categories of risk
which may include several sources of risk.
Risk criteria: Terms of reference against which
the significance of risk is evaluated.
Risk identification: The process of finding,
recognising and describing risks.
Risk management: Coordinated activities to
direct and control an organisation with regard to
risk.
Risk management framework: Set of
components for designing, implementing
monitoring, reviewing and continually improving
risk management throughout the organisation.
Risk treatment: A process to modify risk.
RMS: Root mean square
RTK DGPS: Real-time kinematic differential
global positioning system

Runoff: (1) Water from precipitation, snowmelt,
or irrigation running over the surface of the
Earth; (2) surface water entering rivers, lakes, or
reservoirs; (3) a component of stream flow.
SA: South Australia
SAAE: South Australian Aquatic Ecosystem
SAALNRMB: South Australian Arid Lands
Natural Resources Management Board
SA Geodata: State government database
containing spatial and geophysical data
Salinity: The amount of solutes (dissolved
materials) in water.
SAM: Spectral Angle Mapper
SARDI: South Australian Research and
Development Institute
Sedgelands: Vegetation species associated
with wetlands that have adapted to extreme
environmental conditions such as drought and
low availability of nutrients.
Sedimentological: Of, or pertaining to
sediments or the study or sediments.
Semiarid: pertaining to climatic conditions
in which the precipitation, although slight, is
sufficient for growth of short sparse grass.
Senescence or senescent: The growth phase
of a plant from maturity to death.
Silcrete: A silica indurated or cemented
duricrust.
Siliciclastic: Clastic sediments composed of
primarily siliceous minerals.
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Glossary and
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the shortened forms
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Sorption: The general process by which solutes,
ions, and colloids become attached (sorbed)
to solid matter in a porous medium. Sorption
includes absorption and adsorption.
SpEC: Specific electrical conductance
Specific yield: The ratio, less than or equal to
the effective porosity, indicating the volumetric
fraction of the bulk aquifer volume that a given
aquifer will yield when all the water is allowed to
drain out of it under the forces of gravity.
Specific storage: The volume of water released
per unit volume of aquifer for a unit decrease in
hydraulic head.
Spectral: Relating to electromagnetic
wavelengths; for remote sensing used in this
study, spectral covers the region from the visible
to the shortwave infrared.
Spectroradiometer: An instrument for
measuring the radiant energy distribution in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Speleothem: A mineral deposit of calcium
carbonate that precipitates from solution in a
cave.
Spring: Individual wetlands comprising one
or more vents and tails joined together by
permanent wetland vegetation.
Spring complex: Clusters of spring groups that
share similar geomorphological settings and
broad similarities in water chemistry.
Spring group: Clusters of springs that share
similar water chemistry and source their water
from the same fault or structure.
Spring supergroup: Clusters of spring
complexes.
235
Glossary and
shortened forms
Spring vent: A conduit or aperture through
which groundwater discharges to the surface
environment.
SRTM: Shuttle RADAR Topography Mission
SSPCA: Spectrally Segmented Principal
Component Analysis
Sst: Sandstone
Stadial: A period of colder temperatures during
an interglacial (warm period) separating the
glacial periods of an ice age.
Static water level: The level of water in a well
that is not affected by pumping.
Steady state: The condition in which properties
in a system are not changing with time.
Stochasticity: Refers to systems whose
behaviour is intrinsically non-deterministic,
sporadic and categorically not intermittent.
Storage: Water contained within an aquifer or
within a surface-water reservoir.
Storage coefficient: The volume of water an
aquifer releases from or takes into storage per
unit surface area of an aquifer per unit change in
head.
Storativity: The volume of water released per
unit area of aquifer for a unit decline in head. In
a confined aquifer, storativity is essentially the
specific storage times aquifer thickness. In an
unconfined aquifer, storativity is essentially equal
to the specific yield or the effective porosity.
Stratigraphical: Of, or pertaining to the study of
stratigraphy.
Stratigraphies: Plural layers in sedimentary and
layered volcanic rock
236
Stratigraphy: A branch of geology concerned
with rock layers and layering (stratification). It is
primarily used in the study of sedimentary and
layered volcanic rocks.
Sub-basin: A smaller drainage basin within a
larger drainage basin.
Subhydrostatic pressure: The pressure exerted
by liquid at equilibrium that is less than the
liquid’s hydrostatic pressure.
Substrate: A layer of earth beneath the surface
soil or subsoil.
Supergroups: Clusters of spring complexes;
there are 13 supergroups across the GAB with
three found in South Australia.
Superhydrostatic pressure: The pressure
exerted by liquid at equilibrium that is greater
than the liquid’s hydrostatic pressure.
Surface water: (1) Water flowing over land after
having fallen as rain or hail or precipitated in any
another manner, or having risen to the surface
naturally from underground; (2) Water of the kind
referred to in (1) that has been collected in a dam
or reservoir.
SWIR: Short-Wave InfraRed
SWP: Soil water potential
Synclinal: Of or pertaining to a syncline. A
syncline is a trough-shaped fold of stratified rock
(convex down) in which the strata slope upward
from the axis.
Tails: Wetlands associated with flow away from
the vent.
Taxa: General term for a group identified by
taxonomy, which is the science of describing,
naming and classifying organisms.

TDEM: Time Domain Electromagnetics
TDS: Total dissolved solids, measured in
milligrams per litre (mg/L); a measure of water
salinity.
Tectonics: A branch of geology that is primarily
concerned with the structures within the earth’s
crust, with particular reference to the forces and
movements that have operated in a region to
create these structures.
TEM: Transient Electromagnetic
Terrane: A fault-bounded area or region with a
distinctive stratigraphy, structure, and geological
history.
Terrigenic: To be derived from the land
Tertiary aquifer: A term used to describe a
water-bearing rock formation deposited in the
Tertiary geological period (1–70 million years
ago).
Thermal conductivity: The rate of heat flow per
unit area for a unit thermal gradient normal to
that area.
Thermogene: A process that produces heat.
TL: Thermoluminescence
Tomography: A technique for displaying a
representation of a cross section through
another solid object. In geology, this is usually
done with seismic or another geophysical
technique.
Total dissolved solids (TDS): The sum of all
organic and inorganic dissolved matter in water.
Toxic: Relating to harmful effects to biota
caused by a substance or contaminant.
TPS: Temperature, pH, Salinity meter
Volume II: Groundwater Recharge, Glossary and
Hydrodynamics and Hydrochemistry of the shortened forms
Western Great Artesian Basin
Allocating Water and Maintaining Springs
in the Great Artesian Basin
Tracer: A solute, suspended matter, or heat
which is artificially or naturally induced to
evaluate the rate and direction of groundwater
flow.
Trachyte: A fine-grained volcanic rock
consisting largely of alkali feldspar.
Transgressive: Pertaining to a geologic event
during which sea level rises relative to the
land and the shoreline moves toward higher
topographic regions.
Transient: The condition in which properties of a
system vary with time.
Transmissivity: The hydraulic conductivity of an
aquifer unit, multiplied by its saturated thickness.
Travertine: A name used to describe a terrestrial
calcareous sedimentary rock that typically
precipitates from springwater.
Tufa: A name used to describe a terrestrial
calcareous sedimentary rock that precipitates
from springwater. It an be used to specifically
describe a fine-grained micritic carbonate with
textures highly influenced by microbial activity,
precipitated at ambient and sub-ambient water
temperatures.
UltraCam: A digital photogrammetric aerial
camera.
Underground water: See ‘groundwater’.
Unsaturated: The condition when the porosity is
not filled with water.
Unsaturated zone: Generically, is considered
equivalent to the vadose zone. This is the zone
above the water table and the saturated portion
of the capillary fringe where the pores are
generally filled with both liquid water and air.
Upward leakage: The leakage of groundwater
to strata located above the aquifer or to surface.
237
Glossary and
shortened forms
Upwardly-fining: A decrease in grainsize within a
sedimentary unit in proportion to age.
U/Th: Uranium/Thorium ratio
Vadose Zone: In terrestrial environments, the
portion of the shallow subsurface that is above
the water table.
Velocity head: Head caused by the kinetic
energy of the flowing fluid.
Vents: Individual point discharges of water from
the GAB, varying in size and structure: some
are discrete discharges of water as if coming
from a pipe, while others may be several metres
across with no clear point of discharge within
the region—the spring vent is the minimum unit
used when describing the number springs from
a legislative perspective and in accordance with
water allocation planning. See ‘spring vent’.
VIS-NIR: Visible and Near Infrared
VHR: Very High Resolution
Volcaniclastics: Volcanic material that has been
transported and reworked through mechanical
action, such as by wind or water.
Volcanolithics: Sediments composed of
fragments of volcanic rock.
WAP: Water allocation plan
Water allocation: (1) In respect to a water
licence, means the quantity of water that the
licensee is entitled to take and use pursuant to
the licence; (2) In respect to water taken pursuant
to an authorisation under s.11, means the
maximum quantity of water that can be taken and
used pursuant to the authorisation.
Water allocation plan (WAP): A plan prepared
by a catchment water management board or
water resources planning committee and adopted
by the Minister in accordance with the Act.
238
Water-dependent ecosystems: Parts of the
environment, species composition and natural
ecological processes that are determined by the
permanent or temporary presence of flowing
or standing water, above or below ground;
in-stream areas of rivers, riparian vegetation,
springs, wetlands, floodplains, estuaries and
lakes are all water-dependent ecosystems.
Water table: A surface at or near the top of the
phreatic zone (zone of saturation) where the fluid
pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure.
Well: (1) An opening in the ground excavated for
the purpose of obtaining access to groundwater;
(2) An opening in the ground excavated for
some other purpose but that gives access to
groundwater; (3) A natural opening in the ground
that gives access to groundwater.
Wetlands: Areas of permanent, periodic or
intermittent inundation – whether natural or
artificial, permanent or temporary – with water
that is static or flowing; and is fresh, brackish
or salty (including areas of marine water); the
depth of which at low tides does not exceed six
metres.
WGS84: World Geodetic System (1984)
WorldView-2: Satellite operated by Digital Globe
that captures very high-resolution multispectral
imagery.
ZoI: Zone of influence
μm: micrometres
δ13C: Carbon isotopic concentration
δxO (e.g. δ18O): Isotopic abundance ratio.
Oxygen 18 isotope
σh: Principal maximum horizontal compressive
stress
σV: Principal vertical stress
This document has been printed on a
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certified EMS, onto chain-of-custody,
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Cover image:
HyMap airborne image of West
Finniss Spring Group and Hermit Hill,
Hermit Hill Springs Complex,
HyVista Corporation, 2009
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