General
1.1
ANALOG VS. DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS 3 Process Models 17
Introduction 4
An Overview of Signals and Signal Processing 4
Continuous and Digital Signals 5
Digital Signals 5
Analog Instruments 6
Analog Signal Processing 6
Application and Examples of Analog
Instruments 8
Digital Instruments 9
Signal Conversion 9
Intelligent and IC Sensors 10
Basic Hardware 11
Inputs and Outputs 12
Communications and Networks 12
Virtual Instruments and Software 13
Application and Examples of Digital
Instruments 13
Comparison of Analog and Digital Instruments 14
Bibliography 14
1.2
COMPUTER CONFIGURATIONS
OF SUPERVISORY UNITS 15
Introduction 15
History of Supervisory Control 15
Generic Features of DCS 16
Computer-Supervised Analog Controllers
Functions 17
Tasks 17
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
Supervisory Computer for Analog Loops 17
Computer-Supervised DCS Systems 18
Production Monitoring and Control 18
Online Information System 19
Supervisory Control Techniques 19
Supervisory Control Algorithms 19
Advanced Control Strategies 22
Computer Interface with DCS 23
Hardware 23
Software 24
Conclusions 24
References 24
Bibliography 25
1.3
COMPUTERS — SIMULATION BY ANALOG
AND HYBRID SYSTEMS 26
The Analog Computer 27
Operational Amplifier 27
The Inverter 27
The Summer 27
Frequency Response of the OP-AMP 28
Analog Circuits for Differential Equations 28
Magnitude and Time Scaling 30
Nonlinear Components 32
The Analog Computer Unit 32
Hybrid Computers 33
Hardware 33
17 Operation 34
Software 34
Process Simulation 35
2 General

Laplace Transforms 35 Alarm Basics 59

Lag Functions 36 A.M. Costs and Designs 60
Control System Simulation 38 A.M. and Safety Instrumentation 60
Hybrid Simulation 38 Alarm Set Points 60
References 40 Alarm Presentation 60
Bibliography 40 Alarm Processing 61
Improving the Plant’s A.M. 61
Symptoms of A.M. Problems 61
1.4
The Tools and Elements of A.M. 61
ELECTRONIC VS. PNEUMATIC INSTRUMENTS 41
A.M. Improvement and Rationalization
Factors to Be Considered 41 Project 62
The Old Debate 41 References 63
HVAC Damper Actuators 41
Pneumatic Actuators 41
Hysteresis 42 1.7
Spring Range Shift 42 SPEECH SYNTHESIS AND VOICE RECOGNITION 64
Direct Coupled Electronic Actuator 42 The Nature of Sound 64
Pneumatic vs. Electronic 43 Introduction 64
Control Signals 43 Speech Synthesis 64
Converters 43 Adaptive Differential Pulse-Code Modulation
Electrical Safety 43 (ADPCM) 65
The Modern Debate 44 Formant Synthesis 65
References 44 Text Synthesis 66
Bibliography 44 Voice Recognition 66
Word Boundary Detection 66
Feature Extraction 66
1.5
Pattern Standardization and Normalization 68
HUMAN ENGINEERING 46 Word Matching 68
The Control Room of the 21st Century 46 High-Level Linguistic Components 69
Introduction 46 Practical Implementation 69
Man–Machine System 47 Bibliography 70
Information Theory 47
Characteristics of Man 47
1.8
Body Dimensions 48
WIRING PRACTICES AND SIGNAL CONDITIONING 71
Information Capability 48
Performance (Efficiency and Fatigue) 49 Introduction 71
Application of Human Engineering 51 Electric Noise 71
Statistics of Operator Population 52 Reduction of Noise 71
Setting Priorities 52 Noise Types 72
Hardware Characteristics 54 Noise Sources 72
Information Coding 55 Grounding, Wiring, Filtering 74
Operator Effectiveness 55 Ground Systems 74
Operator Load 55 Wiring 75
Environment 56 Filtering 78
Summary 58 Applications 78
Bibliography 58 Transducer Signals 78
Common-Mode Rejection Measurement 80
Thermocouple Signals 81
1.6 Low-Level Signal Multiplexing 82
PROCESS ALARM MANAGEMENT 59 A/D Converters 86
Introduction 59 Conclusions 86
History of Alarm Systems 59 References 87
Definitions 59 Bibliography 87

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

1.1 Analog vs. Digital Instruments
W. P. DURDEN (1995) H. EREN (2005)

Types: Analog and digital instruments

Costs: A few dollars to thousands of dollars depending on functionality and complexity

Sensors: Common sensors for both types; additionally, IC (integrated circuitry) and intelligent
sensors for digital instruments

Components: Purely analog components for analog instruments; analog and digital components and
microprocessors for digital instruments

Displays: Needle indicator for analog instruments, numeric light emitting diode (LED) or liquid
crystal display (LCD) for digital instruments

Communications: Wired (e.g., 20 mA) for analog instruments; wired, RF, microwave, optical, sonic, etc.
for digital instruments

Networking: Limited network capabilities for analog instruments; unlimited capabilities for digital
instruments

Vendors (partial list): Analytical Measurements, Inc. (www.analyticalmeasurements.com)

Athena Controls, Inc. (www.athenacontrols.com)
Brighton Electronics, Inc. (www.brighton-electronics.com)
Crompton Instruments (www.crompton-instruments.com)
Devar, Inc. (www.devarinc.com)
Dresser Instruments (www.dresserinstruments.com)
Dunham Instruments (www.dunhaminstruments.com.au)
EDL, Inc. (www.edl-inc.com)
Encore Electronics, Inc. (www.encore-elec.com)
Hioki Corp. (www.hioki.co.jp)
Industrial Instruments & Supplies, Inc. (www.iisusa.com)
Kahn Instruments, Inc. (www.kahn.com)
Morehouse Instrument Co. (www.morehouseinst.com)
Ono Sokki Technology, Inc. (www.onosokki.net)
Precision Devices, Inc. (www.predev.com)
PTC Instruments (www.ptc1.com)
R & R Instrumentation, Inc. (www.rrinst.com)
Taylor Precision Products LP (www.taylorusa.com)
Weschler Instruments (www.weschler.com)
Weston Aerospace (www.westonaero.com)

Digital Instruments
Alldos Eichler GmbH. (www.alldos.com)
AMETEK Instruments (www.ametek.com)
A&S Company, Inc. (www.detection.com)
D&D Security Products, Inc. (www.ddsp.com)
Davis Inotek Instruments (www.davisontheweb.com)
Draeger Safety (www.draeger.com)
Dranetz Technologies, Inc. (www.dranetz.com)

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

4 General

Dwyer Instruments, Inc. (www.dwyer-inst.com)

Dynalco Controls (www.dynalco.com)
Entran Devices, Inc. (www.entran.com)
Fluke Electronics (www.flukecanada.ca)
Garmin, Ltd. (www.garmin.com)
Hanna Instruments, Inc. (www.hannainst.com)
Hoyt Electrical Instrument Works, Inc. (www.hoytmeter.com)
Intercomp (/www.intercomp.com)
Keithley Instruments, Inc. (www.keithley.com)
Koehler Instrument Co., Inc. (www.koehlerinstrument.com)
Leader Instruments Corp. (www.leaderusa.com)
MC Miller Co. (www.mcmiller.com)
NEC San-ei Instruments, Ltd. (www.necsan-ei.co.jp)
NeTech Corporation (www.gonetech.com)
Nihon Kohden (www.nihonkohden.com)
Polar Instruments, Inc. (www.polarinstruments.com)
Protek T&M (www.hcprotek.com)
SE International, Inc. (www.seintl.com)
Sensotec, Inc. (www.sensotec.com)
Sierra Instruments, Inc. (www.sierrainstruments.com)
SunTech Medical Instruments (www.suntechmed.com)
Texas Instruments (www.ti.com)
Turner BioSystems (www.turnerbiosystems.com)
Valhalla Scientific, Inc. (www.valhallascientific.com)
Wagner Instruments (www.wagnerforce.com)
Warren-Knight Instrument Co. (www.warrenind.com)
Winters Instruments, Inc. (www.winters.ca)
Yokogawa Corp. (www.yokogawa.com)

INTRODUCTION considerable progress in digital instruments has taken place.

Instruments are manmade devices that measure the parame-
ters of physical variables. They may be analog, digital, or a
combination of the two. Nowadays, most instruments are
digital because of their advantages over analog counterparts.
However, the front ends of many instruments are still analog;
that is, most signals from sensors and transducers and the
first stage of signal processing are still analog. Nevertheless,
it is important to mention that in recent years digital instru-
ments operating purely on digital principles have been devel-
oping fast. Today’s smart sensors based on digital principles
contain the complete signal condition circuits and the sensors
in a single chip. The outputs of smart sensors can directly be
interfaced with other digital devices.
Sensors and transducers are the most basic and primary
elements of all instruments. They respond to physical varia-
tions to produce continuous outputs that convey useful infor-
mation. The outputs may be in the forms of amplitudes,
frequencies, or phase differences of currents, voltages, power,
or energy. As in the case of all signal-bearing systems, in
both analog and digital instruments, there are useful signals
that respond to the physical phenomena and unwanted signals
that are imposed as various forms of noise.
In the last 10 to 15 years or so, due to rapid progress in
integrated circuit (IC) technology and the availability of low-
cost analog and digital components and microprocessors,
Therefore, this section will concentrate primarily on digital
instruments. However, signals and signal processing will be
introduced first since they are common to both types of
instruments. In the following sections, the underlying prin-
ciples of analog and digital instruments will be discussed
separately, some examples will be given, and a comparison
between the two will be provided at the end of the chapter.
AN OVERVIEW OF SIGNALS AND SIGNAL PROCESSING
All instruments operate on signals detected by sensors from
physical phenomena. One of the main differentiators between
analog and digital instruments is the signal processing, which
requires different theoretical approaches and hardware. The
signals generated by sensors can be processed in three dif-
ferent ways:
1. By analog techniques that directly deal with analog
signals
2. By converting analog signals into digital forms and
implementing the systems as digital instruments
3. By dealing with the signals purely in digital forms as
digital-to-digital inputs and outputs

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

 1.1 Analog vs. Digital Instruments 5

A signal is defined as “any physical quantity that varies Digital Signals

with time, space, or any other independent variable.” Most
signals occurring in real world are analog in nature, i.e., they
provide a continuous stream of information about the physical
quantity. Common electrical signals include variations in volt-
ages, currents, frequencies, electric and magnetic properties,
phase relations, etc. On the other hand, the physical phenom-
ena may be temperature, position, sound, vibration, chemical
reactions, biological activity, light intensity, and so on.
Analog signals are processed by analog signal processing
techniques, which can be described as a body of theoretical
and practical methods that can be implemented. These tech-
niques include but not restricted to amplifying, filtering,
transmitting, estimating, detecting, modulating, demodulat-
ing, analyzing, displaying, and reproduction of signals. On
the other hand, due to easy and cost-effective availability of
advanced microprocessors and the supporting components,
the majority of modern instruments are digital and require
digital signal processing. Digital systems provide powerful
processing and data handling capabilities simply by software
and/or firmware implementations. Also, once the signals are
converted to digital formats, they can be managed by any
computer or digital system. This provides a wide range of
possibilities for data processing, communications, storage,
and visual displays.
CONTINUOUS AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
Digital signals are arrays of numbers that are used in com-
putational analysis of systems and signals. Digital signals can
either be generated or directly be derived from analog signals
using A/D (analog to digital) converters.
Analog-to-Digital In the A/D conversion process, analog sig-
nals are first sampled at discrete time intervals to obtain a
sequence of samples that are spaced uniformly in time. This
is achieved by multiplying a continuous signal by a periodic
train of Dirac delta functions spaced T seconds apart. T repre-
sents the sampling period; its reciprocal is the sampling rate
( fs = 1/T ). After the analog signals have been sampled, quan-
tization is necessary to put the discrete-time signal into discrete
numerical values. This is followed by coding to convert the
quantized values to binary sequences.
For example, a discrete-time sinusoidal signal may be
expressed in terms of sequences as:
x (nT ) = A sin(ω nT + θ ), 1.1(3)
where n is the integer variable termed the sample number,
and T is the time interval between samples known as the
sampling period.
The Fourier series representation of a periodic discrete-
time signal x(n) sequence is:
N −1
x (n) = ∑c e
k =0
k
j 2π kn / N
1.1(4)

Continuous signals, also known as analog signals, are defined where N is the fundamental period.
for every value of time from −∞ to +∞. Continuous signals The coefficient ck is given by:
can be periodic or nonperiodic. In periodic signals, the signal
repeats itself in an oscillatory manner, e.g., the sinusoidal N −1
 − j 2π kn 
∑ x(n) exp 
1
waveform (as in Figure 1.1m), which can be expressed as: ck =  1.1(5)
N n= 0
N 
x(t) = Xm sin(ω t) −∞ < t < ∞ 1.1(1)
The frequency-domain of discrete-time signals that are
where x(t) is a time-dependent signal, ω = 2πft is the angular not necessarily periodic can be expressed in a discrete Fourier
frequency, and Xm is the maximum value. transform (DFT) as:
The signals can be periodic but not necessarily sinusoi- ∞
dal; for example, they may be triangular, sawtooth, or rect-
angular waveforms. The periodic signals can be expressed as
X (ω T ) = ∑ x(n) exp[− jω nT ]
n =−∞
1.1(6)
a combination of pure sinusoidal waveforms known as the
Fourier series. That is: and

x(t) = X0 + X1 sin(ω1t + φ1) + X2sin(ω2t + φ2) + … 2π

∫
1
+ Xn sin(ωn t + φn) x (n) = X (ω T ) exp[− jω Tn]d (ω T ) 1.1(7)
1.1(2) 2π 0

where ω1, ω2, …, ωn are the frequencies (rad/s); X0, X1, … ,
Xn are the maximum amplitudes of respective frequencies;
and φ1, φ2, … , φn are the phase angles.
In Equation 1.1(2), the number of terms may be infinite,
and the higher the number of elements the better the approx-
imation. Nevertheless, high-frequency contents can have sig-
nificant effect on digital signal processing, as will be explained
next.
These equations are essential in signal processing for
digital instruments where analog-to-digital signal conversion
takes place.
In all digital instruments, the Nyquist sampling theorem
must be observed; that is, “the number of samples per second
must be at least twice the highest frequency present in the
continuous signal,” Equation 1.1(2). As a rule of thumb,
depending on the significance of the high frequencies, the

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

6 General
Sensors Pre-
Physical
and conditioning
quantity
transducer circuit
FIG. 1.1a
Functional blocks of an analog instrument.
sampling must be about 5 to 10 times the highest frequency
component in the signal.
ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
Analog instruments are characterized by their continuous sig-
nals. A purely analog instrument measures, transmits, displays,
and stores data in analog form. The signal processing is real-
ized by analog components that are integrating together as
functional blocks, as illustrated in Figure 1.1a. Some examples
of functional blocks are bridges, amplifiers, filters, oscillators,
modulators, offset circuits, level converters, and buffers.
Three basic components are common in all types of ana-
log signal processing: resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
The main function of a resistor is to limit the current. The
current will flow through a capacitor only if the voltage
changes across it. In the case of inductors, voltage is estab-
lished only as a result of a change in the current across it.
Other analog components, including semiconductor devices
such as diodes, transistors, operational amplifiers, and recti-
fiers, are based on these three basic elements.
Two basic types of semiconductor devices exist: bipolar
and metal oxide semiconductors (MOS). Many modern ana-
log components and circuits are manufactured in integrated
circuit (ICs). ICs contain all basic circuit components such
as resistors, transistors, and diodes densely packed on silicon
chips. The operational amplifier (op amp) is an example of
an IC.
Operational amplifiers are fundamental building blocks
of analog signal processing circuits. They are made either as
integrated (monolithic) circuits or hybrid circuits (combina-
tion of monolithic and discrete parts). An op amp is made
from hundreds of transistors, resistors, and capacitors in a
single chip. It has two inputs (inverting and noninverting)
and a single output. A good operational amplifier has the
following properties:
• High input resistance, hundreds of megaohms or few
gigaohms
• Low output resistance, less than few ohms or fraction
of one ohm
• Low input offset voltage, a few millivolts or micro-
ohms
• Low input bias current, a few picoamps
4 6
• Very high open loop gain, 10 to 10
• Low intrinsic noise
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
Transmission
Filters Outputs
and
Amplifiers displays
conditioning
• High common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
• Low sensitivity to changes in power voltage
• A broad operating frequency range
• High environmental stability
Operational amplifiers can be configured as inverting or nonin-
verting amplifiers. In addition, they can perform many other
functions, for example as multipliers, adders, limiters, and filters.
Another version of op amps is the instrumentation ampli-
fiers, which are essentially high-performance differential
amplifiers that consist of several closed loops within the chip.
Instrumentation amplifiers are used extensively in applications
where sensor signals are extremely weak and noisy. An instru-
mentation amplifier has improved CMRR (up to 160 dB), high
input impedances (e.g., 500 MΩ), low output impedance, low
offset currents and voltages, and better temperature character-
istics than common op amps do.
ANALOG SIGNAL PROCESSING
A small number of the most essential functional blocks nec-
essary for analog signal processing, such as amplifiers, adders,
integrators, filters, modulators, and demodulators, will be
explained next.
Amplifiers An amplifier is a device that provides amplifi-
cation of the input signal in terms of voltage, current, or
power. Many different types of amplifiers exist, including
voltage, power, current, transconductance, and transresistance
amplifiers, and, in terms of frequency range, audio (15 Hz to
20 kHz), radio frequency (RF = 20 kHz to 0.1 GHz), and
video (10 Hz to 6 MHz) amplifiers. As an example, Figure
1.1b illustrates two single-transistor amplifiers, bipolar and
MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor).
See Figure 1.1b.
Adders An adder (summer) is a circuit, based on op amps,
whose output is the weighted algebraic sum of all its inputs.
In the case of the voltage adder, in Figure 1.1c, inputs V1, V2,
and V3 are added to give an inverted output, that is:
R0 R R
V0 = − V1 − 0 V2 − 0 V3 1.1(8)
R1 R1 R1
More inputs can be connected without affecting the response
of the existing inputs since the inverting input is held at a
virtual ground by the feedback mechanism.
 1.1 Analog vs. Digital Instruments 7

VDD VDD

300 kΩ 22 kΩ 2.2 MΩ 22 kΩ
C2 C2

2 kΩ C1 2 kΩ C1

100 kΩ vo 100 kΩ vo
vs + vs +
− −
2 kΩ 1 kΩ

160 kΩ 1.5 MΩ

10 kΩ C3 C3
10 kΩ

(a) (b)

FIG. 1.1b
Single-transistor amplifiers: (a) bipolar common-emitter, (b) MOSFET common source.

R1 R0 Differentiators can be obtained by changing the positions

of R and C.
R2

R3
Filters Analog filters are essential parts of both analog and
V1 digital instruments. They are used to extract the useful infor-
V2 mation from the sensors, as most sensors generate broadband
V3 Vo
signals containing various forms of noise. Filters are useful
for the elimination of external and internal noise that inter-
FIG. 1.1c feres with operation of an instrument.
An adder with three inputs. There are two basic types of analog filters, passive and
active. Passive filters are made from purely passive compo-
nents, such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Active fil-
Integrators An integrator can be defined as a circuit whose ters contain active elements such as op amps in addition to
output rate of change is proportional to the applied input. the passive components. The filters can be configured to be
The output of an integrator for an input Vi is: low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop, or notch filters.
The subject of filters is an important but vast topic; therefore,

∫
dV0 some limited detail is provided below.
= kVi or V0 = k Vi dt 1.1(9)
dt
This equation shows that the output Vo is obtained by inte- Low-Pass Active Filters A typical example of a low-pass
gration of the input Vi . Figure 1.1d illustrates an integrator filter is given in Figure 1.1e. In the process of an active low-
based on an op amp. The integrator is an important building pass filter design, the cutoff frequency of the filter must be
block in the design and implementation of active filters. determined first. The cutoff frequency is the frequency at
which the gain of the filter is about −3 dB.

1 C
V0 = −
RC ∫Vi dt
C1
R
Vi +
R1 R2 Vo
−
Vi Vo C2

FIG. 1.1d FIG. 1.1e

An integrator. A low-pass filter.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

8 General
R1
C1
− R7
Vi + D
R4
FIG. 1.1f
A three-amplifier biquad filter.
The choice of resistors in filters is critical. As a rule of
thumb, resistors R1 and R2 are selected as 25 kΩ for a 10 kHz
or 250 kΩ for 100 Hz filter. The values of capacitors can be
calculated for the selected frequency by substituting the selected
resistance values. The calculations are repeated to obtain the
nearest available capacitors by changing the resistor values.
High-Pass Active Filters High-pass active filters are analo-
gous to low-pass filters and pass only high frequencies.
Band-Pass or Band-Stop Active Filters A straightforward way
of building a band-pass or a band-stop filter is by combining
low-pass and high-pass filters in cascaded form.
Notch Filters These filters are usually used to suppress sin-
gle sharp frequencies such as 50 Hz. The best performance
is obtained by adjusting component values while monitoring
the circuit performance on an oscilloscope.
Various design techniques are used to configure analog
filters. Some of these design techniques include Butterworth,
Chebyshev, and Bessel–Thomson filters. The complexity of
filters increases as the order of the filter (number of poles)
Carrier signal
Modulating signal
AM Modulated signal
(a)
FIG. 1.1g
Two types of modulation, (a) AM and (b) FM.
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
R3
R8
C2 Vo
F
− R2
−
+ E
R6 R5 +
increases. A typical complex active filter is illustrated in
Figure1.1f.
Modulators and Demodulators In many electronic sys-
tems, modulations and demodulations are essential for allow-
ing convenient and efficient transmission and reception of
information. Basically, modulation is the process of encoding
information on a carrier signal such that its amplitude, fre-
quency, or phase varies with the message signal, known as
the modulating signal. There are three types of modulation:
amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM),
and phase modulation. Examples of AM and FM are illus-
trated in Figure 1.1g. Demodulation is the process by which
information is extracted from the carrier signal.
APPLICATION AND EXAMPLES OF ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
Analog instruments are used in many applications where
digital readouts are required. Examples of such applications
are control panels, testing systems, manufacturing and pro-
duction equipment, dashboards in all types of transportation
Carrier signal
Modulating signal
FM Modulated signal
(b)

FIG. 1.1h
An analog multimeter. (Courtesy of Hioki Corporation, www.hiok-
iusa.com.)
equipment, laboratories, explosion-proof areas, consumer
products, and machinery. A typical example of analog instru-
ments is the multimeter, as illustrated in Figure 1.1h.
DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
In most modern instruments, the original analog information
acquired from a physical variable is converted to digital form
to obtain a digital instrument. Analog-to-digital (A/D) con-
verters are used for signal conversion together with appropri-
ate multiplexers and sample-and-hold devices. The multiplex-
ers enable the connection of many sensors and transducers to
the same signal-processing media. The typical building blocks
of a digital instrument are illustrated in Figure 1.1i.
Digital systems are particularly useful in performing
mathematical operations, numeric displays, and storing and
transmitting information. Digital instruments consist of three
essential subsystems: converters, general-purpose processors
together with mass storage and communication peripherals,
and application-specific software. In this section, some essen-
tial features of digital instruments will be discussed, includ-
ing signal conversion, intelligent and IC sensors, basic hard-
ware, inputs and outputs, communications and networks,
virtual instruments, and software.
Sensor
Physical
or
signal
transducer conditioning
FIG. 1.1i
Basic building blocks of a digital instrument.
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
1.1 Analog vs. Digital Instruments 9
Continuous
signal x(t) Analog signal
Sample and
Hold
0
T 2T nT Time
Sampling period T (t)
FIG. 1.1j
Analog-to-digital conversion process.
Signal Conversion
Analog-to-Digital Conversion Analog-to-digital (A/D) and
digital-to-analog (D/A) converters are used to interface the
analog environment (the real world) and the digital environ-
ment. Analog signals obtained from a myriad of real-world
sources, including temperature, motion, sound, and electrical
signals, are converted to digital forms by A/D converters.
After the conversion, the signals are processed using many
different algorithms such as digital filters and statistical tech-
niques. When necessary, the processed signals then can be
converted back to analog forms to drive devices requiring
analog inputs such as mechanical loads and sound speakers.
A/D conversion involves three stages: sampling, quanti-
zation, and encoding. Once the analog signals are sampled,
quantization takes place to determine the resolution of the
sampled signals. In coding, the quantized values are con-
verted to binary numbers. Figure 1.1j illustrates a typical A/D
conversion process of an analog signal.
All modern A/D converters produce digital output values
in the integer format. These can be in binary codes or the
twos-complementary form. The length of the output word
defines theoretical resolution of the A/D converter and the
ranges that an A/D converter can produce. The smallest change
in the input voltage (VLSB) that A/D can convert is:
Vmax − Vmin
VLSB = 1.1(10)
2n
where n is the number of bits produced by the A/D converter
and Vmax and Vmin are the maximum and minimum input
voltages that an A/D converter can handle correctly.
Analog Multiplexer Microprocessor
A/D Digital systems
signal
converter and processing
10 General
Due to a diverse range of application requirements, many
different types of A/D converters exist. The most popular are
counter ramp, successive approximation (serial), flash (par-
allel), and delta–sigma (∆/Σ) converters.
Quantization A number of quantization methods exist, one of
which is amplitude quantization, defined as the process by
which a signal with a continuous range of amplitudes is trans-
formed into a signal with discrete amplitudes. In this method,
the process is usually memoryless; that is, the quantizer does
not depend on previous sample values to predict the next value.
Although this is not an ideal solution, it is commonly used in
practice.
The precision of the quantizer is limited by the number
of discrete amplitude levels available to approximate the con-
tinuous signal amplitudes. These levels are referred to as rep-
resentation or reconstruction levels, and the spacing between
two representation levels is called the step size. Quantization,
like sampling, introduces some degree of uncertainty in the
value of the analog signal. For A/D converters with large
number of bits (8 bits or more) this effect can modeled as an
additive noise. The amount of quantization noise relative to
the signal, or Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), depends on the
nature and magnitude of the input signal. Quantization noise
can be both nonlinear and signal dependent. However, pro-
vided that the step size is sufficiently small, it is reasonable
to assume that the quantization error is a uniformly distributed
random variable and its effect is similar to that of thermal
noise.
In addition to quantization noise, A/D converters have
other sources of noise, such as internal voltage reference
noise and thermal amplifier noise. In practice, most convert-
ers rarely achieve their theoretical noise floor. Therefore,
when selecting an A/D converter, one uses the number of bits
of converter as a rough estimate of its resolution. Neverthe-
less, in practical applications, a close examination of the
converter specifications should reveal its true performance.
Coding Coding is a process of representing the finite output
states of the quantizer by a sequence of n bits. The codes
formed using bits are normally known as binary codes and
can be of two types: unipolar and bipolar.
Unipolar codes are used to represent unipolar quantities, that
is, quantities with a predefined sign (positive or negative). The
most common unipolar codes are natural binary, BCD (Binary-
Coded Decimal), and the Gray Code. In order to illustrate the
coding process, the natural binary code is described below.
In the natural binary code, each bit of a number represents
a successive power of two according to the position that the bit
occupies. Given a number of n-digits (represented by Dn −1 ,
Dn – 2, … D1 and D0 ), the value of the number is determined
by the following expression:
n −1 n− 2
Dn−1Dn− 2 K D1D0 = Dn−1 × 2 + Dn− 2 × 2 +L
+ D1 × 2 + D0 × 2
1 0
1.1(11)
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
Dn –1 is the Most Significant Bit (MSB), and D0 is the Least
Significant Bit (LSB).
However, the output code of an A/D converter is normally
interpreted as a fraction of its Full Scale (FS) value, which
is considered as the unit. So the binary codes from an A/D
conversion process must be interpreted in fractional numbers,
n
which is equivalent to dividing the value of each bit by 2 .
Digital-to-Analog Converters Analog signal generation from
the digital world may be part of the measurement process or
may be required for control or sensor stimulation purposes.
Digital signals are converted to analog waveforms by D/A
converters and must be filtered and amplified before being
applied to the appropriate output transducers. However, some
new types of instrumentation now deal exclusively with dig-
ital signals. These include logic and computer network ana-
lyzers, logic pattern generators, and multimedia and digital
audio devices. Such instruments usually include high-speed
digital interfaces to move data in and out of the instrument
at high speeds.
Digital information requires digital-to-analog converters
(D/A) for the conversion of the binary words into appropri-
ately proportional analog voltages. A typical D/A converter
consists of three major elements:
1. Resistive or capacitive networks
2. Switching circuitry, operational amplifiers, and latches
3. A reference voltage
Also, an important requirement is the switching of the
reference voltage from positive to negative for bipolar signals.
Intelligent and IC Sensors
In recent years, progress in electronic instruments has been
making a major turnaround due to the availability of IC
sensors in the form of micro- and nanosensors. Most of these
sensors are smart sensors that have intelligence due to inte-
gration of complex digital processors into the same chip. A
general scheme of a smart sensor is illustrated in Figure 1.1k.
In this particular example, the sensor is under a microproces-
sor control. Excitation is produced and modified depending
on the required operational range. The processor may contain
Physical A/D
Sensor Analogue
conditioner converter
variable
Gain control, Control
D/A, etc.
Sensor Data in
control Digital
Data out
processor
Control in
FIG. 1.1k
General form of smart sensors.
 1.1 Analog vs. Digital Instruments 11

full details of the transducer characteristics in ROM (read only and low cost, and power efficiency, micro-controllers are
memory) enabling the correct excitation, gain, and so on. commonly used in electronic instruments and the associated
instrumentation systems. Therefore, in this section, detailed
Basic Hardware information on micro-controllers will be provided.

Microprocessors and micro-controllers constitute the heart of
almost all types of modern digital instruments and instrumenta-
tion systems. They play an important role in data acquisitions,
data processing, and control. The applications of microproces-
sors and micro-controllers in instruments and instrumentation
systems can be categorized according to the following roles:
1. Data handling functions that include data acquisi-
tion, data processing, information extraction, data
compression, interpretation, recording, storage, and
communication
2. Instrumentation control, which includes sensors, actu-
ators, system resources, and process controls
3. Human-machine interface, one of the significant roles
of digital systems, to provide a meaningful and flexible
user interface to the operators for ergonomic informa-
tion and control display
4. Experimentation and procedural development, con-
sisting of commissioning, testing, and general proto-
typing of the targeted system under investigation
Micro-controllers and digital signal processors are spe-
cial microprocessors that have built-in memory and interface
circuits within the same IC. Due to smaller sizes, simplicity
Micro-Controllers Many micro-controllers are single-chip
devices that have memory for storing information and are able
to control read/write functions and manipulating data. The
performance of a micro-controller is classified by its size, that
is, the number of bits that the CPU (central processing unit)
can handle at a time. Many types or families of micro-control-
lers are offered by a diverse range of manufacturers. Therefore,
in order to select appropriate micro-controllers for a specific
task, it is vital to understand the differences in the character-
istics of different families.
The software for micro-controllers to perform specific
tasks can be written in either assembly codes or high-level
languages such as Basic or C. The program written in other
digital devices can be downloaded into the system memory
through the serial communication port of the micro-controller.
All high-level programs are compiled into machine language
for execution. Significant numbers of compilers are available
on the market for the different families of micro-controllers.
Digital Signal Processors Digital signal processors (DSPs)
are specialized microprocessors that involve partial computer
architecture and fulfill fast operational needs. A simplified block
diagram of a typical DSP processor is given in Figure 1.1l.

Program address bus

Data address bus

External
address bus
interface
Address

X-data X-data Y-data Y-data

C Program Program RAM & Address
Address RAM &
sequencers ROM generator ROM ROM generator
O

N
Data
T
Program bus
R X-data bus
O
Y-data bus
L
External
data bus Timer Serial I/O
interface Multiplier port
and
Accumulator

FIG. 1.1l
Block diagram of a typical DSP.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

12 General
DSPs incorporate special hardware features that are capa-
ble of speeding up calculation of digital filters, fast Fourier
transforms (FFTs), and other frequency-based algorithms.
Modern general-purpose microcomputers can also address
the needs of digital signal processing if some of the necessary
hardware and special instructions are added. As a result, the
distinction between the DSP processor and microprocessors,
in general, is in the degree of specialization. This particular
DSP has two data memories, denoted as X and Y (Figure 1.1l).
For the implementation of signal processing, say in a finite
impulse response (FIR) filter, X-memory can be used to store
the samples of input signals and Y-memory to store the
impulse response.
One of the main characteristics of the DSP processors is
the capability of handling integers for which they are
designed. Most of the existing DSP processors are either 16-
or 32-bit devices. For example, the Motorola DSP56300 pro-
cessors are 24-bit integer processors that offer a compromise
between inexpensive 16-bit and powerful 32-bit devices.
Inputs and Outputs
The data communication between micro-controller and out-
side world is realized through input and output (I/O) pins.
The format of data transmission of a micro-controller can be
universal asynchronous receiver transmitter (UART) — a port
adapter for asynchronous serial communications. A diverse
range of I/O hardware and software is available. Some of
these I/Os suitable for instruments and instrumentation sys-
tems are explained below:
1. Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver Trans-
mitter (USART) — a serial port adapter for either asyn-
chronous or synchronous serial communications.
Communications using a USART are typically much
faster than those using UARTs.
2. Synchronous serial port — Synchronous serial ports
are used to communicate with high-speed devices such
as memory servers, display drivers, additional A/D
ports, etc. In addition, they are suitable to implement
simple micro-controller networks.
3. Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) (Motorola) — A syn-
chronous serial port functioning as an enhanced
UART.
2
4. I C bus — Inter-Integrated Circuit bus (Philips) — is
a simple two-wire serial interface that was originally
2
developed for 8-bit applications. The I C bus is a two-
line, multi-master, multi-slave network interface with
collision detection. Up to 128 devices can be con-
nected on the network, and they can be spread out over
10 m. The two lines of the network consist of the serial
data line and the serial clock line. Each node on the
network has a unique address, which accompanies any
message passed between nodes. Since only two wires
are needed, it is easy to interconnect a number of
devices.
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
5. Controller Area Network (CAN) is a multiplexed wir-
ing scheme that was developed jointly by Bosch and
Intel for wiring in automobiles. The CAN specifica-
tion is being used in industrial control in both North
America and Europe.
Data-Acquisition Boards A data-acquisition board is a
plug-in I/O board that allows the treatment of a set of analog
signals by a computer. Thus, these boards are the key ele-
ments to connect a computer to a process in order to measure
or control it. Data-acquisition boards normally operate on
conditioned signals, that is, signals which have already been
filtered and amplified by analog circuits. However, some
data-acquisition boards can deal with the signals directly
generated by sensors. These boards include all the necessary
signal-conditioning circuits.
The number of analog inputs normally managed by a data-
acquisition board is eight or 16. This system is made up of
an analog multiplexer, an amplifier with programmable gain,
a sample-and-hold circuit, and an A/D. All the elements of
this system are shared by all the analog input channels. Some
data-acquisition boards also offer analog outputs to carry out
control operations. When available, the normal number of
analog outputs is two.
In addition to analog inputs and outputs, data-acquisition
boards also supply digital I/O lines and counters. Digital lines
are used for process control and communication with peripheral
devices. Counters are used for applications such as counting
the number of times an event occurs or generating a time base.
Communications and Networks
In many applications, instruments are networked by computers
to measure many variables of a physical process. The resulting
arrangement for performing the overall measurement function
is called the measurement system. In measurement systems,
instruments operate autonomously but in a coordinated man-
ner. The information generated by each device is communi-
cated between the instruments themselves or between the
instrument and other devices such as recorders, display units,
base stations, or a host computer. Currently, the coordination
of instruments is largely realized by digital techniques.
In digital instrumentation systems, the transmission of
data between devices is realized relatively easily by using
serial or parallel transmission techniques. However, as the
measurement system becomes large by the inclusion of many
instruments, communication can become complex. To avoid
this complexity, message interchange standards are used,
such as RS-232, USB, EIA-485, and IEEE-488.
For long-range data transmission, modem, microwave, or
radio frequency (RF) media are selected. In these cases, var-
ious modulation techniques are used to convert digital signals
to suitable formats. For example, most modems use fre-
quency-shift keyed (FSK) modulation. The digital interface
with modems uses various protocols such as MIL-STD-188C
to transmit signals in simplex, half-duplex, or full duplex

forms depending on the directions of the data flow. The sim-
plex interface transmits data in one direction, whereas full
duplex transmits it in two directions simultaneously.
In industrial applications, several standards for digital
data transmission are available. These are commonly known
in engineering literature as fieldbuses. Among many others,
some of these standards, such as the WordFIP, Profibus, and
Foundation Fieldbus, are widely accepted and used. The
fieldbuses are supported by hardware and software (for exam-
ple, National Instruments chips and boards) that allow
increases in the data rates suitable with high-speed protocols.
Virtual Instruments and Software
Traditional instrumentation systems are made up of multiple
stand-alone instruments that are interconnected to carry out
a determined measurement or control an operation. Function-
ality of all these stand-alone instruments can be implemented
in a digital environment by using computers, plug-in data-
acquisition boards, and supporting software implementing
the functions of the system. The plug-in data-acquisition
boards enable the interface of analog signals to computers,
and the software allows programming of the computer to look
and function as an instrument. The systems implemented in
this way are referred to as virtual instrumentation systems.
The major advantage of virtual instrumentation is its
flexibility; changing a function simply requires modification
of supporting software. However, the same change in a tra-
ditional system may require to adding or substituting a stand-
alone instrument, which is more difficult and expensive. For
example, a new analysis function, such as a Fourier analysis,
can be easily added to a virtual instrumentation system by
adding the corresponding software to the analysis program.
However, to do this with a traditional instrumentation system,
a new stand-alone instrument (for example, spectrum ana-
lyzer) would have to be added to the system.
Virtual instruments also offer advantages in displaying and
storing information. Computer displays can show more colors
and allow users to quickly change the format of displaying the
data that is received by the instrument. Virtual displays can be
programmed to resemble familiar instrument panel compo-
nents, including buttons and dials. In Figure 1.1m, an example
of a virtual display corresponding to a two-channel oscilloscope
is shown. Computers also have more mass storage than stand-
FIG. 1.1m
A virtual instrument display acting as a two-channel oscilloscope.
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
1.1 Analog vs. Digital Instruments 13
alone instruments do; consequently, virtual instruments offer
more flexibility in data handling.
Software for Virtual Instruments To develop the software
of a virtual instrumentation system, a programming language
or special software can be used. However, the option of using
a traditional programming language (C, for example) can gen-
erate several problems, including difficulty in programming
the graphical elements and difficulty in learning the language.
Currently, a more utilized option is the Microsoft Visual
Basic programming language, which runs under the Windows
operating system. Visual Basic has become quite popular in
the development of virtual instrumentation systems because
it combines the simplicity of the Basic programming lan-
guage with the graphical capabilities of Windows. Another
important reason for its popularity is that it is an open lan-
guage, meaning that it is easy for third-party vendors to
develop products that engineers can use with their Visual
Basic programs. Several companies now sell Dynamic Link
Libraries (DLLs), which add custom controls, displays, and
analysis functions to Visual Basic. The controls and displays
mimic similar functions found on stand-alone instruments,
such as toggle switches, slide controls, meters, and LEDs.
By combining various controls and displays, any virtual
instrument can easily be programmed.
A third option for developing virtual instrumentation sys-
tems is to use a software package specifically designed for the
development of these systems, such as LabView or PC600.
The crucial advantage of these packages is that it is not nec-
essary to be a Windows programmer to use them. Several
packages of this type exist, but only one, LabView by National
Instruments, has reached great diffusion.
LabView is an entirely graphical language based on two
concepts: the front panel and the block diagram. It is extend-
ible, so new functional modules can be added to a program.
The modules can also be written using general-purpose lan-
guages, such as C or C++. These languages provide great
flexibility to program functions that perform complex numer-
ical operations on the data.
The applications of virtual instruments are gaining
momentum in instrumentation systems. Nowadays, palm and
laptop computers are widely available and they can easily be
equipped with commercial data-acquisition boards such as
the PCMCIA interface cards. Together with a suitable inter-
face, software, and sensors, these computers function just as
any digital instrument would.
Application and Examples of Digital Instruments
Digital instruments have all the functionality of their analog
counterparts and are used in all types of instrumentation systems.
Modern digital instruments are rapidly replacing analog instru-
ments due to advantages in communications, data handling, and
networking capailities, as will be explained in the next section.
An example of digital instrumentation is a blood pressure
recorder “Comparison of Analog and Digital Instruments,”
14 General
FIG. 1.1n
A digital ambulatory blood pressure recorder. (Courtesy of SunTech
Medical, www.suntechmed.com.)
illustrated in Figure 1.1n. This wireless outdoor system oper-
ates on solar power. It measures temperature, humidity, pres-
sure, wind speed and direction, and rainfall. A wireless link
allows the transmission of data up to 48 km. Several instru-
ments can be networked together.
COMPARISON OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
Digital hardware allows programmable operation; therefore,
it is possible to modify the functions of an instrument through
the software, which increases flexibility and reliability. How-
ever, it is worth mentioning that some signals with extremely
wide bandwidths require intensive real-time processing in the
digital environment. In these cases, analog instruments may
be the only solution.
Many modern digital instruments have built-in intelligence;
hence, they can make self calibrations, self diagnosis, and cor-
rections in acquired data. A new trend is that calibrations of
instruments can be conducted over the Internet by using appro-
priate sites of manufacturers and standards authorities.
Digital instruments are suitable in applications where
multiple measurements are necessary, as in the case of pro-
cess industry, for two main reasons:
1. Ease in communication and networking by means of
remote communication methods such as RF, microwave,
the Internet, and optical techniques
2. Availability of almost infinite memory for data storage
In digital instruments, however, converting an analog signal
allows certain errors (for example, quantization error) to be
introduced. The extent of error depends on the sampling rates
and number of bits of the A/D converter. By the same token,
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
digital instruments minimize the reading error that can occur
in analog displays. Errors such as parallax and shadowing
are also eliminated. Digital instruments also reduce the mar-
gin for error due to inaccurate interpolation. Analog meters
can be very sensitive to movement or rough handling, while
digital meters are immune to such dynamic effects.
One of the distinct advantages of analog instruments is
the easy interpretation of displays. The operator can get an
intuitive feel about the variables being measured at a glance.
There is no such spatial reference with digital displays, which
require mental interpretation. This requires an additional step
in the thought process and also some familiarity with the
equipment. This additional step of interpretation may not be
tolerable in some applications, such as driving cars, where
instantaneous decisions may need to be made. In addition,
analog instruments are relatively cheaper for the same func-
tionality due to their simplicity.
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