CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND

CONCLUSIONS

5.1. Introduction

This chapter will provide discussions of the research results and whether these findings correlate
with studies previously done before. The discussions encamps a detailed analysis for consistency
and correlation with previous studies about the experiences of father in their fatherhood in the
face of reality are analysed. The chapter will unfold conclusions drawn out of the study at hand.
Lastly, for the purpose of helping human behaviour, understanding it and enhancing it the study
attracts certain recommendations from different angles. The research study was focused on
bringing psychological challenges faced by fathers in reality. This discussion also focuses on the
reaction of men at pregnancy news, whether the thought of DNA testing occurs and the effects of

the physical appearances of the children in their lives.

5.2. Men’s thoughts and reactions when pregnancy news is delivered to them

The reaction of men when it comes to pregnancy news differs in every men, depending on the
situation. The way the news is delivered and when the news is delivered to them is a considered
factor which may determine their reaction to the pregnancy. The study mainly focused on
married fathers although some married fathers started the fatherhood journey before tying the
knot. The study concurs with Eden (2006), who states that “if the father-to-be is proud of his
prior fathering experience, and if the new child is wanted, he may feel extremely happy about
the pregnancy. This is a clear indication of that the emotion of happiness, joy and excitement is a
universal feeling worldwide when it comes to fatherhood and pregnancy news, as her assertions
are simultaneous to the research findings noted in chapter 4.

However, these feelings are not mutual for every father, as stated that reactions top pregnancy
news differ with when and how the news is delivered. For some fathers pregnancy news may not
be so much of a joy or overwhelming experience. Eden (2006), ‘further states that it may be
difficult for a man to admit openly that he has concerns, fears, perhaps ambivalent feelings about
his partner’s pregnancy’. She posits that studies indicate that more than one out of ten men will
have psychogenic (having an emotional or psychological origin) physical symptoms in relation
to pregnancy. These symptoms tend to appear by the beginning of the second trimester of the
pregnancy. There may also be increased feelings of anxiety and depression, (Eden, 2006). Just
like in the research where some of the participants expressed their disappointment and worries
for the time their partners got pregnant, some were in doubt as the news would be delivered to
them in the second trimester which is a sign that the child may not be theirs. Others expressed
their fears of having to raise children they are not biologically responsible for as their partners
were not faithful or trustworthy. This is a problem in society as fathers face these challenges
every day. They succumb to psychological problems like anxiety and depression due to
pregnancy news. This is because women lie about pregnancy responsibilities at times to suit
themselves and they may not consider their partner’s feelings, financial or emotional standing
before deciding they want to fall pregnant which quiet unfair for fathers or males.

The research findings on this study also established that fatherhood responsibility seems to be a
traditionally married breadwinner and disciplinarian in the family. In the interviews done, one
could gather that the cultural roots of most Zimbabwean men do not want to be associated with
the general stereotype that men are irresponsible as it is regarded as an anti-social behaviour
therefore a father is pressured by societal expectations to provide financial aid to the family like
food, clothing, shelter and bills so as to be recognized as a real father in society, these
responsibilities are good but should not be done under forceful circumstances especially in cases
where the father has reasonable cause the children may not be his. True fatherhood cannot be
associated with divorce, singleness, doubt or rejection of the pregnancy with reasonable cause.
They face societal marginalization as explained in chapter 2 where they are excluded from
voicing their concerns about the responsibilities, because at times they may not be responsible
for the children they are raising but due to societal marginalization and pressures they play out
these roles. This is supported by Tuffin K, Rough, G and Frewin, K (2010), who posit that
“negative stereotypes portray these young men as criminals, unwilling to participate in their
children’s lives. Research has challenged negative views by examining the impact of fatherhood
on these young men and concluding that they are far from uninvolved and disinterested in their
children.” Men are interested in taking up the fatherhood role without living up to societal
expectations and that they need a right as much as the woman in deciding that responsibility
before the woman takes up pregnancy decisions alone and also they need to experience
fatherhood.
5.3. The option of DNA testing when told about pregnancy

The research study managed to draw out different responses pertaining the idea of NA or
paternity testing in the participant’s fatherhood journey. Participants were asked if the use of t
DNA tests were to be encouraged in society. Some of the participants supported the idea
especially if the father has good reason to doubt the responsibility of the child. The Darwinian
theorists contend that genetic mutation does not appear to provide a mechanism for that increase,
in fact they appear to be genetic limitations to the potential for biological change that there is
need to rely on DNA testing as it is always similar from one parent to the offspring. Spetner
(1998) explains ‘reptiles and birds are very different, that neo-Darwinians cannot account for
new build of information’. Therefore information/DNA is passed on similarly without change.
Thus DNA tests are a reliable option for fathers.

However in the research findings other participants deemed the use of DNA tests irrelevant,
rather the straw that may break the Carmel’s back. The use of DNA tests would attract more
problems than be a solution according to most respondents. They prefer relying on trust as trust
can be enough to save a marriage and keep the family intact. Research has it that DNA tests
cannot be 100% reliable. According to The Atlantic Daily (2016) issue, ‘KHOU 11 had obtained
dozens of DNA profiles processed by the lab and sent them to independent experts for analysis.
The results, William Thompson, an attorney and a criminology professor at the University of
Carlifornia at Irvine, told, a KHOU 11 reporter, were terrifying: It appeared that technicians were
routinely misinterpreting even the most basic samples’. Therefore one may note that this research
supports the findings of the research at hand as they both agree that DNA testing are not entirely
reliable. There are issues of incompetency when adhering the tests which may bring false results.
This a challenge for fathers because despite the fact that it seems like a cultural taboo to go for
testing, there is the possibility that if they actually go for the DNA testing they may receive
inaccurate results.

In 2004, the FBI was forced to issue an apology after incorrectly connected an Oregon attorney
named Brandon Mayfield to that spring’s train bombings in Madrid, on the basis of a “100
percent match” to partial fingerprints found on plastic bags containing detonator devices (The
Atlantic Daily 2016). The bureau admitted that it had reviewed and had went wrong in 90percent
of the test. This study is in alignment with the research findings as DNA tests are a way of
ensuring fatherhood, however they have their own perks as they may not be entirely reliable for
example competency or technical errors. Fathers therefore seem to rely on trust and church
teachings on taking on fatherhood responsibilities.

Although some of the respondents supported the use of DNA tests, they expressed how DNA
tests are just a fairytale dream as most fathers in Zimbabwe do not afford these tests. As
highlighted earlier in chapter 2, from a Marxists perspective the existence of different classes in
society the higher class and the lower class. Fathers seem to find themselves at the lower class
due to unavailable economic provisions like affordability of DNA testing and socially as their
say is not considered in the marriage. Therefore through the Marxist perspective one may deduce
that the males do not have as ay in the marriage when it comes to baby planning as the wife just
decides to have the baby and will not consider the preparedness of the father which is
marginalization on the part of the fathers. In addition to not having a voice as to whether they are
prepared or not to have another baby, they cannot afford the tests that suggest whether or not
they are the biological fathers.

5.4. The effects children who do not resemble and their fathers

The research findings in this study compromised of different effects when it came to the physical
appearances of the offspring. When respondents were asked if they dependent on physical
appearance for assurance that the children are theirs or not, some expressed the importance of
physical appearance for confirmation of paternity. Assurance that the children are biologically
theirs or not is dependent on the physical features for example the same nose, head, skin colour
or shape. According to Matson (2011), it is evident that fathers do not share a mother’s certainty
that a baby is theirs, and are more likely to invest whatever resources they have in their
offspring. Mother Nature could have made it easier for fathers to at least allow resemblance for
confirmation of paternity, this would be fair a deal for fathers. They would be fully satisfied that
the child is theirs and the aftermath is shown by the efforts of the father in caring for the child,
which are done whole heartedly.

The paternal resemblance got some scientific backing in 1995, when a study in Nature by
Nicholas Christenfeld and Emily Hill of the University of California, San Diego, showed that
people were much better at matching photos of one year old children with pictures of their
fathers than with photos of their mothers (Matson, 2011). This is in alliance with what the
participants in this particular study believe in. This was a study carried out in America, but one
can note that it is almost a universal sentimental amongst fathers, that resemblance plays a major
part in confirming one’s paternity. Thus, the father will wipe away all thoughts of doubt, they
become involved in every step of parenthood and are responsible for everything that they should
be responsible for as a father, be it financial support or emotional support.

Fathers that do not see a resemblance on the offspring may act out in different ways. This was
highlighted by previous research studies. For some of the participants it was noted that they
intended on confronting the mother about the issue, whilst others suggested the extremes, like
sending the woman back to her parents or a divorce. All of these cases have a stroll on the
marriage and the parents’ relationship to the child. Most participants may not have admitted it in
spoken word but their facial expressions and body language showed that violence would occur if
there wasn’t any paternal resemblance. It would be disrespectful to him and a suggestion that the
wife somehow committed promiscuity. All of these have severe psychological effects on both the
parents and the children. The parents may begin to suffer from depression, anxiety and will be
under a lot of stress. In the events of a divorce, children that grow up in the absence of a father
face struggles in the long run or in the course of their childhood. ‘Alternatively, children’s
immediate response to divorce may be more negative than their long-term response, leading to
an overestimate of the negative effect of divorce’, (McLanahan, Tach and Schneider, 2013).
Children may face cognitive challenges for example in in scoring maths tests and even reading.

Child resemblance is also important to the father due to the social experiences they endure as
seen in the research findings. It is important what other people say in the social circles of an
individual because as sociologists state ‘life is like a stage play’ the audience, which is
analogically the society watches and speaks thus since one lives with people one cannot avoid to
care what others think of them. Therefore if there is no paternal resemblance of all the children
friends and relatives of the father may start suggesting ideas of promiscuity on the part of the
wife or any other suspicions as evident in the research findings’ social experiences. The wife
may try and convince …(Matson, 2011)Therefore this basically means that what others think or
say concerning child paternal- resemblance is of importance to the father and also affects how
they react and treat the children as some may listen to what friends and relatives say and divorce,
while others may listen to their wives and raise the children.

However, a subsequent body of research, building over the years in the journal Evolution and
Human Behaviour, French and Serge Bredart of the University of Liege in Belgium set out to
replicate the paternal- resemblance finding and were unable to do so. In a picture photo-matching
trial with one, three and five year old children and their parents, subjects identified mothers and
fathers equally well (Matson, 2011). This is similar to the research findings on this dissertation,
whereby some of the participants expressed that physical features do not determine paternity as
nature and God have always had their own way of producing things. Therefore, it would be
nature’s way of doing things if the children do not resemble the father, some even further noted
that the family lineage is widely vast thus it is possible the child may have taken features of other
passed on or unknown family members. Which means that high or low levels of resemblance all
have explanations for it could be nature’s way of things in this case evolution or just creation in
this case God.

5.5. Conclusions

From the study the following conclusions were drawn:

The experiences of males in their journey of fatherhood is comprised of a plethora of factors,

which have a bearing on their psychosocial lives. Experiences like the inability to ascertain
paternal responsibility, as compared to the mother who has an obvious certainty that the child is
indeed hers as she carries it for nine months. Fathers are teased, labeled, socially excluded if the
children do not have a paternal resemblance. This causes depression, reduces self-esteem and
may even cause broken marriages due to lack of trust.

The quality of life for fatherhood has been largely and negatively affected by the lack of
community consciousness, negative cultural beliefs and myths within the society. Fathers have
become a victim of the community’s consciousness in that the community expects the general to
be a man who provides food on the table, pays every bill and general takes care of the family
both nuclear and extended. This impacts negatively on the males because women now fall
pregnant in the hope of trapping the father for financial security, economic security and social
status, without considering the father’s opinion or even planning with the planning which is
largely unfair. As fathers also deserve a right to child planning, marginalization however seems
to be the order of the day. Furthermore society’s cultural beliefs and myths, especially in an
African society impacts negatively on the experiences of fathers. This is the case because most
cultures do not embrace the use of paternity testing, as some participants believe that it is a
Western idea, also considering it does damage more than it does well. They interpret DNA
testing in a way that a father is accusing the wife of a promiscuous act or that there is lack of
trust, instead of taking it as a scientific way of ascertaining fatherhood on the part of the males
since they do not have the biological advantage like females do.

It was established that when pregnancy news is delivered to the fathers, expectant or not. There
are certain reactions that follow. For expectant fathers the reaction is overwhelming, excitement
and joy because after marriage they posited that ultimate goal is to start a family therefore
fatherhood maybe sudden but it is expected. However for non- expectant fathers, whether first
fathers or not. News of a pregnancy may turn into a huge blow in their lives. Starting or
extending a family is a huge step as responsibility, needs and space increases. Thus, fathers feel
disappointed, burdened and pressured although they cannot express these feelings out loud due to
a judgmental society and discriminative society.

5.6. Recommendations

Having established the psychosocial challenges faced by fathers in their fatherhood journey the
study will come up with recommendations that seek to find solutions to some of the psychosocial
challenges facing persons in their experiences. From the findings it is recommended that:

 The first port of call in eliminating social marginalization should be awareness

campaigns. Society can be educated about their wrongs by non- governmental
organisations or any other suitable government agency on road campaigns and
wives can be best reached in clinics and hospitals, to disseminate information
about including fathers in their child planning, to stop taking advantage and
highlighting the consequences so that they understand the effects of their actions.
  The government, can introduce policies that enable the affordability of DNA
testing so as to avoid the aftermath of fathers that end up raising children who are
not theirs.
 There is need to open up more platforms for fathers to air out their experiences,
like the Padare man’s forum, for their voices to be heard in whatever challenges
they may be feeling so as to avoid the frustrations and pressures that choke them
at the end of the day which may sometimes be life threatening for example high
blood pressure.
 Increased awareness through media houses, to familiarize society with DNA
testing to make right their wrongs should be done so as to allow fathers to go
DNA testing without facing judgment or losing their marriages.
 Psychologists can be encouraged to consult fat5hers in groups or individually
about fatherhood and any challenges they may be facing so as to get counselling
and help and avoid violent acts or divorce in the long run.
 The print and electronic media can be another way that be used to address the
issues.
 Sensitization programs around work places should be intensified to create
awareness in both women and men of the negative experiences that fathers face in
the face of reality.

5. 7. Summary

This chapter gave a discussion of the results of the research study. The research findings were
compared with the findings of previous researches on the subject matter. The discussion showed
some issues that came up which are unique to this study as they are not evident in previous
researches. Conclusions of the research study were also noted in accordance to paternal
resemblance, knowledge of fatherhood and pregnancy news as well as paternity testing. Finally,
recommendations were made on the negative experiences faced by fathers in fatherhood.