4

PREVENTIVE PRACTICES IN AVOIDING SICKNESS

CAUSING MOSQUITO AT BRGY. SAN JUAN DELFIN ALBANO

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES

Mosquitoes are considered as serious problem everywhere because they proliferate in

large number. The mosquito genic conditions are promoted by the anthropogenic

activities and the creation and existence of several habitats throughout the year in the

urban areas. The problem is more severe in rural areas especially because these areas are

associated with well irrigated agro ecosystems. In these areas, poor sanitation facilities,

usual agricultural practices and lack of sanitation facilities enhance the diversity and

density of the population of mosquitoes and vector borne diseases. To control, these

remarkably adapted mosquitoes, is a serious problem and therefore the mosquitoes

peacefully co-exist with man. Many researchers have attempted to study the impacts of

microhabitats and the differences in the behavioral patterns of vector and non-vector

species of mosquitoes. Sampling vector populations, for example to undertake surveys

and compile lists of species present in an area; to identify those species which bite man

or his livestock and to determine which of these are important or potential vectors of

disease is essential (Service, 1983). The different aspects of mosquitoes are studied by
 5

many workers under different situations. Some of the reports, which are relative to this

present study, are reviewed in this chapter.

Habitat biodiversity of mosquitoes occurring in central parts (Pani, Tehri and Uttarkashi)

of Gradual (Uttaranchal), India was studied. The study was based on the mosquito

sampling in 450 sites in all the three districts, each spot having an area of 25km2 and

geographically located at varying altitudes between 300m to 3000m. The species richness

was categorized as most species and least species by estimating the top and at least five

percentile of species density in each grid cell respectively. As many as 17 species of

Anopheles, 13 species of Culet and 15 species of the Aides were recorded during

November 2000 to October 2002. Further, there were 13 species of Culet respectively.

The sites or spots nearer to riverine areas of thick forested areas showed more diversity

of mosquitoes than those nearer to non-forested or thin-forested areas. However, the

biodiversity rich spots were unto 1200m altitudes (Devi et al., 2005).

Electrophoretically detectable enzyme isozymes differences in 15 populations of

Anopheles quadrimaculatus (Say) from eastern Arkansas were compared to measure

levels of genetic diversity and study the sources of the variation. All of the enzyme loci

had 2-7 alleles. Average levels of polymorphism per population were 88.9%.

Heterozygotes for alleles of at least 1 of the 9 loci made up an average overall loci of the

individuals examined. Statistic analysis suggested a small, but statistically significant

interpopulation differentiation of heterozygote frequency. The reduced heterozygote

 6

frequency was not attributable to the presence of more than one species in any population

nor to the preferential use of oviposition habitats by certain populations within the

species. Correlation between genetic and geographic distance matrices was not

significant. Migration among populations in the agricultural areas of the Arkansas delta

region is apparently sufficient to homogenize most of the genetic divergence arising

because of habitat or geographic isolation between populations in the region

(Hilburn et al., 2004).

Povoa et al. (2003) showed that evaluation of malaria transmission and epidemiology in

Amazonian city of Belen. Over the last 70 years shows that Anopheles darlingi reported

to be eradicated in 1968, reappeared in the mid 1990s, with a marked increase in

abundance between 1997 to 1999 in two of three districts sampled. Anopheles darlingi

and Anopheles aquasalis are each implicated in current malaria transmission in different

districts of the city. Mosquito species diversity has increased from two in the 1930s to

six in the 1940s to 10 in the 1990s. There is no overall correlation between malaria case

incidence and human population size from 1940 to 1996 in Belen, however the total

number of malaria cases has increased significantly since the late 1970s and over the

short term from 1993 to 1999.

Interestingly, the short term increases are due solely to cases of Plasmodium vive

infection then the cases of Plasmodium falciparum malaria are declining. The

reappearance of Anopheles darlingi may be a result of the continued expansion of Belen

 7

into the surrounding forest in the 1990s. In the absence of preventive measures, this could

be increased in local outbreaks of malaria in the DAENT and DAICO districts where the

population sizes of An. darlingi are increasing.

Studies on invertebrate-parasite interactions frequently report the infection reduces host

fecundity. The extent of the reduction is likely to be determined by a wide range of host

and parasite factors. They conducted a laboratory experiment to evaluate the role of

parasite genetics and infection genetic diversity of the fecundity of mosquitoes carrying

malaria parasites. The malaria vector Anopheles Stephens was infected with either of

two different genotypes of the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium chabaudi or by a

mixture of both. Mixed genotype infections reduced mosquito fecundity by

20% significantly more than either of the two single genotype infections. Blood meal size

was the most important prediction of mosquito fecundity, the presence and number of

parasites had no direct effect. Parasite density influenced the propensity of mosquitoes to

feed on infected mice with a higher percentage of mosquitoes taking a meal as asexual

parasite and gametocyte density increased. Thus mosquitoes may preferentially feed on

hosts will most impair their fecundity (Ferguson et al., 2003).

Singhasivanon (1999) reported that monograph of national malaria databases for 1996,

1997 and 1998 from the six countries comprising the greater Mekong sub region of

southeast Asia, Cambodia, China, Lao’s, People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar,

Thailand, Vietnam. The

 8

objective is to create a regional perspective in what is global epicenter of drug resistant

falciparum malaria, so to enhance the information flow required to improve malaria

control, on a regional basis in the context of economic and social change. Geographic

information systems technology has been applied to the regional mapping of total

reported malaria cases, malaria incidence, confirmed cases, parasite species-distribution.

There is great diversity in disease patterns in the six countries and at subnational

administrative unit area level in each country, so that in the region as a whole there is

marked asymmetry in disease distribution, with many areas of high endemicity. The

malaria pattern is also depicted in environment context against regional elevation and

forest cover profiles, which affect mosquito breeding site distribution and agricultural

activity. Data on resistance of falciparum malaria to a range of antimalarial drugs

summarize the historical and recent context of resistance development and spread in

terms of geography and time frame.

Lehmann et al. (1998) estimated that current and long term effective population size

(NE) of two Anopheles gambiae (savanna cytotype) populations in Kenya. Temporal

variation a nine microsatellite loci in each population sampled 7 and 9 years apart and

genetic diversity in each sample were analyzed. The estimates of Ne of Asembo and Jego

were 6,359 and 4,258 respectively. Thus despite the typical observation of low density at

the village level during the dry season, large populations are maintained annually. The

difference between populations was significant at both time points regardless of whether

long term “Ne” values were calculated based on the stepwise mutation model on the
 9

infinite-alleles model. Despite the relatively high and significant differentiation between

Asembo and Jego, all alleles in Jego were found in Asembo but not vice versa. The long

term Ne was based downward, because its calculation was based on an upper bound

estimate of microsatellite mutation rate, longterm Ne therefore, is probably measured in

hundreds of thousands and hence does not support a recent expansion of this species from

a small population.

Rojas et al. (1992) studied that diversity and relative abundance of larvae of Anopheles

spp in 22 permanent or temporary pools in an area of 70km2 in the eastern piedmont of

the Venezuela Andes, between the mountains and the plains, an area in which malaria

was refractory and An. nuneztovari was present. Twelve species were identified, the most

frequent, abundant and sympatric being A. triannulatus, A. albitarsis, A. nuneztowari, A.

oswaldoi and A. strodei, the samples from the permanent pools showed greater diversity

of species and greater numbers of larvae than the samples from the temporary pools. The

existence of the some larval associations in pools of other localities in the eastern-

piedmont of the Venezuelar Andes suggested that the possibility of the making an

ecological map of the breeding sites of A. nuneztovari and for these anophelines in a

region extending for 430 km.

Udonsi (1988) reported that a 12 months study on bancroftian filariasis was carried out

in the Igwon basin, Nigeria. A total of 1,418 individuals (768 males, and 650 females)
 10

were examined for microfilaremia and clinical filarial stigmata. There were 14.3% and

11.1% male and female point prevalence rates, respectively and an overall prevalence of

12.8%. Prevalence rates and micro filarial density increased with age. The highest mff

density of 35mff/20ml blood occurred in the 4049 year old male individuals. Anopheles

gambiae and Culex pipiens were the principal vectors. The estimated mean daily, weekly

and monthly per capital biting densities were 26, 161 and 753 respectively. The overall

infection rate of mosquitoes was 22.3% with a mean mff density of approximately

5mff/mosquito. These vectors parameters were indicative of active transmission in the

area, and may be responsible for the high prevalence of infection, the diversity of clinical

signs and high morbidity rates.

The urbanization plays a major role in the enhancement of vectorborne diseases by

offering many habitats for the breeding of vectors. One of the main purposes of larval

collections is to enable the principal larval habitats of man-biting mosquitoes to be

identified so that control measures can be applied (Anthony et al., 1983).

Villavicenecio, the capital city in Colombia is at high risk for the urbanization of malaria

because of the region’s ecological conditions, as well as the permanent presence of

infected human populations arriving from rural areas. From August to November 2002

and April 2003, Anopheline collections were undertaken in the area. Seven hundred and

fifty families were obtained from 331 wild females, which were then recorded according

to their abundance they are Anopheles marajoara, Anopheles rangeli,

 11

Anopheles braziliensis, Anopheles darlingi and Anopheles apicimacula. Anopheles

darlingi showed the highest biting activity (3.0) between 1800 and 1900h. Forty five

breeding places were sampled, 64% of which were fish ponds, 6.7% flooded meadows

and

6.7% drain pipes, with these being the most representative locations. Anopheles

marajoara could play an important role as an auxiliary vector in

Villaviceneico’s urban area (Brochero et al., 2005).

Mosquitoes commute between blood meal hosts and water. Thus heterogeneity in

human biting reflects underlying spatial heterogeneity in the distribution and suitability

of larval habitat as well as inherent differences in the attractiveness, suitability and

distribution of blood meal hosts. Oviposition is one of the potential factors explaining

heterogenous biting and vector distribution of larval habitat. Adult female mosquitoes

lead to aggregate around places where they oviposit, thereby increasing the risk of

malaria, regardless of the suitability of the habitat for larval development. Thus a water

body may be unsuitable for adult mosquito emergence, but simultaneously, be a source

for human malaria larval density may be misleading indicator of a habitat’s importance

for malaria control. Foraging mosquitoes to fly away from humans in search of larval

habitat may be a more efficient way to reduce the risk of malaria than killing larvae

(Lemerach et al., 2005).

 12

Oviposition is a critical stage in the mosquito life cycle, and may determine population

levels, distribution, biting behaviour and pathogen transmission. Oviposition behaviour

of Culex restuans has become particularly important with the emergence of west Nile

virus in North America. Female of Culex restuans mosquitoes avoid laying eggs in

habitat containing cues of larval competition and that increased availability of larval

habitat decreases egg density. To test the hypotheses, a field experiments were conducted

in Southeastern Michigan during summer 2002. They found that female mosquitoes

prefer nutrient enriched containers and decrease ovipositing in containers with con

specific larvae. In addition, greater habitat abundance decreased egg clutch density per

container, although there was considerable aggregation of egg clutches (Reiskind et al.,

2004).

Derraik et al. (2005) reported that ovitraps are a widely used tool for mosquito vector

surveillance and population monitoring. To the Auckland region, in New Zealand, the

oviposition preferences of mosquitoes were assessed in artificial breeding containers in

relation to container aperture size and water nutrient levels. Only three mosquito species

were recorded, the endemic Culex pervigilans and the exotic Culex quinquefasciatus and

Ochlerotatus notoscriptus. Both Culex species were somewhat rare and would not readily

utilize the ovitraps. Ochlerotatus notoscriptus displayed a significant preference for

ovipositing in containers with low organic load, but mixed results were obtained in

regards to container size.

 13

Anopheles arabiensis is the sole malaria vector in New Halfa, Eastern Sudan, from

March 1999 to June 2000. Of 4854 females anophelines collected, 4847 were Anopheles

arabiensis and 7 An. pharoensis. Female An. arabiensis were breeding throughout the

year, with two peak densities, during the rainy (158.4 females/room/day and

84.7 larvae/10 dips) and irrigated seasons (136.8 females/room/day and

44.8 larvae/10 dips). The mean biting activity was 28.8 bites/person/night, found

throughout the night, mainly outdoors

(Himeidan et al., 2004).

Anopheles culicifacies (Giles), the major malaria vector in Sri Lanka, exists as a species

complex comprising two sympatric sibling species, species b and species E. Species E

is reported to be the major vector of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum

parasites in Sri Lanka, whilst species B is a poor or non-vector as in India. Hence a

survey was conducted in Sri Lanka to study the preferential breeding habitats of An.

culicifacies species B & E immature forms of Anopheles culicifacies were collected from

identified breeding sites in Malarious districts. Collected larvae were typed for their

sibling status based on mitotic Y-chromosome structure. From the results they suggested

that An. culicifacies immature forms were found in 23 collection sites. Among these

samples 19 were found to have species E and four to have species B. All species B larvae

were collected from Tonigala village in the Puttalam district. None of the 23 sites was
 14

found to have both species B and E. Species E, the major vector of malaria, appears to

breed in variety of breeding sites which can be an indication of its adaptive variation to

exploit breeding sites with varying limnological characteristics

(Surendran et al., 2005).

Mercer et al. (2005) reported that number of valuable ecological services. Wetlands also

may harbor mosquitoes that are vectors of human pathogens. During 2002 and 2003

measured biological, chemical and physical attributes at fixed survey sites in Beaver

valley wetlands a small reconstructed Palustrine wetland in Black Hawk county, Iowa.

The number of immature stages of mosquitoes were significantly correlated with

dissolved phosphate and dissolved nitrate concentrations in both years. During the second

year of study, the number of immature mosquitoes was significantly correlated with non

predators and water turbidity, but not with other measured variables. Independent

variables explained 87 and 70% of the variability in mosquito numbers per survey site

for the 2 year of the study, respectively. The most common species of mosquitoes

developing in Beaver valley wetlands were Aedes vexans (Meigen) Culex territans

(Walker),

Uranotaenia sapphirina (Ostensacken) and Culex tarsalis (Coquillet). Compared relative

risks of disease transmission by the mosquitoes developing in wetland microhabitats

based upon published species-specific infection rates and propensities to bite humans.

The majority of mosquitoes and the greatest potential disease risks were associated with

temporary pools which represented a small proportion of the wetlands.

 15

Pools of salt water puddles created by giant waves from the sea due to the tsunami that

occurred on 26th December 2004 would facilitate increased breeding of brackish water

malaria vector, Anopheles sundaicus. These may lead to environmental disturbance and

vector proliferation. An extensive survey was carried out in the tsunami – affected areas

in Andaman district of the Andaman and Nicobar islands, India, to assess the extent of

breeding of malaria vectors in the habitats created by sea water flooding. The salinity of

the water samples and the mosquito species present in the larval samples collected from

these habitats were recorded. From the results they suggested that South Andaman,

covering Port Blair is still under the recurring phenomenon of sea water intrusion either

directly from the sea or through a network of creeks. Low lying paddy fields and follow

land, with a salinity ranging from 3000 to 42,505 ppm were found to support profuse

breeding of An. sundaicus, the local malaria vector. This area is endemic for both vivax

and falciparum malaria. Paddy fields and follow land with freshwater considered as

potential site for An. sundaicus are now major breeding sites due to saline water.

Consequently, there is a risk of vector abundance with enhanced malaria transmission

potential, due to the vastness of these tsunami-created breeding grounds and becoming

permanent due to continued flooding in view of land subsidence

(Krishnamoorthy et al., 2005).

 16

Various biological characteristics, including seasonal abundance, diurnal resting habits,

feeding behaviour, larval habitats and oviposition of Culex epidesmus were studied in

Gorakhpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India, from 1990 to 1999. Prevalence of adults was

recorded between June and October with a peak in August. The bushy undergrowth of

mango and teakwood plantations served as diurnal resting habitat. Blood-meal analysis

of wildcaught females showed that the most of them had fed on bovines. Temporary

pools of rainwater and paddy fields containing freshwater and filamentous green-algae

were found to be suitable larval habitats. Gravid females laid eggs and immature stages

grew well in the presence of greenalgae. Freshly laid egg rafts were found to be boat

shaped and individual eggs were a white-cream color. The number of eggs per raft

deposited by individual Culex epidesmus varied from 118 to 288 with an average of 199

eggs per specimen (Kanojia, 2003).

Madeira et al. (2002) reported that two Aedes aegypti (L) populations were studied in

the laboratory regarding the preference for three types of breeding sites, they are flasks

containing only water, flasks with a plant and flasks with a stick. Each of these breeding

units were placed in one cage and the choice of the oviposition sites was determined for

individual females and three females per experimental unit at two humidity levels.

Preference for ovipositing on the water surface was observed and varied according to

experimental unit and humidity. Mean hatching of eggs in water surface was 46.6%.

Experiments with three females showed a more marked difference than when only one

female was used. Inter and intra population variability regarding oviposition sites was
 17

observed. The discrimination between the different oviposition substrates, hatching in

water surface and its implication for mosquito control.

Female mosquitoes of Anopheles gambiae were more likely to oviposit when they mated

with males that were two days old than when they mated with older males. The female

age at the time of mating and blood feeding did not influence of ovipositional patterns.

Females were no less likely to oviposit when they mated after blood feeding and maturing

eggs. The mean life span of sucrose-fed unmated females and males was

22 days (Chambers et al., 2001).

A study was made of the oviposit behaviour of gravid females Aedes mosquitoes in man-

made habitats under field conditions. This study showed that the gravid female Aedes

mosquitoes preferred containers with relatively easy access but not too open to external

environmental influence. The dark surface of the containers served as the initial and

long-range attractant to the breeding sites. Volatile chemicals generated by the decaying

vegetation in the container may serve as a close range-attractant. Finally the water quality

and the quantity of food derived from decaying vegetative matter in the water determined

the amount of eggs deposited in each container. This study confirmed that each gravid

female Aedes mosquito had the tendency to lay their eggs in more than one container.

However the results of the study suggests that under favourable conditions, each gravid
 18

female Aedes mosquito could be encouraged to lay all their eggs in a single breeding site

(Chua et al., 2004).

Neicieli et al. (2003) reported that monthly oviposition activity and the seasonal density

pattern of Aedes aegypti were studied using larvitraps and ovitraps during a research

carried out by the public health ministry of Salta Province in Tartagal, Aguaray and

Salvador Mazza cities in subtropical Argentina. The Ae. aegypti population was active

in both dry and wet seasons with a peak in March, accordant with the heaviest rainfall.

From May to November, the immatured population level remained low, but increased in

December. Ae. aegypti oviposition activity increased during the fall and summer, when

the relative humidity was 60% or higher. Eggs were found in large number of ovitraps

during all seasons but few eggs were observed in each one during winter. The reduction

of the population during the winter months was related to the low in the relative

humidity, of the atmosphere.

Significant differences were detected between oviposition occurrences in Tartagal and

Aguaray and Salvader Mazza cities, but not differences in the number of eggs were

observed. Two factors characterize the seasonal distribution pattern of Aedes aegypti in

subtropical Argentina, the absence of break during winter and an oviposition activity

concomitant of the high relative humidity of the atmosphere.

 19

The man-biting behaviour and plasmodium infection rates of Anopheline mosquitoes

were investigated in situ, a hyperendemic malarious area in Southern Ethiopia. Seven

Anopheline species were identified from all night landing collections, conducted from

1800 to 0600h between October 2001 and August 2002. The predominant species was

Anopheles arabiensis

(55.8%), Anopheles coustaai (31.5%), Anopheles pharoensis (9.5%),

Anopheles funestus (2.2%), Anopheles nili

90.5%), Anopheles marshalli (0.4%) and Anopheles elemeilloni.

Dissection of Anopheles arabiensis showed an average parous rate of 73.2%. A large

proportion of the parous mosquitoes were caught biting in the latter part of the night.

Malaria sporozite rates were determined by ELISA for Anopheles arabiensis with 0.5%

(41796) infective with Plasmodium falciparum and 1.76% (141796) with Plasmodium

vivax; there were no mixed infections. From the small sporozites sample of positives

found no association between biting behaviour and sporozoite infection status (Taye et

al., 2006).

Almeida et al. (2005) stated that a bioecological characterization of the local Aedes

albopictus adult population with the purpose of estimating the receptivity of Macao to

dengue introduction. In the wet seasons of 1997 and 1998 and the dry season of 1998,

Aedes albopictus was the most abundant human biting mosquito. Daily biting rates of
 20

314 mosquitoes per person were recorded in the wet season with a reduction to 94 in the

dry season. Aedes albopictus was mainly exophagic and exophilic and had a human

blood index of 44%. The parity rate of field collected mosquitoes was 57%. Daily

survival rate ranged from 91 to 97%. Estimates of vectorial capacity ranged from 144 to

880 depending on what parameter values were used.

Pre adult and adult forms of Anopheles nuneztovoni were studied and some variables of

larval breeding from females captured and fed on human bait were described. The

entomological evaluation of adults revealed that Anopheles nunegtovani predominance

was 65% over other Anopheles existing in the area, with a blood-sucking activity

covering the whole night while peaks are reached near mid night. Average bite habit was

set at 227 mosquitoes per man-hour and the highest percentage of bites (40.4%) occur at

10 to 11 p.m. the life expectancy at birth of 12 days and infestivity of 7 days are values

compatible with plasmodium transmission. The blood sucking habit of this species also

showed that 56.3%of females rest at home before biting whereas 32% of Anopheles

remained home with full stomach after biting, which indicates an important change in the

vector’s behaviour in the studied area (Rojas et

al., 2002).
 21

Pates et al. (2005) stated that effective indoor residual spraying against malaria vectors

depends on whether mosquitoes rest indoors.

This varies among species and is affected by insecticidal irritancy. Exophilic behaviour

has evolved in certain populations exposed to prolonged spraying programs. Optimum

effectiveness of insecticidetreated nets presumably depends on vector biting at hours

when most people are in bed. Time of biting varies among different malaria vector

species, but so far there is inconclusive evidence for these evolving so as to avoid bednets.

Understanding choice of oviposition sites and dispersal behaviour is important for the

design of successful larval control programs including those using predatory mosquito

larvae. Prospects for genetic control by sterile males or genes rendering mosquitoes

harmless to humans will depend on competitive mating behaviour.

Studies on bioecology of Anopheles philippinensis a vector of malaria was carried out in

eight islands of the Andaman group. It was found that An. philippinensis preferred to

rest and bite outdoors. Maximum biting was observed during 1800 to 2100h on both

cattle and human bait. The breeding of Anopheles philippiensis was recorded in slow

moving stream followed by ponds with vegetation. The breeding sites infested with chara

and spirogyra algae were most favourable whereas, with Lemna and Oscillatoria were

unfavourable for the proliferation of this species (Das et al., 2003).

Temporal and seasonal variations in the nocturnal activities of adult females of six

locally common mosquitoes, Aedes cretinus, Ochlerotatus caspius, Oc. dorsalis, Culex
 22

pipiens, Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Celiseta annulata were studied at Belek, Turkey

using New Jersey light traps and CO2 changed olfactory traps. In addition to assessing

the relative value of these traps as sampling devices capable of measuring activity at

different periods of the night, these studies also examined and seasonal distribution of

each species to the phenology of the overall mosquito population. While statistical

results showed that differences in activation time preferences were found to be not

significant for each species, the nocturnal activity profiles of Culex tritaeniorhynchus,

Aedes critinus and Oc. caspius was a common species with a rate of 26.1% at 1800-

2000h whereas the adult rate of Culex tritaeniorhynchus was determined to be the lowest

(11.4%) at the time of interval. Significant differences were found at the time intervals

18002000; 2200-2400 and 0200-0400 in the general bias of mosquito populations among

different months. While the nocturnal patterns of Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Aedes

cretinus were found to be bimodal, it was monomodal for Oc. caspius and Cu. Annulata,

unimodal for Cx. pipiens and Ae. dorsalis, while 69.6% females captured by traps

throughout the study period were found to be unfed, 24.8% were fed, 4.1% were half-

gravid and 1.4% were gravid. Light trap and CO2 trap collections can be influenced by

design features including the amount of contrast between the light sources and

surroundings (Cagler et al., 2003).

Studies on biting behaviour and biting cycles of medically important mosquitoes were

carried out in Madhupur village and Tarajan tea estate of upper Assam. Collections were

made off human baits outdoors and indoors and off cattle bait outdoors from August 1991
 23

to July 1992. Human bait collections were performed using the ‘stationary direct bait’

technique. A total of 9,072 adult host seeking female mosquitoes representing 26 species

and 5 genera were collected off baits of which 36.9% were collected off human baits and

rest from cattle. All mosquitoes were primarily zoophilic, although significant numbers

were collected biting man outdoors. Biting preferences of important Japanese

Encephalitis (JE) vectors for man and cattle were studied. Using outdoor man; outdoor

cattle ratio (attraction ratio

= AR). Culex quinquefasciatus was attracted towards human baits the most

(AR= 8.1:1), followed by Culex bitaeniorhynchus (AR = 1.6:1) and Mansonia annulifera

(AR = 1.3:1). The hourly biting activity of important JE vectors throughout the night on

two bait types was also studied using three point moving

averages (Khan et al., 1997).

Entomological investigations were carried out in Warrangal and Karim

Nagar districts of Andhra Pradesh during viral encephalitis outbreak in July 2003. Adult

mosquito collections in outdoor were done using sweep cage method and in indoor with

the help of aspirator tube and flash light so outdoor collections revealed presence of Culex

tritaeniorhynchus, Culex bitaeniorhynchus and Culex gelidus and indoor collections –

Culex quinquefasciatus, Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Anopheles vagus and An. subpictus. In

the outdoor collections, Culex tritaeniorhynchus was predominant (96.3%) of total

collection. Three samples out of 55 serum samples from human cases and five from

contacts showed the presence of antibodies against JE virus. From the results it was
 24

suggested that Culex tritaeniorhycnhus, a known vector of JE is predominant in outdoors

and playing a main role in JE transmission in this area (Das et al., 2004).

Anopheles sinensis is the main vector species of vivax malaria in Korea.

Their host preferences are highly zoophilic, human blood rate is very low (0.7-1.7%).

Nevertheless An. sinensis readily feeds on man when domestic animals are not found

nearby. They feed on hosts throughout the night from dusk to dawn with a peak period

of 0200-0400h, they are slightly more exophagic, much larger numbers come into the room

when light is on. Main resting places are outdoors such as grasses, vegetable fields and

rice fields.

A mark release recapture study resulted that

37.1% was recaptured within 1 km, 29.4% at 1-3 km, 21.1% at 3-6 km, 10.3% at 6-9 km

and 2.1% at 9-12 km distance. An. sinensis hibernate outdoors (mostly under part of dense

grasses) during October – March. At the end of hibernation period (March-April) they

feed on cows at day time

(Lee et al., 2005).

Mosquitoes were collected during two full moon transmission seasons in 2001 and 2002,

at 9 different sites across Delaware. They collected from different habitats, including

salt marshes, brackish water areas, woodlands, a firedump, race track, and a mushroom
 25

farm. Blood meal analyses were performed on parous mosquitoes by using a sandwich-

type enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. So they tested primarily for five common

host species, including rabbits, dogs, deerhorses and chickens. From the results obtained

host feeding data from eight mosquito species. The most mammalophilic species were

Anopheles quadrimacultus, Coquillettidia perturbans and Aedes albopictus whereas the

most ornithophilic species was Culex pipiens. Aedes albopictus was the most

anthropophilic species whereas Ae. vexans and Cq. perturbans exhibited relatively low

attraction to humans. Culex salinarius was the species with the most diverse feeding

activity. Based on feeding behaviour, Cx. pipiens and Culex salinarius appear to be the

most likely bridge vectors. Other species may have opportunistic to be bridge vectors

under special circumstances (Gingrich et al., 2005).

Olfaction plays a major role in host seeking-behaviour, which is likely to be associated

with a subset of mosquito olfactory genes. Proteins involved in olfaction include the

odorant receptors (Ors) and the odorant binding proteins (OBPs). OBPs are thought to

function as a carrier within insect antennae for transporting odours to the olfactory

receptors. The annotation of 32 genes encoding putative OBP in the malaria mosquito

Anopheles gambiae and their tissue-specific expression in two mosquito species of the

Anopheles complex; a highly anthropophilic species An. gambiae and an opportunistic,

but more zoophilic species, An. arabiensis. RT-PCR shows that some of the genes are

expressed mainly in head tissue and a subset of these show highest expression in female

heads. One of the genes (ag CP1588) identified as an OBP and is only expressed in heads

of both An. gambiae and An. arabiensis and at higher levels in female heads. Two genes
 26

(agCP3071 and ag CP15554) are expressed only in female heads and agC15554 also

shows higher expression levels in Anopheles gambiae. The expression profiles of the

genes in the two members of the Anopheles complex provides the first step towards

further molecular analysis of the mosquito olfactory apparatus (Li et al., 2005).

VanBortel (2004) reported that cryptic species of Anopheles minimus (Theobald) one of

the most widespread malaria vectors in Southeast Asia. To collect the Anopheles species

from seven localities in Southeast Asia to assess the inter and intraspecific behavioural

divergences of an. minimus A and C. The members of the An. minimus complex were

identified by use of the octanol dehydrogenase allozyme profiles or the polymerase chain

reaction – restriction fragment length polymorphism assay. Large intraspecific

behavioural differences were observed among populations of An. minimus A. In northern

Vietnam species A tended to be more zoophilic, whereas in the study sites of South

Central Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos it showed marked anthropophilic behaviour when

cattle were scarce. In the most northern study site An. minimus A showed endophilic

behaviour. An. minimus ‘C’ was primarily zoophilic. However, it was only found in one

locality, so that intraspecific behavioural variation could not be assessed. An. minimus “A”

is able to change its host preference in function of local situations in host availability.

Hence, its role in malaria transmission can differ from region to region.

An important variable in the amplification and escape from the enzootic cycle of the

arboviral encephalitide is the degree of contact between avian hosts and mosquito
 27

vectors. Blood fed mosquitoes that were confirmed vectors of eastern equine

encephalomyelitis (EEE) virus were collected in 2002 from an enzootic site central

Alabama during the time this virus was actively transmitted. Avian-derived blood meals

were identified to the species level of the host, and the proportion derived from each

species was compared with the overall composition of the avifauna at the study site. The

EEE vector mosquito species fed significantly more on some bird species and less on

other species than expected given the overall abundance, biomass, or surface area of the

local avifauna

(Hassan et al., 2003).

The preference of two allopatric populations of Culex annulirostris mosquitoes in South

Australia for guinea pigs and chickens were

investigated using host-baited traps in the field and in a flight tunnel for laboratory

assays. Mosquitoes from the river-land of south Australia preferred guinea pigs, those

from northeast SA preferred chickens. In the field, 2184 Culex annulirostris were

captured during four experiments in each region. The proportion choosing chicken was

0.5393 in northeast SA and 0.4348 in the riverland. This study demonstrates variation in

Cx. annulirostris host preference throughout this species geographic range

(Williams et al., 2003).

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Dekkar et al. (2001) reported that Anopheles gambiae obtains most blood meals from

humans, whereas Anopheles quadrimaculatus (Theobald) bites predominantly bovids.

To determined whether host odors modulate the host preference of these mosquitoes. In

a dual-choice olfactometer, mosquitoes were given a choice between clean air and

putative host specific odor blends. Anopheles gambiae chose human odor over clean air

and clean air over cow odor. Although Anopheles quadriannulatus did not choose cow

odor over clean air, it choose clean air over human air, cheese odor, which attracted An.

gambiae, did not result in higher trap catch of An. quadriannulatus. So they conclude

that the degree of anthropophagy of An. gambiae has an innate olfactory basis.

The feeding habits of Anopheles sacharovi under natural conditions and in feeding

rooms were investigated by use of the gel diffusion technique. Mosquitoes were collected

from various villages of Cukurova and also from feeding rooms especially prepared for

these experiments. Human, cow, sheep, chicken, horse and donkey were sued as hosts in

these rooms. The results showed that An. sacharovi is a zoophilic species. The females

preferred donkey when human, cow, sheep, chicken and horse were equally available.

Their preference changed to horse, cow and sheep in the absence of donkey. The host

preference index (HPI) was always smaller than 1 for humans in habitats offering a

choice of hosts. The human blood index was high only in human dwellings. In other

habitats number of mosquitoes feeding on animals were higher than on human. Although

the human blood index was low, An. sacharovi is the principal human malaria vector in

Turkey partly because a significant proportion of those resting in human dwellings have
 29

fed upon the occupants, and partly because of the uneven distribution of human and

animal hosts (Demirhan et al., 1995).