KHALSA COLLEGE,AMRITSAR

REPORT ON COMMERCIAL HORTICULTURE

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY

DR.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Prof,

Amardeep Singh as well as our head of department Dr. Randeep Kaur Bal who
gave me the golden opportunity to do this report on the topic Commercial
Horticulture, which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came to know
about so many new things I am really thankful to them.
Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

-SAHAJVEER SINGH
 CONTENT
1 IMPORTANT HOTICULTURE CROPS
2 TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE
3 TYPES OF BEDS
4 PROPAGATION BY SEEDS
5 PROPAGATION BY CUTTING
6 PROPAGATION BY LAYERING
7 PROPAGATION BY BUDDING
8 PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING
 CHAPTER-1

IMPORTANT HORTICULTURE CROPS

1.Raat ki rani 24.Santra

2.Kochia 25.Baramasi lemon

3.Asparagus 26.Narangi

4.Song of India 27.Kumquat

5.Jade plant 28.Peach

6.Saplera 29.Plum

7.Ribbon grass 30.Pummelo

8.Baugainvillea 31.Pear

9.Areca palm 32.Mango

10.Plumeria 33.Apple

11.Chakatra 34.Litchi

12.Elephant ear plant 35.Blackberry

13. Spider plant 36.Raspberry

14.Alocasia 37.Grapes

15.Sward fern 38.Banana

16.Rajnigandha 39.Brinjal

17.Willow brown 40.Okra

18.Hamelia 41.Cabbage

19.Silver yucca 42.Rose

20.Spindle croton 43.Sunflower

21.Yucca 44.Chrysanthemum

22.Gulmohar 45.Hyacinth

23.Acalypha 46.Daisy
 CHAPTER-2

IMPORTANT TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE

1.Khurpa

2.Khurpi

3.Secateur

4.Shovel

5.Sickle

6.Hand fork

7.Budding cum grafting knife

8.Saw

9.Hedge shear

10.Spade

11.Axe

12.Measuring chain

13.Pruning knife

14.Planting board

15.Pegs

16.Hand cultivator

17.Looper

18.Patcher
 CHAPTER-3

TYPES OF BEDS USED IN HORTICULTURE

There are basically 3 types of seedbeds: flat beds, raised beds, and sunken beds. The best type to
use depends much more on the particular climate and soil conditions than on the crop.

1.FLAT BEDS:

Flat beds are used where water availability is adequate and there are no drainage problems. In
some areas, crops like maize, sorghum, beans, and potatoes are started out on a flat bed; as the
season progresses, soil is thrown into the crop row to mound up the plants; this is called "hilling-
up" and is done to control in-row weeds, provide support, and improve drainage. (Potatoes are
also hilled up to keep the developing tubers covered with soil.) Hilling-up only works with plants
that have enough stem height and leaf clearance to tolerate partial burial.

2.RAISED BEDS:

Crops can also be grown on raised-up beds or ridges. They are especially advantageous for
clayey soils under high rainfall or wherever else drainage is likely to be poor. They can also be
used in many other situations. Where crops are furrow irrigated, raised beds or ridges are
essential so that the water can flow down the furrows between them.

Height of raised beds: Raised beds are usually 10-30 cm high. The best height depends
mainly on soil texture and moisture considerations. For example, raised beds are often 2030 cm
high on clayey soils under high rainfall where poor drainage is likely to be a problem. On
coarser-textured soil under the same conditions, bed height might be 15-20 cm. When raised
beds are used in drier conditions, a bed height of 10 cm or leas may be best to avoid excessive
moisture loss due to evaporation from the exposed sides.

Width of raised beds: Typically they are 100-130 cm wide.

Raised beds may have several advantages:

• Much better drainage compared with flat or sunken beds.

• They provide a double layer of topsoil, because they're made by dragging in topsoil from the
surrounding alleyways. (Because of this, they're also likely to be looser than flat or sunken beds.)

• In temperate regions, raised beds warm up more quickly in the spring, which may benefit cold-
sensitive crops and even permit earlier planting.

• Plants on raised beds are easier to reach when doing hand operations such as weeding and
thinning.

Raised beds usually aren't a good choice during the dry season, because they dry out more
quickly than flat or sunken beds; also, water tends to run off them and be lost into the alley-ways.
These disadvantages can be partly overcome by mulching the bed with straw or rice hulls,
making a lip around the bed's edge to reduce run-off, and by reducing bed height to 10 cm or less
(see Fig. 3.1).

FIGURE 3.1: Two types of raised beds. Bed A is best suited to high-rainfall areas. Bed B has a
lip around all 4 sides which helps prevents prevent water from running off (helpful in drier
conditions).

3.SUNKEN BEDS:

In dry regions, especially on sandy soils with low water-holding capacity, vegetables can be
planted in sunken beds (i.e. shallow basins) about 100-130 cm wide and 2-5 cm below the
surrounding soil level. Sunken beds conserve water much more effectively than raised beds for 2
reasons:
• Sunken beds don't have the exposed sides of raised beds from where considerable moisture can
be lost by evaporation.

• None of the applied water is lost by runoff.

FIGURE 4-5: A sunken bed. Depth shouldn't exceed about 4 cm.

 CHAPTER-4

PROPAGATION BY SEEDS

The most common method of propagation for self-pollinated plants is by seed. In self-pollinated
plants, the sperm nuclei in pollen produced by a flower fertilize egg cells of a flower on the same
plant. Propagation by seed is also used widely for many cross-pollinated plants (those whose
pollen is carried from one plant to another). Seed is usually the least expensive and often the only
means of propagation and offers a convenient way to store plants over long periods of time. Seed
kept dry and cool normally maintains its viability from harvest to the next planting season. Some
can be stored for years under suitable conditions. Seed propagation also makes it possible to start
plants free of most diseases. This is especially true with respect to virus diseases, because it is
almost impossible to free plants of virus infections and because most virus diseases are not
transmitted by seed. There are two disadvantages to seed propagation. First, genetic variation
occurs in seed from cross-pollinated plants because they are heterozygous. This means that the
plant grown from seed may not exactly duplicate the characteristics of its parents and may
possess undesirable characteristics. Second, some plants take a long time to grow from seed to
maturity. Potatoes, for example, do not breed true from seed and do not produce large tubers the
first year. These disadvantages are overcome by vegetative propagation.
The practice of saving seed to plant the following year has developed into a specialized
part of horticulture. Seed technology involves all of the steps necessary to ensure production of
seed with high viability, freedom from disease, purity, and trueness to type. These processes may
include specialized growing and harvesting techniques, cleaning, and distribution.
Relatively little tree and shrub seed is grown commercially; it is generally harvested from natural
stands or grown from cuttings. Rootstock seed for fruit trees is often obtained as a by-product in
fruit-processing industries. Seed growing and plant improvement are related activities. Thus,
many seed-producing firms actively engage in plant-breeding programs to accomplish genetic
improvement of their material.
 Harvesting of dry seed is accomplished by threshing. Seed from fleshy fruits is recovered
through fermentation of the macerated (softened by soaking) pulp or directly from screening.
Machines have been developed to separate and clean seed, based on size, specific gravity, and
surface characteristics. Extended storage of seed requires low humidity and cool temperature.
Trade in seed requires quality control. For example, U.S. government seed laws require detailed
labeling showing germination percentage, mechanical purity, amount of seed, origin, and
moisture content. Seed testing is thus an important part of the seed industry.
While most vegetable seed germinates readily upon exposure to normally favourable
environmental conditions, many seed plants that are vegetatively (asexually) propagated fail to
germinate readily because of physical or physiologically imposed dormancy. Physical dormancy
is due to structural limitations to germination such as hard impervious seed coats. Under natural
conditions weathering for a number of years weakens the seed coat. Certain seeds, such as
the sweet pea, have a tough husk that can be artificially worn or weakened to render the seed
coat permeable to gases and water by a process known as scarification. This is accomplished by
a number of methods including abrasive action, soaking in hot water, or acid treatment.
Physiologically imposed dormancy involves the presence of germination inhibitors. Germination
in such seed may be accomplished by treatment to remove these inhibitors. This may involve
cold stratification, storing seed at high relative humidity and low temperatures
 CHAPTER-5
PROPAGATION BY CUTTING

Cutting is one of the most important methods of propagation. Many plant parts can be used;
thus, cuttings are classified as root, stem, or leaf. Stem cuttings are the most common.

The ability of stems to regenerate missing parts is variable; consequently plants may be
easy or difficult to root. The physiological ability of cuttings to form roots is due to an
interaction of many factors. These include transportable substances in the plant itself: plant
hormones (such as auxin), carbohydrates, nitrogenous substances, vitamins, and substances not
yet identified. Environmental factors such as light, temperature, humidity, and oxygen are
important, as are age, position, and type of stem.
Although easy-to-root plants such as willow or coleus can be propagated merely by
plunging a stem in water or moist sand, the propagation of difficult-to-root species is a highly
technical process. To achieve success with difficult-to-root plants special care is taken to control
the environment and encourage rooting. A number of growth regulators stimulate rooting. A high
degree of success has been achieved with indolebutyric acid, a synthetic auxin that is applied to
the cut surface. A number of materials known as rooting cofactors have been found that interact
with auxin to further stimulate rooting, and these are sold as a hormone rooting compound.
Humidity control is particularly important to prevent death of the stem from desiccation before
rooting is complete. The use of an intermittent-mist system in propagation beds has proved to be
an important means of improving success in propagation by cuttings. These operate by applying
water to the plant for a few seconds each minute.
TYPES OF CUTTING:

1) Stem cutting- a) Hard wood cutting : Pomegranate b) Semi hard wood cutting : Hibiscus c)
Soft wood cutting : Colcous

2) Leaf cutting- a) Leaf blade cutting : Bryophyllum b) Leaf vein cutting : Begonia c) Leaf edge
cutting : Pepromia d) Leaf bud cutting : Begonia

3) Root cutting- : Guava

ADVANTAGES OF CUTTING:

In this method rooting is induced after detaching parts from mother plant, so it is very necessary
to have live cells of stem, leaf or roots up to rooting. For this purpose cuttings should be kept in
proper environmental conditions.

1) This type of propagation does not require the special technique as like budding or grafting.

2) There is no problem of incompatibility with root stock which is always shown in budding and
grafting.

3) In a little period of time we can get more than one feet high plant.

4) The genetical characteristics of plants propagated by cutting are true to type .

DISADVANTAGES OF CUTTING:
1) Certain fruit plants have difficulty in rooting.

2) Possibility of mutation.

3) Success differs largely according to plant species and season.

CHAPTER-6
PROPAGATION BY LAYERING
Stems that are still attached to their parent plant may form roots where they come in contact with
a rooting medium. This method of vegetative propagation is generally successful, because water
stress is minimized and carbohydrate and mineral nutrient levels are high. The development of
roots on a stem while the stem is still attached to the parent plant is called layering. A layer is
the rooted stem following detachment (removal) from the parent plant.

Layering is enhanced by wounding the stem where the roots are to form. The rooting medium
should always provide aeration and a constant supply of moisture.

TYPES OF LAYERING:

1.SIMPLE LAYERING:

Simple layering can be accomplished by bending a low growing, flexible stem to the ground.
Cover part of it with soil, leaving the remaining 6 to 12 inches above the soil. Bend the tip into a
vertical position and stake in place (Figure 1). The sharp bend will often induce rooting, but
wounding the lower side of the bent branch may help also. Simple layering can be done on most
plants with low-growing branches. Examples of plants propagated by simple layering include
climbing roses, forsythia, rhododendron, honeysuckle, boxwood, azalea, and wax myrtle.
Simple layering can be done in early spring using a dormant branch, or in late summer using a
mature branch. Periodically check for adequate moisture and for the formation of roots. It may
take one or more seasons before the layer is ready to be removed for transplanting.

Figure 1. Simple layering.

2.TIP LAYERING:

Tip layering is quite similar to simple layering. Dig a hole 3 to 4 inches deep. Insert the tip of a
current season’s shoot and cover it with soil. The tip grows downward first, then bends sharply
and grows upward. Roots form at the bend. The re-curved tip becomes a new plant (Figure 2).
Remove the tip layer and plant it in late fall or early spring. Examples of plants propagated by tip
layering include purple and black raspberries, and trailing blackberries.

Figure 2. Tip layering.

3.COMPOUND LAYERING:
Compound (serpentine) layering is similar to simple layering, but several layers can result from a
single stem. Bend the stem to the rooting medium as for simple layering, but alternately cover
and expose sections of the stem. Each section should have at least one bud exposed and one bud
covered with soil. Wound the lower side of each stem section to be covered (Figure 3). This
method works well for plants producing vine-like growth such as heart-leaf philodendron,
pothos, wisteria, clematis, and grapes.

Figure 3. Compound (serpentine) layering.

4.MOUND LAYERING:

Mound (stool) layering is useful with heavy-stemmed, closely branched shrubs and rootstocks
of tree fruits. Cut the plant back to 1 inch above the soil surface in the dormant season. Dormant
buds will produce new shoots in the spring. Mound soil over the new shoots as they grow (Figure
4). Roots will develop at the bases of the young shoots. Remove the layers in the dormant
season. Mound layering works well on apple rootstocks, spirea, quince, daphne, magnolia, and
cotoneaster.
Figure 4. Mound (stool) layering

5.AIR LAYERING:

Air layering can be used to propagate large, overgrown house plants such as rubber plant, croton,
or dieffenbachia that have lost most of their lower leaves. Woody ornamentals such as azalea,
camellia, magnolia, oleander, and holly can also be propagated by air layering. For optimum
rooting, make air layers in the spring on shoots produced during the previous season or in mid to
late summer on shoots from the current season’s growth. For woody plants, stems of pencil size
diameter or larger are best. Choose an area just below a node and remove leaves and twigs on the
stem 3 to 4 inches above and below this point. This is normally done on a stem about 1 foot from
the tip.

Air layering differs, depending on whether the plant is a monocot or a dicot. For monocots, make
an upward 1- to 11⁄2-inch cut about one-third through the stem. The cut is held open with a
toothpick or wooden match stick. Surround the wound with moist, unmilled sphagnum moss
(about a handful) that has been soaked in water and squeezed to remove excess moisture. Wrap
the moss with plastic and hold in place with twist ties or electrician’s tape. No moss should
extend beyond the ends of the plastic. Fasten each end of the plastic securely, to retain moisture
and to prevent water from entering. If exposed to the sun, the plastic should be covered.
Aluminum foil can also be used, as it does not require twist ties or tape to hold it in place.
The process for dicots is similar, except a 1-inch ring of bark is removed from the stem. With a
sharp knife, make two parallel cuts about an inch apart around the stem and through the bark and
cambium layer (see Figure 5). Connect the two parallel cuts with one long cut. Remove the ring
of bark, leaving the inner woody tissue exposed. Scrape the newly bared ring to remove the
cambial tissue to prevent a bridge of callus tissue from forming. Application of a root-promoting
substance to the exposed wound is sometimes beneficial. Wrap and cover using the same
procedure as that described for monocots.

After the rooting medium is filled with roots, sever the stem below the medium and pot the layer.
The new plant will usually require some pampering until the root system becomes more
developed. Provide shade and adequate moisture until the plant is well established.

Figure 5. Air Layering.

ADVANTAGES OF LAYERING:

1) The parent plant supplies the new individual with water and food, particularly carbohydrates
and proteins, and hormones, particularly the auxins, until it makes its own food and hormones.

2) Comparatively bigger plant could be obtained through layering.

3) It is possible to avoid mutagenic effects in certain species that happened if propagated by

cutting.

4) It is possible to generate few individuals of important species with minimum propagation

facilities.

5) It is possible to propagate difficult to root plants vegetatively.

DISADVANTAGES OF LAYERING:

1) This method of propagation is limited to plants which form growing points readily.
2) It is difficult to produce large number of plants through this method. In other words, this
method does not use propagation material economically.

3) This method is short but time consuming and little difficult in some cases. This method is
laborious, cumbersome and expensive.
 CHAPTER-7

PROPAGATION BY BUDDING

Budding is the operation of applying a single bud, bearing little or no wood, to the surface of the
living wood of the stock. The bud is applied directly to the cambium layer of the stock. It is
commonly inserted under the bark of the stock, but in flute-budding a piece of bark is entirely
removed, and the bud is used to cover the wound. Budding is commonly performed in the
growing season, usually in summer or early fall, because mature buds can be procured at that
time, and young stocks are then large enough to be worked readily. But budding can be done in
early spring, as soon as the bark loosens; in this case perfectly dormant buds must have been
taken in winter and kept in a cellar, ice-house or other cool place.

TYPES OF BUDDING:

1.T-BUDDING:

A T-formed cut is made in A slicing cut of the budstick The bark of the T-formed
the root stock vertical about is made from ca. 2.5 cm cut in the stock is opened.
2.5 cm, horizontal about ⅓ under the bud to 2 cm The shield is inserted by
of circumference. above. The shield is cut free pushing it downwards
with a horizontal cut ≈2 cm under the two flaps of
above the bud. bark.
T-budding is used for forest and fruit trees with a diameter of 6–25 mm and a
relatively thin and flexible bark that can easily be lifted. An inverted T-cut in the root
stock is sometimes used in order to avoid water entrance. The bud should then be
prepared correspondingly with the straight cut at the proximal end.

2.PATCH BUDDING:

Two parallel horizontal cuts The budstick is cut similar The bud patch is inserted
are made on the root stock, to the root stock, horizontal into the patch hole in the
about ⅓ of the with a double bladed knife root stock. The patch may
circumference using a and vertical at each side. need to be trimmed at one
double bladed knife. The The bud is removed. side in order to make a
two cuts are connected at tight fit.
each side by vertical cuts
and the patch is removed.
Used for forest and fruit trees with a relatively thick bark. The budstick should not be
larger than ≈25mm in diameter while the root stock may be up to 10 cm thick. The
bark should be approximately the same thickness.

3.I-BUDDING:
Two parallel cuts are made The patch containing the The two sides of the bark
on the root stock using a bud is cut off by the help of of the I-formed cut is
double bladed knife. The the two bladed knife. lifted and the bud patch is
middle of the two cuts are inserted.
connected, using a vertical
cut.
Modified patch budding used when the bark of the stock is considerably thicker than
that of the budstick.

4.CHIP BUDDING:

Root stock: First cut is Budstick: Cut as for the root The bud is inserted in the
made at an angle of 45° stock. First cut is made 6 mm root stock.
downwards, ¼ of the below the bud. Second cut is
diameter. Second cut is made ≈ 13 mm above the bud
made ≈ 25 mm above the going downwards to meet the
first, going downwards, first cut. The bud with attached
to meet the first cut. wood is removed.
Chip budding is used for small material 12–25 cm in diameter. Its main use is that it
can be applied outside the active growth season when the bark is not slipping.

Once the bud has been inserted in the root stock the union is wrapped and sometimes waxed.
Care should be taken that the bud is not damaged and that the bud is left fully exposed, i.e. not
covered with wrapping material or wax. When the two parts have united and the bud sprouted,
the top or the stock can be cut.
ADVANTAGES OF BUDDING:

1).Budding can be very well adopted to convert inferior plant of established trees into superior
one. Variety of the established plant can be changed by top working.

2). Root stocks influence size and vigour of tree and quality of fruits.

3). Root stocks impart disease resistance to the scion.

4).Some root stocks are tolerant to saline and alkaline conditions and high moisture contents of
the soil.

DISADVANTAGES OF BUDDING:

1) New varieties cannot be developed.

2) These are extensive methods of propagation.

They require specialized skill.

3) The life span of budded plants is short as compared to seed propagated plants. 4) Spread of
viral diseases may occur through this method.
 CHAPTER-8

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING

Grafting involves the joining together of plant parts by means of tissue regeneration. The part of
the combination that provides the root is called the stock; the added piece is called the scion.
When more than two parts are involved, the middle piece is called the interstock. The basic
technique in grafting consists of placing cambial tissues of stock and scion
in intimate association, so that the resulting callus tissue produced from stock and scion
interlocks to form a living continuous connection. A snug fit can be obtained through the tension
of the split stock and scion or both. Tape, rubber, and nails can be used to achieve close contact.
In general, grafts are only compatible between the same or closely related species.

TYPES OF GRAFTING:
1.CLEFT GRAFTING:
One of the simplest and most popular forms of grafting, cleft grafting, is a method for top
working both flowering and fruiting trees (apples, cherries, pears, and peaches) in order to
change varieties. Cleft grafting is also used to propagate varieties of camellias that are difficult to
root. This type of grafting is usually done during the winter and early spring while both scion and
rootstock are still dormant. Cleft grafting may be performed on main stems or on lateral or
scaffold branches.
The rootstock used for cleft grafting should range from 1 to 4 inches in diameter and should be
straight grained. The scion should be about 1⁄4-inch in diameter, straight, and long enough to have
 at least three buds. Scions that are between 6 and 8 inches long are usually the easiest to use.

Fig 1.Cleft grafting

 Preparing the Rootstock. The stock should be sawed off with a clean, smooth cut
perpendicular to the main axis of the stem to be grafted. Using a clefting tool wedge and a
mallet, make a split or "cleft" through the center of the stock and down 2 to 3 inches. Remove
the clefting tool wedge and drive the pick end of the tool into the center of the newly made
cleft so that the stock can be held open while inserting the scion.
 Preparing the Scion. In cleft grafting, one scion is usually inserted at each end of the
cleft, so prepare two scions for each graft. Select scions that have three or four good buds.
Using a sharp, clean grafting knife, start near the base of the lowest bud and make two
opposing smooth-tapered cuts 1 to 2 inches long toward the basal end of the scion. Cut the side
with the lowest bud slightly thicker than the opposite side. Be sure the basal end of the scion
gradually tapers off along both sides.

 Inserting the Scion. Insert a scion on each end of the cleft, with the wider side of the
wedge facing outward. The cambium of each scion should contact the cambium of the
rootstock.

 Securing the Graft. Remove the clefting tool from the cleft so that the rootstock can
close. Pressure from the rootstock will hold the scions in place. Thoroughly seal all cut
surfaces with grafting wax or grafting paint to keep out water and prevent drying. If both
scions in the cleft "take," one will usually grow more rapidly than the other. After the first
growing season, choose the stronger scion and prune out the weaker.
2.BARK GRAFTING:
Bark grafting is used primarily to top work flowering and fruiting trees. In contrast to cleft
grafting, this technique can be applied to rootstock of larger diameter (4 to 12 inches) and is done
during early spring when the bark slips easily from the wood but before major sap flow. The
rootstock is severed with a sharp saw, leaving a clean cut as with cleft grafting.

Fig 2.Bark grafting

 Preparing the Stock. Start at the cut surface of the rootstock and make a vertical slit
through the bark where each scion can be inserted (2 inches long and spaced 1 inch apart).

 Preparing the Scion. Since multiple scions are usually inserted around the cut surface of
the rootstock, prepare several scions for each graft. Cut the base of each scion to a 11⁄2- to 2-
inch tapered wedge on one side only.

 Inserting the Scion. Loosen the bark slightly and insert the scion so that the wedge-
shaped tapered surface of the scion is against the exposed wood under the flap of bark. Push
the scion firmly down into place behind the flap of bark, replace the bark flap, and nail the
scion in place by driving one or two wire brads through the bark and scion into the rootstock.
Insert a scion every 3 to 4 inches around the cut perimeter of the rootstock.

 Securing the Graft. Seal all exposed surfaces with grafting wax or grafting paint. Once
the scions have begun to grow, leave only the most vigorous one on each stub; prune out all the
others. Bark grafts tend to form weak unions and therefore usually require staking or support
during the first few years.

3.SIDE-VENEER GRAFTING:
At one time the side-veneer graft was a popular technique for grafting varieties of camellias and
rhododendrons that are difficult to root. Currently, it is the most popular way to graft conifers,
especially those having a compact or dwarf form. Side-veneer grafting is usually done on potted
rootstock.

 Preparing the Stock. Rootstock is grown in pots the season before grafting, allowed to
go dormant, and then stored as with other container nursery stock. After exposure to cold
weather for at least six weeks, the rootstock is brought into a cool greenhouse for a few days
before grafting takes place to encourage renewed root growth. The plant should not be watered
at this time.
Make a shallow downward cut about 3⁄4-inch to 1 inch long at the base of the stem on the
potted rootstock to expose a flap of bark with some wood still attached. Make an inward cut at
 the base so that the flap of bark and wood can be removed from the rootstock.

Fig 3. Side-veneer grafting

 Preparing the Scion. Choose a scion with a diameter the same as or slightly smaller than
the rootstock. Make a sloping cut 3⁄4-inch to 1 inch long at the base of the scion. (Use the bark
grafting technique shown in.

 Inserting the Scion. Insert the cut surface of the scion against the cut surface of the
rootstock. Be certain that the cambia contact each other.

 Securing the Graft. Hold the scion in place using a rubber grafting strip, tape, or
grafting twine. Seal the entire graft area with warm grafting wax or grafting paint. Remove the
 rubber or twine shortly after the union has healed. Never allow the binding material to girdle
the stem.

4.SPLICE GRAFTING:
Splice grafting is used to join a scion onto the stem of a rootstock or onto an intact rootpiece.
This simple method is usually applied to herbaceous materials that callus or "knit" easily, or it is
used on plants with a stem diameter of 1⁄2-inch or less. In splice grafting, both the stock and scion
must be of the same diameter.

Fig 4. Splice grafting

 Preparing the Stock and Scion. Cut off the rootstock using a diagonal cut 3⁄4-inch to 1
inch long. Make the same type of cut at the base of the scion.
 Inserting the Scion. Fit the scion to the stock. Wrap this junction securely with a rubber
grafting strip or twine.

 Securing the Graft. Seal the junction with grafting wax or grafting paint. Water
rootstock sparingly until the graft knits. Over watering may cause sap to "drown" the scion. Be
sure to remove the twine or strip as soon as the graft has healed.

5.WHIP AND TONGUE GRAFTING:

The whip and tongue technique is most commonly used to graft nursery crops or woody
ornamentals. Both the rootstock and scion should be of equal size and preferably no more
than 1⁄2-inch in diameter. The technique is similar to splice grafting except that the whip on the
rootstock holds the tongue of the scion in place (and vice versa). This leaves both hands free to
wrap the joint.

For the whip and tongue graft, make similar cuts on both the stock and scion. These cuts should
be made with a single draw of the knife and should have a smooth surface so that the two can
 develop a good graft union. Up to this point, rootstock and scion are cut the same as for a splice

graft.

Fig 5. Whip and tongue grafting

 Preparing the Stock and Scion. Cut off the stock using a diagonal cut. The cut should
be four to five times longer than the diameter of the stock to be grafted. Make the same kind of
cut at the base of the scion.
Next, place the blade of the knife across the cut end of the stock, halfway between the bark and
pith (on the upper part of the cut surface). Use a single knife stroke to draw the blade down at
an angle through the wood and pith. Stop at the base of the initial diagonal cut. This second cut
must not follow the grain of the wood but should run parallel to the first cut.

 Inserting the Scion. Prepare the scion in the same way. Fit the scion into the rootstock so
that they interlock whip and tongue. Be certain that the cambia are aligned.
 Securing the Graft. Wrap the junction with a grafting strip or twine, and seal it with
grafting wax or grafting paint. Never allow the binding material to girdle the stem.

6.SADDLE GRAFTING:
Saddle grafting is a relatively easy technique to learn and once mastered can be performed quite
rapidly. The stock may be either field-grown or potted. Both rootstock and scion should be the
same diameter. For best results, use saddle grafting on dormant stock in mid- to late winter.
Stock should not be more than 1 inch in diameter.

Fig 6. Saddle grafting

 Preparing the Stock. Using two opposing upward strokes of the grafting knife, sever the
top from the rootstock. The resulting cut should resemble an inverted V, with the surface of the
cuts ranging from 1⁄2-inch to 1 inch long.
 Preparing the Scion. Now reverse the technique to prepare the base of the scion. These
cuts on the rootstock and scion must be the same length and have the same slope so that a
maximum amount of cambial tissue will make contact when the two halves are joined.

 Inserting the Scion. Place the V-notched scion onto the saddle of the rootstock. If
rootstock and scion are the same diameter, cambial alignment is easier; otherwise adjust as
needed.

 Securing the Graft. Wrap the graft with a grafting twine, tape, or strip, then seal it with
grafting wax or grafting paint.

All of the preceding techniques are used to top work horticultural crops for a particular purpose.
Occasionally, however, grafting is used to repair injured or diseased plants. Two common
techniques available for this purpose are bridge grafting and inarch grafting.

7.BRIDGE GRAFTING:
Bridge grafting is used to "bridge" a diseased or damaged area of a plant, usually at or near the
base of the trunk. Such damage commonly results from contact with grading or lawn
maintenance equipment, or it may be caused by rodents, cold temperatures, or disease organisms.
The bridge graft provides support as well as a pipeline that allows water and nutrients to move
across the damaged area.
 Bridge grafts are usually done in early spring just before active plant growth begins. They may
be performed any time the bark on the injured plant "slips."

Fig 7. Bridge grafting

 Preparing the Scion. Select scions that are straight and about twice as long as the
damaged area to be bridged. Make a 11⁄2- to 2-inch-long tapered cut on the same plane at end of
scion

 Preparing the Stock. Remove any damaged tissue so the graft is on healthy stems. Cut a
flap in the bark on the rootstock the same width as the scion and below the injury to be
repaired. Gently fold the flap away from the stock, being careful not to tear the bark flap.

 Inserting the Scion. First, insert and secure the scion below the injury; push the scion
under the flap with the cut portion of the scion against the wood of the injured stem or trunk.
Then go back and insert and secure the scion above the injury following these same steps. Push
the scion firmly into place. Pull the flap over the scion and tack it into place as described for
bark grafting.
When grafting with young stems that may waver in the wind, insert the scions so that they bow
outward slightly. Bridge grafts should be spaced about 3 to 4 inches apart across the damaged
area.
 Securing the Graft. Secure all graft areas with warm grafting wax or grafting paint.
During and after the healing period, remove any buds or shoots that develop on the scions.

8.INARCHING:
Inarching, like bridge grafting, is used to bypass or support a damaged or weakened area of a
plant stem . Unlike bridge grafting, the scion can be an existing shoot, sucker, or watersprout that
is already growing below and extending above the injury. The scion may also be a shoot of the
same species as the injured plant growing on its own root system next to the main trunk of the
damaged tree. With the inarching technique, the tip of the scion is grafted in above the injury
using the same method as for bark or bridge grafting.

Fig.8 Inarching
ADVANTAGES OF GRAFTING:

1)Resistance to pests and soil diseases. It is the most important advantage of the graft, because it
gives resistance to bacteria, viruses and soil nematodes, being a clean alternative in the control of
diseases such as fungal and bacterial wilt, tobacco mosaic virus, root nodules produced by
nematodes , and corked root or red root among others.

2)Genetic improvement. Grafting creates a new plant being a technology of improvement faster
than conventional methods.

3)Physiological improvement. Root vigor granted by the rootstock, as well as an increase in

quality, number and size of fruits.

4)Increased productivity. It improves the tolerance to adverse factors (salinity, lack or excess of
humidity), propitiating the efficient use of water and nutrients as well as delaying cellular aging
due to root vigor, acceleration of reproductive maturity of seedlings, and resistance to drought.

DISADVANTAGES OF GRAFTING:
1) Costs Increase in the cost of using double seed, more greenhouse space for double seedling in
transplant, use of certified seed, skilled labor or extra training, use of indeterminate varieties
instead of specific ones, since less production time is required to recover the investment.

2)Incompatibility. A bad execution of the graft can affect the development of the plant,
presenting physiological disorders.Incompatibility which occurs in various stages of the graft.
This problem is manifested at the level of the union point of the graft-pattern being the main
manifestation a bottleneck known as bottleneck, which is caused by obstruction of the xylem and
phloem reducing the normal circulation of soil nutrients. The incompatibility is one of the main
problems of the grafts since it negatively influences the genetic composition of each individual