SECTION: 13 COLD FORMED STEEL SECTIONS

13.1 General

Thin sheet steel products are extensively used in building industry, and range from purlins to
roof sheeting and floor decking. Generally these are available for use as basic building
elements for assembly at site or as prefabricated frames or panels. These thin steel sections are
cold-formed, i.e. their manufacturing process involves forming steel sections in a cold state
(i.e. without application of heat) from steel sheets of uniform thickness. These are given the
generic title Cold Formed Steel Sections. Sometimes they are also called Light Gauge Steel
Sections or Cold Rolled Steel Sections. The thickness of steel sheet used in cold-formed
construction is usually 1 to 3 mm. Much thicker material up to 8 mm can be formed if
pre-galvanised material is not required for the particular application. The method of
manufacturing differentiates these products from hot rolled steel sections. Normally, the yield
strength of steel sheets used in cold-formed sections is at least although there is a
trend to use steels of higher strengths, and also sometimes as low as Cold forming
has the effect of increasing the yield strength of steel, the increase being the consequence of
cold working well into the strain-hardening range. These increases are predominant in zones
where the metal is bent by folding. The effect of cold working is thus to enhance the mean
yield stress by 15% - 30%. For purposes of design, the yield stress may be regarded as having
been enhanced by a minimum of 15%. The strength/weight ratio of cold-formed sections is
significantly high compared with hot rolled sections. Some of the main advantages of cold
rolled sections are as follows:

• Cross sectional shapes are formed to any desired shape and to close tolerances and these
can be consistently repeated for as long as required.
• Pre-galvanised or pre-coated metals can be formed, so that high resistance to corrosion,
besides an attractive surface finish, can be achieved.

13.2 Stiffened and Unstiffened Elements

Cold-formed steel elements are either stiffened or unstiffened. An element, which is supported
by webs along both its longitudinal edges, is called a stiffened element. An unstiffened
element is one, which is supported along one longitudinal edge only with the other parallel
edge being free to displace. Stiffened and unstiffened elements are shown in Fig. 13.1

An intermittently stiffened element is made of a very wide thin element, which has been
divided into two or more narrow sub elements by the introduction of intermediate stiffeners,
formed during rolling.

In order that a flat compression element be considered as a stiffened element, it should be

supported along one longitudinal edge by the web and along the other by a web or lip or other
edge stiffener, (e.g. a bend) which has sufficient flexural rigidity to maintain straightness of the
edge, when the element buckles on loading. A rule of thumb is that

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the depth of simple "lips" or right-angled bends should be at least one-fifth of the adjacent
plate width. More exact formulae to assess the adequacy of the stiffeners are sometimes
employed. If the stiffener is adequate, then the edge-stiffened element may be treated as
having a local buckling coefficient ( K ) value of 4.0. If the edge stiffener is inadequate (or
only partially adequate) its effectiveness is disregarded and the element will be regarded as
unstiffened, for purposes of design calculations.

Fig. 13.1 Stiffened and Unstiffened

elements 13.2.1 Effective width concept

The effects of local buckling can be evaluated by using the concept of effective width.
Lightly stressed regions at centre are ignored, as these are least effective in resisting
the applied stresses. Regions near the supports are far more effective and are taken to
be fully effective. The section behaviour is modelled on the basis of the effective
width

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 The effective width, multiplied by the edge stress is the same as the mean stress
•across the section multiplied by the total width of the compression member.

The effective width of an element under compression is dependent on the magnitude of the
applied stress the width/thickness ratio of the element and the edge support conditions.

13.2.2 Local buckling of compressed plates

The effective width concept is usually modified to take into account the effects of yielding
and imperfection. For example, BS5950: Part 5 provides a semi-empirical formula for basic
effective width, to conform to extensive experimental data.

When then

Where
compressive stress on the effective element,
local buckling stress given by

load buckling coefficient which depends on the element type, section geometry etc.
thickness of the element, in
width of the element, in
Modifications are necessary for an unstiffened element under uniform compression and for elements under
combined bending and axial load. Typical formula given in BS 5950, Part 5 for computing K values for a
channel element is given below for illustration (See BS 5950, Part 5 for a complete list of buckling
coefficients).

The buckling coefficient for the member having a width of in a lipped channel of
the type shown above is given by

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 For the member having the width of in the above sketch.

Where are the thicknesses of element width respectively. (Note:

normally and will be equal). The computed values of should not be less than 4.0 or
0.425 as the case may be.

The buckling coefficient for the element of width is given by

is computed from Eqn. 2(b) given above.

Maximum width to thickness ratios:

The maximum permitted ratios of (b/t) for compression elements are as follows:

• Stiffened elements with one longitudinal edge connected to a flange or web element
and the other stiffened by a simple lip = 60
• Stiffened elements with both longitudinal edges connected to other stiffened elements
= 500
• Unstiffened compression elements = 60

The designer should guard against the elements developing very large deformations, when b/t
values exceed half the values tabulated above.

13.2.3 Treatment of elements with stiffeners

Edge Stiffeners: As stated previously, elements having and provided with simple lip
having one fifth of the element width may be regarded as a stiffened element. 60, then
the width required for the lip may become too large and the lip itself may have

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 stability problems. Special types of lips (called "compound" lips) are designed in such
cases and are usually validated by tests.
Intermediate stiffeners: A wide and ineffective element may be transformed into a highly
effective element by providing suitable intermediate stiffeners (having a minimum
moment of inertia about an axis through the element mid surface). The required
minimum moment of inertia of the stiffener about the axis 0-0 in Fig. 13.3 is given by:

Where = larger flat width of the sub element (see Fig. 13.3) between stiffeners
= thickness of the element
= yield stress

If the sub-element width/thickness ratio does not exceed 60, the total effective area of
the element may be obtained by adding effective areas of the sub-elements to the full areas of
stiffeners. When is larger than 60, the effectiveness of the intermediately stiffened
elements is somewhat reduced due to shear lag effects. If an element has a number of
stiffeners spaced closely and then generally all the stiffeners and
sub elements can be considered to be effective.

13.2.4 Effective section properties

In the analysis of member behaviour, the effective section properties are determined by
summing up the effective widths of individual elements. As a general rule, the portions
located close to the supported edges are effective. In the case of compression members, all
elements may be subject to reductions in width.

In the case of flexural members, generally, only the compression elements are considered to
have reduced effective widths. Elements in tension are, of course, not subject to any
reduction of width, as they are not subjected to bending.

13.2.5 Proportioning of stiffeners

The performance of unstiffened elements could be substantially improved by introducing

stiffeners (such as a lip). Similarly very wide elements can be divided into two or more
narrower sub elements by introducing intermediate stiffeners formed during the rolling

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 process; the sum of the "effective widths" of individual sub elements will enhance the efficiency
of the section.

According to BS 5950, Part 5 an unstiffened element (when provided with a lip) can be regarded
as a stiffened element, when the lip or the edge stiffener has a moment of inertia about an axis
through the plate middle surface equal to or greater than

Where t and b are the thickness and breadth of the full width of the element to be stiffened. For
elements having a full width b less than or equal to 60 t, a simple lip of one fifth of the element
width (i.e. b/5) can be used safely. For lips with b > 60 t, it would be appropriate to design a lip to
ensure that the lip itself does not develop instability. A maximum b/t ratio of 90 is regarded as the
upper limit for load bearing edge stiffeners.

The Indian standard IS: 801-1975 prescribes a minimum moment of inertia for the lip
given by

Where = minimum allowable moment of inertia of stiffener about its own

centroidal axis parallel to the stiffened element in
= flat width - thickness ratio of the stiffened element.
= Yield stress in

For a simple lip bent at right angles to the stiffened element, the required overall depth
is given by

Note that both the above equations given by the Indian Standards are dependent on the units
employed.

Intermediate Stiffeners: Intermediate stiffeners are used to split a wide element into a series of
narrower and therefore more effective elements. The minimum moment of inertia about an axis
through the element middle surface required for this purpose (according to BS 5950, Part 5) is
given in Eqn (4) above.

The effective widths of each sub element may be determined according to Eqn 1 (a) and Eqn.l
(b) by replacing the sub element width in place of the element width b.

When then the total effective area of the element is obtained as the sum of the
effective areas of each sub element to the full areas of stiffeners.

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When the sub elements having a larger values are employed the
performance of intermittently stiffened elements will be less efficient. To model this reduced
performance, the sub element effective width must be reduced to given by,

The effective stiffener areas are also reduced when by employing the equation:

For values between 60 and 90, the effective stiffener area varies between and as
given below:

It must be noted that when small increases in the areas of intermediate stiffeners are provided, it is
possible to obtain large increases in effectiveness and therefore it is advantageous to use a few
intermediate stiffeners, so long as the complete element width does not exceed 500 t.

When stiffeners are closely spaced, i.e. the stiffeners and sub elements may be
considered to be fully effective. However there is a tendency for the complete element (along
with the stiffeners) to buckle locally. In these circumstances, the complete element is replaced for
purposes of analysis by an element of width b and having fictitious

Where = Moment of inertia of the complete element including stiffeners, about its
own neutral axis.
IS: 801- 1975 also suggests some simple rules for the design of intermediate stiffeners.

When the flanges of a flexural member is unusually wide, the width of flange projecting beyond
the web is limited to

Where = flange thickness

= depth of beam
= the amount of curling
= average stress in as specified in IS: 801 - 1975.

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 The amount of curling should be decided by the designer but will not generally exceed 5 % of
the depth of the section.

Equivalent thickness of intermediate stiffener is given by

13.3 Beams

As stated previously, the effect of local buckling should invariably be taken into account in thin
walled members. Laterally stable beams are beams, which do not buckle laterally. Designs may be
carried out using simple beam theory, making suitable modifications to take account of local
buckling of the webs. This is done by imposing a maximum compressive stress, which may be
considered to act on the bending element.

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 The maximum value of the stress is given by

Where = the limiting value of compressive stress in N/mm 2

= web depth/thickness ratio
= material yield stress in N/mm2.
= design strength in N/mm
For steel with
For greater web slenderness values, local web buckling has a detrimental effect. The moment
capacity of the cross section is determined by limiting the maximum stress on the web to The
effective width of the compression element is evaluated using this stress and the effective section
properties are evaluated. The ultimate moment capacity is given by

Where = effective compression section modulus

This is subject to the condition that the maximum tensile stress in the section does not exceed (see
Fig. 13.4a).

If the neutral axis is such that the tensile stresses reach yield first, then the moment capacity is to be
evaluated on the basis of elasto-plastic stress distribution (see Fig. 13.4b). In elements having low
(width/thickness) ratios, compressive stress at collapse can equal yield stress (sec Fig. 13.4c). In
order to ensure yielding before local buckling, the
maximum (width/thickness) ratio of stiffened elements is and for unstiffened

13.3.1 Other beam failure criteria

Web Crushing: This may occur under concentrated loads or at support point when deep slender
webs are employed. A widely used method of overcoming web crushing problems is to use web
cleats at support points (See Fig. 13.5).

Shear Buckling; The phenomenon of shear buckling of thin webs has been discussed in detail in
the section on "Plate Girders". Thin webs subjected to predominant shear will buckle as shown
in Fig. 13.6. The maximum shear in a beam web is invariably limited to 0.7 times yield stress in
shear. In addition in deep webs, where shear buckling can occur, the average shear
stress must be less than the value calculated as follows:

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 Fig. 13.6 Web buckling

13.3.2 Lateral Buckling

The great majority of cold-formed beams are (by design) restrained against lateral deflections.
This is achieved by connecting them to adjacent elements, roof sheeting or to bracing members.
However, there are circumstances where this is not the case and the possibility of lateral
buckling has to be considered.

If the beam is provided with lateral restraints, capable of resisting a lateral force of 3% of the
maximum force in the compression flange, the beam may be regarded, as restrained and no
lateral buckling will occur.

The design approach is based on the "effective length" of the beam for lateral buckling, which is
dependent on support and loading conditions. The effective length of beams

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with both ends supported and having restraints against twisting is taken âs 0.9 times the length, provided
the load is applied at bottom flange level. If a load is applied to the top flange which is unrestrained
laterally, the effective length is increased by 20%. This is considered to be a "destabilising load", i.e. a load
that encourages lateral instability.

The elastic lateral buckling moment capacity is determined next. For an / section or
symmetrical channel section bent in the plane of the web and loaded through shear centre, this
is

A = cross sectional area, in

D = web depth, in mm
t = web thickness, in mm
= radius of gyration for the lateral bending of section

Where = ratio of the smaller end moment to the larger end moment M in an unbraced length of
beam, is taken positive for single curvature bending and negative for double curvature (see Fig.
13.8)

To provide for the effects of imperfections, the bending capacity in the plane of loading and
other effects, the value of ME obtained from Eqn. (13) will need to be modified.

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 Fig. 13.8 Single and double curvature bending

A Perry-Robertson type equation is employed for evaluating the Moment Resistance of

the beam

= First yield moment given by the product of yield stress and the Elastic Modulus
of the gross section.

= Elastic lateral buckling resistance moment given by Eqn (13)

= Perry coefficient, given by

When

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 = effective length
= radius of gyration of the section about the - axis.

When the calculated value of exceeds calculated by using Eqn (1 l.a), then is
limited to This will happen when the beams are "short".

13.4 Axially Compressed Columns

In analysing column behaviour, the first step is to determine the effective area of
the cross section by summing up the total values of effective areas for all the individual
elements.

Fig. 13.9 Column Strength (Hon- dimensional) for different Q factors

The ultimate load (or squash load) of a short strut is obtained from

Where = ultimate load of a short strut

= sum of the effective areas of all the individual plate elements
= the ratio of the effective area to the total area of cross section at yield stress

Following the Perry-Robertson approach, the failure load is evaluated from

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 and = radius of gyration corresponding to
Fig. 13.9 shows the mean stress at failure cross sectional area) obtained for
columns with variation of for a number of "Q" factors. (The y-axis is non-
dimensionalised using the yield stress; and "Q" factor is the ratio of effective cross
sectional area to full cross sectional area). Plots such as Fig. 13.9 can be employed directly
for doubly symmetric sections.

( a ) Channel section loaded ( b ) The move of the neutral axis (due to plate
through its centroid buckling) causes an eccentricity and a
consequent moment This would cause an additional
compression on flange AR

Fig. 13.10 Effective shift in the loading axis in an axially compressed column 13.4.1

Effective shift of loading axis

If a section is not doubly symmetric (see Fig. 13.10) and has a large reduction of effective widths
of elements, then the effective section may have changed position of centroid. This would induce
bending on an initially concentrically loaded section, as shown in Fig. 13.10 To allow for this
behaviour, the movement of effective neutral axis from the geometric neutral axis of the cross
section must be first determined by comparing the gross and effective section properties. The
ultimate load is evaluated by allowing for the interaction of bending and compression using the
following equation:

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Where Pc is obtained from Eqn (16) and Mc is the bending resistance of the section for moments acting in
the direction corresponding to the movement of neutral axis; es is the distance between the effective
centroid and actual centroid of the cross section.

13.4.2 Torsional - flexural buckling

Singly symmetric columns may fail either (a) by Euler buckling about an axis perpendicular to the line of
symmetry (as detailed in 13.4.1 above) or (b) by a combination of bending about the axis of symmetry and
a twist as shown in Fig. 13.11. This latter type of behaviour is known as Torsional-flexural behaviour.
Purely torsional and purely flexural failure does not occur in a general case.

Fig. 13.11Column displacements during Flexural - Torsional

buckling
Analysis of torsional-flexural behaviour of cold-formed sections is tedious and time consuming for
practical design. Codes deal with this problem by simplified design methods or by empirical
methods based on experimental data.

As an illustration, the following design procedure, suggested in BS5950, Part 5 is detailed below as
being suitable for sections with at least one axis of symmetry (say and subjected to flexural
torsional buckling.

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 Effective length multiplication factors (known as factors) are tabulated for a number of
section geometries. These factors are employed to obtain increased effective lengths,
which together with the design analysis prescribed in 13.4.1 above can be used to obtain
torsional buckling resistance of a column.

Where is the elastic flexural buckling load (in Newtons) for a column about the

y-axis, i.e.

= effective length (in mm) corresponding to the minimum radius of gyration

= torsional flexural buckling load (in Newtons) of a column given by

Where = Elastic flexural buckling load of the column (in Newtons) about the

given by

= Torsional buckling load of a column (In Newtons) given by

In these equations,
= polar radius of gyration about the shear centre (in mm) given
by

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 where
are the radii of gyration (in mm) about the
is the shear modulus
is the distance from shear centre to the centroid measured along the axis (mm)

St Venants' Torsion constant which may be taken as summed up for

all elements, where flat width of the element and thickness (both of them
measure in mm)

Ix the moment of inertia about the x axis (mm4)

F Warping constant for all section.

13.4.3 Torsion behaviour

Cold formed sections are mainly formed with "open" sections and do not have high resistance
to torsion. Hence the application of load that would cause torsion should be avoided where
possible. Generally speaking, by adjusting the method of load application, it is possible to
restrain twisting so that torsion does not occur to any significant extent.

13.5 Combined Bending and Compression

Compression members, which are also subject to bending, will have to be designed to take into
account the effects of interaction. The following checks are suggested for members that have
at least one axis of symmetry: (i) the local capacity at points of greatest bending moment and
axial load and (ii) an overall buckling check.

13.5.1 Local capacity check

The local capacity check is ascertained by satisfying the following at the points of greatest
bending moment and axial load:

= applied axial load

= short strut capacity defined by (Eqn. 15)
= applied bending moments about x and y axis
= Moment resistance of the beam about x-axis in the absence of
= Moment resistance of the beam about y-axis in the absence of

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 13.5.2 Overall buckling check

For members not subject to lateral buckling, the following relationship should be
satisfied:

For beams subject to lateral buckling, the following relationship should be satisfied:

Where
= axial buckling resistance in the absence of moments (see Eqn. 16)
= flexural buckling load in compression for bending about the x- axis
and for bending about the y-axis respectively.
= factors (defined in the previous chapter) with regard to moment variation
about x and y axis respectively.
= lateral buckling resistance moment about the x axis

13.6 Tension Members

If a member is connected in such a way as to eliminate any moments due to connection

eccentricity, the member may be designed as a simple tension member. Where a member is
connected eccentrically to its axis, then the resulting moment has to be allowed for.

The tensile capacity of a member may be evaluated from

Where
is the effective area of the section making due allowance for the type of member (angle, plain
channel, Tee section etc) and the type of connection (e.g. connected through one leg only or
through the flange or web of a T- section).

is design strength

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 The area of the tension member should invariably be calculated as its gross area less
deductions for holes or openings. (The area to be deducted from the gross sectional area of a
member should be the maximum sum of the sectional areas of the holes in any cross section at
right angles to the direction of applied stress).

Reference is also made to the section on "Tension Members" where provision for
enhancement of strength due to strain hardening has been incorporated for hot rolled steel
sections. The Indian code IS: 801-1975 is in the process of revision and it is probable that a
similar enhancement will be allowed for cold rolled steel sections also.

When a member is subjected to both combined bending and axial tension, the capacity of the
member should be ascertained from the following:

Where Ft = applied load

= tensile capacity (see Eqn. 26)

are as defined previously.

13.7 Design on the Basis of Testing

While it is possible to design many cold-formed steel members on the basis of analysis, the very
large variety of shapes that can be formed and the complex interactions that occur make it
frequently uneconomical to design members and systems completely on theoretical basis. The
behaviour of a component or system can often be ascertained economically by a test and suitable
modifications incorporated, where necessary.

Particular care should be taken while testing components, that the tests model the actual loading
conditions as closely as possible. For example, while these tests may be used successfully to assess
the material work hardening much caution will be needed when examining the effects of local
buckling. There is a possibility of these tests giving misleading information or even no information
regarding neutral axis movement. The specimen lengths may be too short to pick up certain types
of buckling behaviour.

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Testing is probably the only realistic method of assessing the strength and characteristics of
connections. Evaluating connection behaviour is important as connections play a crucial role
in the strength and stiffness of a structure.

In testing complete structures or assemblies, it is vital to ensure that the test set up reflects
the in-service conditions as accurately as possible. The method of load application, the type
of supports, the restraints from adjacent structures and the flexibility of connections are all
factors to be considered carefully and modelled accurately.

Testing by an independent agency (such as Universities) is widely used by manufacturers of

mass produced components to ensure consistency of quality. The manufacturers also provide
load/span tables for their products, which can be employed by structural designers and
architects who do not have detailed knowledge of design procedures. An advantage to the
manufacturers in designing on the basis of proof testing is that the load/span tables obtained
are generally more advantageous than those obtained by analytical methods; they also
reassure the customers about the validity of their load/span tables.

Fig. 13.12 Z Purlins

13.8.1 Z Purlins

A Z purlin used for supporting the roofing sheet is sketched in Fig. 13.11. In designing Z
purlins with lips using the simplified empirical rules the following recommendations are to
be complied with:

Unfactored loads should be used for designing purlins

Imposed loads should be taken to be at least

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• Claddings and fixings should be checked for adequacy to provide lateral restraint to the purlin and should be
capable of carrying the component of load in the plane of the roof slope.
• The purlin should be considered to carry the load normal to roof slope (and a nominal axial load due to wind
or restraint forces)
• These rules apply to purlins up to 8 m span in roof slopes up to 22.5°.
• Antisag bars should be provided to ensure that laterally unsupported length of the purlin does not exceed 3.8
m. These should be anchored to rigid apex support or their forces should be transferred diagonally to main
frames.
• Purlin cleats should provide adequate torsional restraint.

13.8.2 Design rules

The following design rules apply with reference to Fig. 13.12

• The overall depth should not be greater than and not less than
• Overall width of compression flange / thickness ratio should not be greater than 35.
• Lip width should be greater than

• Section Modulus for simply supported purlins

and for continuous or semi rigidly jointed purlins.

In the above,
L =span of the purlin (in mm)
W = Normal component of unfactored (distributed dead load+imposed load)
in

B = Width of the compression flange in mm

T = thickness of the purlin in mm.

• The net allowable wind uplift in a direction normal to roof when purlins are restrained is taken as 50% of
the (dead + imposed) load.

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