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Objectives:
References:
Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Part 1.1 General rules and rules for buildings
The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures, Chapter 4- Local buckling of thin plate elements,
N S Trahair and M A Bradford, E & FN Spon, Revised Second Edition 1994
Contents:
Introduction
Classification
Behaviour of plate elements in compression
Effective width approach to design of Class 4 sections
Concluding summary
1. Introduction
Structural sections, rolled or welded, may be considered as an assembly of individual plate elements.
Most of these elements (figure 1), if in compression, can be separated into two categories:
Internal or stiffened elements: these elements are considered to be simply supported along two edges
parallel to the direction of compressive stress.
Outstand or unstiffened elements; these elements are considered to be simply supported along one edge
and free on the other edge parallel to the direction of compressive stress.
Outstand
Internal
Internal
Outstand
Internal
Web
Web
Web
Flange
(a) Rolled I-section
Flange
Flange
(b) Hollow section
Internal
2. Classification
EC3 defines four classes of cross section.
The cross section class depends upon the slenderness of each element (defined by a Eurocode 3
width-to-thickness ratio) and the compressive stress distribution i.e. uniform or linear. 5. 3.2 (1)
or 5.5.2
The classes are defined as performance requirements for bending moment resistance:
Class 1 - cross-sections that can form a plastic hinge with the required rotational capacity for plastic
analysis.
Class 2 - cross-sections that, although able to develop a plastic moment, have limited rotational
capacity and are therefore unsuitable for plastic design.
Class 3 - cross-sections that the calculated stress in the extreme compression fibre can reach yield but
local buckling prevents the development of the plastic moment resistance.
Class 4 - cross-sections that in which local buckling limits the moment resistance (or compression
resistance for axially loaded members). Explicit allowance for the effects of local buckling
is necessary.
2
Table 1 summarises the classes in terms of behaviour, moment capacity and rotational capacity.
Moment
Resistance
Model of
Behaviour
Moment
Plastic moment
on gross section
M pl
Local
Buckling
fy
M
Mpl
Sufficient
Plastic moment
on gross section
fy
Mpl
Local
Buckling
M
Mpl
1
Mpl
fy
Mel
Local
Buckling
M
Mpl
fy
Mel
pl
Plastic moment on
effective section
Mpl
None
Moment
pl
Elastic moment
on gross section
pl
Limited
Moment
rot
pl
Moment
Class
Rotation Capacity
M
Mpl
None
4
Local
Buckling
pl
cr
k 2 E t
=
12(1 2 ) b
(1)
Where
k is the plate buckling parameter which accounts for edge support conditions,
stress distribution and aspect ratio of the plate - see figure 2a.
= Poissons coefficient, E = Youngs modulus
3.2.5 (1)
3.2.5 (1)
L
t
(b)
(a)
Simply supported on
all four edges
Buckling coefficient k
5
b
4
Simply supported
edge
Free
Exact
k = 0.425 + (b/L)2
2
(c)
1
0.425
Free
edge
(d)
0,5
(2)
This expression is general as the effect of stress gradient, boundary conditions and aspect ratio are all
encompassed within the buckling parameter k.
4
Table 2 gives values for k for internal and outstand elements under various elastic stress distributions.
Buckling factor k
6,97
5,40
4,00
Clamped + free
1,28
0,43
Free + free
(b/a)2
Various support
conditions
a/b >> 1
III
II
Case I
Internal element
Case II
Outstand element
Case III
Outstand element
+1
1>>0
0 > >
-1
4,0
8,02
1,05 +
7,81
7,81+6,29+9,782
23,9
0,43
0,57-0,21+0,072
0,57
0,57-0,21+0,072
0,85
0,43
0,578
+0,34
1,70
1,7-5+17,12
23,8
The elastic-plastic behaviour of a perfect plate element subject to uniform compression may be
represented by a normalised load-slenderness diagram where normalised ultimate load, Np , and
normalised plate slenderness, p , are given by:
= ult / fy
0,
p = (f y / cr )
(3)
Np
(4)
Substituting equation (1) for cr into (4), and replacing fy with 235/2 (so that the expression may be used
for any grade of material) the normalised plate slenderness, p, may be expressed as
b/t
=
28.4 k
(5)
where b is the appropriate width for the type of element and cross-section type.
fy
p =
cr
0 .5
u
fy
1
Class 3
Class 2
Class 1
0,5 0,6
0,9
1,0
5.2.1.4 (7)
tw
Axis of
Bending
tw
tw
tw
d = h-3t (t = tf = t w)
Web subject to
bending
Class
Web subject to
compression
+ fy
Stress
distribution in
element
(compression
positive)
+ fy
d
fy
h
fy
+ fy
d h
d/t w <_ 72
d/t w <_ 33
d/t w <
_ 83
d/t w <_ 38
+ fy
+ fy
Stress
distribution in
element
(compression
positive)
d/t w _
< 456/(13 1)
d/2
d/2
fy -
fy -
when > 1:
d/t w _< 42/(0,67 + 0,33)
_ 42
d/t w <
_ 1:
when <
d/t w _< 62/(1 )
= 235 / f
y
( )
fy
235
275
355
0,92
0,81
tf
axis of
bending
Class
tf
tf
Section in bending
Type
Stress distribution
in element and
across section
(compression
positive)
Section in compression
fy
+
-
tf
fy
+
-
- +
1
Stress distribution
in element and
across section
(compression
positive)
- +
_
<33
_<33
_<38
_<38
(b - 3t f )/ t f
b / tf
(b - 3t f )/ t f
b/tf
fy
+
-
+
-
= 235/ f y
fy
fy
- +
3
_<42 *
_
<42
*
_
<42
_
<42
(b - 3t f)/ t f
b / tf
(b - 3t f )/ tf
b / tf
fy
(b - 3t f )/ t f
b / tf
- +
*
_
(b - 3t f)/ t f <42
_<42
b / tf
_<42
_<42
235
275
335
0,92
0,81
* For a cross section in compression with no bending the classification 1,2,3 are irrelevant
and hence the limit is the same in each case.
c. Outstand flanges:
c
c
tf tf
tf
Welded sections
Rolled sections
Type of section
Class
= 235/ f y
+
-
Rolled
c/t f _
< 10
_ 10
c/t f <
Welded
c/t f _< 9
c/t f <_ 9e
Rolled
_ 11
c/t f <
_ 11
c/t f <
Welded
_ 10
c/t f <
c/t f <_ 10
Stress distribution
in element
(compression positive)
Flange subject to
compression and bending
Tip in
Tip in
compression
tension
c
c
+
c
c
Flange subject
to compression
Stress distribution
in element
(compression positive)
tf
10
_ 9
c/t f <
_
c/t f <
11
c/t f <
_ 10
_
c/t f <
+
-
+
-
Rolled
_ 15
c/t f <
_ 23 k
c/t f <
Welded
_ 14
c/t f <
c/t f <
_ 23 k
+
-
+
-
fy
235
275
355
0,92
0,81
d. Angles:
Refer also to c.
'Outstand flanges'
(Table 6)
t
Section in compression
Class
fy
+
-
fy
Stress distribution
across section
(compression positive)
t
h
b+h
15 :
115
,
t
2t
3
e. Tubular sections:
Class
1
d / t 70 2
d / t 90 2
2
3
= 235/ f y
fy
235
275
355
0,92
0,81
0,85
0,66
10
Figure 5 Strain/stress distribution of a member with deck plate local buckling in compression.
11
To allow for the reduction in strength the actual non linear distribution of stress is taken into account by
a linear distribution of stress acting on a reduced "effective plate width" leaving an "effective hole"
where the buckle occurs, Figure 5.
By applying this model an "effective cross-section" is defined for which the resistance is then calculated
as for Class 3 sections (by limiting the stresses in the extreme fibres to the yield strength).
The effective widths beff are calculated on the basis of the Winter formula:
beff = .b
Reduction coefficient depends on the plate slenderness
( )
( )
0,22
p
=
2
(6)
The reduction factor may then be applied to outstand or internal element as shown in Tables 8 and 9.
12
Stress distribution
(compression positive)
beff
1 > 0:
beff = c
c
bt
bc
< 0:
beff = bc = c / (1 )
2
beff
= 2 /1
-1
1 1
Buckling factor k
0,43
0,57
0,85
beff
1 > 0:
beff = c
beff
< 0:
beff = bc = c / (1 )
2
bc
bt
= 2 /1
1> > 0
Buckling factor k
0,43
0,578
+ 0,34
1,70
0 > > 1
1,7 5 + 171
, 2
-1
23,8
13
Stress distribution
(compression positive)
= 1:
b = b - 3t
beff = b
be1 = 0,5 b eff
be2 = 0,5 b eff
be2
be1
b
1 > >_ 0 :
b e1
b = b - 3t
beff = b
2b
b e1 = eff
5-
b e2 = beff - be1
be2
b
bc
bt
< 0:
b = b - 3t
beff = bc = b / (1 - )
b e1
be2
b
= 2 /1
1> > 0
Buckling
factor k
4,0
8,2
1,05 +
7,81
Alternatively, for
_ >_ - 1:
1>
0 > > - 1
-1
k =
- 1> > - 2
5,98 (1 - )2
16
[(1 + )2 + 0,112(1 - )2 ]0,5 + (1 + )
Illustrated as rhs.
For other sections b = d for webs
b = b for internal flange elements (except rhs)
14
Centroidal axis of
gross cross-section
Centroidal axis of
gross cross-section
Centroidal axis of
effective cross-section
eN
Non-effective zones
Gross cross-section
(a) Class 4 cross-sections - axial force
eM
Centroidal axis
Non-effective zone
Centroidal axis of
effective section
Non-effective zone
eM
Centroidal axis
Centroidal axis of
effective section
Gross cross-section
6. Concluding summary
Local buckling within the cross-section may limit the load carrying capacity of the section by
preventing the attainment of yield strength.
Premature failure (from local buckling) may be avoided by limiting the width to thickness ratio or slenderness - of individual elements within the cross section.
This is the basis of the section classification approach. EC3 defines 4 classes of cross-section.
The class into which a particular cross-section falls depends upon the slenderness of each
element and the compressive stress distribution.
Additional reading
[1] Salmon, C.G., Johnson, J.E., "Steel Structures. Design and Behaviour", Harper et Row, New York.
[2] Dubas, P., Gehri, E., "Behaviour and Design of Steel Plated Structures", Pub. 44, ECCS, TC8, 1986.
[3] Bulson, P.S., "The Stability of Flat Plates" Chatto and Windus, London.
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