Lecture 14 - Designing Stand-Alone PV Systems II: Alan P. Morrison

Sandia National Lab Design Approach Case Study
Lecture 14 - Designing Stand-Alone PV Systems II
Alan P. Morrison
November 6, 2019
Alan P. Morrison
Lecture 14 - Designing Stand-Alone PV Systems II 1 / 44
Table of contents
1 Sandia National Lab Design Approach
2 Case Study
Alan P. Morrison
Introduction
More sophisticated than Telstra Approach.

Incorporates multiple years of accumulated weather/insolation
data.
Approach is applicable to any system with a fixed-tilt array.
Tilt angles from Latitude - 20o to Latitude + 20o can be used.
Design approach relies on the application of nomograms to
assessing design requirements.
Alan P. Morrison
Loss-of-load probability
The Loss-of-load probability (LOLP) is the probability at any

point in time that the load will not be satisfied by the
PV-storage system and, as such, is directly related to system
availability (A), where:
LOLP = 1 − A
The LOLP is specified by the designer, based on the

requirements of the application.
System cost increases exponentially as LOLP → 0.
There is a continuum of array size/ storage capacity
combinations that satisfy a specified LOLP.
These may be assessed to determine the least cost approach
to the system design.
Alan P. Morrison
System Design Model
The model is derived from studies correlating variabilities in

insolation with average data from ∼ 24 years of hourly data.
The model makes use of theoretically calculated light
intensities as a function of Air-Mass throughout the day.
The system latitude is a required variable for the system
design.
Design approach is simplified by basing the design only on the
data for the month with the lowest insolation levels over the
year.
This approach does not cost anything in terms of overall
accuracy of the design for other months.
Alan P. Morrison
System Design Model
Curves have been generated from multiple calculations over a

wide range of design parameters that facilitate:
I Determination of battery capacity for a specified LOLP.
I Optimisation of array tilt angle.
I Obtaining insolation data at the appropriate tilt angle.
I Determination of the array size that, in conjunction with the
battery capacity, provided the required LOLP.
Four sets of curves exist, each giving a different battery
capacity for the specified LOLP.
Analysis via the four curve sets leads to four different designs
that all meet the LOLP.
These are then analysed on the basis of cost to determine the
least-cost approach.
Alan P. Morrison
Design costing
Costing may be based purely on initial cost or lifetime cost

basis.
For lifetime costing the battery life must be considered.
The lifetime of flooded lead-acid batteries can be estimated
from:
CL = (89.59 − 194.29T ) exp (−1.75DOD)
where CL is the battery life (in cycles), T is the battery

temperature (o C) and DOD is the depth of discharge.
DODs for all battery cycles can be generalised as a function of
LOLP and days of storage.
Alan P. Morrison
Limitations
The nomograms upon which the design process is based hide

the calculation details from the designer.
By optimising for the worst winter month, there is no check to
ensure that summer months are not disadvantaged excessively.
Alan P. Morrison
Define Site Specific and Application Specific Parameters
Latitude
Horizonal insolation for worst month (usually December in
Northern Hemisphere, June in Southern Hemisphere)
Daily energy demand.
LOLP required.
For this design example we will assume the following:
I Latitude - 30o N.
I Average daily horizontal insolation in December - 3 kWh/m2 .
I Daily demand - 5 kWhac
I LOLP - 0.001 (critical load)
Alan P. Morrison
Determine battery storage
Read battery storage days (S) directly from the nomogram at

specified LOLP for each of the 4 design sets.
The four designs give 3.75, 5.8, 8.2 and 10.2 days respectively.
From the S values the actual battery capacity required is
calculated from:
S×L
CAP = (1)
DOD × ηout
where S is the number of storage days, L is the average load

per day, DOD is the allowable depth-of-discharge and ηout is
the storage to demand path efficiency.
Alan P. Morrison
Design 1 - Nomogram
Alan P. Morrison
Design 2 - Nomogram
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Design 3 - Nomogram
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Design 4 - Nomogram
Alan P. Morrison
Calculate battery capacity
We are using an a.c. load → need inverter and charge

controller etc...
These factors contribute to the calculation of ηout .
Assume average inverter daily efficiency of 0.76 and battery
controller efficiency is 0.95.
ηout = 0.95 × 0.76 = 0.72

L = 5kWh/day
S = 5.8(for design 2)
DOD = 0.8(using deep cycle battery)
∴ CAP = 5.8 × 5/ (0.8 × 0.72)
= 50kWh
Alan P. Morrison
Determine array size
The design insolation in the plane of the array (P OA) can be

determined from the appropriate nomogram.
Reading the P OA for different tilt angles, the tilt angle is
easily optimised by selecting the one that gives the maximum
P OA value.
These values are given on the nomograms as a function on
latitude and tilt angle.
Alan P. Morrison
In our example, for horizontal insolation of 3 kWh/m2 /day at

a latitude of 30o , the P OA is 4.3 kWh/m2 /day when the tilt
angle is set to the latitude.
The corresponding array area (A) is calculated from:
L
A= (2)
P OA × ηin × ηout
where L is the average daily load (kWh/day), P OA is the

design insolation value (kWh/m2 /day), ηin is the path
efficiency from insolation to storage and ηout is the path
efficiency from storage to load.
Alan P. Morrison
Design 1 - Nomogram: Latitude - 20o
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Design 1 - Nomogram: Latitude
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Design 1 - Nomogram: Latitude + 10o
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The design gives the array size as an area, independent of the

voltage-current configuration.
The disadvantage of this is the need to specify
current/voltage/power rating when purchasing panels.
Without MPPT the array voltage is determined by the
batteries and each module is assumed to operate at its rated
maximum power point current.
Alan P. Morrison
Under these circumstances the array size is best specified in

terms of peak current (IP ) given by:
L × I0
IP = (3)
P OA × ηbatt × DF × Vbatt × SD × ηout
where I0 is the peak light intensity (1 kW/m2 ) where the

array will produce the current IP at the nominal battery
voltage, Vbatt . P OA is the design insolation, ηbatt is the
battery coulombic efficiency (typically 85% during months of
lowest insolation), DF is the dust factor (typically 0.9), L is
the average daily load, SD is the battery self discharge factor
and ηout is the storage to load efficiency as before.
Alan P. Morrison
For deep cycle batteries self discharge can be neglected during

the worst month, unless the LOLP is very small.
For a 24 Vdc configuration:
IP = 5000 × 1000/ (4300 × 0.85 × 0.9 × 24 × 0.72) = 88A
This will correspond to approx. 3 kW manufacturer’s rating.
Alan P. Morrison
If MPPT is used then we need to look at the efficiency of the

array at the maximum power point:
ηmp = ηr [1 − Cr (Tc − Tr )] (4)
where ηr is the array efficiency, Cr is the maximum power

coefficient of variation with temperature (typically
0.005o C−1 ), Tr is the reference temperature and Tc is the cell
temperature.
Alan P. Morrison
For example, with ambient temperature of 10o C, and the array

operating 20o C above ambient. If the manufacturer quotes an
array efficiency of 10% at a 25o C reference temperature then:
ηmp = 10 × (1 − 0.005 × (30 − 25)) = 9.75%
ηin = ηmp × ηbatt × ηmppt × DF × SD

where ηmppt is the MPPT efficiency (typically 95%). Thus:
ηin = 0.0975 × 0.85 × 0.95 × 0.9 = 0.071
The resulting array area required is:
A = 5000/(4300 × 0.071 × 0.72) = 22.8m2
Alan P. Morrison
In terms of the manufacturer’s ratings at 25o C:
array rating = 1000W/m2 × 0.1 × 22.8m2 = 2.28kWp
This compares to 3 kWp rating required without MPPT.

Trade-off exists between cost, system-reliability, complexity
and efficiency.
Previous calculations done on the basis of Design 2 - these
can be repeated for the other designs using the nomograms.
Alan P. Morrison
Summary of calculations
Table: Plane-of-array design insolations as a function of tilt angle
Design -20o -10o 0o +10o +20o S (days)

1 3.00 3.23 3.37 3.44 3.45 3.59
2 3.53 3.93 4.28 4.50 4.46 5.80
3 3.73 4.21 4.61 4.84 4.71 8.13
4 3.85 4.38 4.79 4.99 4.79 10.19
From the table the optimum tilt angle is latitude+10o .

This leaves 4 design combinations of array size and storage
capacity giving the desired LOLP.
Selection is then made on the basis of least cost.
Alan P. Morrison

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Sandia National Lab Design Approach Case Study

Lecture 14 - Designing Stand-Alone PV Systems II

1 Sandia National Lab Design Approach

More sophisticated than Telstra Approach.

The Loss-of-load probability (LOLP) is the probability at any

The LOLP is specified by the designer, based on the

System Design Model

The model is derived from studies correlating variabilities in

System Design Model

Curves have been generated from multiple calculations over a

Costing may be based purely on initial cost or lifetime cost

CL = (89.59 − 194.29T ) exp (−1.75DOD)

where CL is the battery life (in cycles), T is the battery

The nomograms upon which the design process is based hide

Define Site Specific and Application Specific Parameters

Determine battery storage

Read battery storage days (S) directly from the nomogram at

where S is the number of storage days, L is the average load

Calculate battery capacity

We are using an a.c. load → need inverter and charge

ηout = 0.95 × 0.76 = 0.72

Determine array size

The design insolation in the plane of the array (P OA) can be

Determine array size

In our example, for horizontal insolation of 3 kWh/m2 /day at

where L is the average daily load (kWh/day), P OA is the

Design 1 - Nomogram: Latitude - 20o

Design 1 - Nomogram: Latitude - 10o

Design 1 - Nomogram: Latitude

Design 1 - Nomogram: Latitude + 10o

Design 1 - Nomogram: Latitude + 20o

Design 2 - Nomogram: Latitude - 20o

Design 2 - Nomogram: Latitude - 10o

Design 2 - Nomogram: Latitude

Design 2 - Nomogram: Latitude + 10o

Design 2 - Nomogram: Latitude + 20o

Design 3 - Nomogram: Latitude - 20o

Design 3 - Nomogram: Latitude - 10o

Design 3 - Nomogram: Latitude

Design 3 - Nomogram: Latitude + 10o

Design 3 - Nomogram: Latitude + 20o

Design 4 - Nomogram: Latitude - 20o

Design 4 - Nomogram: Latitude - 10o

Design 4 - Nomogram: Latitude

Design 4 - Nomogram: Latitude + 10o

Design 4 - Nomogram: Latitude + 20o

Determine array size

The design gives the array size as an area, independent of the

Determine array size

Under these circumstances the array size is best specified in

where I0 is the peak light intensity (1 kW/m2 ) where the

Determine array size

For deep cycle batteries self discharge can be neglected during

IP = 5000 × 1000/ (4300 × 0.85 × 0.9 × 24 × 0.72) = 88A

This will correspond to approx. 3 kW manufacturer’s rating.

Determine array size

If MPPT is used then we need to look at the efficiency of the

ηmp = ηr [1 − Cr (Tc − Tr )] (4)

where ηr is the array efficiency, Cr is the maximum power

Determine array size

For example, with ambient temperature of 10o C, and the array

ηmp = 10 × (1 − 0.005 × (30 − 25)) = 9.75%

ηin = ηmp × ηbatt × ηmppt × DF × SD