Lecture 10 - Battery Storage: Alan P. Morrison October 6, 2016

Batteries for energy storage Lead-acid batteries
Lecture 10 - Battery Storage
Alan P. Morrison
October 6, 2016
Alan P. Morrison
Lecture 10 - Battery Storage 1 / 25
Table of contents
1 Batteries for energy storage
2 Lead-acid batteries
Alan P. Morrison
Battery types
Lead-acid (industry workhorse)

Nickel-Cadmium
Nickel-Metal-Hydride
Rechargeable alkaline manganese
Lithium-ion
Lithium polymer
Redox batteries
Alan P. Morrison
Battery applications and requirements
Applications
▶ Power conditioning
▶ Short-term storage (redistribute load over 24hour period)
▶ Longer term storage (ensure system availability through
periods of low insolation)
Requirements
▶ long life with very low self discharge
▶ long duty cycle (long periods of low charge)
▶ high charge storage efficiency
▶ low cost and low maintenance
Alan P. Morrison
Battery efficiency
Battery efficiency can be characterised as:
1 Coulombic, or charge efficiency - usually measured at a
constant discharge rate, referring to the amount of charge

able to be retrieved from the battery, relative to the
amount put in during charging. Self-discharge will affect
coulombic efficiency.
2 Voltage efficiency - also measured at a constant
discharge rate and reflecting the fact that charge is

retrieved from the battery at a lower voltage than was
necessary to put the charge into the battery.
3 Energy efficiency - the product of the coulombic and
voltage efficiencies.
Typical charge storage efficiencies are 80 - 85%, for
stand-alone PV systems, with winter efficiencies increasing to
90 - 95%.
Alan P. Morrison
Power rating and capacity

1 Power rating - defined as the maximum rate of charge
and discharge, measured in amperes (A).
2 Battery capacity - maximum amount of energy that can
be extracted from the battery without the battery voltage
falling below a prescribed value. Battery capacity is
measured in kWh or Ah, at a constant discharge rate.
Rate of discharge affects capacity.
PV systems usually have 300 hour discharge rate
(approximately doubles capacity of Lead-acid compared
to 10 hour rate.
Battery capacity falls by ∼1% per degree below about
20o C
High temperatures accelerate ageing, self-discharge and
electrolyte use.
Alan P. Morrison
Depth of discharge
Depth of discharge - is the percentage of rated capacity

withdrawn from the battery
Shallow-cycling batteries should not be discharged more
than 25% of rated capacity.
Deep-cycling batteries can be discharged up to 80% of
rated capacity.
Battery life is a function of the average state-of-charge of
the battery → compromise must be made between
cycling depth and battery size.
Alan P. Morrison
Battery example
Alan P. Morrison
Types of lead-acid battery
Lead-acid → most common battery presently used in

stand-alone PV.
Can be:
▶ Deep or shallow cycling
▶ Gelled / Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)
▶ Captive or liquid electrolyte
▶ Sealed (VRLA) or open (flooded)
Alan P. Morrison
Types of lead-acid battery
Valve regulated lead acid - ‘sealed’ with valve to allow

venting of excess hydrogen gas if pressure is excessive.
Catalytic converters convert most of evolved hydrogen
and oxygen back into water. Electrolyte cannot be added.
They require stringent charging controls, but less
maintenance than open batteries.
Flooded electrolyte - contain an excess of electrolyte
and gassing is used to reduce electrolyte stratification.
Charging regime not as stringent, but electrolyte must be
frequently replenished and battery housing must be
vented to prevent build-up of hydrogen gas.
Alan P. Morrison
Lead acid battery types
Alan P. Morrison
Alan P. Morrison
Alan P. Morrison
Plate materials
Pure lead - Soft and easily damaged. Low self-discharge

rates and long life expectancy.
Calcium - added to lead to provide strength. Cost less
than pure lead, but not suitable for repeated deep
discharging and have slightly shorter lifetimes. Used in
VRLA batteries for low gassing rates.
Antimony - added to lead for strength and low contact
resistance. Common in automotive applications.
Cheapest of the three, but shortest lifetime and highest
self-discharge rates. Degrade rapidly when deep
discharged - not suitable for PV applications. Usually only
available as open batteries.
Alan P. Morrison
Inside lead acid battery
Alan P. Morrison
Charging Lead-acid
PV systems operate in constant potential or cycling mode.
PV batteries regularly at low states of charge for long
periods (especially in winter)
Sulphation - build up of lead-sulphate crystals on battery
plates when state-of-charge is low → reduces battery
efficiency and capacity.
Reduce sulphating by limiting discharge to 50% maximum
- keeps acid concentrations high and lessens chance of
battery freezing in winter.
Overcharging causes gassing leading to loss of electrolyte
and shedding of plate active material. Overcharging is
necessary over short periods for charge equalisation.
Overcharging is prevented by using voltage regulators to
restrict each cell voltage to 2.35 V.
Alan P. Morrison
Charging Lead-acid
PV systems operate in constant potential or cycling mode.
PV batteries regularly at low states of charge for long
periods (especially in winter)
Sulphation - build up of lead-sulphate crystals on battery
plates when state-of-charge is low → reduces battery
efficiency and capacity.
Reduce sulphating by limiting discharge to 50% maximum
- keeps acid concentrations high and lessens chance of
battery freezing in winter.
Overcharging causes gassing leading to loss of electrolyte
and shedding of plate active material. Overcharging is
necessary over short periods for charge equalisation.
Overcharging is prevented by using voltage regulators to
restrict each cell voltage to 2.35 V.
Alan P. Morrison
Charging Lead-acid
Approximate state-of-charge measured via battery

voltage.
Charging stopped at a specific voltage called the
high-voltage disconnect point (HVD) - chosen to allow
limited amount of gassing, charge equalisation, and
electrolyte agitation, without excessive loss of electrolyte.
Discharge is halted at a specified low-voltage disconnect
(LVD) point, chosen to maintain reasonable battery life.
Better methods of charge control are constant source of
research.
Terminal voltage is not a reliable indicator of battery
state-of-charge.
Alan P. Morrison
Charging SLA
Alan P. Morrison
Discharge Characteristics
55Ah Deep Cycle battery
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Discharge Characteristics
Characteristic Curves
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Self-Discharge Characteristics
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Life-cycle versus depth of discharge
Alan P. Morrison
Measuring battery state-of-charge
Open battery types have the advantage of allowing

measurement of specific gravity of electrolyte.
Specific Gravity is one of the most accurate measures of
the state-of-charge of a battery.
Table: Typical deep-cycle lead-acid battery cell properties vs.

state-of-charge
State-of-charge, % Specific Gravity Cell Voltage, V Freezing point, o C
100 1.265 2.21 -57.22
75 1.225 2.10 -37.22
50 1.190 2.08 -23.33
25 1.155 2.03 -16.11
0 1.120 1.95 -8.33
Alan P. Morrison
Connecting batteries together
Batteries in series → voltages add, but capacity is limited

to smallest capacity battery in string.
Batteries in parallel → voltage is battery voltage and
capacity adds.
Cable sizing is important to minimise voltage drops across
the cable, as current can be quite large.
Batteries are usually connected in banks to produce 12 V,
24 V, 36 V or 48 V typically for connection to inverter.
Batteries for electric vehicles are usually connected so as
to produce hundreds of volts.
Alan P. Morrison
Connecting batteries together
Example
A battery bank is to produce 24 V with an overall capacity of
1200 Ah. The batteries available are 6 V, 220 Ah flooded
lead-acid batteries. How many batteries are required to meet
the design specification and how should they be connected?
Solution
24 V → 4 batteries in series (4 × 6 V). Capacity is 220 Ah and
desired capacity is 1200 Ah → 1200/220 = 5.45 ∼ 6 batteries
in parallel required to get required capacity. Therefore we
need 6 parallel strings of 4 batteries in series giving 24
batteries in total to meet the design specification.
Alan P. Morrison
Battery Bank
Alan P. Morrison
Battery Bank
Alan P. Morrison

Lecture 10 - Battery Storage: Alan P. Morrison October 6, 2016

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Batteries for energy storage Lead-acid batteries

Lecture 10 - Battery Storage

1 Batteries for energy storage

Lead-acid (industry workhorse)

Battery applications and requirements

constant discharge rate, referring to the amount of charge

discharge rate and reflecting the fact that charge is

Power rating and capacity

Depth of discharge - is the percentage of rated capacity

Types of lead-acid battery

Lead-acid → most common battery presently used in

Types of lead-acid battery

Valve regulated lead acid - ‘sealed’ with valve to allow

Lead acid battery types

Lead acid battery types

Lead acid battery types

Pure lead - Soft and easily damaged. Low self-discharge

Inside lead acid battery

Approximate state-of-charge measured via battery

Life-cycle versus depth of discharge

Measuring battery state-of-charge

Open battery types have the advantage of allowing

Table: Typical deep-cycle lead-acid battery cell properties vs.

Connecting batteries together

Batteries in series → voltages add, but capacity is limited

Connecting batteries together

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