NE4008 Lecture8-1

Thermal considerations Degradation and Failure Modes Embodied energy and life-cycle issues
Lecture 8 - More about Modules
Alan P. Morrison
October 1, 2019
Alan P. Morrison
Lecture 8 - More about Modules 1 / 19
Table of contents
1 Thermal considerations
2 Degradation and Failure Modes
3 Embodied energy and life-cycle issues
Alan P. Morrison
Thermal Considerations
It is desirable for modules to operate at low temperatures:

I Cell output increases at lower temperatures.
I Thermal cycles and stress are reduced.
I Degradation rates ∼ double for each 10o C rise in temperature.
Modules should take advantage of radiative, conductive and
convective cooling, while absorbing the minimum of unused
radiation.
Different encapsulants have different thermal properties and
should be selected on the basis of intended application.
Alan P. Morrison
Alan P. Morrison
Nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT)
This is the temperature reached by open-circuited cells in a module
under the following representative conditions:
irradiance on cell surface = 800 W/m2 (1)

o
air temperature = 20 C (2)
wind velocity = 1 m/s (3)
mounting = open rear surface. (4)
An approximate expression for calculating the cell temperature is:

NOCT − 20
Tcell = Tair + × S(o C) (5)
800
where S is the insolation in W/m2 .
Alan P. Morrison
Cell Packing Density
Cell packing density has an impact on operating temperature.

Sparsely packed cells have a lower NOCT.
I 50% cell packing → 41o C NOCT
I 100% cell packing → 48o C NOCT
Alan P. Morrison
Zero Depth Concentrator Effect

For sparsely packed cells with white rear surface, some light is
reflected back to active cell areas giving a modest power
boost.
Alan P. Morrison
Thermal expansion
Spacing between cells tries to increase by:
δ = (αg C − αc D) ∆T (6)
where αg and αc are the expansion co-efficients of the glass
and cell respectively, C is the centre to centre distance
between cells and D is the cell length.
Thermal cycling of module interfaces can lead to
delamination.
Alan P. Morrison
Mechanical protection
Modules must be able to accommodate some degree of
twisting in the mounting structure.
Frames must support static and dynamic loads, typically
between 2.5 kPa and 3.9 kPa (up to 200 km/hr winds).
Modules must be capable of surviving hail impact damage
from 2.5 cm diameter hail at ∼ 80 km/hr.
Alan P. Morrison
Degradation and Failure Modes
Manufacturers guarantee 20 - 25 year lifetimes for modules.

Solar modules are expected to fail or degrade in a number of
ways.
Long term performance studies indicate typical losses of
1 − 2% per year.
Some failure modes are reversible, others are not.
Catastrophic module failures are invariably due to moisture
ingress or thermal stress.
Alan P. Morrison
Degradation and Failure Modes
Front surface soiling:

I Caused by accumulation of dirt on front surface.
I Glass-surfaced modules help with self cleaning under rain and
wind.
I Losses can be kept to less than 10%
Module shading:
I Caused by trees/buildings etc...
I Easily prevented with proper planning.
Alan P. Morrison
Cell degradation and optical degradation
Gradual degradation in module performance caused by:

I Increase in Rs due to decreased contact adherence or corrosion.
I Decrease in Rsh due to metal migration across p-n junction.
I AR coating degradation
I Degradation of p-type material due to interaction of
boron-oxygen complexes.
Yellowing of encapsulation materials due to prolonged UV
light exposure, leads to gradual drop in performance.
Alan P. Morrison
Short circuit and open circuit cells
Short circuits can occur via

the cell interconnect if the p-n
junction is bridged.
Open circuits can be cause by
cell cracking, due to thermal
stress, hail or gravel, or latent
damage caused during
processing.
Alan P. Morrison
Other failure modes
Interconnect open circuits and series resistance - caused by

fatigue (cyclic thermal stress and wind loading).
Module open circuits and series resistance - typically occur in
the bus wiring or junction box.
Module short circuits - usually due to manufacturing defects
causing insulation degradation with weathering.
Module glass breakage - vandalism, thermal stress, poor
handling, wind, hail or gravel.
Module delamination - not too much of a problem these days
- usually due to moisture migration across encapsulant.
Alan P. Morrison
Other failure modes
Hot-spot failures - due to mismatched, cracked or shaded cells.

Bypass diode failure - usually due to overheating caused by
undersizing. Problem is minimised if junction temperature is
kept below 128o C.
Encapsulant failure - browning of EVA, accompanied by build
up of acetic acid causes gradual reduction in power output.
More prevalent in concentrator systems.
Alan P. Morrison
Lifecycle Analysis (LCA)

Follows the materials and energy flow through manufacturing,
operation and end-of-life.
Einput = Emanufacture + Etransport + Einstall + Euse + Edecomm (7)
Alan P. Morrison
Energy payback time (EPT)
Modern PV cells pay back their manufacturing energy in the

first few years of operation.
Energy Payback Time (EPT)
Each year a PV module is in operation it displaces an equivalent
amount of energy that would otherwise have to be used to
generate the same amount of electricity. This is referred to as Egen
and will vary with location and fuel displaced. The energy payback
time is the time taken for the input energy to be repaid by PV
generation. Hence:
Einput
EPT = (8)
Egen
Alan P. Morrison
Energy payback time
Alan P. Morrison
Energy yield ratio (EYR)

The lifetime of a PV module (LPV ) is typically 20 − 40 years
→ PV module will generate significantly more energy over its
lifetime than needed in its manufacture.
The energy yield ratio (EYR) is defined as:
Egen LPV
EYR = (9)
Einput
An EYR > 1 indicates the PV module is a net energy
producer.
Example
A module with an EPT of 4 years and a lifetime of 20 years gives
an EYR of 5 → module will produce 5 times the energy used in its
manufacture over its lifetime.
Alan P. Morrison

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Thermal considerations Degradation and Failure Modes Embodied energy and life-cycle issues

Lecture 8 - More about Modules

2 Degradation and Failure Modes

3 Embodied energy and life-cycle issues

It is desirable for modules to operate at low temperatures:

irradiance on cell surface = 800 W/m2 (1)

An approximate expression for calculating the cell temperature is:

Cell Packing Density

Cell packing density has an impact on operating temperature.

Zero Depth Concentrator Effect

Degradation and Failure Modes

Manufacturers guarantee 20 - 25 year lifetimes for modules.

Degradation and Failure Modes

Front surface soiling:

Cell degradation and optical degradation

Gradual degradation in module performance caused by:

Short circuit and open circuit cells

Short circuits can occur via

Other failure modes

Interconnect open circuits and series resistance - caused by

Other failure modes

Hot-spot failures - due to mismatched, cracked or shaded cells.

Lifecycle Analysis (LCA)

Einput = Emanufacture + Etransport + Einstall + Euse + Edecomm (7)

Energy payback time (EPT)

Modern PV cells pay back their manufacturing energy in the

Energy payback time

Energy yield ratio (EYR)

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