CH - 2

Chapter 2 Background and Literature Review
Chapter 2
Background and Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Faults in photovoltaic (PV) modules affect the efficiency,
reliability, life span, and energy output and in some cases affect
the security of the PV plant. Theoretically, photovoltaic modules
(PVM) have a life span of almost 20 years, but practically, some
modules are damaged after installation by 8-10 years due to
several reasons. Therefore, to ensure a long time of life span, safe
and reliable PV stations, in addition to the utilization of fault
detection and diagnosis (FDD) methods are major of interest to
researchers in recent times. In practice, there are many types of
faults that affected PV modules such as delamination,
discoloration, cell cracks/fractures, breakage of interconnection
ribbons, poor soldering, snail tracks, shunts, shading, potential
induced degradation (PID), a short-circuited bypass diodes, short-
circuited modules or strings, and junction box failure. This
chapter exhibited the characteristics of the main fault types of
working PV modules for different PV technology in terms of
electrical and thermal response, PVM detection and diagnostic
methods, thermal imaging applications, and application of thermal
imaging in solar panels. Based on the review parts the future
prospects and challenges indicate the required aspects for FDD.
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2.2 General PV Module Faults

Researches based on field failure studies are crucial in order to
study all factors related to maintain the life span limit, raise PV
module efficiency, and increase reliability. Field studies revealed
many faults and most of the research and reports related to faults
that appeared in the monocrystalline and polycrystalline PV
modules [14]. The majority of faults include the following:
1. Broken interconnects
2. Broken/cracked cells and snail trails
3. Delamination/loss of adhesion between layers
4. Corrosion of cells, metals and connectors
5. Encapsulant discoloration
6. Solder bond failures
7. Broken glass
8. Junction box and module connection failures
9. Reverse bias Hot Spots
10. Bypass Diode failures
11. Potential Induced Degradation (PID)
12. Shunt hot spots
13. Burn marks
2.2.1 Broken Interconnects

In the beginning, The PV Modules were made of one
interconnects ribbon per cell, if the interconnection was broken as
a result of thermal expansion and contraction, this would lead to
an open circuit failure. An excess of interconnections was
introduced to keep the modules from failing prematurely. These
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modifications have greatly reduced the states of interconnections

failure in PV modules [14].
2.2.2 Cracked Cells and Snail Trails

PV cells break because of mechanical stress and/ or thermal
stress. The amount of output loss depends on the area of the
broken cell. For example, if it is small it may not affect, and if it
is large the amount of output loss increases. Besides, the amount
of energy loss of broken cells varies according to the utilized solar
module's technology [14].
Snail trails area new observable event that occurs as a result of

conked out or separating cells. As exhibited in Figure 2.1, the area
in the region of the break in the cell leads to leakage of humidity
and/or air causing an Ag corrosion in a metal printed on the panel
[15].
Figure 2.1: Cells with snail trails [15]

2.2.3 Delamination
Delamination is a separation process of the layer bonds between
back plastics and the front glass, even if it is partial. After a short
time, the exposure to air and humidity causes corrosion, and the
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separation effect may reach a power outage. The effect on the

performance and life of the module depends on the type of
separation surface [14].
2.2.4 Corrosion of Cell Metallization

The separation of the encapsulated material usually causes
corrosion due to moisture in the cell metallization. This separation
causes a great loss of energy and permanent failure. In Figure 2.2
a large area of PV module undergoes corrosion [16].
Figure 2.2: Corrosion on the glass of the panel [16]
2.2.5 Encapsulant Discoloration

Is one of the types of visual degradation of the photovoltaic panel
that is caused by the coloring of ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) or
another type of packaging material. This color change becomes
apparent to the inspector. The occurrence of this problem leads to
a decrease in the module electrical current and thus output
production [17].
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2.2.6 Failure of Solder Bonds

Failure of electrical connections, especially solder bonds inside
the module. Is one of the most common types of failure. This
failure may occur due to stresses caused by thermal cycling or
mechanical vibration. Whereas, high currents flowing through the
links during normal operation could lead to this failure. To ensure
that the solar panels remain for long periods in the field, multiple
solder bonds have been set on both the front and the back of each
cell for cry Si modules. Figure 2.3 shows one-point failures that
are related to the workmanship [14].
Figure 2.3: solder bond failure [14]
2.2.7 Breakage Glass

The glasses are strengthened or tempered in PV module enough to
withstand bending during ordinary operation. on the other hand,
other causes may result in broken strong glass is such as dust
storms, bullets, support structure failure, hot spot or arc, handling
and charging, and also improper installation leads to glass
breakage [16].
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2.2.8 Junction Box Failures

The failure of Junction boxes is one of the most common and
frequent types of faults [8]. Junction boxes can fail in the field if
one or more of the following instances occurs:
 Separation from the back sheet.
 An accumulation of water inside the box.
 Fail of junction box lids.
 Corrosion of electrical connections inside the junction box
2.2.9 Reverse Bias Hot Spots

When the operating current of a working module over the reduced
short circuit current ( ) of a cell or group of shaded cells, the hot
spot heating of this module occurs. This is known as reverse bias
[14,16]. In this case, there is a dissipation of energy that leads to
the heating of the cell and it may lead to melting of bond and/or
silicon, corrosion of the coated material and back, as shown in
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.4: Glass fracture resulting in a hot spot in module [14]
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2.2.10 Bypass Diodes

Bypass diodes protect the module from damage caused by
hotspots of reverse bias. These diodes also help in the module's
protection in the event that the bypass diodes are damaged
causing a short circuit or open circuit. If a short circuit occurs, the
current passes whenever the sun is shining and therefore this
electricity is not used. If the circuit opens, it will result in the cells
hotspot [14].
2.2.11 Potential Induced Degradation

PID occurs predominantly at negative ground potential and the
degradation rate increases due to high voltages, high temperature,
and high humidity [18]. For individual PV modules, the PID
effect is stronger in cells that are located closer to the aluminum,
while the effect is less strong in cells that are located in the center
of the module as shown in Figure 2.5. For a string of PV panels,
the PID effect of the modules closer to the negative side
increases, see Figure 2.5.
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Figure 2.5: Effect of PID in case of individual modules and string

PV modules [18]
2.2.12 Shunt hot spots

The electrical performance of the thin film units is mainly
affected by the quality of the deposition process [8].
• Type A shunts are produced during the manufacturing
process.
• Type B shunts are generated from reverse bias in cells.
These shunt paths are the result of module/cell shading in
the PV system.
2.2.13 Burn marks

One of the widespread failures that occasionally observed in
silicon modules is related to parts of the module that turn into
very hot as a consequence of solder bond failure, ribbon breakage,
limited to a small area that is heating from the application of
reverse current flow, or additional hot spots [14].
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2.3 Module Diagnostic Methods

Fault detection on PV modules became indispensable to maintain
power production from PV systems at the desired value and
frequently reduce maintenance costs. The fault detection
techniques are able to detect faults at an early stage. A large base
of data and scientific experience has been acquired, especially in
the last decade, concerning faults and failures that may appear
during the operational lifetime of PV solar. PVM diagnostic
methods include classical methods and intelligent methods. M.
Sene, et al [19] give a resume of the diagnosis methods.
2.3.1 Classical methods

The classical methods include; electrical method, non-electrical
method, and comparison method.
2.3.1.1 Electrical method

IV curve provides valuable information on the electrical
“signature” and illustrates the performance modules. This
characteristic of electrical methods offers valuable data in
diagnosing PV Cells. The I-V curve provides basic information
about the characteristics of PV modules such as open circuit loss
to defect voltage, short circuit current, maximum rated power,
maximum current, maximum voltage, and module efficiency.
These parameters are very important for the use, testing,
calibration, maintenance, and control of PV systems [20]. The
simplest way to define the I-V curve of a PV module is to use a
variable resistor, and the current and voltage values will vary in
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incremental steps from zero to infinite resistance. By observing

these values, the values of the I-V curve can be extracted [21, 22].
An irregular I–V characteristic or reduced power output of a PV

plant or a PV array can be pinpointing of an occurring fault.
However, the "source" or physical location of this fault can only
be known through further individual electrical measurements of
each PV panel.
It is obvious that such an expensive and time-consuming practice

cannot be feasible or adequate by PV plant operators in the
competitive PV market. However, the I - V values might play a
supplementary but important role, providing valuable information
on the electrical 'signature' of each fault detected and verifying its
effect on the power output loss of the affected unit [23].
Figure 2.6 shows a typical characteristic I-V of a solar cell at a

given solar irradiance and cell temperature. For a resistive load,
the load characteristic is a straight line with slope I / V = 1 / R.
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Figure 2.6: A typical I-V and P-V curves of a photovoltaic

module [23]
The short circuit current, , is the maximum value of current

produced by a PV module. It is generated during the short circuit
condition where V = 0. The open-circuit voltage corresponds to
the voltage across the diode when the photocurrent is zero. This
condition reflects the cell voltage under zero light conditions. The
maximum power detect the operating point at which the
dispersive power in the resistive load is at its maximum value.
various types of faults affect the PV system taking different
aspects (for example, voltage or current variation), and thus each
type of fault has its corresponding I-V curve. [24]. Figure 2.7
exhibits the curves for some typical types of faults. But the I-V
curve parameters are dissimilar for the two types of faults.
consequently, the I-V curves can be applied in fault detection and
diagnosis.
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Figure2.7: I-V curves of PV array for different faults [24]
This method has a few restrictions. The abnormal IV

characteristic curve of a PV panel can indicate a type of fault but
it cannot define the source or physical location of the fault and it
requires the Panel to be disconnected. Particularly when large
areas of PV are inspected. To determine the expected power
output losses and distinguish the type of fault, a correlation
between thermal inspection and I-V evaluation is the future
challenge, which can define the maintenance measures needed to
prevent failure or even safety hazards of a PV system. In
particular, [25] exhibited a combination of several IRT
measurement methods for a few defects such as shunt cell and the
short- circuit current in crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV modules, and
their impact on the I-V curve can be demonstrated.
25
Specifically, in the case of illuminated, it was discovered that

thermal imaging could identify several faults by changing the
electrical load on the PV module. In [26], an experimental work-
study for the daily profiles of I-V field measurements with one
minute was acquired from a range of defective PV modules in
addition to continuous thermal image and meteorological data
sampling. The electrical method has the ability to analyze the
power or the energy produced by the PV array. In [27] used the
amplitude of the decrease of the power related to the
environmental conditions (temperature and insulation), to
diagnose the module and string faults on a PV array.
The electrical method has the capability to study the power
energy or energy produced by the PV array. In [27] the power
drop capacitance associated with environmental conditions
(temperature and insulation) was used, to diagnose unit and series
faults on the PV array.
The authors in [28] calculated the energy of the PV system in the
performance model, through which they identified four classes of
losses that cause losses as follows: continuous zero efficiency,
brief zero efficiency, shading, and non-zero efficiency non-
shading. In [29], a different method is used for detection, although
it also includes power output: a fault detection routine (FDR)
analyzes the power loss pattern in order to generate an actual
failure outline profile used in comparing to the predefined failure
profiles. consequently, the FDR analysis defines which faults
have occurred. The method achieved good results but if the failure
profile is not in the predefined files FDR can't able to detect it.
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The utilize of the maximum power point (MPP) value got by

simulation and compared to the actual value measured,
furthermore it gives more information on the status of a PV
system. The type of faults which found are the module fault, the
string fault, and a group of non-discriminable faults like shading,
MPPT error, and aging. In the recent studies on the detection of
faults, researchers began to analyze the I-V characteristic.
Obtained data using the pattern of the I-V measurements, utilizing
some cases with dI/dV, permit diagnosis shading fault and also
aging once extracting standard test conditions (STC) parameters
[30].
2.3.1.2 Non-electrical method

Non-electrical methods include visual inspection,
electroluminescence, infrared thermography, and resonance
ultrasonic vibrations RUV
a) Visual inspection
The most effective and quickest method to find failures and
defects in a PV module is the visual inspection; it is only
suitable for detecting the factors causing optical losses as well
as the degradation in the outer layer of the solar panel such as
corrosion, burn marks Figure 2.8 however, the visual
inspection is inadequate in detecting electrical degradation or
failures.
The visual inspection of new modules being tested in standard

tests as described in the standards [IEC61215, IEC61646], to
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evaluate the module designs, quality, and its lifetime the

standard test is performed before and after the installation. In
IEC 61215 and 61646 standards [31,32], a requirement of
illumination in about more than one kilo-lux during the visual
inspection and only defects detectable with the naked eye are
considered. The failure conditions are recorded in IEC 61215
and 61646 standards also as shown in Table 2.1.
Discoloration of Discoloration due to Delamination

EVA snail trails
Some other defects

Burn marks Crack in PV modules
Figure 2.8: detection faults using visual inspection method
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The visual inspection's simplicity causes the likelihood of

obtaining data very widely. The generation of inspection checklist
is used for the evaluation of visual inspection in order to record
the observable faults in the PV modules. This checklist is useful
for collecting visual failures in a report as an international
standard for visual inspection of PVM in the field.
Table 2.1: different failures found during IEC 61215, 61646

visual inspections.
PV module component PV module failures
Front of PV module Bubbles, delamination,

browning,
PV Cells Broken cell, cracked cell,

discolored anti-reflection
Cell metallization/cell and Burned, oxidized
Frame Bend, broken, scratched,

misaligned
Back of module Delaminated, bubbles,

yellowing, scratches, burn
Junction box Loose, oxidation, corrosion
Wires – connectors Detachment, brittle, exposed

electrical parts
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b) Electroluminescence
Electroluminescence works in the theory of detecting the
electroluminescence radiation that is emitted by recombined
charge carriers during the radioactive recombination process.
It denotes the presence and location of cell cracks and shunts,
potential induced degradation (PID), and inactive sub
modules/strings (due to shunted bypass diodes or open-
circuits), with great precision [33]. For example, failures such
as cracks have a localized current proportional to
electroluminescence intensity; This means that the defects in
the cell images as shown in Figure 2.9. The main
disadvantage of this method is that it cannot be used on-site or
in operation.
Figure 2.9: Cracks detection [34]
Furthermore, adding EL imaging with I-V curve measurements

and visual inspection can detect many important failures and
degradation modes influencing PV systems, and could be a very
efficient and comprehensive demonstrative method. Such a
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diagnostic procedure was examined in research [35], for

identifying the main failure modes affecting a 15-year-old PV
system. Nevertheless, that study's approach does not comply with
a wide scale of applications and it can be time-consuming.
Furthermore, in contrast to I-V analysis and IR thermography, EL
imaging applications are more limited, demanding complicated
hardware and diagnostic process [36], and thus reducing the
application frequency of this technique in the field. Although
broad adoption of EL imaging as a PV module diagnostic tool in
PV research institutes and laboratories, it's often utilized as a
qualitative diagnostic approach, missing failure quantification
techniques, and standardized measurement procedures. EL
imaging of PV modules has been developed and discussed in
(IEC TS 60904-13) [37], where some of these problems were
described. Nonetheless, EL imaging has a high potential for
machine analysis, in distinguishing and quantifying degradation
and defects in solar modules, two published studies [38, 39]
discussed the automatic detection of manufacturing defects in
silicon wafers and cells. In relation to that, further research is
required for developing methods of quantifying the extent of
degradation and defects distributed inside a solar module, defects
like cracks in solar cells, disconnection in cell areas, shunted cell
areas, increased series resistance areas, a mismatch in cell
voltage, etc. Such approaches would allow assessing and
analyzing a number of failures within a solar module whether it is
during module transportation or a field operation, failures like
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those previously mentioned that may not have a significant

influence on the module performance.
c) Infrared thermography
There is also Infrared thermography, the method works at a

principle of detection of thermal irradiation using an appropriate
detector, and it can detect the location, type of faults. Infrared
thermography has capability to distinguish defects in photovoltaic
modules (PVM) that endure overheating/cold problems.
Inspections using Thermography are carried out while the plant is
under operation and the sky should be clear. Therefore, infrared
(IR) Thermography became a useful and independent tool for
studying the temperature map of PVM surfaces for several years,
so it can be used as predictive maintenance. Barhop et al. [45]
studied the suitability, reliability, and practicality of IR imaging
of PV modules in outdoor conditions. The significance of more
interpretation of the thermal images to detect the fault types based
on thermal signatures of PV modules was introduced in [41, 42].
In [41] since the interpretation of the images is not easy and not
every hot spot implies a defect, it has been shown that by
combining several infrared measurement methods the effect of
typical defects in crystalline Si PV module and their effect on the
IV curve can be explained. Image-guided infrared methods are
well suited for the investigation of PV modules; However, more
work is needed in order to fully understand the faults and their
thermal luminance behavior. The first results concerning the
relationship between infrared images of defective PV modules in
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the field and their corresponding electrical behavior were

presented by Vodermayer et al [42], and daily profiles were
experimented with one-minute I-V measurements of different PV
modules at outdoor conditions. In addition, continuous infrared
imaging and meteorological data sampling were achieved.
A direct relation was noticed between the power output (energy

yield) losses and the thermal differences; however, to detect the
effective loss in kWh/kWp per year more evaluation is needed
and is not published yet. In order to achieve correct and adequate
thermal imaging measurements, specific requirements and
procedures should be implemented, and solar irradiance is needed
to be around 500 W/m2 – 700 W/m2, the angle of view falls
between 5° and 60°, with the prevention of shadowing and
reflections [43]. Inspections by thermal imaging camera will
assist to sustain the functionality of the solar panels and
increasing their lifetime. Table 2.2 shows a list of some common
defects of PV module and how they appear in the thermal image
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Table 2.2 the list of some defects of PV module and how it

appears in the thermal image
Error Type Example Appears
Appears in
Error type Example thermal Thermal image
mages
Impurities
and gas A "hot spot
pockets "or "cold

spot"
Manufacturing
defects Cell
heating,
cracks in
form
cell
mainly
elongated
Cell
heating,
cracks form
mainly
Damages elongated
a portion of
cracks in the cell
cell appear
hotter
34
pollution
Temporary Bird drops

Hot spot
shadowing
Shading
and
physical
damage or
humidity
Defective
bypass diode
( causes a short patchwork

N.A
circuit and pattern
reduce circuit
protection)
Modules
Modules or
or string
string of
Faulty of
modules is
interconnection modules
consistently
not
hotter
connected
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2.3.1.3 Comparison method

The following comparison methods include real-time simulation,
failure mode, effect analysis (FMEA), and fault tree analysis
(FTA). For real-time simulation, there are various simulation
studies experimental studies that demonstrate the effect of faults
on the performance of a PV plant. In [44] five different
connections are configured for the PV cells to compare their
performance in the case of partial shading. Also, a simulation
methodology for the same partial shading conditions has been
proposed, to improve the configuration of bypass diodes to
prevent hot appearing in the PV modules [45]. While at [46] a
hysteria comparator was used to detect and validate the
appearance of hot spots in the SPICE simulation.
FMEA is a complete risk assessment for system Failure. The

evaluation criteria include severity, frequency of occurrence, and
the likelihood of not being detected. In [47] the work highlights a
wide range of failure modes as well as causes and effects that will
feed into the probabilistic risk analysis of safety and production
issues. A comprehensive guide to ensuring the safe and trouble-
free operation of a rooftop PV system has been explained [48]. A
reliability assessment of solar photovoltaic systems was
performed based on the fuzzy Fault Tree Analysis (FFTA) [49].
The aim is to determine probabilistic failure data for those
modules whose failure is ambiguous in nature. Next, a fuzzy-
based approach is applied to assess the likelihood of solar
photovoltaic systems Top Event failure.
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2.3.2 Artificial intelligence (AI) methods

There are different branch of AI techniques and the main branch
of AI used in PV applications are the evolutionary algorithms,
machine learning (ML), neural network system, fuzzy logic (FL),
hybrid systems that combine two or more branches of AI (e.g.,
adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), Artificial Neural
Network- Genetic Algorithm(ANN-GA), etc.) and Deep learning
(DL). AI-based methods are mainly used to identify and classify
the type of faults that can happen in PV systems. Figure 2.10
shows the link between AI, ML, and DL [50]
Figure 2.10: Link between artificial intelligence, machine

learning, and deep learning [50]
Pattern recognition is an intelligent method in which the goal is to

apply methods and algorithms for automatic classification into
categories (classes) of data objects, according to their similarities
with the reference. This depends on identifying the distinguishing
features and extracting the features to identify the features and
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compare them with the known patterns to determine congruence

or non-conformity [51].
2.4 Related works of infrared thermography for

fault detection, and classification of PV
modules
In general, the methodology of infrared thermography of PV

module, used for fault detection, diagnosis, and classification
includes image processing, feature extraction, and fault detection
and classification techniques. The fault detection and
classification techniques include statistical methods and artificial
intelligence (AI) methods (see Figure 2.11
Image processing
Feature Extraction
Fault diagnosis and Classification

Techniques
Statistical Artificial intelligence

methods (AI) methods
Figure 2.11: methodology of infrared thermography for fault

detection, and classification of PV modules
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2.4.1 Image processing
Infrared thermal imaging is used to measure the temperature of an

object as it displays images of that object's temperature pattern. It
is a non-destructive technology, robust and effective methods as it
delivers real-time, fast, and high-resolution module images that
have a 2-dimensional (2-D) distribution characteristic.
One of the benefits of interpretations of the thermal image by

using infrared thermography is the valuable information
concerned with the temperature of the surface. In order to
detect/diagnose potential anomalies, image processing techniques
are required because thermo-cameras have low resolution
providing insufficient information. The resolution of the infrared
thermography camera can reach levels of only 640 x 480. Also,
low-quality IR images give unsatisfactory/insufficient information
about the inspected objects. Therefore, preprocessing and
processing of thermal images of an `object is proposed. In
research articles [52 -54], it was illustrated that median or
Gaussian filtering was suitable to smooth the noise by using
common preprocessing procedures. On the other hand, the non-
uniform heating, and smoothing operators, generate undesired
effects during high-pass filtering and Sobel operators as addressed
in [52].
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2.4.2 Feature extraction methods of PV thermal image
Features extraction is used to recognize solar panels or detect

faults. Features extraction used in the researches for PV thermal
image includes:
 thermal contrast computation

 Normalization
 Pulsed phase thermography (PPT)
 principal component thermography
 First and second derivatives
 Quantitative processing
 The statistical behavior of regions of interest (ROIs)
 Hough Transform
 Edge detection and segmentation
 Mean Relative Thresholding
 Mean Frequency Thresholding
 Discrete and continuous wavelet transforms
 Statistical feature extraction
 Texture feature extraction
 Thresholding and histogram
The study [55] aimed to construct an algorithm by which solar

panels can be identified. The study relies on Hough Transform
(HT) to discover lines, filter the horizontal and vertical lines,
determine the point of intersection of the lines, and thus represent
one of the corners of the panel. With the connection of the four
corners, the borders of the pane are determined. But the results
40
showed the inability to recognize in some of the upper rows of the

solar string, along with the inability to recognize the first column.
If the panel is not installed in a straight line and has a good
alignment, this panel is difficult to identify. Thermal signatures
introduced in [52] include:(i) thermal contrast computation (ii)
Normalization (iii) Pulsed phase thermography (PPT)(iv)
Principal component thermography (v) First and second
derivatives (vi) Quantitative processing; defect detection
algorithms and thresholding (vii) Statistical behavior of regions of
interest (ROIs).
In [56, 57] a method of the region of interest (ROI) for infrared

thermal imaging has been used to identify hot spots and detect
faults. The results have shown an effective detection of hot spots
associated with defective single cells or groups of cells. In [58]
the authors developed an algorithm that incorporates an
anisotropic diffusion filter and an advanced image segmentation
technique to detect micro-crack defects in polycrystalline solar
cells.
The author in [59] proposed a method for the early diagnosis of

defects, called Panel Energy Image (PEI). This method uses
spatial and temporal information from thermal images and
monitors the operation of installed PV modules by computing the
global thermal image threshold, which is based on the
combination of two methods of defining the threshold; mean
relative threshold (MRT) and mean frequency threshold (MFT).
The performance of PEI was found to be good. Kosikowski et al.
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[60] utilize both discrete and continuous wavelet transforms. To

detect the thermal non-uniformities in the layered objects
examined.
In [61], Tsanakas et al, presented a method by which the IRT of

two PV arrays in the field could be scanned by image
segmentation and edge detection maps, and it was successful in
identifying 40 out of 43 hotspots. However, there are drawbacks
of this methodology. In this direction, two studies [62,63] have
been published that demonstrate remarkable advances in the
automated identification of defects in thermal images, through
improved and more effective edge detection techniques.
Image processing algorithms are used to extract useful features

with meaning information for fault detection. Most of these
algorithms rely on image segmentations utilizing thresholding
techniques extracted from color images. Thresholding is
implemented to separate the background from the required object
to detect it. The value of thresholding can be determined using
different methods. The thresholding value can be determined
using different histograms or alternative criteria [64]. Among the
many methods used to find threshold values, the Otsu threshold
technique is one of the most used and preferred methods, due to
its simplicity and capability in separating 2D images [65]. The
Otsu method is used for the segmentation process that can be
applied to a separate region of interest (ROIs) in the gray level of
thermal images [66]. The two-step algorithm is introduced by
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Maldague et al. [67] to locate all defects and then the region-
growing method is applied using proper thresholding value.
Solar panels are categorized into (defective and non-defective

panels) using texture features extraction (TFE) which includes
contrast, correlation, energy, entropy, and homogeneity [68,69].
Then classification approaches such as n Bayes a binary class
density-based classifier of(c-Si) PV module and artificial neural
network are utilized.
2.4.3 Fault Diagnosis and Classification Techniques
Fault diagnosis and classification related to infrared thermography

include the statistical method and artificial intelligent method
2.4.3.1 Statistical methods
The importance of extra thermal image analysis concentrating on

a more specific approach to evolving heat and distortions in PV
modules was presented in [56, 57]. This way uses thermal
imaging and applying the region of interest (ROI) technique to
demonstrate hot spots. Also, the explanation and calculation of
the hotspot region of the resulting increase in operating
temperatures were introduced at good and sufficient speed.
A system based on density-based spatial clustering of applications

with noise (DBSCAN) was addressed in [70]. The system
depends on the mean temperature of all panels within the same
row. Based on the mean readings, clusters are created. The cluster
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containing panels with higher temperatures is classified as hot.

The results showed 28 hot spots were detected out of 38, in
addition to 7 miss and 21 false alarms, giving a detection rate of
80%.
A procedure for diagnosing faults is presented in [71]; first for

cell level statistical calculations of the temperature of each pixel
such as variance and mean is estimated from the image of each
PV cell. For high variance in the temperature distribution, the cell
is eliminated and then analyzed separately. By varying in
temperature, the regular cells are classified into a light, medium,
and strong hot spot according to their average temperature
Due to the temperature of cells of photovoltaic is higher than the

metallic edges of PV modules (PVM)and there is a sharp
transition of the two areas, the applicable and easy technique can
recognize the edges of Photovoltaic modules (PVM) from thermal
images is introduced in [72]. Besides, the analysis of the heat
gradient method was implemented to classify the defects.
An efficient driven approach based on statistical data is addressed

in [73]. The steps of the approach to identify specific modules
include (1) normalization, (2) thresholding, (3) orientation
assessment of (PVM), and lastly (4) correction and enhancement.
Additionally, foremost temperature anomalies are classified
precisely into three main sets: overheated (PVM), hot spots of a
cell/ or group of cells, and overheated substrings. Although the
accuracy level of this approach is high, the sorting is weak and
general.
44
The mean intensity (surface temperature) characteristics and

standard deviation parameters of each PVM are estimated for
fault diagnosis [74]. Then automated local detection rule
constructed based on these parameters was established to
distinguish faulty PV modules. The verification has achieved a
precision of 97%to detect defective panels. While in [75]
statistical characteristics parameters of thermal intensity were
implemented for PVM fault analysis. The defective module
exhibit dissimilar patterns of intensity these patterns were
compared to undamaged panels.
Combination diagnosis methods utilizing the infrared

thermography method and current-voltage measurement are
addressed in [85] to detect the types of faults of PV modules and
to study the effect of faults on the power loss.
2.4.3.2 Artificial intelligence (AI) methods
Most searches investigate artificial intelligence (AI) using current

voltage as an input database for fault detection and classification
deals with a certain type of faults such as open circuit, short
circuit, shading, abnormal aging, and bypass diode fault.
Diagnostic using the infrared thermography method is an infrared
scanner that can identify faults and detect them by the presence of
temperature differences in the unhealthy photovoltaic module.
Research has begun to focus on automation in fault detection and
classification. Automated localization of defects in thermal
images based on an efficient edge detection technique is
addressed in [71] and [72]. Categorizing solar modules into
45
(defective and non-defective panels) using texture feature

extraction (TFE) was studied in [73]. This classification considers
contrast, correlation, energy, entropy, and homogeneity. The
classification using n Bayes a binary class density-based classifier
of the c-Si PV module using thermography assessment showed a
mean recognition rate of 98.4% for a set of 260 test samples.
While in [74], the fault classification of1w PV module using
texture feature extraction (TFE) and artificial neural network
classifier depicted 93.4% training efficiency and 91.7% testing
efficiency. However, these features can't detect the type of fault
and consequently the type of maintenance action required.
In [85] a simple image processing-based machine learning

algorithm using a support vector machine (SVM) is applied for
classifying the PV cell into two classifications (defective or non-
defective) using texture feature extraction (TFE). These extracted
features are compared with the healthy features of the PV module.
The accuracy obtained is 97% with the comparison of test and
training results. It is applicable in real-time for large PV systems
with very little computation time.
A study in [76] investigated thermal infrared imaging using the

scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) feature descriptor, spatial
pyramid matching, and deep learning to detect and classify
thermal infrared images of PV modules. The results are able to
discriminate between defective and non-defective PV modules
with up to 91.2% accuracy. Additionally, the deep learning
models can differentiate between various defects at an 89.5%
46
accuracy level. Fault detection and analysis of hotspot of 2580 PV

modules where these PV modules are operated under a variety of
environmental conditions, distributed across the UK were studied
in [77]. The fault detection model comprises a fuzzy inference
system (FIS) using a Mamdani-type fuzzy controller. The inputs
of the FIS are determined including the percentage of power loss
(PPL), open-circuit voltage ( ), and short circuit current ( ).
The average accuracy of the FIS is equal to 96.7%. The main
drawback of the developed algorithm is the incapability of
identifying hot spots during high partial shading conditions.
Matching score techniques is present in [78] where a healthy

template image was compared with the faulty template by
compares the two images were compared pixel by pixel to
estimate the matching score. Then automatic fault classification
utilizing fuzzy logic was introduced.
To detect discoloring and delamination within a module a thermal

Pixel Counting algorithm was covered in [79]. For automated
classification, the fuzzy classier with a new input pattern called
certainty factor (CF) gives better classiﬁcation accuracy. The
findings and limitations of AI researches including IV
measurements and IR thermography are summarized in Table 2.3.
47
Table 2.3 Summarization of AI researchers including IV

measurements and IR thermography
Technique Referen Input Fault Type Accuracy of Remarks

ce parameters classification &Limitation
s
Principal [86] The electrical Shading fault 97% Real systems
component characteristics configuration
analysis (PCA) and I-V curves s are not
considered.
K-nearest [87] Texture feature No mention of the type 80.3% The
neighbor (KNN) analysis of of faults classification
Support vector thermal image 56.8% results can
machine (SVM) detect the
Neural network 92.8 type of faults
AI nonlinear [88] The electrical Open and short 98.2% Applicable
autoregressive characteristics circuitdegradation,faulty for small
exogenous and I-V curves MPPT,partialshading system
neural network (PS)
and Sugeno
fuzzy inference
(NARX)
48

measurements and IR thermography (continued)

s
radial basis [89] Short circuit, shading Shadow= 91.55 Need real
function (RBF) faults, and aging experiments
kernel extreme
learning Short-ciruit
machine (ELM) =93.64%
optimized by
electrical Aging=90.91
simulated
annealing characteristics
algorithm,
artificial neural [90] electrical Partial shading
network characteristics
Neuro-fuzzy and [91] Different Upper earth fault, Lower
simulation operating earth fault, Diode
conditions and shortcircuit fault, Partial
environmental
shading condition
cursive linear [92] Electrical and short-circuit, open- 92.64%

model and an environmental circuit, partial
Artificial Neural shadowing, and
Network (ANN) degradation
The automated [93], IR cell fracture, deficient Large-scale
Edge detection [63] thermography solder joints, short- photovoltaic
technique circuits, or bypassed systems
substrings
n Bayes a binary [78] Texture feature Categorized solar 98.4% Can't detect
class density- analysis of the modules into defective the type of
based classifier thermal image and non-defective panels fault and
(IRT) consequently
artificial neural [94] Texture feature 93.4% the type of
network extraction (TFE maintenance
classifier action
Texture feature [80] IR cracks, hot spots due to 97% required
extraction (TFE) thermography shading and soiling
and support
vector machine
(SVM)
Support vector [81] IR Categorized solar 91.2%
machine (SVM) thermography modules into defective
using scale- and non-defective panels
invariant
feature
deep-learning transform 89.5%
CNN (SIFT)
descriptor
49

measurements and IR thermography (continued)

s
[82] IR detect six different types 96.7%. the developed

thermography of hot-spotting affecting algorithm
fuzzy inference and I-V PV modules that is not
system (FIS) measurements capable of
using Mamdani- identifying
type fuzzy hot-spots
controller during high
partial
shading
conditions
a multi-class [95] The electrical short-circuit fault (SCF), The results Take more
adaptive characteristics the partial shading with considered for time
boosting and I-V curves the bypass-diode on each faulty Applied in a
(AdaBoost) (PSBO), the partial module small number
algorithm, using shading with the bypass- on average the of module
multi-class diode reversed (PSBR), results achieve
exponential and the abnormal aging 99.4%
(SAMME) loss fault (AAF)
function based
on the
classification
and regression
tree (CART)
multilayer neural [96] Total Cross Short circuit, aging, 99.6%
network with a Tied (TCT), shading faults, and
scaled conjugate Bridge Linked bypass diode faults.
gradient (BL),
algorithm and series-
(SCG). parallel (SP)
Convolutional [97] 2-D scalograms Partial Shading (PS) and 73.53%
Neural Networks generated from high impedance faults,
(CNN) PV system data low location mismatch,
and the presence of
Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT)
50
2.5 Application of Infrared Thermography in Thin Film

PV Module
Practice and familiarity of faults in thin-film modules is less than

in c-Si modules. There is also a wide-ranging of dissimilar
module types and consequently, different types of PV fault.
Semiconductors such as CdTe have a higher absorption efficiency
compared to crystalline silicon, as thin-film absorber is up to 100
times thinner than the absorbent (chip) of crystalline units [91].
There are two different ways of placing the layers. First, the front
glass of the module is used as a substrate on which layers are
placed/deposited and called superstrate configuration. The second
method acts as the back panel or back glass of the module as a
substrate. The layers are placed in reversed order and are called
substrate configuration [92]. CIGS (copper, indium, gallium,
selenide) modules are generally factory-made in the substrate
configuration, while CdTe modules factory-made in the
superstrate configuration. Owing to the unlike the design of thin-
film modules, if the glass cracked, the hot spots take a longish
shape In the previous works, very few works mention hot-spots in
thin-film modules [93, 94]. Faults such as glass breakage,
Corrosion, bad connections, delamination, and discoloration
happen in thin-film modules expect to take place such as the
thermal pattern as in c-Si modules. Nevertheless, no works were
found to provide this assumption. The effect of shading produced
by plants and building parts on thin-film units does not have the
same effect as it does on crystalline modules. Since the films are
so long, they cannot be completely shaded. Besides, there is no
51
bypass diode in the thin-film module [95] therefore the heating

effects of shading might be different. When a junction box
malfunctions, it often produces heat and takes the form of a hot
spot; it can be determined by its module location. Crystalline
modules usually contain only one junction box, while thin-film
modules can contain one or two junction boxes. Thin-film
modules do not manufacture using bypass diodes, however, when
an open circuit happened, the entire module heats up. The thermal
result is similar for both technologies [95].
2.6 Gap of researches
The previous research work of the intelligent classification

systems to distinguish between defective and non-defective of PV
module have the following drawbacks:
 It can't be classified between the types of faults.

 Most of these diagnosis systems are operate during off-
line faults and can't exhibit the maintenance action
required for the system.
 Also, these researches, which investigate the intelligent
systems, depend on current-voltage measurement only or
infrared thermography only, none of these research deals
with the current-voltage measurement and infrared
thermography methods.
 The studies focused on polycrystalline and
monocrystalline technologies, almost none of these
searches deals with thin-film technology.
52
 Also, searches have been applied when modules contain

one type of fault.
 Besides none of these researchers study the failure mode
and effect analysis of CIGS utilizing infrared
thermography and IV measurements characteristic,
 Also, none of these researches can detect the required
maintenance action.
2.7 Scope of The Thesis
The present work concentrates on studying the type of faults of

CIGS thin-film modules of small photovoltaic power stations
consisting of eighty-five applying diagnostic measurements.
This includes IRT and current-voltage characterization (IV). The
fault is classified, based on the results analyzed, into a specific
fault type, corresponding to a specific thermal pattern, and the
characteristic(IV). The aim to integrate IV measurements is to
study the effect of faults on power loss.
The study investigates the failure mode and effect analysis

(FMEA) of CIGS PV module based on infrared thermography and
IV measurements characteristic for purpose of applying predictive
maintenance and photovoltaic module manufacturing
development. This study majorly proposes a novel feature
extraction for rapid detection and effective classification over a
large number of faults based on utilizing an adaptive neuro-fuzzy
inference system (ANFIS) technique.
In addition, the study introduces a predictive maintenance scheme

methodology utilizing the feature's extraction of thermal images
53
to expect the value of the operating power ratio of each type of

fault, to eliminating the usage of IV measurements for estimating
the power loss. Also, the prediction planned maintenance time
based on estimating the remaining useful life of PV module, is
proposed in the current study.
Finally, the maintenance action is advised. Module degradation,

reliability, and power plant capability are estimated at each
scheduled maintenance. The historical data of the plant are stored
in the predictive maintenance report
54

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Chapter 2 Background and Literature Review

2.2 General PV Module Faults

2.2.1 Broken Interconnects

modifications have greatly reduced the states of interconnections

2.2.2 Cracked Cells and Snail Trails

Snail trails area new observable event that occurs as a result of

Figure 2.1: Cells with snail trails [15]

separation effect may reach a power outage. The effect on the

2.2.4 Corrosion of Cell Metallization

Figure 2.2: Corrosion on the glass of the panel [16]

2.2.5 Encapsulant Discoloration

2.2.6 Failure of Solder Bonds

Figure 2.3: solder bond failure [14]

2.2.7 Breakage Glass

2.2.8 Junction Box Failures

2.2.9 Reverse Bias Hot Spots

Figure 2.4: Glass fracture resulting in a hot spot in module [14]

2.2.10 Bypass Diodes

2.2.11 Potential Induced Degradation

Figure 2.5: Effect of PID in case of individual modules and string

2.2.12 Shunt hot spots

2.2.13 Burn marks

2.3 Module Diagnostic Methods

2.3.1 Classical methods

2.3.1.1 Electrical method

incremental steps from zero to infinite resistance. By observing

An irregular I–V characteristic or reduced power output of a PV

It is obvious that such an expensive and time-consuming practice

Figure 2.6 shows a typical characteristic I-V of a solar cell at a

Figure 2.6: A typical I-V and P-V curves of a photovoltaic

The short circuit current, , is the maximum value of current

Figure2.7: I-V curves of PV array for different faults [24]

This method has a few restrictions. The abnormal IV

Specifically, in the case of illuminated, it was discovered that

The utilize of the maximum power point (MPP) value got by

2.3.1.2 Non-electrical method

The visual inspection of new modules being tested in standard

evaluate the module designs, quality, and its lifetime the

Discoloration of Discoloration due to Delamination

Some other defects

Figure 2.8: detection faults using visual inspection method

The visual inspection's simplicity causes the likelihood of

Table 2.1: different failures found during IEC 61215, 61646

PV module component PV module failures

Front of PV module Bubbles, delamination,

PV Cells Broken cell, cracked cell,

Cell metallization/cell and Burned, oxidized

Frame Bend, broken, scratched,

Back of module Delaminated, bubbles,

Junction box Loose, oxidation, corrosion

Wires – connectors Detachment, brittle, exposed

Figure 2.9: Cracks detection [34]

Furthermore, adding EL imaging with I-V curve measurements

diagnostic procedure was examined in research [35], for

those previously mentioned that may not have a significant

There is also Infrared thermography, the method works at a

the field and their corresponding electrical behavior were

A direct relation was noticed between the power output (energy

Table 2.2 the list of some defects of PV module and how it

pockets "or "cold

Temporary Bird drops

( causes a short patchwork

2.3.1.3 Comparison method