BAHRIA UNIVERSITY

ISLAMABAD CAMPUS
DEPARTMENT OF EARTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
FINAL TERM EXAMINATION (SPRING 2020)

Subject: Geochemistry (Geo-225) Class: BS-4 Geology

Instructor’s Name: Adeeb Ahmed Date of Exam: 02/ 07/ 2020
Session - I (10 AM-06 PM) Marks: 50
Student Name: _Awais Arshad______ Enrollment No: _01-165182-031__

Note: You can do calculations handwritten and place images here.

Question 1: (10 Marks)

What are the sources of error in the geochemical analysis? Also, write about selecting an
appropriate analytical technique. Explain the rock types by considering the following two
geochemical results of XRF (Hints: TAS diagram, Aluminum oxide saturation).

Sample SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO MnO Na2O K2O P2O5 TiO2
A 48.7 9.4 18.0 4.6 1.0 0.47 8.3 2.0 2.79 2.0
B 45.9 8.6 21.9 11.0 2.3 0.26 5.4 0 0.2 2.6

Sources of Error:
There are two sources of error in geochemical analysis. First one determinate, and second is
indeterminate.

Deteminate error:
Human error can also effect the actual results of the study. As Human is not a machine so error
can also be committed by them while calculations.

Instrument error refers to the error of a measuring instrument, or the difference between the
actual value and the value indicated by the instrument. There can be errors of various types, and
the overall error is the sum of the individual errors. Types of errors include. systematic errors.
random errors.

Method error is the discrepancy that may occur in measurement such that the value obtained
during the process of measurement is different from the actual value. This may arise either
because of a defect in the measuring device or other non-mechanical causes.
Indeterminate error:
Indeterminate errors are random errors over which analyst has no control. No identifiable cause;
Always present, cannot be eliminated; the ultimate limitation on the determination of a quantity.

Analytical Technique:

Rock of the first sample are basic silicate. And the gabbaro rock. Concentration of sio2 is 48.7
and Na2O+ k2o is 10.3

In second sample the rock are Sio2 is 45.9 and Na2O+ K2O are 5.4

Syenite, basic silicate

Question 2: (15 Marks)

Write a detailed note on screening analysis in context with source rock applied
geochemistry. Complete the following table and interpret the results in the table
concerning the following.
 a) Organic richness
b) Type of kerogen
c) Thermal maturity
d) Expected petroleum product
Lithology TOC S1 S2 S3 Tmax
GP HI OI PI
wt.% mg/g mg/g mg/g °C
Shale 1.8 0.45 1.8 1.23 437 2.25 100 68.34 0.2
Shale 1.95 171.4 177.1 0.38
0.7 0.75 1.2 1.24 443
4
0.85 269.5 143.4 0.27
Limestone 0.23 0.23 0.62 0.33 447
7
Limestone 0.97 0.24 0.59 0.75 448 0.83 60.8 77.31 0.28

Screening Method:

Geochemical screening analyses is used as the exploration tools for short time and cheap
evaluation of many rock samples from outcrops and wells. Outcrop samples from
measured stratigraphic sections are better than random outcrop samples because they can
easily be made into a geochemical log that can be compared to nearby geochemical logs
of wells. Rock samples from wells include drill cuttings, sidewall cores, and
conventional cores, in order of decreasing abundance.

Large numbers of analyses of these rock samples are used to make geochemical logs to
evaluate the thickness, distribution, richness, type, and thermal maturity of source rocks
in the basin fill. Evaluating the source rock in the basin fill is an important part of
sedimentary basin analysis. The next step is to identify the pod of active source rock,
which is the first step in evaluating a petroleum system. The most effective screening
method for large numbers of rock samples from wells and outcrops combines Rock-Eval
pyrolysis and TOC measurements. These obtained data is supplemented by vitrinite
reflectunce and spore coloration data to made detailed geochemical logs

Organic Richness

To define the organic matter richness I have studied the field work of dakhla and duwi
formation. The obtained data show that the total organic carbon values are between 0.48
and 1.93 wt% with an average of about 1.11 wt% for the Dakhla formation. This TOC
content refers to the organic richness of the rocks of this formation which ranges from
fair to good. The organic richness of the shales of the Duwi formation is mainly good
according to a writer named peter. The measured TOC content of the studied black shale
of this formation ranges from 1.78 to 1.96 wt% (average 1.42 wt%). It is more than that
of the shales of the Dakhla formation. This might be due to the structural regime of the
studied area, which influenced the paleogeography of the region . These results have been
confirmed by the results of Rock–Eval pyrolysis (S1 and S2, which refer to residual
hydrocarbons in the studied rocks. The representation of “S1” and “S2” values confirms
that the generating potential of the source rocks of the Dakhla formation is rated from fair
to good.
In order to determine samples’ contamination to hydrocarbon material, the S1/TOC
diagram was used . Plot of S1 versus TOC can be used to discriminate between non-
indigenous and indigenous hydrocarbons . The migrated oil in each formation can be
detected with high S1 and low TOC. All studied shale samples have relatively high S1
and high TOC values indicating the presence of indigenous (expelled) oil . It should be
noted that hydrocarbon-contamination of the shale samples does not mean that oil
migrated from the lower layers, but after analyzing field we I came to the point that
hydrocarbon has been produced in the source rocks prior to the primary migration
process.

Type of kerogen

Kerogens are described as Type I, consisting of mainly algal and amorphous (but

presumably algal) kerogen and highly likely to generate oil; Type II, mixed terrestrial and
marine source material that can generate waxy oil; and Type III, woody terrestrial source
material that typically generates gas

Thermal maturity

Thermal maturity is the extent of heat-driven reactions that alter the composition of
organic matter (e.g., conversion of sedimentary organic matter to petroleum or cracking
of oil to gas.
Part: Predicting the occurrence of oil and gas traps
Expected petroleum product:
Petroleum products are those hydrocarbon fractions that are derived from petroleum and
have commercial value as a bulk product. A major group of hydrocarbon products from
petroleum (petrochemicals) are the basis of a major industry. They are, in the strictest
sense, different to petroleum products insofar as the petrochemicals are the basic building
blocks of the chemical industry. The specific gravity of product gases, including liquefied
petroleum gas, may be determined conveniently by a number of methods and a variety of
instruments. The heat value of gases is generally determined at constant pressure in a
flow calorimeter in which the heat released by the combustion of a definite quantity of
gas is absorbed by a measured quantity of water or air.

Question 3: (10 Marks)

 a) You measure several samples of water from around the world, as well as the
international standard VSMOW, and you determine the following values. What is the
δ18O value for each lake?
(3)
16 18 16 18
Sample Name O O O O δ18O (‰
Sample Sample VSMOW VSMOW VSMOW)
(mole) (mole) (mole) (mole)

Loch Ness 99.800 0.200 99.798 0.202 -9.92

Lough Monreagh 99.788 0.202 99.798 0.202 0.1002

Tool’s Lough 99.786 0.204 99.798 0.202 10.021

b) What are the sources of information about the composition/interior of the Earth? (3)
The earth consists of four concentric shells, which are separated by three discontinuities. At these
boundaries, earthquake waves changes in speed and direction. These four shells of the earth are called
the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. They differ in state or condition, in
composition, in density, and in elasticity. The degree of elasticity is factor that determines the speed of
earthquake.

The crust includes the continents (which consist mostly of granite) and the ocean basins which consist
mostly of basalt. Only the outer part of crust is visible; deeper rocks may become exposed by uplift,
erosion, or may be brought to the surface by volcanism. The continent and ocean basins are more or
less in balance with another. This tendency toward equilibrium is termed isostasy. The continents stand
higher than the ocean basins because they are lighter. Both the heavy and the light columns of rock,
however, are in balance at an unknown depth called the level of compensation.

Below the crust is the mantle. It consists of two or three zones of rock that are under considerable
pressure, which keeps the rock from the melting at the high temperature that exists there. The bottom
of the mantle is marked by the Wiechert-Gutenberg discontinuity, 1,800 mile down.

The outer core is 1,360 mile thick. In spite of increased pressure at this depth, the temperature is high
enough to keep this zone in a molten state. The composition is believed to be largely iron, perhaps like
that of iron-nickel meteorites.

The inner core extends 790 miles to the center of the earth, where its specific gravity may be more than
17. The enormous pressure (perhaps 3 million times that at the surface) keeps this zone solid in spite of
the high temperature.

Zoning of the earth is one of the major that must be accounted for by any acceptable hypothesis of the
origin of the earth.

c) Briefly describe the occurrence and geochemistry of Uranium. (4)

Uranium occurrence: Uranium present almost everywhere, but in low concentrations.

Concentration of uranium in the environment greater than uranium deposit. Uranium is a
naturally occurring element that has the highest atomic weight (~238 g/mole) and is slightly
radioactive. It can be found in minute quantities in most rocks, soils and waters (normally < 5
ppm), but the real challenge is to find it in high enough concentrations to make it economically
feasible to mine. Uranium is easily oxidized and forms a number of common uranium oxides and
oxy-hydroxide like uraninite (or pitchblende) and schoepite (including meta- and para-).
Uranium can be found in soils and waters due to the breakdown (weathering) of rocks containing
it. Once it is in the soil and water, it can be taken up by plants and consumed by people or
grazing animals, or it can dissolve in the water to be consumed by any organism. Average
uranium concentrations in ores, rocks and waters (ppm - parts per million).

Geochemistry of Uranium:

The chemistry of uranium depend on the mineralogy of the ore and on the leaching process (acid
or alkaline) used for extraction. The presence of sulfide minerals in the ore may produce acid
leachates, which facilitate the release of radionuclides and toxic metals from the tailings to the
environment.

Basic Geochemistry, Uranium normally occurs in two valence states: reduced +4 and oxidized
+6

Uranous ion: U+4 is quite insoluble

 Uraninite: UO2 [- U3O8 w/ 1%+ Th & REE]

 Coffinite: U(SiO4)1-X(OH)4X
 Brannerite: (U,Ca,Ce)(Ti,Fe)2O6

Uranyl ion: U+6 is quite soluble and forms many stable aqueous complexes and then minerals
when additional cations become available

 Carnotite: K2(UO2)2 (VO4)2 . 3H2O

 Tyuymunite: Ca(UO2)2 (VO4)2 . 5-8H2O
 Autunite: Ca(UO2)2 (PO4)2 . 10H2O
 Tobernite: Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2 . 12H2O
 Uranophane: Ca(UO2)2SiO3(OH)2 . 5H2O

Question 4: Short questions (15 Marks)

a) A typical rain-water contains less than 10-6 M of SiO2(aq), 10-5 M of K+(aq) and a pH of
5.7. Which mineral should, therefore, be stable when potassium feldspar is weathered by
this rain-water?
b) A geologist has identified two iron deposits. One of them contains 200 million tons of
magnetite, and the other contains 40 million tons of magnetite plus 160 million tons of
hematite. Calculate Fe content in each. Based on the iron content alone, which of the two
deposits should be recommended for mining?
c) Enlist different radiometric dating methods or techniques.
1. Uranium-Lead dating method.
2. Samarium-Neodymium dating method.
3. Potassium-Argon dating method.
4. Rubidium-Strontium dating method.
5. Uranium-Thorium dating method.
6. Carbon or Radio-carbon dating method.
7. Chlorine-36 dating method.

87
Calculate a Rb-Sr date for a sample of biotite given that Rb/86Sr = 107.1
87
Sr/86Sr = 3.093. λ = 1.42x10-11a-1, (87Sr/86Sr)o = 0.7030.
d) Calculate the concentration of Cr in the mineral chromite?
e)