BAHRIA UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD CAMPUS

DEPARTMENT OF EARTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

MID TERM TAKE HOME ASSIGNMENT (SPRING 2020)

Subject: Mineralogy & Crystallography Class: BS (Geo/Geop)-3A

Instructor’s Name: Saqib Mehmood Date of Submission: 31/05/2020
Student Name: ___Awais Arshad___ Max Marks:15

Enrollment No: __01-165182-031___

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Note:
i. Answer should be written in simple language.
ii. Genuine ideas will be appreciated.
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Q#1 Compare and contrast different crystal systems. (5)

Ans: Crystal system is a method of classifying crystalline substances on the basis of their unit

cell. There are seven unique crystal systems. These systems include the cubic, hexagonal,
tetragonal, trigonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic systems. The crystal system of a
mineral species may be determined by the well-formed crystal of the species.

1. Cubic:

The cubic crystal system is also known as the isometric system. The cubic crystal system has
three crystallographic axes consisting of two equal horizontal a-axes and b-axes, and one vertical
c-axes that are perpendicular to the other two. All axes are equals. All the angles are equal to 90°
but all the sides have the same length as well.

The crystals of the isometric system possess 9 (3+6) planes of symmetry (by reflection), 13
(3+4+6) axes of symmetry (by rotation), one center of symmetry (by inversion). The total
element of symmetry in the cubic systems is 23. Crystal shapes include: Cube, Octahedron.

Cubic Octahedron
 a=b=c

α = β = γ = 90°

Examples; Minerals crystallize in the cubic system are halite, magnetite, and garnet.

2. Hexagonal:

The hexagonal crystal system has four crystallographic axes consisting of three equal horizontal
or equatorial a1, a2, and a3-axes at 120º, and one vertical c-axis that is perpendicular to the other
three. The c-axis can be shorter, or longer than the horizontal axes. All the angles are equal to
120° but three sides have the same length and one vertical is shorter or longer in length.

The crystals of the hexagonal system possess “7” Planes of symmetry (by reflection), “7” (1+6)
axes of symmetry (by rotation), “1” center of symmetry (by inversion). The total element of
symmetry in the hexagonal systems is “15”.

a≠c

α=γ=90° β=120°

Examples; Minerals that form in the hexagonal system include apatite, beryl, high quartz, and
zincite.

3. Tetragonal:
The Tetragonal crystal system has three crystallographic axes consisting of two equal horizontal
a-axes and b-axis, and one vertical c-axis that are perpendicular to the other two. The a-axes and
b-axes are equal in length but c-axis is different. All the angles are equal to 90° and but two sides
have the same length as well and third is different.

The crystals of the Tetragonal system possess “5” Planes of symmetry (by reflection), “5” (1+4)
axes of symmetry (by rotation), “1” center of symmetry (by inversion). The total element of
symmetry in the tetragonal system is “11”.

a=b≠c
 α = β = γ = 90°

Examples; Minerals crystallize in the tetragonal system are apophyllite, idocrase, rutile,
scapolite, wulfenite, and zircon.

4. Trigonal:

The Trigonal system is also known as rhombohedral system. The Trigonal crystal system has
four crystallographic axes consisting of three equal horizontal a 1-axis, a2 and a3-axis, and one
vertical c-axis that is perpendicular to the other three. Three angles are equal to 120° but γ angle
that is different to the other three. Three axes are of equal length, and none of the axes is
perpendicular to another. All crystallographic axes intersect at a point where the center of the
object. Belong to Hexagonal family.

The crystals of the Trigonal system possess “0” Planes of symmetry (by reflection), “0” axes of
symmetry (by rotation), “0” center of symmetry (by inversion). The total element of symmetry in
the trigonal systems is “0”.

a≠c

α=γ=90° β=120°

Examples; Crystals of Trigonal mineral usually show a triangular cross-section. These are two
very common minerals quartz and calcite, quartz showing a prismatic habit while calcite is often
rhombic.

5. Orthorhombic:

The Orthorhombic crystal system has three crystallographic axes consisting of two unequal
horizontal a-axes and b-axes, and one vertical c-axis that are perpendicular to the other two. In
addition, all are perpendicular to one another. The c-axis can be shorter or longer than the two
horizontal axes. All the angles are equal to 90° but all sides have the different length to each
other.

The crystals of the orthorhombic system possess “3” Planes of symmetry (by reflection), “3”
axes of symmetry (by rotation), “1” center of symmetry (by inversion). The total element of
symmetry in the orthorhombic systems is “7”.
 a≠b≠c

α = β = γ = 90°

Examples; Minerals crystallize in the orthorhombic system are olivine, barite, sulfur, topaz,
iolite, and zoisite.

6. Monoclinic:

The monoclinic crystal system has three crystallographic axes consisting of two unequal
horizontal a-axes and b-axes, and one vertical c-axis. The c-axis can be shorter, or longer than
the horizontal axes. The two angles are equal to 90° but γ angle that is different to the other.
Also, two axes are perpendicular to each other. Therefore, the two vertical axes do not intersect
one another at right angles, although both are perpendicular to the horizontal axis.

The crystals of the monoclinic system possess “1” Planes of symmetry (by reflection), “2” (1+1)
axes of symmetry (by rotation), “1” center of symmetry (by inversion). The total element of
symmetry in the monoclinic systems is “4”.

a≠b≠c

α = γ = 90° ≠ β

Examples; Minerals crystallize in the monoclinic system are azurite, brazilianite, crocoite,
datolite, lazulite, malachite, orthoclase feldspars, and staurolite.

7. Triclinic:

The triclinic crystal system is also known as anorthic system. The Triclinic crystal system has
three crystallographic axes consisting of three equal horizontal or equatorial a-axes and b-axes,
and one vertical c-axis. The c-axis can be shorter, or longer than the horizontal axes. All the
angles are unequal to 90° but three sides have the different length as well, and none is
perpendicular to another.
The crystals of the triclinic system possess “0” Planes of symmetry (by reflection), “1” axes of
symmetry (by rotation), “1” center of symmetry (by inversion). The total element of symmetry in
the triclinic systems is “2”.

a≠b≠c

α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90°

Examples; Minerals crystallize in the triclinic system amblygonite, axinite, kyanite, microcline
feldspar, plagioclase feldspars, rhodonite, and turquoise.

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Q#2 Describe the contribution of Mathematics in crystallography. (5)

Ans: Mathematics plays a vital role in finding out the crystallography of each crystal.
Mathematical crystallography is based on the conception that the crystals are finding the
crystallography, Plane of symmetry, and Center of symmetry. Crystals have the form of regular
convex polyhedral with some sort of symmetry.

Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography, the study of crystals was based on
their geometry. This involved measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to each other,
crystallographic axes, and establishing the symmetry of the crystal.

Mathematics operations of finding out the crystallography of each crystal are the
following:

There can only be rotations (and corresponding axes of symmetry) of orders up to 6, excluding 5.
These are denoted by 1, 2, 3, 4, 6. There can be also inversion axes I (this is a centre of
symmetry).

 Rotations through 360o/N about an axis of symmetry;

 Reflection in a plane of symmetry, denoted by ‘nP’; n=1,2,3,….
 A symmetry about a point, nC, n=1,2,3,...

For Example: We apply math in crystallography.

A Square box has a 6 faces, 12 edges, and 8 solid angles.

We relate these term;

 E+f=C+2
 F + C – E=2

Put the values in this equation.

 6 + 8 – 12 = 2
 2 =2

Proves this equation; this is a law in crystallography and that law is called “Euler law”.

We use math to find the crystallographic axes.

 F= 6/2 =3
 E= 12 /2 = 6
 C= 8 / 2 =4
 Total Lines: 13

13 lines represent the crystallography of the crystal. Which crystal is this?

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Q#3 How one can distinguish between crystals of tetragonal and hexagonal crystals. (5)

Ans:.

1. Hexagonal has four crystallographic axes while tetragonal has three crystallographic
axes.
2. Hexagonal is having six edges, and having a cross-section in the form of a hexagon while
tetragonal is having four sides and having a cross-section in the form of a tetragon
(quadrilateral).
3. Hexagonal crystallography is having three equal axes which cross at 60° angles, and an
unequal axis which crosses the others at 90° angle while tetragonal crystallography is
having two equal axes and one unequal, and all angles 90°.
4. Hexagonal systems are based on a hexagonal (6-sided) inner structure while Tetragonal
systems are based on a rectangular inner structure (crystal shapes have different from
each other).
5. The crystallography of these two is different from each other, and Elements of symmetry
have different from each other.