Introduction

A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a
mechanical device to a fluid medium often air or a liquid coolant ,where it is dissipated away
from the device ,thereby allowing regulation of the device’s temperature at optimal levels.In
computer’s heat sinks are used to cool CPU’S GPU’S and some chipsets and RAM
modules.Heat sinks are used with high power semiconductor devices such as power
transistors,and optoelectronics such as lasers and light emitting diodes (LED’S) where the heat
dissipation ability of the comnponent itself is insufficient to moderate its temperature. A heat
sink is designed to maximize its surface area in contact with the cooling medium surrounding it ,
such as the air.Air velocity,choice of material, protrusion design,and surface treatement are the
factors that affect the performance of a heat sink .Heat sink attachment methods and thermal
interface materials also affect the die temperature of the integerated circuit.Thermal adhesive or
thermal grease improve the heat sink’s performance by filling air gaps between the heat sinks
and the heat spreader on the device.A heat sink transfers thermal energy from a higher
temperature device to a lower temperature fluid medium.The fluid medium is frequently air but
can also be water ,refrigerants or oil.If the fluid medium is water,the heat sink is frequently
called a cold plate.In thermodynamics,a heat sink is a heat reservoir that can absorb an arbitrary
amount of heat without significantly changing temperature.
Practical heat sinks for electronic devices must have a temperature higher than the surroundings
to transfer heat by convection,radiation and condution.Passive heat sinks donot have a fan and
instead rely on increased surface area and passive air movement to cool the component.As they
donot use a fan ,passive heat sinks are 100 % reliable.In natural convection a blck or dark
colored heat sink will perform 3 % to 8% better than an aluminium heat sink in its natural
silverfish color.A Heat sink with a fan is called an active heat sink .Heat sinks are generally
made of an aluminium alloy and often have fins.Bonded heat sinks are often built –up
extrusions,typically manufactured by assembling extruded plates into slots on an extruded or
machined heat sink base ,and held in place by an interface , usually a two part thermosetting
thermally conductive epoxy or a solder.
A heat sink works by taking some of the heat being supplied by the soldering iron and this helps
to prevent the component’s temperature increasing too much.Heat sinks not only provide heat
dissipation,but are also used for thermal energy management done by dissipating heat when heat
is more .In case of low temperatures ,heat sinks are intended to provide heat by releasing thermal
energy for proper operation of the circuit.Nearly all computers have heat sinks which help keep
the CPU cool and prevent it from overheating.If the temperature becomes too hot ,the fans near
the CPU may speed up to help cool the processor and heat sink.
Heat Sink Construction:
There are many designs for heat sinks but typically comprise a base and number of protrusions
attached to this base. The base is the feature that interfaces with the device to be cooled. Heat is
conducted through base into the protrusions.The protrusions can take several forms including :
 Plate fin
  Copper round fin
 Elliptical fin
Heat sinks are usually constructed from copper or aluminium .Copper has a very high
thermal conductivitywhich means that the rate of heat transfer through copper heatsinks is
also very high.Aluminium’s thermal conductivity is also high and it has the added benefits of
lower cost and lower density making it useful for applications where weight is a major
concern.
Heat sink performance:
The performance of a heat sink depends on different parameters which are as follows:-
 Geometry
 Material
 Surface treatement
 Air velocity
 Interface with device
Heat sink manufacturing methods:
 Machining-where a CNC machine is used to cut the metal
 Extrusion-where metal is heated and pushed through a mold
 Forging-where metal is heated and shaped by pressurization
 Stamping-where the metal fin is cut and then soldered onto the base
 Skiving-where a blade is used to slice and push up the single block of metal
Heat sink working principle:
Transmission of heat from a heat source via heatsink into the surrounding medium takes place
in four successive steps:-
 Transfer from the heat source to the heat sink
 Conduction from within the heat sink to its surface
 Transfer from the surface into the surrounding medium by either free or forced
convection
 Radition depending on the nature of the heatsink’s surfaces
Design Factors
Thermal resistance:-
For semiconductor devices used in a variety of consumer and industrial electronics, the idea
of thermal resistance simplifies the selection of heat sinks. The heat flow between the
semiconductor die and ambient air is modeled as a series of resistances to heat flow; there is a
resistance from the die to the device case, from the case to the heat sink, and from the heat sink
to the ambient air. The sum of these resistances is the total thermal resistance from the die to the
ambient air. Thermal resistance is defined as temperature rise per unit of power, analogous to
electrical resistance, and is expressed in units of degrees Celsius per watt (°C/W). If the device
dissipation in watts is known, and the total thermal resistance is calculated, the temperature rise
of the die over the ambient air can be calculated.
The idea of thermal resistance of a semiconductor heat sink is an approximation. It does not take
into account non-uniform distribution of heat over a device or heat sink. It only models a system
in thermal equilibrium, and does not take into account the change in temperatures with time. Nor
does it reflect the non-linearity of radiation and convection with respect to temperature rise.
However, manufacturers tabulate typical values of thermal resistance for heat sinks and
semiconductor devices, which allows selection of commercially manufactured heat sinks to be
simplified. Commercial extruded aluminum heat sinks have a thermal resistance (heat sink to
ambient air) ranging from 0.4 °C/W for a large sink meant for TO-3 devices, up to as high as 85
°C/W for a clip-on heat sink for a TO-92 small plastic case. The popular 2N3055 power
transistor in a TO3 case has an internal thermal resistance from junction to case of 1.52
°C/W. The contact between the device case and heat sink may have a thermal resistance of
between 0.5 up to 1.7 °C/W, depending on the case size, and use of grease or insulating mica
washer.
Material:
The most common heat sink materials are aluminium alloys.[7] Aluminium alloy 1050 has one of
the higher thermal conductivity values at 229 W/m•K [8] but is mechanically soft. Aluminium
alloys 6060 (low stress), 6061, and 6063 are commonly used, with thermal conductivity values
of 166 and 201 W/m•K, respectively. The values depend on the temper of the alloy. One-piece
aluminium heat sinks can be made by extrusion, casting, or milling.
Copper has excellent heat sink properties in terms of its thermal conductivity, corrosion
resistance, biofouling resistance, and antimicrobial resistance (See also Copper in heat
exchangers). Copper has around twice the thermal conductivity of aluminium, around 400
W/m•K for pure copper. Its main applications are in industrial facilities, power plants, solar
thermal water systems, HVAC systems, gas water heaters, forced air heating and cooling
systems, geothermal heating and cooling, and electronic systems.
Copper is three times as dense[7] and more expensive than aluminium.[7] One-piece copper heat
sinks can be made by skiving or milled. Sheet-metal fins can be soldered onto a rectangular
copper body. Copper is less ductile than aluminium, so it cannot be extruded into heat sinks.[9][10]
Fin efficiency:
Fin efficiency is one of the parameters which makes a higher thermal conductivity material
important. A fin of a heat sink may be considered to be a flat plate with heat flowing in one end
and being dissipated into the surrounding fluid as it travels to the other.[11] As heat flows through
the fin, the combination of the thermal resistance of the heat sink impeding the flow and the heat
lost due to convection, the temperature of the fin and, therefore, the heat transfer to the fluid, will
decrease from the base to the end of the fin. Fin efficiency is defined as the actual heat
transferred by the fin, divided by the heat transfer were the fin to be isothermal (hypothetically
the fin having infinite thermal conductivity)
Spreading resistance:
Another parameter that concerns the thermal conductivity of the heat sink material is spreading
resistance. Spreading resistance occurs when thermal energy is transferred from a small area to a
larger area in a substance with finite thermal conductivity. In a heat sink, this means that heat
does not distribute uniformly through the heat sink base. The spreading resistance phenomenon
is shown by how the heat travels from the heat source location and causes a large temperature
gradient between the heat source and the edges of the heat sink. This means that some fins are at
a lower temperature than if the heat source were uniform across the base of the heat sink. This
nonuniformity increases the heat sink's effective thermal resistance.
To decrease the spreading resistance in the base of a heat sink:

 Increase the base thickness

 Choose a different material with higher thermal conductivity
 Use a vapor chamber or heat pipe in the heat sink base
Conductive thick plate between the heat source and the heat sink:-
Placing a conductive thick plate as a heat transfer interface between a heat source and a cold
flowing fluid (or any other heat sink) may improve the cooling performance. In such
arrangement, the heat source is cooled under the thick plate instead of being cooled in direct
contact with the cooling fluid. It is shown that the thick plate can significantly improve the heat
transfer between the heat source and the cooling fluid by way of conducting the heat current in
an optimal manner. The two most attractive advantages of this method are that no additional
pumping power and no extra heat transfer surface area, that is quite different from fins (extended
surfaces).
Surface color
The heat transfer from the heat sink occurs by convection of the surrounding air, conduction
through the air, and radiation.
Heat transfer by radiation is a function of both the heat sink temperature, and the temperature of
the surroundings that the heat sink is optically coupled with. When both of these temperatures
are on the order of 0 °C to 100 °C, the contribution of radiation compared to convection is
generally small, and this factor is often neglected. In this case, finned heat sinks operating in
either natural-convection or forced-flow will not be affected significantly by surface emissivity.
In situations where convection is low, such as a flat non-finned panel with low airflow, radiative
cooling can be a significant factor. Here the surface properties may be an important design
factor. Matte-black surfaces will radiate much more efficiently than shiny bare metal.[17][18] A
shiny metal surface has low emissivity. The emissivity of a material is tremendously frequency
dependent, and is related to absorptivity (of which shiny metal surfaces have very little). For
most materials, the emissivity in the visible spectrum is similar to the emissivity in the infrared
spectrum[citation needed]; however there are exceptions, notably certain metal oxides that are used as
"selective surfaces".
In a vacuum or in outer space, there is no convective heat transfer, thus in these environments,
radiation is the only factor governing heat flow between the heat sink and the environment. For a
satellite in space, a 100 °C (373 Kelvin) surface facing the Sun will absorb a lot of radiant heat,
because the Sun's surface temperature is nearly 6000 Kelvin, whereas the same surface facing
deep-space will radiate a lot of heat, since deep-space has an effective temperature of only a few
Kelvin.
Cavities 
Cavities (inverted fins) embedded in a heat source are the regions formed between adjacent fins
that stand for the essential promoters of nucleate boiling or condensation. These cavities are
usually utilized to extract heat from a variety of heat generating bodies to a heat sink.
Engineering applications:-
Microprocessor cooling
Heat dissipation is an unavoidable by-product of electronic devices and circuits.[11] In general, the
temperature of the device or component will depend on the thermal resistance from the
component to the environment, and the heat dissipated by the component. To ensure that the
component does not overheat, a thermal engineer seeks to find an efficient heat transfer path
from the device to the environment. The heat transfer path may be from the component to a
printed circuit board (PCB), to a heat sink, to air flow provided by a fan, but in all instances,
eventually to the environment.
Attachment methods
As power dissipation of components increases and component package size decreases, thermal
engineers must innovate to ensure components won't overheat. Devices that run cooler last
longer. A heat sink design must fulfill both its thermal as well as its mechanical requirements.
Concerning the latter, the component must remain in thermal contact with its heat sink with
reasonable shock and vibration. The heat sink could be the copper foil of a circuit board, or a
separate heat sink mounted onto the component or circuit board. Attachment methods include
thermally conductive tape or epoxy, wire-form z clips, flat spring clips, standoff spacers, and
push pins with ends that expand after installing.
Thermally conductive tape
Thermally conductive tape is one of the most cost-effective heat sink attachment materials.[19] It
is suitable for low-mass heat sinks and for components with low power dissipation. It consists of
a thermally conductive carrier material with a pressure-sensitive adhesive on each side.
This tape is applied to the base of the heat sink, which is then attached to the component.
Following are factors that influence the performance of thermal tape:[19]
  Surfaces of both the component and heat sink must be clean, with no residue such as a
film of silicone grease.
 Preload pressure is essential to ensure good contact. Insufficient pressure results in areas
of non-contact with trapped air, and results in higher-than-expected interface thermal
resistance.
 Thicker tapes tend to provide better "wettability" with uneven component surfaces.
"Wettability" is the percentage area of contact of a tape on a component. Thicker tapes,
however, have a higher thermal resistance than thinner tapes. From a design standpoint, it
is best to strike a balance by selecting a tape thickness that provides maximum
"wettablilty" with minimum thermal resistance.
Epoxy
Epoxy is more expensive than tape, but provides a greater mechanical bond between the heat
sink and component, as well as improved thermal conductivity.[19] The epoxy chosen must be
formulated for this purpose. Most epoxies are two-part liquid formulations that must be
thoroughly mixed before being applied to the heat sink, and before the heat sink is placed on the
component. The epoxy is then cured for a specified time, which can vary from 2 hours to 48
hours. Faster cure time can be achieved at higher temperatures. The surfaces to which the epoxy
is applied must be clean and free of any residue.
The epoxy bond between the heat sink and component is semi-permanent/permanent.[19] This
makes re-work very difficult and at times impossible. The most typical damage caused by
rework is the separation of the component die heat spreader from its package.
In soldering:
Temporary heat sinks are sometimes used while soldering circuit boards, preventing excessive
heat from damaging sensitive nearby electronics. In the simplest case, this means partially
gripping a component using a heavy metal crocodile clip, hemostat, or similar clamp. Modern
semiconductor devices, which are designed to be assembled by reflow soldering, can usually
tolerate soldering temperatures without damage. On the other hand, electrical components such
as magnetic reed switches can malfunction if exposed to hotter soldering irons, so this practice is
still very much in use.
Threaded standoffs with compression springs:
For very large heat sinks, there is no substitute for the threaded standoff and compression spring
attachment method.[19] A threaded standoff is essentially a hollow metal tube with internal
threads. One end is secured with a screw through a hole in the PCB. The other end accepts a
screw which compresses the spring, completing the assembly. A typical heat sink assembly uses
two to four standoffs, which tends to make this the most costly heat sink attachment design.
Another disadvantage is the need for holes in the PCB.
Push pins with compression springs:
For larger heat sinks and higher preloads, push pins with compression springs are very effective.
[19]
 The push pins, typically made of brass or plastic, have a flexible barb at the end that engages
with a hole in the PCB; once installed, the barb retains the pin. The compression spring holds the
assembly together and maintains contact between the heat sink and component. Care is needed in
selection of push pin size. Too great an insertion force can result in the die cracking and
consequent component failure.
Aluminum heat sink:
An Aluminum heatsink is the most widely used product for thermal
solutions. Aluminum (Aluminium) is the second most widely used metal in the world after Iron.
After oxygen and silicon, aluminum is the most common element in the Earth’s crust. The
properties that make a aluminium heatsink popular include:

 Good thermal and electrical conductivity

 Low density with a density ~ 2,700 kg/m3
 Low weight
 High strength of between 70 and 700 MPa
 Easy malleability
 Easy machining
 Excellent corrosion resistance
 non-magnetic which avoids interference of magnetic fields
 Easy to recycle
Compared with other metals, aluminum has a relatively large coefficient of linear expansion.
Aluminum’s  malleability is essential for the extrusion process, and in bending and other forming
products.
An Aluminum heatsink is an excellent conductor of heat.

 A6061 has a thermal conductivity of ~ 167W/m-K and is typically used for machined

heatsinks
 A6063 has a thermal conductivity of ~ 167W/m-K and is typically used for extruded
heatsinks
Although the thermal properties are less than copper, An aluminum heatsink weighs
approximately half as much as a copper conductor having the same conductivity, and is also less
expensive.
Aluminum reacts with oxygen in air to form an extremely thin layer of Aluminum
Oxide. Anodizing increases the thickness of the oxide layer and improves the strength of the
natural corrosion protection.
Copper heat sink:
A heat sink is usually made out of copper or aluminium. Copper is used because it has many
desirable properties for thermally efficient and durable heat exchangers. First and
foremost, copper is an excellent conductor of heat. This means
that copper's high thermal conductivity allows heat to pass through it quickly.
Thermal conductivity of copper is almost 60% higher than that of aluminium. This means that
a copper heat sink will be quite more effective at removing heat than an aluminium one

Copper has about between 50% and double the thermal conductivity of aluminum depending on
alloy, so for a given performance a copper heatsink can be 'half' the size of an aluminum one.
However, copper is much more expensive than aluminum, and somewhat more difficult to
fabricate, so it is more costly to produce