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Chapter II
This section contains selected materials related to the study retrieve and
presented to explain further the variable and indicators presented, to provide the
Related Studies
technologies find their best implementation areas in aircraft and space vehicles.
Since the beginning of the powered flight, weight of airframes and systems are
needed to be reduced. They are developed and built by light, durable and
along with complying stringent emission and noise restrictions. These conditions
are increasing the demand for the development and the utilization of advanced
lighter, stronger and durable materials and alloys, ceramic coatings and relevant
According to Vance & Boyne (2000), Aircraft made of wood and fabric
were difficult to maintain and subject to rapid deterioration when left out in the
elements. This, plus the need for greater strength, led to the use of metal in an
aircraft. The first general use was in World War I; it is when the Fokker aircraft
company used welded steel tube fuselages, and the Junkers company made all-
metal aircraft of dual tubing and aluminum covering. During the period from
1919 through 1934, there was a gradual trend to all-metal construction, with
construction. Metal is stronger and more durable than fabric and wood, and, as
the necessary manufacturing skills were developed, its use enabled airplanes to
be both lighter and easier to build. On the negative side, metal structures were
subject to corrosion and metal fatigue, and new procedures were developed to
developed, and exotic metals like molybdenum and titanium were brought into
would be involved with the complexity of the design and selection of metals and
has witnessed great developments to endure huge loads, reduce the costs and
increase the security factors. This research has focused on the nature of raw
materials that used in the airplane components. These materials either would be
alloys or composites materials. The airplane is divided into ten parts. The
significant parts of an aircraft structure for the present study are the wings,
fuselage or hull, nose, tail, landing gear, pylon box, fuel tank, the engine and
screens. Generally, the external surfaces of the civil airplanes are made of
Aluminum alloys, while of the military airplanes are made of titanium alloys.
The internal parts of the plane have been made of iron alloys, while the engine
parts have been made of anti- temperature materials such as nickel alloys or
special alloys like in combustion chamber, nozzle and turbine, because these
parts have faced a high degree of temperature. The modern airplanes toward to
use composite materials in the body structure and airfoil such as graphite-epoxy
Military.
Related Literature
engineering is important, the materials used in the airframe structures and in the
impact on the entire lifetime of an aircraft, from the initial design phase through
empennage and landing gear of aircraft; the fuselage, tail boom and rotor blades
of helicopters; and the airframe, skins and thermal insulation tiles of spacecraft
the structural performance, safety, fuel economy, speed, range and operating life
performance, durability, functionality and quality since the first powered flight
by the Wright Brothers in 1903. Furthermore, the criteria which are used to select
materials for aircraft have also changed over the past 100 years. The main
criteria for materials selection for the earliest aircraft (c. 1903–1920) was
minimum weight and maximum strength. The earliest aircraft were designed to
be light and strong; other design criteria such as cost, toughness and durability
were given less importance in the quest for high strength-to-weight. Many of the
criteria which are now critical in the choice of materials were not recognized as
important by the first generation of aircraft designers, and their goal was simply
to use materials that provided high strength for little weight. At the time the best
and toughness which is controlled by its structure and composition. It was the
material of choice for most earlier aircrafts because of its good strength-to-weight
ratio. Wood can also be crafted and shaped into spars and beams easier, which is
used for the fuselage, wings, and other structures of the aircraft. It is the most
used structural material used for aircrafts until the introduction of high-strength
Wood is often used nowadays for small aircrafts rather than the
commercial and modern aircrafts of our generation. It is used in the spars, ribs,
causes of accidents in early aircraft. Materials for early aircraft were selected for
maximum strength and minimum weight, and their fracture resistance was not
cracking and sudden failure was not well understood in the design and
construction of these early aircraft. Many of the materials used in the earliest
aircraft, particularly wood, were prone to sudden fracture which gave the pilot
no opportunity to avoid crashing. The serious injuries and fatalities during the
factor in the safe design of aircraft structures and, later, jet engine components.
accidents in the early 1950s. From this period, fracture toughness became a
strength qualities, but also consider the ability of a material to withstand damage
below a critical size (e.g. corrosion and fatigue cracks in metals or delamination
According to Chawla (2012), Since the early 1960s, there has been an
increasing demand for materials that are stiffer and stronger yet lighter in fields
materials for better overall performance are so great and diverse that no one
material can satisfy them. This naturally led to a resurgence of the ancient
the individual constituents, and they offer the great advantage of a flexible
design; that is, one can, in principle, tailor-make the material as per specifications
appear at first sight. It implies that, given the most efficient design of, say, an
A materials engineer or
mechanical engineer would
be involved with the
complexity of the
design and selection of
metals and alloys used in a
high-temperature, aggressive
environment.
Airplanes industry has
witnessed great
developments to endure
huge loads, reduce the
costs and
high-temperature, aggressive
environment.
Airplanes industry has
witnessed great
developments to endure
huge loads, reduce the
costs and
increase the security factors.
This research has focused on
the nature of raw materials
that used in
the airplane components.
These materials either
would be alloys or
composites materials. The
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development in place of
alloys is 3.8 Tons
which is closest to that
declared by Boeing
Company.
A materials engineer or
mechanical engineer would
be involved with the
complexity of the
design and selection of
metals and alloys used in a
high-temperature, aggressive
environment.
Airplanes industry has
witnessed great
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
31
developments to endure
huge loads, reduce the
costs and
increase the security factors.
This research has focused on
the nature of raw materials
that used in
the airplane components.
These materials either
would be alloys or
composites materials. The
airplane is divided into ten
parts. The significant parts of
an aircraft structure for the
present study
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
32
A materials engineer or
mechanical engineer would
be involved with the
complexity of the
design and selection of
metals and alloys used in a
high-temperature, aggressive
environment.
Airplanes industry has
witnessed great
developments to endure
huge loads, reduce the
costs and
increase the security factors.
This research has focused on
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
36
would be alloys or
composites materials. The
airplane is divided into ten
parts. The significant parts of
an aircraft structure for the
present study
are the wings, fuselage or
hull, nose, tail, landing gear,
pylon box, fuel tank, the
engine and screens.
Generally, the external
surfaces of the civil
airplanes are made of
Aluminum alloys, while of
the
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