Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

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Measurement
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/measurement

State-of-the-art of surface integrity induced by tool wear effects

in machining process of titanium and nickel alloys: A review
Xiaoliang Liang a,b, Zhanqiang Liu a,b,⇑, Bing Wang a,b
a
Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture of MOE, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China
b
Key National Demonstration Center for Experimental Mechanical Engineering Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Aerospace and medical manufacturing fields develop rapidly benefiting from excellent mechanical and
Received 27 February 2018 physical properties of titanium and nickel alloys, including superior strength-to-weight ratio, high
Received in revised form 8 August 2018 mechanical strength, excellent high corrosion resistance, and excellent biocompatibility. Since the com-
Accepted 16 September 2018
ponents of aerospace and medical fields are manufactured to improve the functional performances as the
Available online 18 September 2018
goal, surface integrity is regarded as key a factor in assessing surface qualities. Titanium and nickel alloys
belong to difficult-to-cut materials due to poor machinability. The tool extremely easy wears out and the
Keywords:
available tool life diminishes rapidly, which results in surface integrity deteriorated. This article aims to
Surface integrity
Machining
review the effects of tool wear on surface integrity in cutting titanium and nickel alloys. The typical sur-
Tool wear effects face integrity characteristics including surface topography (surface defects and surface roughness),
Titanium alloys microstructural alterations (plastic deformation, grain sizes, and white layer), and mechanical properties
Nickel alloys (microhardness and residual stress) are reviewed. The possible perspectives of future work for tool wear
effects on surface integrity are also put forward.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1.1. Applications of titanium and nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1.1.1. Aerospace industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1.1.2. Biomedical industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1.1.3. Other applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1.2. Challenges and problems description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
1.3. Review objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2. Machined surface integrity analysis techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3. Various aspects of surface integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.1. Surface topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.1.1. Machined surface defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.1.2. Surface roughness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.2. Microstructural alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.2.1. Plastic deformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.2.2. Grain refinement and orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.2.3. White layer formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.3. Mechanical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.3.1. Work hardening layer formation and microhardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.3.2. Residual stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

⇑ Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture of MOE, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan
250061, PR China.
E-mail address: melius@sdu.edu.cn (Z. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2018.09.045
0263-2241/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 151

4. Summary of the research work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

5. Research limitations and future work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

1. Introduction widely employed in manufacturing the turbine blades and aircraft

compressors. Titanium alloy Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al has also been applied
1.1. Applications of titanium and nickel alloys to the landing gear of aircraft Boeing 777. In addition, titanium
alloy Ti-5553 defined as the next generation of excellent strength
1.1.1. Aerospace industries b-phase titanium alloys have been used in the Boeing 787 [19].
Benefiting from superior mechanical and physical properties in In the recent years, aerospace engine manufacturing has been
terms of excellent strength-to-weight ratio, good mechanical increasingly concerned with the use of titanium aluminides
strength, excellent corrosion resistance, and durable fatigue (c-TiAl) [20].
[1–3], the aerospace materials generally utilized titanium and
nickel alloys rather than structural steel materials in recent years
[4]. As shown in Fig. 1, a typical turbofan engine with the major 1.1.2. Biomedical industry
components and its primary materials selection are presented. Because of the superior biocompatibility, similar elasticity to
Titanium and nickel alloys occupy a significant proportion in man- human bone, and high corrosion resistance, these alloys are usu-
ufacturing fan blade, pressure compressor, and turbine discs [5]. ally employed for manufacturing components, such as dental
On the one hand, nickel alloys maintain high chemical and devices, surgical devices, orthopedic devices, and stents [21–24].
mechanical properties at elevated temperature, even the ambient Fig. 2a displays the fashionable design of screw-shaped devices
temperature up to 600 °C. This ability makes nickel alloys become in dental implant, which are commonly used for replacing one
an ideal material for employing in the hot section of aerospace missing tooth or in case of partial and total edentulous [21].
engine components, especially the turbine discs hot sections. Based Fig. 2b depicts the most common applications of titanium alloys
on the statistical analysis, approximately 50% by weight of an aero- in artificial hip joints replacements [23]. In addition, nickel-
space engine have been manufactured by using nickel alloys [6,7]. titanium alloys have drawn interest in the medical field due to
For example, nickel alloys (e.g. Inconel 718, Inconel 100, and Udi- their shape memory properties as well as the compatibility in
met 720LI) have the abilities to maintain superior mechanical terms of bioactivity [24].
strength when exposed to high temperature for extended periods
of time in the turbine sections of the jet engines [8–10]. Haynes
282 is developed for high temperature structural applications in 1.1.3. Other applications
aerospace engines and gas turbine systems [11]. Integrally cast Titanium and nickel alloys have been employed for other appli-
Inconel 713LC alloy are used in the rotor blades of aircraft turbines cations engineering fields in terms of nuclear reactors, food pro-
and rotor wheels [12]. cessing equipment, chemical industries, petrochemical plants,
On the other hand, because of their outstanding strength-to- marine equipment, and pollution control apparatus [5,25–28].
weight ratio (about 50% of nickel alloys), titanium alloys are devel- Nimonic 80 has been extensively used in the critical components
oped to satisfy the needs for a certain strong and lightweight mate- of the large scale power steam turbine [26]. As the result of the
rial in manufacturing various airframe and engine components ability of the considerable resistance under the bad corrosive envi-
[4,13]. The reduction in masses of fuselage and engine by using ronments, Inconel 825 has been very appropriate for the applica-
lightweight titanium alloys results in fuel consumption reducing tion of acid production, such as handling of radioactive wastes
and operating efficiency improving [14]. For example, titanium and pickling operations [27,28].
alloys (e.g. Ti-6Al-4V [15,16] and Ti-6242S [17,18]) have been

Fig. 1. Rolls-Royce XWB Turbofan engine with the major components and its Fig. 2. Biomedical applications, (a) diagram of the screw-shaped artificial tooth
primary materials selection [5]. [21], (b) diagram of artificial hip joint [23].
152 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

1.2. Challenges and problems description
Despite the recent remarkable advances of near-net shape
forming technology, the machining processes by removing exces-
sive material including turning, milling, drilling and grinding are
still widely used in aerospace and medical manufacturing fields
[29–31]. The surface qualities of structural parts directly affect
the functional performances, especially in conditions of complex
stress loads, high temperature and other hostile environments
[14,32]. Since the components of aerospace and medical fields
are manufactured, the assessment of final surface qualities mainly
depends on surface integrity, such as surface topography (surface
defect and roughness), microstructural states (plastic deformation,
grain sizes, and white layer), and mechanical properties (work
hardening and residual stress) [1,6].
In recent years, aerospace and medical manufacturing develop
rapidly benefiting from applying the superior properties of tita-
nium and nickel alloys [19,33]. However, these alloys belong to
the difficult-to-cut materials due to poor relative machinability,
as shown in Fig. 3 [4,34]. Several researches have addressed the
issues on the process of machining titanium and nickel alloys in lit-
eratures, for instance, severe tool wear, low processing efficiency,
and poor surface quality [35–37]. The sensitive chemical activities
of titanium and nickel alloys bring about strong adhesion with
tool/coating materials due to higher cutting temperature, resulting
in severe adhesion, oxidation, and diffusion wear [38–40]. More-
over, small Young’s modulus, hard carbides particles, strains rate
sensitive and high toughness of these alloys also result in prema-
ture tool failure in the machining process [41,42]. The ability of
these materials to maintain higher strength and hardness at high
cutting temperature lead to higher cutting forces [43,44]. The
low thermal conductivity of these alloys compared to the tradi-
tional steel or cast iron, results in cutting heat accumulation at
tool/workpiece surfaces in machining process. The thermo-
mechanical stresses induced by high cutting forces and cutting
temperature gradients also result in machined surface damage,
and microstructure and mechanical properties alterations [45–47].
Unavoidable tool wear adversely influence the machining pro-
cess of titanium and nickel alloys [48,49]. As shown in Fig. 4, some
studies indicated that tool wear decreased clearance angles and
increased contact regions of the tool/workpiece surface [16,50].
These directly alter the cutting heat distribution and stresses state
at the tool/workpiece surface [47,51]. The additional thermo-
mechanical loads lead to machined surface modified in surface
topography, microstructural states, and mechanical properties.
These diversified alterations of the machined surface and subsur-
face regions ultimately affect the functional properties and service
life of manufacturing parts [52].
1.3. Review objective
All aforementioned issues should be together considered to
limit tool wear states for achieving superior machined surface
integrity. Although there are several researches referring to prob-
lems of the machined surface integrity and some reviews involved
in such study have already been done, integrated and detailed
reviews on the interrelationships between the surface integrity
and tool wear are still deficient. This is why this paper gives an
overview of surface integrity emphasizing the tool wear effects
in cutting process of titanium and nickel alloys. As shown in
Fig. 5, the typical surface integrity characteristics including surface
topography (surface defects and surface roughness), microstruc-
tural alterations (plastic deformation, grain refinement and

(a) Machinability rate (b) Relative Machinability (Feed rate)

100 5

80 4

60 3

40 2

20 1

0 0
Hayness Inconel Waspalloy Ti6Al4V 4140 1018 Stainless
Al Mild steel Inconel 718
718 steel

Fig. 3. Machinability of titanium and nickel alloys, (a) machinability rate of engineering materials [34], (b) machinability with respect to the feed rate [4].

γ γ
(a) (b)
v v
Chip Chip
Secondary heat Tool Secondary heat Tool
source source
Mechanical
loads
t ψ t ψ
Primary heat Primary heat
source Mechanical loads source VB
Rubbing heat
Workpiece Workpiece source

Fig. 4. Schematic of orthogonal cutting process considering tool wear effects, (a) Fresh tool, (b) Worn tool [47].
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 153

Surface topography SEM [56,57], X-ray diffraction [54], electron back scattered diffrac-
Surface defects tion [58]. XRD has been commonly employed for the assessment of
Machined surface
characteristics Surface roughness microstructural alterations (e.g. crystalline structure, grain size
Microstructural alterations and orientation). EBSD method is an advanced microstructure
Machining Plastic deformation characterization technique for local texture, individual grain orien-
affected layer Grain size and texture tations, phase transformation, strain analysis [59]. Using the aver-
White layer age intragrain misorientation parameter, the EBSD method can
Mechanical properties quantify the amount of the machined surface damage.
Bulk material Microhardness As for mechanical properties, the microhardness alterations in
Residual stress the machined surface and subsurface are often measured using
nano-indentation instrument and Vickers method [16,26,53].
Fig. 5. Schematic of machined surface integrity characteristics [16]. Three main analytical techniques have been regularly to assess
the residual stress of the machined surface, including in the X-
texture, and white layer), and mechanical properties (microhard- ray diffraction method, the mechanical drilling method, ultrasonic
ness and residual stress) are reviewed. method, magnetic method, and neutron diffraction method [60]. In
particular, the X-ray diffraction method is considered as one of the
most popular techniques, which the depth gradients distribution of
2. Machined surface integrity analysis techniques
residual stress can be measured by electrolytic polishing removing
the subsurface material layer by layer [61].
The analysis techniques of surface integrity have been widely
dedicated to analyze the machined surface for the purpose of
improving the surface quality of manufacturing components. In 3. Various aspects of surface integrity
previous research, the different instruments and methods are used
to quantify and characterize surface topography, including surface 3.1. Surface topography
profilometer [53], white light interferometer [54], scanning elec-
tron microscopy (SEM) [55], and three dimensional (3D) laser scan- 3.1.1. Machined surface defects
ning microscope [16,42]. Surface layers of the machined components are not smooth and
In addition, several different approaches can be used to analyze show various features at microscale [16]. Different machined sur-
the microstructural alterations in the machined surface, such as face defects after machining titanium and nickel alloys with the

Fig. 6. Statistical analysis of surface defect types and level of the surface damage during turning of Inconel 718 [55].
154 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

worn tools are investigated in the previous literature, in terms of
surface cracking [54,55], cavities [62,63], tearing [17,64], grooves
[42,55], side flow [55], smearing [51,65], and surface burning
[16,63]. These types of surface defects directly affect the subse-
quent mechanical properties of the manufacturing components.
As depicted in Fig. 6, a variety of the machined surface defects
and degree of surface damage are statistically examined according
to the research of Zhou and Bushlya [55], in which turning of
Inconel 718 at the cutting speed (Vc) 100–400 m/min, the feed rate
(f) 0.1–0.2 mm/r, the depth of cut (ap) 0.3 mm, the dry and wet
coolant, and the flank wear values of 0–0.3 mm. Based on statisti-
cal analysis, their results demonstrated that any machining condi-
tion had the probability of emerging the machined surface defects.
However, a higher level of surface damage was generated on
machined surface under condition of worn tools than new cutting
tools without respect to other cutting conditions. When performed
the turning experiments of Inconel 718 cylindrical bar with the
cutting speed of 70 m/min, the feed rate of 0.25 mm/rev, and the
depth of cut 0.45 mm, Arrazola et al. [66] also discovered that sur-
face defects emerged more frequently in machining with worn
tools, particularly for flank wear larger than 0.15 mm. For this rea-
son, the following section mainly details the undesirable machined
defects associated with the additional thermo-mechanical stresses
due to tool wear effects.
Ezugwu et al. [67] indicated that the carbide particle in the
nickel alloys had significant impact to promote the rupture
strength through restraining alloys grain boundaries sliding. Nev-
ertheless, the carbide cracking can be considered as severe prob-
lem involving the micro level of machined surface topography,
which substantially decreases the fatigue life of the end product.
As shown in Fig. 7a, carbide particles inside Inconel 718 were
unable to deform followed with the plastic deformed layer near
the machined surface in the process of machining, especially the
high shear stress exceeding the yield strength of workpiece mate-
rial under tool wear conditions. Therefore, the hard carbide parti-
cles produce cracking to relieve the excessive strain [54].
As shown in Fig. 7b and c, the machined surface defect detection
revealed that the micro cracks were preferably formed on the
regions of TiC or the complex NbC particles [54,55,69]. Apart from
the mechanical effect, cracking and breakages of carbides particles
were also associated with the intensive oxidation induced by the
thermal effect [65]. However, the cutting temperature at machined
surface was sufficiently high with employing the worn tools, the
carbide particles could be pressed in the machined subsurface
instead of cracking. The experimental results could explain why
higher degree of machined surface cracking was generated at the
conditions of semi-worn wet and semi-worn dry cutting instead
of the most severe tool wear conditions [55].
Under the condition of tool wear, the adhesion effect at the
tool/workpiece surface is enhanced by the thermo-mechanical
loads. Thus the carbide particles are easily broken away and the
cavities are left at the machined surface [68]. Seen from the
Fig. 8, the voids and cavities were generated due to the peeling
of cracked carbides. Moreover, their fragments were scattered at
the machined surface and dragged by the tool cutting edges along
cutting speed directions [70]. In Fig. 8c, titanium alloys randomly
produced surface grains pull-out phenomenon rather than cracked
carbides on the machined surface. Yang et al. [63] performed the
milling experiments of titanium alloy Ti-1023 to investigate the
tool wear effect on micro voids. As shown in Fig. 8d, the machined
surface micro voids were randomly located on the machined sur-
face at the cutting speed 300 m/min, the feed rated 0.08 mm, the
depth of cut 1 mm, and the tool flank wear width 0.2 mm. Their
results indicated the cavities and micro voids defects easily cause
stress concentration, which directly influence the subsequent
mechanical properties of critical structural components.

Fig. 7. Machined surface cracking after turning of Inconel 718, (a) carbide particles fracture, Vc = 40–120 m/min, f = 0.15–0.25 mm/rev, ap = 0.25 mm [68], (b) surface cracking
on TiC, Vc = 200 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, ap = 0.3 mm, VBmax = 0.2 mm, wet cut [55], (c) surface cracking on NbC, Vc = 300 m/min, f = 0.15 mm/rev, ap = 0.25 mm, worn tool [54],
(d) surface cracking formation, Vc = 30 m/min, f = 0.1225–0.2 mm/rev, ap = 0.125–1.5 mm [69].
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 155

Fig. 8. Surface defects of cavity, carbide pull-out, grain pull-out, and micro voids, (a) surface cavity after turning of NiCr20TiAl at Vc = 60 m/min, f = 0.15 mm/rev, ap = 1 mm
[62], (b) carbide pull-out after turning of Inconel 718, Vc = 37.5–50 m/min, f = 0.05–0.35 mm/rev, ap = 0.125 mm [70], (c) grain pull-out after turning of Ti-6Al-4V, Vc = 80–
120 m/min, f = 0.25–0.4 mm/rev, ap = 0.25 mm [71], (d) micro voids after milling of Ti-1023, Vc = 300 m/min, f = 0.08 mm, ap = 1 mm, ae = 20 mm, VB = 0.2 mm [63].

As illustrated in Fig. 9a, the mechanism of surface tearing on the face material are easily scratched and teared away. As shown in
machined surface is proposed. Since the part of built up edge (BUE) Fig. 9b, Ginting and Nouari [17] considered that the formation of
is generally harder than the workpiece material, the machined sur- surface tearing also was attributed to the existing of workpiece

Fig. 9. Defects of the machined surface tearing, (a) the mechanism of surface tearing [17], (b) turning of Inconel 718, Vc = 40–120 m/min, f = 0.15–0.25 mm/rev, ap = 0.25 mm
[64], (c) milling of Ti-6242S, Vc = 100 m/min, f = 0.15 mm/z, aa = 2 mm, ar = 8.8 mm [17], (d) turning of Inconel 718, Vc = 300 m/min, f = 0.15 mm/rev, ap = 0.25 mm, worn tool
[54].
156 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

material sticking layer at the tool surface. In particular, the
machined surface materials are softened induced by the elevated
cutting temperature under tool wear conditions, peeling of hard
carbide particles more easily cause the formation of surface tear-
ing, as depicted in Fig. 9c [64]. As shown in Fig. 9d, another reason
for the surface tearing was that the part of fractured cutting tool
and carbon particles are potential to deposited on the machined
surface, and also resulted in the material dragging and tearing at
the next formation of machined surface [54].
The common defects of grooves and ridges can be easily pro-
duced at the corresponding machined surface when machined by
worn tools. Fig. 10 depicts a series of grooves and ridges with dif-
ferent workpiece materials and processing methods under differ-
ent tool wear states. Liang and Liu [16] carried out orthogonal
turning titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V at different flank wears. In
Fig. 10a, their experimental results suggested that the micro-
chippings of tool cutting edges were mapped at the machined sur-
face to generate the grooves. In addition, some researchers also
found that the formation of long grooves was related to the plow-
ing effect of the built-up edges [72,73]. More detailed explanation
of the grooves induced by the tool wear effect was obtained by the
work of Zhou and Bushlya [55]. As depicted in Fig. 10c, the straight
grooves are generated on the corresponding machined surface
using the semi-worn tool, which are same to direction of the cut-
ting speeds. They considered that the generation of coarse-scale
grooves was associated with the broken carbide particles and built
up edges. Moreover, as shown in Fig. 10d, when the cutting tool
reaches the end life, defects of ridges were produced at the
machined surface because of the cutting edge damage and grooves
wear at the tool flank face.
According to Kishway and Elbestawi [74], side flows of work-
piece surface material are presented in the regions of the feed
marks, which partially materials might be plowed aside. In addi-
tion, the mechanical loads induced lateral extrusion and the high
thermal loads induced material softened were key factors in the
emergence of side flow. This is why the side flow becomes worse
on account of the high cutting forces and cutting temperature
when machined by use of the worn cutting tool under the dry
cut condition. Fig. 11a and b show the comparative analysis of
the side flows at dry and wet coolant conditions, respectively. More

Fig. 10. Defects of grooves and ridges, (a) orthogonal turning of Ti-6Al-4V, Vc = 60 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, aw = 2 mm [16], (b) turning of Inconel 718, Vc = 60 m/min,
f = 0.1 mm/rev, ap = 0.5 mm [72], (c) turning of Inconel 718, Vc = 200 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, ap = 0.3 mm, VBmax = 0.2 mm, wet cut [55], (d) turning of Inconel 718, Vc = 200 m/
min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, ap = 0.3 mm, VBmax = 0.3, dry cut [55].

Fig. 11. Side flow after machining process, (a) dry cut and (b) wet cut after turning Inconel 718, Vc = 200 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, ap = 0.3 mm, VBmax = 0.3 [55], (c) turning
Nickel RR1000 alloy, Vc = 100 m/min, f = 0.2 mm/rev, VB = 0.2 mm [75].
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 157

severe side flow at the machined surface is observed with dry cut-
ting condition. Ignoring other cutting conditions, the cutting tem-
perature removed by the cutting fluid effect can be an effective
way to inhibit the occurrence of side flow at tool wear conditions.
As shown in Fig. 11c, Hood et al. [75] also found that side flow was
easily generated under the tool wear condition (VB = 0.2 mm) dur-
ing turning Nickel RR1000 alloy using TiN/Al2O3/Ti(C,N) coated
carbide tools.
The material smearing on the machined surface is also an
important defect affecting the performance of manufacturing com-
ponents. As shown in Fig. 12a, when the cutting tools move along
the direction of feed rate, workpiece material smearing usually
occurs due to the side flows and the extrusion effect between the
cutting tool minor flank faces and workpiece [65]. As shown in
Fig. 12b, when carried out the cutting experiments with the worn
tools, the contact areas increasing at the tool/workpiece interface
aggravate the rubbing effect against the machined surface, thus
severe workpiece material smearing occurs [54]. Seen from
Fig. 12c, another reason for the generation of material smearing
can be associated with the randomly broken chips deposited on
the surface [76]. Fig. 12d shows that the chip layer formations were
deposited on the surface to produce the built-up layers. The
deposited phenomenon also promotes the formation of material
smearing on the machined surface due to higher thermo-
mechanical loads [17].
Moreover, the machined surface easily faces the challenge of
burning phenomenon as a result of low thermal conductivity of
titanium alloy [16,77]. As shown in Fig. 12e, the cutting heat loads
are relatively hard to conduct into bulk materials. The heat accu-
mulation easily causes surface burning at tool wear conditions.
Liang and Liu [16] considered the cutting heat could not be
released in time on account of the contact area increasing of the
tool/workpiece interface. In addition, as shown in Fig. 12f, Yang
et al. [63] found that the occurrence of high-temperature corrosion
pits was produced on the machined surface in milling of Ti-1023.
This result was related to higher thermal loads (exceeding
1000 °C) at the flank wear of 0.2 mm.
3.1.2. Surface roughness
Several surface topography parameters have been widely
employed for the purpose of evaluating surface integrity. The sur-
face roughness is regarded as the most typical parameter which
refers to the amplitude parameter information and high frequency
irregularities [78]. Apart from the cutting conditions (e.g. the

Fig. 12. Material smearing and surface burning, (a) turning of Inconel 718, Vc = 125 m/nin, f = 0.1 mm/rev, ap = 0.75 mm [65], (b) turning of Inconel 718, Vc = 300 m/min,
f = 0.15 mm/rev, ap = 0.25 mm, new tool [54], (c) turning of Ti-6Al-4V, Vc = 180 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, ap = 0.5 mm [76], (d) milling of Ti-6242S, Vc = 125 m/min, f = 0.2 mm/z,
aa = 2.5 mm, ar = 8.8 mm, new tool [17], (e) turning of Ti-6Al-4V, Vc = 60 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, w = 2 mm, VB = 0.3 mm [16], (f) milling of Ti-1023, Vc = 300 m/min,
f = 0.08 mm/z, ap = 1 mm, ae = 20 mm, VB = 0.2 mm [63].
158 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

cutting speed [68,80], the feed rate [81] and the depth of cut
[81,82]), tool wear also has primary effects on the modification
of surface roughness. This result has been drawn the attention of
some researchers, especially at the condition of rapid wear rate
in machining titanium and nickel alloys [63,83,84].
Fig. 13. Typical machined surface topography obtained from 3D optical microscopy
[54].
Based on some research results, tool wear distinctly influences
surface roughness [85]. M’Saoubi et al. [54] studied the surface
topographies focusing tool wear effects when carried out turning
experiments of Inconel 718. Fig. 13 shows differences of typical
surface topographies produced by the new and worn tools. With
the increment of tool wear, the distinct surface topography deteri-
oration was observed and wavier surface were generated by the
coated carbide cutting tool. As illustrated in the Table 1, the
detailed surface roughness parameters are extracted from the 3D
maps under the new and worn tool conditions. The analyzed data
indicated that tool wear seriously deteriorated the machined sur-
face with carbide tools while only a slight increase of surface
roughness were observed with worn polycrystalline cubic boron
nitride (PCBN) tool. The result was consistent with the different
wear resistance of the cutting edge between the carbide tools
and PCBN tool. As shown in Fig. 14, Yang et al. [63] and Liang
et al. [42] found that the surface produced by the new tools pre-
sented better topography amplitude than that of the worn tools.
This finding was attributed to the wear topography of tool cutting
edge, which resulting in large groove traces. Seen from Fig. 15, Li
et al. [79] studied surface roughness (Ra) values measured at the
first and last holes after drilling process. The first and last holes
represented the conditions of using the new cutting tools and worn
cutting tools, respectively. Their results showed that tool wear had

Table 1
Topography parameters (lm) extracted from the 3D machined surface maps [54].

Coated carbide tool PCBN tool

Vc = 60 m/min Vc = 90 min Vc = 200 m/min Vc = 300 m/min
New Worn New Worn New Worn New Worn
Sa 0.78 3.87 0.89 2.41 0.89 1.12 0.85 0.96
Sq 0.94 4.36 1.04 2.80 1.07 1.28 1.00 1.12
Sz 4.09 14.4 4.49 7.60 4.18 5.04 4.39 4.77
Ra 0.76 4.00 0.88 2.22 0.92 1.17 0.90 0.96
Rq 0.93 4.51 1.03 2.62 1.07 1.33 1.06 1.11
Rz 2.75 12.3 2.59 9.51 2.97 3.69 3.30 3.34

Fig. 14. Surface topography, (a) VB = 0 mm and (b) VB = 0.2 mm after milling of Ti-1023 at Vc = 40 m/min, f = 0.08 mm/z, ap = 1 mm, ae = 20 mm [63], (c) VB = 0 mm and (d)
VB = 0.2 mm after turning Ti-6Al-4V at Vc = 200 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev [42].
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 159

Fig. 15. Surface roughness for the first and last holes in drilling process [79].

distinct deterioration influence on the surface topography, which
resulting in a manifest increasing of surface roughness.
Conversely, several investigations have been reported that the
surface roughness presented the decreasing trend firstly and then
rapid increasing at the end life of tools. Che-Haron et al. [80] inves-
tigated that surface roughness were found to be larger with the
new tools than that of slightly wear tools. But the surface rough-
ness values slightly decreased when the cutting tool was close to
the half of tool life. This was related to the burrs at the sharp edges
or peaks at the initial tool surface, and the slight wear would make
the tool surface and the machined surface more adaptable. The
dramatic increasing of the surface roughness value was presented
at the end life of cutting tool. This result was probably caused by
rapid tool wear, even close to the fractured cutting edge. The sim-
ilar trend of surface roughness was reported by other authors
under the different tool wear states [53,84]. Valdivielso et al. [53]
considered that surface roughness progressively declined firstly
and then increased with the increment of tool wear. Seen from
the Fig. 16, the corresponding surface roughness profiles are pre-
sented. The peak of machined surface roughness became higher
at tool wear exceeding 0.2 mm. These changes of edge geometry
caused the severe side shearing effect, especially at the flank wear
0.3 mm.
However, some studies obtained the opposite results that sur-
face roughness significantly decreases at reaching tool life
[16,42,68]. Fig. 17 presents the 3D machined surface topography
under different flank wear conditions. The results indicated that
the surface topographies presented significant differences, and sur-
face roughness firstly increased and then declined when flank wear
varying from 0 to 0.3 mm. Liang and Liu [42] considered that the
decreasing of surface roughness (VB = 0.3 mm) was related to
workpiece material melting and the mechanical ironing associated
with the tool wear effects. Similar result was obtained under differ-
ent tool wear states during turning Inconel 718 using TiC/Al2O3/
TiN tools and uncoated WC tools. Surface roughness by the worn
coated tools was smaller than that of the new coated tools [68].

Fig. 16. Surface topography profiles at different tool flank wear levels after turning of Inconel 718 at Vc = 70 m/min, f = 0.21 mm, ap = 0.2 mm [53].
160 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

Fig. 17. Surface topography after orthogonal turning Ti-6Al-4V under different tool flank wear at Vc = 200 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, aw = 2 mm, (a) VB = 0 mm, (b) VB = 0.1 mm,
(c) VB = 0.2 mm, (d) VB = 0.3 mm [42].

In addition, the relevant 3D surface topographies generated by the
new tools and worn tools are presented in Fig. 18. The result indi-
cated that the flatter worn flank faces played a role of wiper effect,
which removing feed mark peaks. However, opposite result that
surface roughness increasing under condition of tool wear was
obtained with uncoated tools.
In addition, some studies have pointed out that tool wear effects
on surface roughness was not obvious under the condition of spe-
cial tool edge geometry and machining methods [71,86,87].
Hughes et al. [71] investigated the tool wear effects on surface
roughness under different edge geometry. Their results indicated
that little difference was produced between new and worn tools.
This was related to the large effective tool nose radius spreading
the wear area, which caused tool wear not to be concentrated at
the tool nose. Hood et al. [75] also found that surface roughness
was results of the combination of cutting parameters and tool
wear. In case of low cutting speed (Vc = 60 m/min), surface rough-
ness significantly decreased at end of tool life. But at higher cutting
speed (Vc = 100 m/min and 120 m/min), results showed that tool
wear effects on surface roughness was not obvious. Aspinwall
et al. [86] performed the ball milling Inconel 718 to study tool wear
effects on surface roughness under different cutter orientation/-
workpiece angles. As shown in Fig. 19, smaller surface roughness
was produced by the worn inserts under horizontal downwards
and 0° workpiece tilt angle. But the result of horizontal upwards
operations were reversed. Niaki and Mears [87] investigated the
relationships between tool flank wear and surface roughness under
different feed rates. Fig. 20 shows that poor repeatability between

Fig. 18. 3D surface topography maps after turning Inconel 718 using TiC/Al2O3/TiN coated tools, (a) new tool, (b) worn tool [68].
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181
Fig. 19. Effect of different cutter orientation/workpiece angles on the surface
roughness in ball milling Inconel 718 using new tools and worn tools [86].
the flank wear and surface roughness, which indicates the tool
flank wear does not play significant effect on the surface
roughness.
Table 2 lists the summaries of critical research about tool wear
effects on surface topography when cutting titanium and nickel
alloys in the review paper.
3.2. Microstructural alterations
3.2.1. Plastic deformation
In spite of the flowing chips removing the majority of cutting
heat, the residual cutting heat is still transmitted into the
machined surface and subsurface [88]. High thermal loads and
mechanical loads easily cause the microstructural alterations,
especially facing severe tool wear in cutting titanium and nickel
alloys [47,89,90]. Some studies showed that the material drags or
the plastic deformation of grains along the preferential direction
(e.g. turning speed, milling speed, and drilling speed) are easily
observed under the tool wear conditions. Compared to the cutting
conditions (e.g. the cutting speed, the feed rate, and the depth of
cut), some studies indicated that tool wear played a decisive role
in the depth of plastic deformation [47,56,91]. Kwong et al. [91]
Fig. 20. Surface roughness changes with respect to flank wear under different feed rates [87].
161
performed the drilling of nickel-based CG RR 1000 at the rotating
speed of 1061–1592 RPM, the feed rates of 0.08–0.1 mm/rev. Seen
from Fig. 21, the metallographic examinations in the axial direction
after drilling operation showed that intensive material drag and
cracks along the hoop direction were produced by the worn tools.
Based on the measured results, the depth of material drag under
the condition of the worn tool was approximately 50% greater than
that of the new tools. Ezugwu et al. [92] compared the microstruc-
tural deformation of the machined surface with the cutting speeds
of 32–56 m/min, the feed rates of 0.13–0.25 mm/rev, and the depth
of cuts of 1–2 mm. Their results showed no visible microstructural
deformation was generated near the machined surface after
machining of one minute. But severe plastic deformation was pre-
sented at the machined subsurface material after prolonged
machining of fifteen min.
In addition, Sharman et al. [68] investigated tool wear effects on
the microstructural deformation in turning of Inconel 718. Fig. 22
presents the representative microstructural plastic deformation
using the new tools and worn tools. Results indicated that greater
degree of grain boundary plastic deformation produced with worn
tool in the directions of cutting speed than new tools. Fig. 22c
details the depth of microstructural deformation with respect to
the tool wear and other cutting conditions. Relatively small grain
boundaries plastically deformed (average 12 lm) was generated
with the new tools, while the plastic deformation increased up to
average 36 lm with the worn tools. Compared with other cutting
conditions (e.g. the cutting speeds, the feed rates, and the depth
of cut), the tool wear easily causes the thermo-mechanical stresses
exceeding the yield strength of the Inconel 718.
Similar results are obtained after machining titanium alloys
under different machining methods and cutting parameters. Shi
et al. [56] performed the milling experiment of titanium alloy
TC21 at the cutting speeds 30–300 m/min, the feed rate of
0.1 mm/z, the axial cutting depth of 3 mm, and the radial cutting
depth 1–2 mm. When the processing of tool wear increased from
the initial wear to tool failure, the surface produced relatively more
severe and deeper plastic deformation. As shown in Fig. 23, similar
result was acquired by work of Pretorius et al. [89] during turning
of Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo.
The tool wear effects on plastic deformation are related to the
change of the thermo-mechanical loads distribution at the tool/-
workpiece. Some studies found that the elevated thermal loads
Table 2
Summaries of tool wear effects on surface topography when cutting titanium and nickel alloys.
Reference
Sharman et al. [68]
Ibrahim et al. [15]
Liang and Liu [16]
Ginting and Nouari [17]
M’Saoubi et al. [54]
Hughes et al. [71]
Zhou et al. [55]
Yang et al. [63]
Che-Haron and Jawaid [80]
Fernández-Valdivielso et al.
[53]
Hood et al. [75]
Aspinwall et al. [86]
Niaki and Mears [87]
162
Workpiece Tool material Tool wear/ Machining Cutting parameters Remarks
material time
Inconel 718TM Uncoated carbide tools VB = 0–0.25 mm Turning Surface roughness decreased with the increase of tool wear under
TiCN/Al2O3/TiN coated carbide tools Vc = 40, 80, 120 m/min coated tools, but surface roughness increased under uncoated carbide
f = 0.15, 0.25 mm/rev tools
Ti-6Al-4V Uncoated carbide tools K313 T = 0–80 min Turning Surface roughness decreased firstly and then increased with the
Coated carbide tools KC9225 Vc = 55, 75, 95 m/min increase of machining time
KC5010 f = 0.15, 0.25, 0.35 mm/rev
ap = 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 mm
Ti-6Al-4V Coated Al2O3 carbide tools VB = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 mm Orthogonal Turning Surface roughness increased firstly and then decreased with the
Vc = 60 m/min increase of tool wear
f = 0.1 mm/rev
w = 2 mm
Ti-6242S Uncoated carbide tools CVD VB = 0, 0.3 mm Milling Surface roughness presented the maximum value with the new tool,
coated carbide tools Vc = 100–125 m/min but had little changes with the increase of tool wear
f = 0.15–0.2 mm/rev
aa = 1.5–2.5 mm
ar = 8.8 mm
Inconel 718 TiAlN/TiN coated tools PCBN tools VB = 0–0.4 mm Turning Surface roughness increased with the increase of tool wear under
X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181
Vc = 60–300 m/min TiAlN/TiN coated tools, but had little changes with the PCBN tools
f = 0.15 mm/rev
ap = 0.25 mm
Ti-6Al-4V Uncoated tungsten carbide tools VB = 0–0.25 mm or notch Turning Surface roughness had little changes with the increase of tool wear
wear reached 0.5 mm Vc = 60, 80, 120 m/min
f = 0.25, 0.3, 0.4 mm/rev
ap = 0.2, 0.25 mm
Inconel 718 Reinforced ceramic tools VB = 0, 0.2, 0.3 mm Turning The degree of the machined surface defects increased with the increase
Vc = 100, 200, 300 m/min of tool wear
f = 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 mm/rev
ap = 0.3 mm
Ti-1023 TiAlN coated carbide tools VB = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.35 mm Milling Surface roughness increased with the increase of tool wear, and
Vc = 20–300 m/min surface defects also increased
f = 0.08 mm/rev
ap = 1 mm
Ti-6Al-4V Uncoated tungsten carbide tools T = 0–30 min Turning Surface roughness decreased firstly and then increased with the
Vc = 45–100 m/min increase of tool wear
f = 0.25, 0.35 mm/rev
ap = 2 mm
Inconel 718 TiAlN carbide tools VB = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 mm Turning Surface roughness decreased firstly and then increased with the
Vc = 70 m/min increase of tool wear
f = 0.21 mm/rev
ap = 2 mm
Nickel CVD coated tools VB = 0–0.2 mm Turning Tool wear effects on surface roughness were not obvious at higher
RR1000 Vc = 80, 100, 120 m/min cutting speeds
f = 0.08, 0.2 mm/rev
Inconel 718 TiAlCrN carbide tools VB = 0–0.3 mm Ball end milling Smaller surface roughness was generated with the worn tools except
Vc = 35, 66, 90 m/min in the case of horizontal upwards operation, of which the results were
f = 1490, 2026, 2959 mm/ reversed
rev
Inconel 718 TiAlN coated tools VB = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, Turning Tool flank wear does not play significant effect on the surface
1 mm Vc = 80 m/min roughness
f = 0.05–0.15 mm/rev
ap = 0.1 mm
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 163

Fig. 21. Secondary electron images of machined surface viewed in the hoop direction of the depth 1 mm during drilling CG RR1000, f = 0.1 mm/rev, n = 1061–1592 RPM, (a)
VB = 0 mm, (b) VB = 0.3 mm [91].

Fig. 22. Typical microstructural deformation after turning of Inconel 718, (a) new tool, (b) worn tool, (c) the depth of microstructural deformation analysis [68].

and mechanical loads considering tool wear effects had different mechanical loads further cause plastic deformation deeper into
decisive role in the plastic deformation. The thermal loads soften the subsurface material [47,72]. Liang et al. [47] investigated tool
the materials near the surface and the subsurface, whereas the flank wear effects on plastic deformation in turning Ti-6Al-4V.
164 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

Fig. 23. Cross-sectional microstructure of the machined surface generated, (a) new tool, (b) worn tool [89].

Fig. 24 shows the machined subsurface microstructure deforma-
tion under different flank wears. Based on deformation gradient
described from the asymptote lines, smaller visible deformed
microstructure was generated by using the new tools. However,
clear boundaries and specific variations were produced between
the bulk material and plastic deformation region, especially reach-
ing tool failure condition, which emerging grains distortion, spin-
ning and slipping along with directions of the cutting speed.
Seen from Fig. 25, Sharman et al. [93] studied the tool flank
wear effect on the plastic deformation with ultra-high pressure
coolant system. Regardless of the coolant conditions and the cut-
ting speeds, their results showed that the plastic deformation
depth generated by the new tools was approximately 7 lm while
increasing up to 18 lm with the worn tools. Some studies indi-
cated that the usage of cutting fluid could take away the part of
cutting heat and reduce the temperature of the machined surface.
The lubricating effect of cutting fluid also reduced the friction force
at the tool/workpiece surfaces [94,95]. But the obtained result of
Sharman et al. [93] was surprising that the use of ultra-high pres-
sure coolant did not significantly inhibit the depth of plastic defor-
mation under condition of the tool wear. In addition, Sharman et al.
[96] also found that the tool nose radius increasing could
strengthen the tool wear effect on modifying the plastic deforma-
tion in turning Inconel 718 with the cutting speed 40 m/min, the
feed rates 0.25–0.5 mm/rev, and the depth of cut 0.25 mm.
However, some studies found that the tool wear had no mea-
surable effects on depth of plastic deformation during machining
titanium alloys. This is mainly related to the thermal physical
properties of titanium alloys. Since titanium alloys possess the
lower thermal conductivity, cutting heat is hard to flux deeper of
workpiece. As shown in Fig. 26, microstructural deformation
occurs in relatively shallow depth (approximately 6 lm) under dif-
ferent tool wear levels, regardless of variations of the cutting
speeds, the feed rates, the tool edge geometry [71].
3.2.2. Grain refinement and orientation
The changes of thermo-mechanical stresses considering tool
wear effects easily modify the grain size and orientation in the
machined surface and subsurface. Fig. 27 shows the tool wear
effects on microstructure modification by using the new tools,

Fig. 24. Subsurface microstructure under different average tool flank wear width (a) VB = 0 mm, (b) VB = 0.12 mm, (c) VB = 0.18 mm, (d) VB = 0.3 mm [47].
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 165

Fig. 25. Influence of the tool wear and cutting parameters on plastic deformation depth (range bars represent the maximum and minimum values) [93].

Fig. 26. Depth of microstructural deformation during turning of Ti-6Al-4V under different tool wear states and cutting parameters [71].

the semi-worn tools (VBmax = 0.15 mm) and the worn tools
(VBmax = 0.3 mm). Zhou et al. [58] divided the machined surface
into three parts: zone1 (recrystallization area), zone2 (plastic
deformation area), zone3 (bulk material). With the increment of
tool wear, the depth of the recrystallization area and the plastic
deformation area both increased due to the elevated thermo-
mechanical loads. Moreover, Fig. 27d presents the partial magnifi-
cation of the recrystallization area using worn tools. The grain sizes
of the recrystallization area were measured approximately
200–300 nm, which were smaller than that of the bulk material
(2–20 lm). The emergence of nanocrystalline grain proved that
the machined surface material underwent recrystallization due to
experiencing the closely to the material melting temperature
[35]. Fig. 28 reveals the existence of equiaxed ultrafine grained
(UFG) near the machined surface layer with TEM analysis.
M’Saoubi et al. [54] also pointed out that the high thermal loads
induced by tool wear caused the machined surface material to
recrystallize. As shown in Table 3, the grain sizes of nanocrystalline
produced by the worn tools were relatively larger than that of the
new tools, particularly in the context of the worn PCBN tools.
As shown in Fig. 29, more detailed information in terms of grain
orientation and intragranular misorientations under different tool
wear conditions are provided with EBSD analysis technology
[58]. With the increment of tool wear, the lattice rotation increased
at the machined surface on account of severe plastic deformation.
The grain boundary and associated gradient provided the evi-
dences of the plastic activity and intragranular misorientation
increasing. Fig. 29d presents the crystallographic misorientation
map depending on the away from machined surface at different
tool wear states. This result showed that the grains of misorienta-
tion distributed over 250 lm by using worn tools near the
machined surface, while just distributed within approximately
50 lm for the new tool. As shown in Fig. 30, M’Saoubi et al. [54]
obtained the average misorientation profiles produced by the
new tools and the worn tools. Their results indicated that larger
average misorientation values were produced by the worn tools
than that of the new tools. As shown in Fig. 31, Agmell et al. [97]
also found out that larger grain structure was presented along
the increase of the measured machined surface gradient. They also
defined the relative strains as the functions of away from machined
surface. Their results indicated that the relative strains produced
with worn tools were larger than new tools.
3.2.3. White layer formation
Under the circumstance of the high thermo-mechanical loads,
the machined surface layer emerges different behaviors compared
with the bulk material, which displays white by the examination of
optical microscope as named the ‘white layer’ [1]. The white layers
are generally brittler and harder than that of the bulk material, and
easily cause the machined surface cracking development and
166 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

Fig. 27. Effects of tool wear on subsurface modification during turning Inconel 718 at Vc = 300 m/min, f = 0.2 mm/rev, ap = 0.3 mm, (a) new tool, (b) semi-worn tool, (c) worn
tool, (d) magnification of the recrystallization area [58].

transformation, and adhesion of chip particles [101]. Osterle and

Li [102] found that the white layers were composed of a series of
nanoscale equiaxed grains (50–100 nm), which associated with
the occurrence of material melting and rapid quenching. Sauvage
et al. [103] found that quenching transforms of the machined sur-
face material from austenitic to martensitic structure played a
decisive role in the formation of the white layer. However, some
researchers proven the fact that the white layer formation still
appeared under the lack of sufficient high thermal loads, which
meant that the mechanical loads also played important roles in
the white layer formation [1].
Some studies found that the white layers were more likely to be
generated because of higher thermo-mechanical loads considering
tool wear effects [57,104]. Che-Haron and Jawaid [80] found that
no plastic deformation was generated at the initial machining
stage, while severe plastic deformation accompanied with the
white layers were generated at end of tool life. Based on this result,
they considered that the plastic deformation induced by tool wear
Fig. 28. Severe plastic deformation layers after turning of Inconel 718, f = 0.15 mm/rev,
were the main reason for the formation of the white layers. In addi-
ap = 0.25 mm [54].
tion, relative to the turning and milling processes, the drilling pro-
cess easily produces the white layers because of the difficulty of
Table 3 heat dissipation. Fig. 32 shows a series of different the white layer
Grain size (nm) of the severe plastic deformation layers estimated from the TEM [54]. forms, including intermediate, uniform, uneven/flaking, and
Tool condition Coated carbide tool PCBN tool curved white layers along axial direction during drilling of Inconel
Vc = 90 m/min Vc = 300 m/min 718 [105]. The reason for these white layer forms was associated
0–0.5 lm 0.5–1 lm 0–0.5 lm 0.5–1 lm with the contact area increasing at the tool/workpiece surfaces
and worn primary/secondary tool cutting edge. In addition, the
New 30 38 30 38
Worn 27 42 60 84 white layer easily emerged pull-out and fracture with the continu-
ous drill advancing down into the workpiece material.
As shown in Fig. 33, Axinte et al. [104] carried out turning of
propagation [98]. That is why the white layers seriously influence nickel alloy RR_X at different tool flank wear levels. Their results
other surface integrity indicators of the final components quality showed that the white layer formation was related to the cutting
[99,100]. heat concentration at the subsurface material due to the tool wear
Previous researches indicated that the white layers were associ- effects and low thermal conductivity. The discontinuous and thin
ated with the grain refinement due to plastic deformation, phase white layer without material drag was produced by the uniformly
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 167

Fig. 29. EBSD images of the machined subsurface layer after turning of Inconel 718 under different tool flank wear states, (a) new tool, (b) semi-worn tool, (c) worn tool, (d)
misorientation frequency depending on the distance from surface [58].

Fig. 30. Average misorientation profiles obtained from EBSD after turning of
Inconel 718, f = 0.15 mm/rev, ap = 0.25 mm [54].
Fig. 31. Relative strain of subsurface deformation layers for the new and worn
cutting tools [97].

worn tool, while the chipped cutting edges produced thicker and
more continuous white layers accompanied with the materials
drags. This difference was attributed to the severe plastic deforma-
tion associated with greater friction effect between the chipped
cutting edge and workpiece.
As shown in Fig. 34, similar result was obtained during abusive
drilling process with cutting speed of 35 m/min, feed rate of
0.12 mm/rev, and flank wear of 0.2 mm [57]. Their results indi-
cated that approximately 2 lm of the white layer accompanied
with material drag and surface cracking was generated at the
machined surface. Farid et al. [106] performed drilling experiments
of Inconel 718 at the cutting speeds of 8–13 m/min, the feed rates
of 0.05–0.12 mm/rev. As shown in Fig. 35, their results showed no
special microstructural changes were produced by using the new
tools, while obvious microstructural damage accompanied with a
discontinuous white layer (about 7 mm) was obtained by using
the worn tools.
Table 4 lists the summaries of critical research about tool wear
effects on microstructure alternation when cutting titanium and
nickel alloys in the review paper.
168 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

Fig. 32. Secondary electron images of drilled holes at Vc = 35 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, (a) axial section, (b) hoop section-top of the hole, (c) hoop section-33% depth of the hole,
(d) hoop section-66% depth of the hole [105].

3.3. Mechanical properties

3.3.1. Work hardening layer formation and microhardness

Fig. 33. White layers after turning of nickel alloy RR_X at Vc = 175–200 m/min,
f = 0.15–0.25 mm/rev, ap = 1–2 mm, (a, c) uniformly worn cutting edge, (b, d)
chipped cutting edge [104].
In machining titanium and nickel alloys, the machined surface
material appears to enhance resistance to deformation and reduce
the plasticity significantly. This phenomenon is called work hard-
ening, which was associated with the effects of thermo-
mechanical stresses [1]. However, in some cases, the machined
surface materials also appear softening phenomenon in small area
due to the thermo-physical properties of workpiece material [16].
Some studies indicated that the hardening behavior was mostly
depended on the grain sizes and plastic deformation, while soften-
ing behavior was related to dynamic precipitation, dynamic recov-
ery, and cavitation formation [107]. Especially for tool wear
conditions, the combined effect of hardening caused by the
mechanical loads and softening associated with the thermal loads
ultimately determine the microhardness of the machined surface.
On the one hand, the mechanical loads induced by tool wear
play the dominant role, which increase the degree of the plastic
deformation and the dislocation density. Thus the microhardness
near machined surface increases with the increase of the tool wear
[53]. Seen from the Fig. 36, the profiles of microhardness value are
obtained under different tool flank wear conditions. The

Fig. 34. White layer after drilling of nickel-based RR1000 at Vc = 35 mm/min, f = 0.12 mm/rev, VB = 0.2 mm, (a) hoop direction, (b) axial direction [57].
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181
Fig. 35. Subsurface microstructure during drilling of Inconel 718 at Vc = 18 m/min, f = 0.05 mm/rev, (a) new tool, (b) worn tool [106].
experimental results manifested that the microhardness near
machined surface decreased with the measured depth increasing
until approaching the bulk material microhardness. In case of using
the new tool, the microhardness of the 20 lm depth near
machined surface increases by 8% relative to bulk materials. But
the microhardness of corresponding position produced by flank
wear 0.1 mm, 0.2 mm, and 0.3 mm increases by 15%, 18%, and
24%, respectively. Fig. 37 shows the microhardness plot measured
parallel to feed rate directions by using the new tools and worn
tools [108]. The microhardness generated by the new tool is higher
50 HK0.05 than that of the bulk material. However, the microhard-
ness for the worn tools increase by 150 HK0.05 as the results of
intensive plastic deformation near machined surface. Regardless
of the effect of tool wear, no discernable trend is presented with
the increase of cutting speeds or feed rates, which manifest that
tool wear has the critical effect on the modification of
microhardness.
With prolonged the machining time, similar result were
obtained in turning of Nickel-based RR1000 [75], Inconel 718
[109] and Nimonic C-263 [110]. Seen form Fig. 38, Hood et al.
[75] researched the microhardness profiles against along the
machined surface depth under radial and feed directions. The
results showed that tool wear level was considered as a critical fac-
tor affecting the microhardness profiles. The hardened layers with
a higher magnitude of up to 50 HK were generated by using the
worn tools than of the new tools. Ezugwu et al. [109] discovered
that tool wear altered the cutting edge geometry and decreased
the clearance angle. The higher thermo-mechanical stresses con-
sidering tool wear effects caused the workpiece material to harden
due to the intense plastic deformation. Fig. 39 shows the micro-
hardness variations under the machined surface with the different
machining time and cutting parameters [110]. The degree of sur-
face microhardness also increased with the prolonged machining
time. Particularly, the machined surface microhardness was
approximately 2.2 times than bulk material with regard to the cut-
ting speed of 250 m/min and the feed rate of 0.143 mm/rev.
On the other hand, the thermal softening effect caused by ele-
vated cutting temperature under tool wear conditions plays the
predominant role exceeding the mechanical hardening effect. As
the result, the microhardness values at the machined surface were
less than the subsurface region or bulk material [16,17]. Particu-
larly during machining process of titanium alloys, the cutting heat
easily concentrates and cannot transmit to the inner layer because
of the low thermal conductivity [1]. The work of Ginting and
Nouari [58] investigated that more significant softening effect
was produced by the worn tool at a distance of 50 lm from the
machined surface. In addition, the higher degree of hardening in
the subsurface material was mainly more severe plastic deforma-
tion induced by tool wear. As shown in Fig. 40, Liang and Liu
[16] found that the mechanical effect played a dominant role with
flank wear less than 0.2 mm, and the machined surface layers were
169
divided into the hardened zone and bulk material. However, when
using the worn tools with flank wear 0.3 mm, the special softened
zone was generated due to the thermal softening effect exceeding
the mechanical effect. As shown in Fig. 41, the work of Das et al.
[111] indicated that the softening zone was produced at the dis-
tance 50 lm from the machined surface under all tool wear states.
And then the microhardness increased at the distance 100–
150 lm. With increment of tool wear levels, the microhardness
for softening zone became lower and the microhardness of harden-
ing zone became higher.
In some specific conditions, the microhardness value only has a
decreasing tendency with the flank wear increasing without the
softening zone emergence. As manifested in Fig. 42, the microhard-
ness of the machined surface decreases with the increment of tool
wear, especially at cutting speed 300 m/min [63]. In addition,
interesting results are obtained for the all samples, the lowest
microhardness in the subsurface material mainly concentrate at
approximately 20 lm while reaching the peak value at approxi-
mately 30 lm. This results are mainly related to the plastic defor-
mation distribution and the thermo-physical properties of
titanium alloy Ti-1023.
Another focus of attention is the depth of work hardening layer
under the tool wear conditions. Valdivielso et al. [53] found that
the depth of the hardening layer increased from 50 lm to
100 lm, and such a deep hardening layer directly deteriorated
the surface quality. Liang and Liu [16] pointed out that the
machined surface material experienced the coupled effects ther-
mal softening and mechanical hardening, which ultimately result-
ing in an increase of the depth of the work hardening layer. Similar
results have also been obtained by Sharman et al. [64]. Relatively
to the use of the new tool, the maximum microhardness of the
machined surface increase from 450 HK0.05 to 500 HK0.05 when
machined with the worn tools. The depth of microhardness also
increase from 50 lm to 200 lm. The microhardness of the
machined surface are relatively lower than that of the subsurface
material as a result of thermal softening effect.
However, some researchers have different results contrast with
the above studies. Su et al. [112] performed the milling titanium
alloy TA15. Fig. 43 presents the microhardness profiles with new
and worn tools. The existence of softening effects are generated
by using new tools while the hardening effects are produced by
the worn tools. This is because the thermal effect is greater than
the mechanical effect under the condition of the new tools. But
he elevated mechanical effect exceeds the thermal effect under
the condition of tool wear. Fig. 44 shows the typical microhardness
profiles under different tool wear states and coolant conditions
[93]. In cases of the coolant conditions 5 bar (flood), the microhard-
ness near machined surface produced with worn tools are higher
than the new tools. Although the cutting heat and friction are
effectively reduced in case of 450 bar (flank only), the effect of
thermo-mechanical loads at the machined surface cannot be
Table 4

170
Summaries of tool wear effects on microstructure when cutting titanium and nickel alloys.

Reference
Ezugwu et al. [92]
Sharman et al. [68]
Sharman et al. [93]
Liang and Liu [16]
Ginting and Nouari [17]
Workpiece Tool material Tool wear/ Machining time Cutting parameters Remarks
material
Inconel 718 TiN/TiCN/TiN PVD tools T = 0, 15 min Turning The depth of plastic deformation increased with the increase
TiC/Al2O3/TiN CVD tools Vc = 32, 42, 56 m/min of tool wear
f = 0.13, 0.25 mm/rev
ap = 1, 2 mm
Inconel 718TM Uncoated carbide tools VB = 0–0.25 mm Turning Tool wear enlarged the microstructure alteration thicknesses
TiCN/Al2O3/TiN coated carbide Vc = 40, 80, 120 m/min of the machined surface
tools f = 0.15, 0.25 mm/rev
Inconel 718 Carbide tools N123J2-0600-R0 VB = 0–0.2 mm Orthogonal Turning The depth of plastic deformation increased with the increase
Vc = 40, 60, 80 m/min of tool wear
f = 0.35 mm/rev
Ti-6Al-4V Coated Al2O3 carbide tools VB = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 mm Orthogonal Turning Tool flank wear increased both of plastic deformation degree
Vc = 60 m/min and depth. The b phase decreased near the machined surface
f = 0.1 mm/rev layer at VB = 0.3 mm than that of using the fresh tool
w = 2 mm
Ti-6242S Uncoated carbide tools VB = 0, 0.3 mm Milling The Tool wear increased significant plastic deformation and
CVD coated carbide tools Vc = 100–125 m/min relatively deeper microstructure alteration
f = 0.15–0.2 mm/rev

X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

aa = 1.5–2.5 mm
ar = 8.8 mm
M’Saoubi et al. [54] Inconel 718 TiAlN/TiN coated tools PCBN tools VB = 0–0.4 mm Turning The machined surface material appeared to recrystallize. The
Vc = 60–300 m/min grain sizes of nanocrystalline produced by the worn tools
f = 0.15 mm/rev were relatively larger than that of the new tools
ap = 0.25 mm
Hughes et al. [71] Ti-6Al-4V Uncoated tungsten carbide tools VB = 0–0.25 mm or notch Turning The depth of plastic deformation had little changes with the
wear reached 0.5 mm Vc = 60, 80, 120 m/min increase of tool wear
f = 0.25, 0.3, 0.4 mm/rev
ap = 0.2, 0.25 mm
Yang et al. [63] Ti-1023 TiAlN coated carbide tools VB = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.35 mm Milling The depth of plastic deformation increased with the increase
Vc = 20–300 m/min of tool wear
f = 0.08 mm/rev
ap = 1 mm
Che-Haron and Jawaid [80] Ti-6Al-4V Uncoated tungsten carbide tools T = 0–30 min Turning The depth of plastic deformation increased with the increase
Vc = 45–100 m/min of tool wear
f = 0.25, 0.35 mm/rev
ap = 2 mm
Fernández-Valdivielso et al. Inconel 718 TiAlN carbide tools VB = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 mm Turning The depth of plastic deformation increased with the increase
[53] Vc = 70 m/min of tool wear
f = 0.21 mm/rev
ap = 2 mm
Pretorius et al. [89] Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr- Polycrystalline diamond tools VB = 0, 0.2 mm Turning The depth of plastic deformation increased with the increase
6Mo Vc = 200 m/min of tool wear
f = 0.15 mm/rev
ap = 0.25 mm
Kwong et al. [91] Nickel CG RR1000 Coated carbide tools VB = 0, 0.3 mm Drilling The depth of plastic deformation increased with the increase
f = 0.1 mm/rev, n = 1061–1592 of tool wear
RPM
Shi et al. [56] TC21 Uncoated carbide tools VB = 0, 0.3 mm Milling The depth of plastic deformation increased with the increase
Vc = 30 m/min of tool wear
f = 0.1 mm/z
ap = 5 mm
ae = 2 mm
Sharman et al. [96] Inconel 718TM Coated carbide tools Undefined Turning The depth of plastic deformation increased with the increase
Vc = 40 m/min of tool wear
f = 0.25, 0.3, 0.36 mm/rev
ap = 0.25 mm
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 171

completely removed. However, their results indicate that no iden-

No microstructural changes were produced by using the new

chipped cutting edge tool produced relatively continuous and
thicker white layer accompanied with obvious material drag
tifiable differences of the microhardness modification are obtained

A series of different the white layer including intermediate,

material drag and surface cracking was generated near the
Approximately 2 lm of the white layer accompanied with

tools while obvious microstructural damage accompanied

drag was produced by the uniformly worn tool, while the

with a discontinuous white layer was obtained under the

recrystallization area were measured 200–300 nm, which

The discontinuous and thin white layer without material

between the new tools and worn tools.
deformation area both increased. The grain sizes of the

uniform, uneven/flaking, and curved white layers were

were smaller than that of the bulk material (2–20 lm)
The depth of the recrystallization area and the plastic

3.3.2. Residual stress

The residual tensile stress easily causes the machined surface
cracks, and reduces the corrosion resistance and fatigue strength
of manufacturing parts [113]. Some studies indicate that the resid-
ual stress stem from the inhomogeneous material deformation
presented along axial direction

associated with the mechanical loads, thermal gradients, and

phase transformations in the machining process [114–116]. In
addition, the thermal loads tend to generate the tensile stress
while the mechanical loads contribute to the compressive stress
machined surface

[117,118]. In case of tool wear conditions, the final residual stres-

ses are depended on the mechanical effect or thermal effect, which
worn tool

one plays the dominant role [119,120].

On the one hand, the mechanical effects considering tool wear
exceed thermal effects, the residual compressive stresses increase
with the increment of tool wear. Mantle et al. [121] performed
the milling experiment of gamma titanium aluminide c-TiAl to
investigate the residual stress. They found that tool wear had the
greatest effects on residual stress relative to the cutting speeds,
f = 0.15–0.25 mm/rev
Vc = 175, 250 m/min

the feed rates, the angle of workpiece, and the milling directions,
etc. Besides, the machined surface tended to higher levels of the
Vc = 35 mm/min
f = 0.12 mm/rev

f = 0.05 mm/rev
Vc = 300 m/min
f = 0.2 mm/rev

f = 0.1 mm/rev

Vc = 18 m/min
Vc = 35 m/min

residual compressive stresses in case of tool wears increasing. Seen

ap = 1–2 mm
ap = 0.3 mm

from Fig. 45, the surface residual stresses at different tool wear
Turning

Turning

Drilling

Drilling

Drilling

levels are investigated in turning Inconel 718 [53]. They found that
residual compressive stresses were generated in both directions of
cutting speed and feed rates. The minimum residual compressive
stress was obtained in case of flank wear 0.1 mm. This result was
Tools with uniformly worn

associated with the inhibiting effect between the mechanical loads

cutting edge and chipped
VBmax = 0, 0.15, 0.3 mm

and thermal loads due to the tool wear effect. Apart from the flank
wear of 0.1 mm, the residual compressive stresses increased with
VB = 0–0.25 mm

the increment of tool wear, especially for flank wear 0.3 mm. Dur-
VB = 0, 0.2 mm
VB = 0.2 mm

ing drilling process of nickel alloy CG RR1000, Kwong et al. [91]

indicated that the surface produced the residual compressive stres-
cutting

ses along the axial directions and the residual tensile stresses along
edge

the hoop directions. However, the magnitudes of residual compres-

sive stresses along the axial directions were greater under condi-
tion of worn tool than that of new tool. In addition, the
TiCN-Al2O3-TiN coated carbide

machined surface was close to the residual compressive stress at

Al2O3 coated carbide tools

the holes entrance during the machining by the worn tools.

Uncoated carbide tools
TiN/TiAlN coated tools

On the other hand, the elevated thermal effect induced by tool

wear plays the dominant role relative to the mechanical effect,
which resulting in the machined surface more prone to the residual
tensile stress. Chen et al. [122] studied tool wear effect on the
Undefined

residual stresses during orthogonal turning of Ti-6Al-4V. The resid-

tools

ual stress of machined surface transformed from the compressive

stress to tensile stress when flank wear varied from 0.03 to
0.2 mm. This result was associated with the elevated cutting tem-
peratures of workpiece surface caused by tool flank wears. Besides,
Inconel 718

Inconel 718
Nickel alloy

Nickel alloy

Nickel alloy

peaks of residual compressive stress decreased with flank wear

reaching 0.2 mm, while the deep inside the bulk material was
RR1000
(RR_X)

the tensile stress rather than the compressive stress compared

with the new tool. Similar result was obtained by the work of Liang
and Liu [16] after orthogonal turning Ti-6Al-4V at the cutting
speed 60 m/min, the feed rate 0.1 mm/rev, and the width of cut
2 mm. The residual stress of machined surface had the trend of
shifting compressive stress to tensile stress when flank wear varied
Herbert et al. [105]
Axinte et al. [104]

Herbert et al. [57]

Farid et al. [106]

0–0.3 mm. As seen in Fig. 46, the residual stresses of machined sur-
Zhou et al. [58]

face itself were tensile stresses, but the magnitude of residual ten-
sile stresses increased in case of tool wear increasing [93].
Meanwhile the magnitude and the range of residual compressive
stress in subsurface materials increased in case of tool wear
increasing.
172 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181
Fig. 36. Microhardness values at different tool flank wear levels after turning of Inconel 718 at Vc = 70 m/min, f = 0.21 mm, ap = 0.2 mm [53].
Fig. 37. Microhardness depth profiles during milling of nickel RR1000 alloy under
different tool wear states and cutting parameters [108].
To study the residual stress distributions along the depth direc-
tions, some researchers investigated the residual stress profiles
during the machining process by using new and worn tools
[123]. Seen from Fig. 47, Hughes et al. [71] studied residual stress
profiles in both the directions of the cutting speeds and the feed
rates during turning Ti-6Al-4V by using new and worn tools at
the cutting speed of 120 m/min, the feed rates of 0.25–0.4 mm/
rev. Their result indicated that greater levels of residual compres-
sive stress in the directions of the cutting speeds and the feed rates
were produced with the worn tools, especially for the feed rate
0.4 mm/rev in feed direction close to 250 MPa. The results indi-
cated that the larger mechanical loads played the decisive role
since tool wear effectively reduced the tool’s clearance angles
and increased tool/workpiece contact regions. Besides, the distri-
bution depth of the residual stress approximately increased from
50 lm to 150 lm when tool wear increasing. Moreover, Soo et al.
[108] studied the influences of cutter orientations and workpiece
Fig. 38. Hardness against the depth from the machined surface at different tool wear states, (a) radial direction, (b) feed direction [75].
angles on the residual stresses during milling Inconel 718 by using
new and worn tools. Fig. 48 presents the corresponding residual
stresses profiles in the directions of feed rates. The levels of resid-
ual tensile stresses of machined surface increased in case of tool
wear increment during horizontal downwards machining. This
result means that the thermal effects become the dominant factor
in case of tool wear. But, in cases of horizontal upwards and 0°
workpiece tilt angle (N.A.), the mechanical effects play the decisive
role, which causes the greater levels of residual tensile stress of
machined surface.
In addition, some studies indicated that the cutting parameters
and the measured directions had different influences on the resid-
ual stress distributions in case of tool wears increasing. Fig. 49 pre-
sents the residual stress distributions during high-speed turning
Inconel 718 at the different tool wear stages [124]. The residual
tensile stresses distributed within a thin machined surface layer
while the residual compressive stresses distributed within a much
thicker subsurface layer. This result indicated that the enhanced
thermal effect was greater than the mechanical effect under the
condition of tool wear increasing, which causes larger tensile stres-
ses in the direction of the cutting speed, especially exceeding
1680 MPa at the tool flank wear 0.3 mm. Moreover, the residual
tensile stress of the machined surface in the direction of feed rate
presented increasing first and then decreasing in case of tool flank
wear increment. This was associated with the thermal loads and
mechanical loads presented different effects under the different
tool wear stages. As shown in Fig. 50, similar results were obtained
by the work of Niaki and Mears [87]. Larger tensile stress was gen-
erated by the tool of flank wear 1 mm than those of tool flank wear
0.3 mm and 0.6 mm. But smaller residual compressive stress was
produced at tool flank wear 1 mm.
As seen in Fig. 51, Sharman et al. [64] researched the tool
wear effects on the generation of residual stress during turning
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 173

Fig. 39. Microhardness variations below the machined surface during turning of nimonic C-263 at the different machining time and cutting conditions, (a) Vc = 125 m/min,
(b) Vc = 190 m/min, (c) Vc = 250 m/min [110].

Fig. 40. Microhardness profiles during orthogonal turning of Ti-6Al-4V, Vc = 60 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, aw = 2 mm under different tool wear states, (a) VB = 0 mm, (b)
VB = 0.1 mm, (c) VB = 0.2 mm, (d) VB = 0.3 mm [16].

of Inconel 718 at the cutting speeds of 80–120 m/min and the
feed rates of 0.15–0.25 mm/rev. They discovered that residual
tensile stress increased in case of tool wear increasing at lower
cutting speeds and higher feed rates, especially up to the maxi-
mum of 950 MPa for cutting speed 80 m/min and feed rate
0.25 mm/rev. This result was caused by the higher thermal loads
associated with the rubbing/ploughing effects at the tool/work-
piece interfaces. Conversely, the residual compressive stresses
were greater when produced with the worn tools for cutting
speed 120 m/min. The result was mainly because the cutting
heat transferred to the machined surface decreased with the
development of cutting speeds. It also indicated that residual
stresses penetrated to deeper of workpiece for the worn tools
ignoring cutting speeds and the feed rates. The result was asso-
ciated with the additional thermo-mechanical stresses due to the
flank wear effect, which results in greater plastic deformation in
subsurface material.
Table 5 lists the summaries of critical research about tool wear
effects on mechanical properties when cutting titanium and nickel
alloys in the review paper.
174 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

Fig. 41. Microhardness changes at the middle of the holes under dry condition [111].

typical surface integrity characteristics including surface topogra-

phy, microstructural alterations, and mechanical properties were
analyzed and discussed. Some valuable conclusions are summa-
rized as following.

1. Surface defects belong to the severe problem at the micro level

2. Tool wear plays the important role in generating the machined
Fig. 42. Microhardness below the machined surface during milling of Ti-1023
under different tool flank wear and cutting speed [63].
4. Summary of the research work
Surface integrity characteristics directly determine the func-
tional properties and service life of the manufactured components,
especially under conditions of complex stress loads, high tempera-
ture and hostile environments. This paper provided the state-of-
the-art research of tool wear effects on surface integrity. The
of surface integrity. Any machining conditions have the proba-
bility of emerging machined surface defects. Irrespective of the
other cutting parameters, higher levels of surface damages were
generated at the machined surface with the worn cutting tools
than that by the new tools. This work analyzed the formation
mechanisms of the machined surface defects under different
tool wear conditions. The machined surface involving in surface
cracking, cavities, tearing, grooves, side flow, smearing, and sur-
face burning are associated with the consequences of high
thermo-mechanical loads considering tool wears.
surface roughness. With tool wear increasing, the trends of
machined surface roughness are not the same for the various
machining condition. This paper reviewed the different trends
of the machined surface roughness under different tool wear
stages. Firstly, the surface roughness has distinct deterioration
as tool wear progresses. Secondly, the machined surface rough-
ness presents the decrease trend initially and then rapid
increase at the tool end life. Thirdly, surface roughness initially
increases and decreases with the increment of tool wear, which
indicates that flatter worn flank faces play the wiper roles and
remove feed mark peaks.
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181
Fig. 43. Microhardness values beneath machined surface in milling of titanium alloy TA15 at Vc = 350 m/min, f = 0.08 mm/z, aa = 3 mm, ar = 1 mm, (a) PCD tool, (b) PCBN tool
[112].
Fig. 44. Microhardness profiles under different tool wear states and coolant conditions after turning of Inconel 718 at Vc = 350 m/min, f = 0.35 mm, (a) 5 bar (flood), (b)
450 bar (flank only) [93].
Fig. 45. Surface residual stresses at different flank wear levels after turning of
Inconel 718 at Vc = 70 m/min, f = 0.21 mm, ap = 0.2 mm [53].
3. Tool wear has a decisive effect on the generation of the plastic
deformation. No visible microstructural plastic deformation is
produced in machining with new sharp tools. However, the sev-
ere material drag and plastic deformation along the preferential
direction (e.g. turning speed, milling speed, and drilling speed)
are easily generated under the tool wear conditions. Moreover,
the depth of plastic deformation also increases in case of tool
wear.
4. Additional thermo-mechanical loads considering the tool wear
effect modify grain size and white layers, especially in cases
of the tool end life. With tool wear increasing, surface material
175
is more prone to produce recrystallization and grain refinement
due to the intensive thermo-mechanical loads. The distinct
deformation texture intensity at the machined surface is pro-
duced with the worn tools, which is related to the recrystalliza-
tion and grain refinement. Besides, the white layers are
generated in case of tool wear, which are associated with severe
plastic deformation, grain refinement, and phase
transformation.
5. Under tool wear conditions, the combined effects of hardening
and softening caused by thermo-mechanical loads affect the
final microhardness on the machined surface. On one hand,
the mechanical loads associated with tool wear effect occupy
the dominant position, while the hardening degree of the
machined surface increases as the tool wear progressively
grows. On another hand, the machined surface microhardness
is less than the subsurface region or bulk material. This result
suggests that the thermal softening effect associated with the
elevated temperature in case of tool wear plays predominant
roles. Moreover, the hardening layer depth increases in case
of tool wear increasing, which will deteriorate surface integrity.
6. Tool wear causes the changes in the distribution of thermo-
mechanical loads, which influences residual stresses states of
machined surface. The thermal loads tend to generate the resid-
ual tensile stresses, but the mechanical loads contribute to the
residual compressive stresses. On one hand, the residual stress
of machined surface has the tendency to the compressive stress
with the increase of tool wear on account of the elevated
mechanical rubbing effect exceeding thermal effect. On another
hand, the elevated thermal effect plays the dominant role with
176 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

Fig. 46. Residual stress profiles measured in direction of cutting speed after turning of Inconel 718 at Vc = 350 m/min, f = 0.35 mm, (a) new tools, (b) worn tools [93].

Fig. 47. Residual stress profiles during turning of Ti-6Al-4V, (a) Vc = 120 m/min, f = 0.25 mm/rev, ap = 2 mm, (b) Vc = 120 m/min, f = 0.4 mm/rev, ap = 2 mm [71].

Fig. 48. Effect of different cutter orientation/workpiece angle on the residual stress parallel to the direction of feed rate in ball end milling of Inconel 718 with new and worn
tools [108].

increase of tool wear, which resulting in the ultimate surface
more prone to the tensile stress. In addition, the residual stress
distributions have greater differences under different cutting
parameters and measured directions with the development of
tool wear. This is because the thermal effect and mechanical
effect have different increasing degree with the growing of tool
wear under different the cutting speeds and the measured
directions. Regardless of the cutting speeds and the feed rates,
the residual stresses beneath the machined surface penetrate
to deeper depth by using the worn tools.
5. Research limitations and future work
Based to the reviewing the literatures, several issues about the
tool wear effects on surface integrity still exist in cutting titanium
and nickel alloys. The research limitations and future work are
listed as following.
1. Although some studies study the tool wear effect on surface
integrity, the accurate mapping relationships among tool wear,
surface integrity, and the functional properties and service life
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 177

Fig. 49. Residual stress profiles under different tool wear conditions, (a) new tool, (b) semi-worn tool, (c) worn tool [124].

Fig. 50. Residual stress under different wear conditions at Vc = 80 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev, ap = 0.1 mm [87].

are still lacking. In addition, the evolutions of the surface integ-
rity characteristics considering the growth of tool wear are hard
to directly apply in the assessment machining process. The typ-
ical manufacturing components in cases of different occasions
have different demands in surface integrity characteristics.
But the tool wear effect on surface integrity is complex and
diverse. Thus the machined surface topography, microstructural
states, and mechanical properties cannot be improved simulta-
neously. The primary tasks are to identify the relationships
between the surface integrity characteristics the service perfor-
mances, and to determine the appropriate tool wear stage and
value.
2. The measurement and inspection methods for machined sur-
face integrity characteristics are time-consuming and hard
applied in practical workshop. It has important significance to
forecast surface integrity variations under the different condi-
tions of cutting parameters and tool wear before practical
machining. However, the current studies on the tool wear
effects on surface integrity are primarily depended on experi-
ment and empirical data. The theoretical models to predict
the surface roughness, plastic deformation, microhardness,
and residual stress considering tool wear effects are
challenging.
3. For the certain cutting tools, the machining processes, and the
workpiece materials, the current studies about tool wear effects
on surface integrity are limited by one or some partial assess-
ment characteristics. Even if under the same machining pro-
cesses, the tool/workpiece materials, the cutting conditions
(e.g. the cutting speeds, the feed rates, and the depth of cut) also
affect the tool wear effects on surface integrity.
4. The current studies are mainly to study the flank wear values
effects and prolonged machining time on surface integrity.
The crater wear on rake face also influences on surface integrity,
too. The effects of tool wear conditions (e.g. tool wear location
and wear topography) on the machined surface integrity should
be carried out in the future work.
178 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181

Fig. 51. Residual stress profiles in turning Inconel 718 under different cutting parameters, (a) Vc = 80 m/min, new tools, (b) Vc = 80 m/min, worn tools, (c) Vc = 120 m/min, new
tools, (d) Vc = 120 m/min, worn tools [64].

Table 5
Summaries of tool wear effects on mechanical properties when cutting titanium and nickel alloys.

Reference Workpiece Tool material Tool wear/Machining Cutting parameters Remarks

material time
Hood et al. [75] Nickel CVD coated VB = 0–0.2 mm Turning Hardened layers with a higher magnitude of up
RR1000 tools Vc = 80, 100, 120 m/min to 50 HK were generated by worn tools than
f = 0.08, 0.2 mm/rev new tools
Ezugwu et al. [92] Inconel 718 TiN/TiCN/TiN T = 0, 15 min Turning The degree of hardening at the machined
PVD tools Vc = 32, 42, 56 m/min surface increased with the increase of tool
TiC/Al2O3/TiN f = 0.13, 0.25 mm/rev wear
CVD tools ap = 1, 2 mm
Sharman et al. [64,68] Inconel Uncoated VB = 0–0.25 mm Turning The machined surface softened and the depth
718TM carbide tools Vc = 40, 80, 120 m/min of the hardened layer increased with the worn
TiCN/Al2O3/TiN f = 0.15, 0.25 mm/rev tools. Surface tensile stress increased
coated carbide dramatically followed by a larger and deeper
tools compressive stress layer
Sharman et al. [93] Inconel 718 Carbide tools VB = 0–0.2 mm Orthogonal Turning Surface hardening and the depth of the
N123J2-0600- Vc = 40, 60, 80 m/min hardening layer depth increased with the
R0 f = 0.35 mm/rev increase of tool wear
Liang and Liu [16] Ti-6Al-4V Coated Al2O3 VB = 0, 0.1, 0.2, Orthogonal Turning The depth of hardening layer increased from
carbide tools 0.3 mm Vc = 60 m/min 20 lm to 60 lm. The softened layer was
f = 0.1 mm/rev generated using the tool at VB = 0.3 mm. The
w = 2 mm residual compressive stresses of the machined
surface had the trend of decreasing
Ginting and Nouari [17] Ti-6242S Uncoated VB = 0, 0.3 mm Milling Tool wear increased the degree of the softening
carbide tools Vc = 100–125 m/min
CVD coated f = 0.15–0.2 mm/rev
carbide tools aa = 1.5–2.5 mm
ar = 8.8 mm
Hughes et al. [71] Ti-6Al-4V Uncoated VB = 0–0.25 mm or Turning The degree of softening and the depth of
tungsten notch wear reached Vc = 60, 80, 120 m/min hardening layer increased with the increase of
carbide tools 0.5 mm f = 0.25, 0.3, 0.4 mm/rev tool wear. Residual compressive stress also
ap = 0.2, 0.25 mm increased with the worn tools
Yang et al. [63] Ti-1023 TiAlN coated VB = 0, 0.1, 0.2, Milling The softening layer appeared and the depth of
carbide tools 0.35 mm Vc = 20–300 m/min hardening layer increased with the increase of
f = 0.08 mm/rev tool wear
ap = 1 mm
 X. Liang et al. / Measurement 132 (2019) 150–181 179

Table 5 (continued)

Reference Workpiece Tool material Tool wear/Machining Cutting parameters Remarks

material time
Fernández-Valdivielso et al. Inconel 718 TiAlN carbide VB = 0, 0.1, 0.2, Turning The degree and the depth of hardening layer
[53] tools 0.3 mm Vc = 70 m/min increased, and the residual compressive stress
f = 0.21 mm/rev also increased with the increase of tool wear
ap = 2 mm
Aspinwall et al. [86] Inconel 718 TiAlCrN carbide VB = 0–0.3 mm Ball end milling The affected layer of residual stress increased
tools Vc = 35, 66, 90 m/min with the increase of tool wear
f = 1490, 2026, 2959 mm/
min
Sharman et al. [96] Inconel Coated carbide Undefined Turning The affected layer of residual stress increased
718TM tools Vc = 40 m/min with the increase of tool wear
f = 0.25, 0.3, 0.36 mm/rev
ap = 0.25 mm
Soo et al. [108] Nickel alloy TiAlN coated VB = 0–0.06 mm Milling The microhardness at the machined surface
RR1000 tools Vc = 25,50 m/min produced by the new tools are higher 50 HK0.05
f = 0.05, 0.1 mm/rev than that of the bulk material, while for the
worn tools increase by 150 HK0.05 at the
machined surface
Ezilarasan et al. [110] Nimonic C- Reinforced T = 3, 6, 9 min Turning The microhardness of the machined surface
263 ceramic tools Vc = 125, 190, 250 m/min increased with the prolonged machining time
f = 0.102, 0.143 mm/rev
ap = 0.75 mm
Su et al. [112] Titanium PCD tools PCBN VB = 0, 0.4 mm Milling The existence of softening effects on the
alloy TA15 tools Vc = 350 m/min machined surface was produced by the new
f = 0.08 mm/z tools while the hardening effects were
aa = 3 mm produced by the worn tools
ar = 1 mm
Mantle et al. [121] Titanium Coated carbide VB = 0.05, 0.3 mm Ball end milling Tool flank wear had the greatest effect on the
aluminide tools Vc = 70, 120 m/min residual stress relative to the cutting speed, the
c-TiAl f = 0.06, 0.12 mm/z feed rate, the angle of workpiece
Chen et al. [122] Ti-6Al-4V Uncoated VB = 0.03, 0.2 mm Turning The residual stress of the machined surface
carbide tools Vc = 320 m/min tended to shift from the compressive stress to
f = 0.1 mm/rev the tensile stress with the tool flank wear
ap = 1 mm varying from 0.03 to 0.2 mm
Peng et al. [124] Inconel 718 (Al2O3 + SiCw) VB = 0, 0.15, 0.3 mm Turning The residual tensile stresses distributed within
coated carbide Vc = 300 m/min a thin machined surface layer while the
tools f = 0.2 mm/rev residual compressive stresses distributed
ap = 0.3 mm within a much thicker subsurface layer

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support
from the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(51425503, 51705293, 51375272), and the Major Science and
Technology Program of High-end CNC Machine Tools and Basic
Manufacturing Equipment (2014ZX04012014 and
2015ZX04005008). This work was also supported by grants from
Taishan Scholar Foundation (TS20130922) and project funded by
China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2017M610422).
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