Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials and Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes

Current understanding of surface effects in microcutting

Yan Jin Lee, Hao Wang ⁎
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Physicochemical and physical surface

effects in microcutting are discussed
for ductile metals and brittle materials.
• The historical progression and recent
advancements of each surface phenom-
ena are outlined.
• Emphasis is given to the large influence
of surface effects in the microscale of ul-
traprecision machining.
• A critical assessment is given for future
directions and research opportunities
on surface effects in microcutting.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Machining processes have made technological leaps in achieving ultraprecision material removal and surface
Received 26 February 2020 finishing at the submicrometric scale. At this level of precision, size effects have dominated machining investiga-
Received in revised form 24 March 2020 tions while surface effects have often been overlooked. The majority of micromachining research works are igno-
Accepted 25 March 2020
rant of the potential implications that these phenomena bring as the characteristic length approaches the
Available online 1 April 2020
ultraprecision machining level. In this review, physicochemical and physical surface effects are discussed by ex-
Keywords:
amining the theoretical developments and applications of each phenomenon in machining. These effects include
Microcutting the Rehbinder effect, solid coatings, and extrusion-cutting. Substantial mesoscopic analyses have been performed
Surface effects on metals with the Rehbinder effect and extrusion-cutting but the inherently different material deformation
Chemisorption characteristics in microcutting invite further investigations. While solid coating effects have been reported at
Coatings the microscale, its discovery questions the influence of other inevitably formed surface coatings (i.e. oxide
Diamond turning layers). To these ends, key areas for future research in the microcutting of engineering metals and brittle mate-
Ultraprecision machining rials are proposed in addition to the integration with unavoidable size effects. As machining technology and ma-
terial characterization techniques progress into the nanometric scale, there is a need to rally efforts towards the
embrace of surface phenomena in microcutting.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Physicochemical effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Machining forces and chip flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mpewhao@nus.edu.sg (H. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.108688
0264-1275/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688

2.2. Deformation mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.3. Effect of grain size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4. Surface-active media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3. Physical effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1. Solid coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.1. Ductile–brittle transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.2. Effects of compressive pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.3. Subsurface damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2. Machine tool design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.1. Extrusion-cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.2. Shear strain theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.3. Chip formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.4. Constrained micro/nano-cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4. Future directions in ultraprecision microcutting with surface effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.1. Rehbinder effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2. Surface coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
CRediT authorship contribution statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1. Introduction deformation modes from ploughing to rubbing at a lower tool-edge

Mechanical machining dates back millennia in the carpentry of an-
cient wooden furniture and sculpturing of key historical figures but it
was the modern manufacturing society that revolutionized the funda-
mentals of material removal processes to rapidly exploit the benefits
of metal cutting. While there exists a wide variety of other material re-
moval processes, mechanical cutting (i.e. milling, drilling, turning, etc.)
remains one of the favored processes in manufacturing lines, especially
those in the aerospace and automotive industry [1]. Rapid advances in
technology have enabled the possibilities for superior accuracies in ma-
chine tools to unlock the potentials of ultraprecision machining with an
accuracy tolerance band between 5 and 50 nm [2]. Ultra-high precision
cutting of metals began in the 1960s for energy, electronics and defense
applications to produce nanometric finishing and submicron form accu-
racies on complex structures [3,4]. Today, the opportunities for applica-
tion extend to the biomedical [5,6], electronics [7] and optical fields
[8,9], encompassing a wider spectrum of engineering materials that
also include brittle materials.
Microcutting, as suggested by the terminology, involves uncut chip
thicknesses, product dimensions, and tool geometry at the
nanometric–micrometric scale (≤100 μm), although the definition can
vary up to 1000 μm [10]. The realization of microcutting has opened a
wider door for research in machining with the addition of factors for
consideration and work materials. Microcutting considerations as
shown in Fig. 1 extend beyond the typical assessment of cutting condi-
tions, machine tool vibrations, and tool wear [11]. At this level of ma-
chining, several micro-effects, otherwise referred to as size effects,
take precedence in the research on micromachining as compared to
the conventional studies on macroscopic shear activity. The definition
of size effects is non-exhaustive in nature and generally takes the form
of grain size effects [12–14], hard and soft phases [15,16], and tool-
edge radius effects [17–21]. Size effects exhibit considerable influence
on machining performance such as the transition in material
sharpness to produce superior surface finishing on magnesium alloys
[22], aluminum alloys and copper alloys [23]. Yet, size effects are iso-
lated to the geometrical relationship between the tool, work material
microstructure and the cutting length scale.
On the other hand, there also exist surface effects that are potentially
as critical as size effects at the micro and nanoscale. Surface effects in
machining may be defined as the interaction between an external par-
ticle or body with a work material to alter the mechanical cutting pro-
cess. Unfortunately, the notion of these phenomena is rarely
deliberated in micromachining. The similarity between size effects and
surface effects is the characteristic length scale that is comparable to
the cutting resolution in ultraprecision machining. When this occurs,
the influence of each effect is manifested on a larger scale.
For instance, the crystallographic orientation of each grain in a poly-
crystalline material may be neglected at the macroscopic scale of con-
ventional machining. However, the intrinsic anisotropic
crystallographic properties become increasingly prominent as the cut-
ting length scale approaches grain size until the cutting zone eventually
involves an individual grain [24]. Similarly, the influence of a surface ef-
fect in macroscopic cutting may have trivial consequences due to the in-
significance of a relatively small volume of affected superficial material
in comparison to the bulk volume of material being removed. However,
as the cutting scale decreases into the micrometric range, the affected
volume becomes relatively large by comparison and the surface phe-
nomena will take a foothold as an influence on the cutting process.
These surface effects can be initiated chemically or physically as
summarized in Fig. 2. Physical effects may be defined as a discrete obsta-
cle that alters the material flow during cutting and may manifest from a
chemical reaction or an intentionally positioned constraint. These con-
straints may be deformable or rigid depending on its origin of manifes-
tation. Chemical effects will be categorized as the on-going dissolution
between a surfactant and the chemically reactive work material. These
effects will not be considered in this paper due to the change in material

Fig. 1. Overview of microcutting considerations.

 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688 3

Fig. 2. Overview of the surface effects in microcutting.

removal mechanism (i.e. mechanical–chemical). However, physico-
chemical effects that also involve surfactants will be accounted for in
this paper on the condition of the necessary participation of mechanical
influence. These surfactants adsorb on the workpiece surface and alter
the surface interatomic relationships of the work material that lead to
large differences in macroscopic mechanical properties.
Available works on each applicable effect will be reviewed in this
paper to promote the research in this field of micromanufacturing. Sev-
eral phenomena and theories have been discovered nearly a century
ago but were mainly accessed through fundamental material character-
ization in the macroscopic level, including mesoscale manufacturing. In-
vestigations on a few surface effects at the microscale have been
initiated recently, such as the Rehbinder effect, but a variety of surface
phenomena have yet to be explored in microcutting. Given the limited
research on surface effects in micromachining, this paper will provide
an overview of the findings to date, which will include the beneficial
outcomes in machining, and the research gaps to enhance our under-
standing of the phenomena on a fundamental level.
Nonetheless, it is important to acknowledge the various types of physi-
cochemical phenomena that have been established in the past for ap-
preciation and differentiation.
The Kramer effect [37] accounts for the emission of exoelectrons
from a freshly produced metal surface and the chemical adsorption of
oxygen on the surface to produce metal soaps as a product. As a result,
metal ions are removed from the surface and dislocation pile-ups di-
minish to enable energetically favorable dislocation egression and the
change in work hardening rates. Interestingly, the exoelectron phenom-
enon occurs for non-metals as well, such as germanium and silicon
[38–40], although the investigations were primarily focused on the con-
ductive properties of the materials. The exoelectron emission phenom-
enon also envisaged the formation of functional surfaces such as
lubricants and adsorption of paints films [41].
Oxide films have been observed to induce surface hardening as ob-
served in cadmium [42] and zinc [43,44], otherwise known as the Ros-
coe effect. At the same time, polycrystalline metallic films also showed

2. Physicochemical effects

Lubrication plays an essential factor in the machining process to en-

hance the dissipation of heat generated by friction and to support chip
transportation from the machining zone [25,26]. In addition to tool-
workpiece friction, heat is also generated from the work done to deform
the material into a chip, and removing said chip to produce a new sur-
face [27]. Excessive heat could hinder the machine tool accuracy
through thermal expansion of tool shanks [3], which could reach up to
several micrometers [28]. The generally agreed reduction in cutting
forces when using cutting fluids [29–32] indicates the instinctive de-
cline in energy consumption during cutting and the corresponding
heat generation [33–35]. Besides cooling and lubricating effects, re-
searchers in the field of mechanochemical effects also proposed second-
ary mechanisms of metalworking fluids that is by physicochemical
surface adsorption phenomena [36].
Adsorption phenomena manifest with a wide variation in occur-
rences ranging from embrittlement to enhanced plastification as
shown in Fig. 3. Not all of them have been applied in machining. Fig. 3. Effects of surfactants on material mechanical properties [50].
4 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
a similar influence on the slip deformation characteristics as reported
for gold, iron and chromium films on silver substrates [45]. These two
types of films appear to be similar in terms of the influence of surface
films on the mechanical properties of the substrate material based on
dislocation dynamics. However, they differ from their chemical origins,
which means that the mechanical response of a metal may be altered in-
tentionally or naturally by oxide layer formation. Nonetheless, a surface
layer is indefinitely present that exhibits different mechanical responses
to material deformation [46].
The presence of water in the environment could also lead to a purely
chemical surface effect as demonstrated on halid crystal, potassium
chloride, where plasticity was enhanced in a humid environment and
brittleness was exhibited under dry conditions [47,48]. This is known
as the Joffe effect that could inhibit crack initiation and propagation
due to the dissolution of solid surface defects and the subsequent mul-
tiplication of adjacent slip planes for ease in material flow at lower
stresses [49]. Although these unique surface effects have been discov-
ered for almost a century now, the wealth of literature has not been ap-
plied in the aspects of micromachining apart from the Rehbinder effect.
If not the most intriguing phenomenon, the Rehbinder effect is the
most studied physicochemical phenomenon in machining. In the
1920s, the late Russian researcher, Peter Aleksandrovich Rehbinder,
pioneered the world-renowned marvel named after him. It is an inter-
disciplinary branch of physical chemistry correlating the mechanical
treatment of solids with chemical adsorption (chemisorption) [51].
The fundamental definition of the effect can be understood as the reduc-
tion in strength of solids under the influence of surface-active sub-
stances due to the lowering of energy for free surface generation [52].
This followed Griffith's thermodynamic reasoning for fracture strength,
which assumes the energy for material failure to be proportional to the
free surface energy.
The various chemical effects can be easily mistakenly interpreted for
each other due to the involvement of a surfactant, but the Rehbinder ef-
fect sets itself apart from the other effects with the obligatory participa-
tion of stress and physicochemical reversibility [53]. While the
Fig. 4. Machining forces in orthogonal grooving of hardened copper and the corresponding chip morphology under the influence of Dykem ink [57].
involvement of corrosion or dissolution with certain surfactants may
also contribute to the development of stress concentrators on the sur-
face and the overall decline in mechanical strength, they are considered
to be arbitrary in comparison to the Rehbinder effect. In fact, there have
been several arguments adopting other chemical effects to disprove the
phenomenological occurrence, such as the dissolution of oxide films on
the surface by surfactant molecules leading to reductions in hardness of
the material [43,54]. However, tests on ionic crystals and gold, which
presumably could not inherit an oxide film, proved that an oxide film
was not a prerequisite for the Rehbinder effect [55]. While the Kramer
effect and Rehbinder effect share seemingly similar prerequisites,
Ferrante [56] clarified that the Kramer effect was only dependent on
the chemical interaction and not the deformation of the surface. In
view of the relatively insignificant number of reports on the other phys-
icochemical effects in machining, the Rehbinder effect will be discussed
further in the subsequent sections.
2.1. Machining forces and chip flow
Before the advent of ultraprecision machining, investigations on the
Rehbinder effect were largely carried out on macro- and mesoscopic
metal cutting with explorational interests in the applications of lubrica-
tion during machining. In metal cutting, material is removed through
chip formation by driving a cutting tool into the workpiece. Machining
forces are often recorded by a force sensor in laboratories to evaluate
cutting performances. Cutting force reductions, ranging up to 50%, and
changes to the chip morphology are the two most commonly observed
results of the Rehbinder effect in machining. Various methods of apply-
ing surfactants during cutting have been tested, such as the tool-chip in-
terface and the pre-machined workpiece surface. Experiments with the
pre-machined surface are generally preferred due to the distinguishable
effect of the chemisorption phenomenon and avoidance of tool-chip lu-
brication effects. Orthogonal grooving serves as the fundamental exper-
imental approach to demonstrating the Rehbinder effect in machining
with strips of surfactant applied across the workpiece surface [57,58].
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
Fig. 5. Machining forces in orthogonal grooving of annealed aluminum under the influence of Dykem ink [58].
With a single cut across the workpiece, the machining force graph typ-
ically displays the conspicuous reduction in forces under the Rehbinder
effect as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, corresponding to the micro- and meso-
scale, respectively.
Ductile metal chip flow tended to undergo sinuous–laminar flow
transitions where chips were reportedly thinner with more conspicuous
serrations attributed to brittle failure under the Rehbinder effect as
compared to mushroom-like features under conventional conditions.
This phenomenon has been reported in mesoscale cutting [60] (Fig. 6)
and microscale cutting [57,61] (Fig. 7). However, the drastic change in
chip morphology appears to be more prominent at the micro-level. To
date, the precise explanation for the radical differences in chip morphol-
ogy under the Rehbinder effect has not been agreed upon.
2.2. Deformation mechanism
Various perspectives of the phenomenological cutting occurrences
have been discussed over the years as illustrated in Fig. 8. The theoreti-
cal development began with Rehbinder's initial proposition of the pre-
ventive cyclic rewelding and refracturing of surface cracks on the
stressed material. The infiltration of surface-active media into micro-
cracks enhanced crack propagation and eventually led to material fail-
ure. Rehbinder [52] explained that the surface-active substances pene-
trate microscopic cracks that were formed during deformation, which
created a lubricating effect on the slip planes such that new surfaces
could be generated with ease. This resulted in the losses of mechanical
yield strength. However, Shaw [62] argued that the surfactants could
react with the work material to form products that raised tool-chip
Fig. 6. Copper chip morphology (a) without and (b) with surfactant at a cutting depth of 50 μm where folding and fracture are denoted by yellow and red arrows [59].
5
friction (Fig. 8) and increased the shear angle to produce the character-
istic thinner and homogenously deformed chips.
Kohn [63] asserted the notion of ferric chloride formation from fresh
metallic surfaces with CCl4 as a surfactant but determined that the
shear-failure during chip formation was enhanced due to the energeti-
cally favorable system for stabilized free surface generation at the
surfactant-workpiece interface. Moreover, tests applying CCl4 on the
pre-machined surface instead of the tool-chip interface recounted the
Rehbinder effect during machining. A series of controlled shearing
tests by Kohn [64] showed that CCl4 largely influenced the deformation
in the shear zone as compared to the tool-chip interface that leads to the
reduction in stress resistance. Therefore, the theory for friction-induced
changes in chip morphology was voided.
Usui et al. [65] reiterated the penetration of surfactant molecules
into micro-cracks that increased the stress concentration to yield closely
packed shear planes and a uniformly distributed flow (i.e. laminar chip
formation). Two new criteria were identified for the manifestation of
the Rehbinder effect — (1) compressive stresses on the shearing action
during tensile and torsion testing; and (2) the presence of superficial
micro-cracks for surfactant molecule penetration. However, Barlow
[66] rejected the claim of surfactant penetration with the autoradio-
graphic records of the copper chips formed by cutting, which showed
no gradient in the presence of surfactant molecules. Instead, Barlow ex-
plained the Rehbinder effect with a similar explanation prescribed by
Kohn [63] as an energetically favorable system for accelerated disloca-
tion flow.
Dislocation emission from the surface and slippage of atoms demand
the disconnection of interatomic bonds, which would leave the system
in a high energy state with excess electron charges on the surface.
6 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688

Fig. 7. Copper chip morphology (a–c) without ink and (d–f) with ink at a cutting depth of 10 μm [61].

Hence, the resistance to interatomic failure would be intuitively high
along the shear zone. However, a case of an electronegative surfactant
species accepting the excess charges on the surface would ease the
slip step formation and interatomic fracture resistance (Fig. 8). During
cutting, chemically active atoms will dominate the free surface of the
chip to promote chemisorption and slip formation [67]. Rehbinder and
Shchukin [53] added that the intermolecular forces of attraction be-
tween the substrate and the surfactant reduce the interatomic bonding
forces within the bulk substrate material. In other words, the inter-
atomic bond lengths in the workpiece surface layer increase in the pres-
ence of surfactant molecules, which lowers the forces required to break
the bonds and ensure the equilibrium of states. Thereby, free surface
generation is promoted at lower energy costs [68].
A hiatus in the research work on the Rehbinder effect followed be-
tween the studies on mesoscopic machining during the mid-1900s
and the revisit of the phenomenon by Yeung et al. [60] in 2015. Their
works were mainly focused on developing the plastic buckling theory
during chip formation [69]. To advance the understanding of the
Rehbinder effect, Chaudhari et al. [57] resumed investigations in 2018
on the chip embrittlement observations during ultraprecision machin-
ing. They proposed the correlation between the physicochemical phe-
nomenon and the dislocation density in each grain as depicted in Fig. 8.
The sum of the statistically stored and geometrically necessary dislo-
cations makes up the total dislocation network, which is inversely pro-
portional to the grain size in accordance with the Hall-Petch
relationship [70,71]. In other words, large grains in the annealed state
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
Fig. 8. Advancement in theories of the Rehbinder effect in microcutting (t0 = undeformed chip thickness; vc = cutting speed).
typically contained lower dislocation densities and is capable of sustain-
ing higher strains prior to failure, explaining the high plasticity in the
chips with folding features. On the flipside, hardened work materials
with smaller grains contain higher dislocation densities, which quickly
lead to dislocation pile-ups and strain localization before finally failing
by ductile-failure [72]. It was explained that when a surface-active me-
dium is present, the energetically favorable bond between the work-
piece and medium creates a barrier to the egress of dislocation
motion, which then causes the further piling of dislocations and the
strain localized ductile failure. Thus, explaining the cause of the embrit-
tlement traits on the free surface of chips. Rehbinder and Shcukin [53]
recognized the possibility of this secondary effect due to the accelerated
flow of deformation and the formation of disoriented textures [52].
Therefore, the Rehbinder effect can be understood to manifest in two
phases: (1) enhanced mobility of dislocations at the surface due to the
intermolecular attraction between the surfactant and the workpiece
that promotes the dislodging of workpiece atoms by slip, which leads
to (2) the pile-up of intragranular dislocations that result in strain local-
ization and the eventual embrittlement of the material. In ultraprecision
microcutting, the stress zone can be explained to initiate from two ends
of the shear plane [73] under the influence of the surface-active medium
as compared to the presumptuous stress zone initiated from the tool-tip
[74,75]. Fig. 9 demonstrates a micro-crack that has evolved on the free
surface of the chip during deformation along the shear plane and
under the influence of a surfactant. As the micro-crack propagates, the
Fig. 9. Theorized sequence of events of the Rehbinder effect during chip formation.
7
enhanced emission of dislocations in the plastic zone of the crack tip
moves along the slip plane of the grain and begins to pile up at pinning
centers and entangles with dislocations emitted from the tool-tip. This
results in a quicker strain localization within the chip and produces
thinner deformed chips with serration-like microfeatures on the free
surface of the chip. Conversely, the conventional chip formation process
without the surface-active medium would only comprise of a plastic
zone that initiates from the tool-tip and eventually forms bulges on
the free surface of the chip.
2.3. Effect of grain size
With the decrease in machining length scale, grain size effects must
be given the appropriate attention for polycrystalline materials such as
varying grain sizes, crystallographic orientations and grain mechanical
properties [76–78]. On the other hand, the grain size influences the
magnitude of the Rehbinder effect due to the differences in dislocation
density and rate hardening properties [79]. Yeung et al. [60] and
Viswanathan et al. [58] claimed the reduction in the influence of the
Rehbinder effect on hardened copper and hardened aluminum, which
consistently produced laminar chip morphology even without applica-
tion of a surfactant. These hardened materials were pre-strained and
contained fine grains. Conversely, Chaudhari et al. [57] reported cutting
force reductions to varying degrees in the microcutting of annealed cop-
per, hardened copper, annealed aluminum (AA-6061-T6) and rapidly
solidified aluminum (RSA-6061).
Force reductions during microcutting of copper with different grain
sizes and the application of Dykem ink (Fig. 10) testify the Rehbinder ef-
fect for coarse and fine grains. One of the major difference between the
investigations was the machining length scale. The Rehbinder effect was
not observable on the pre-strained materials at larger cutting depths
(50 μm) but had a clear influence on the machining forces at the micro-
scale where the cutting depth (10 μm) is of the same magnitude or even
smaller than the work material grain size. Undoubtedly, the differences
were attributed to the grain sizes relative to the cutting depth.
The relationship between the grain size and the cutting depth is clas-
sified as the grain size effect under the umbrella of size effects. A work
material may be considered homogeneous when the grain size is rela-
tively smaller than the cutting depth, which is the commonly assumed
material state in macroscopic cutting [76]. Hence, the study on the ef-
fects of grain size on machinability at the macroscale is rarely studied,
besides the fact that materials with smaller grains often exhibit tougher
and stronger properties [80–82]. In microcutting, crystallographic con-
stitutive laws for plastic deformation by slipping of atoms are invoked
when the grain size is relatively larger than the cutting depth [83,84].
Mesoscale cutting of a pre-strained material assumes the poise of
macromachining where the work material is implicitly homogeneous
8 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
Fig. 10. Machining force differences with respect to undeformed chip thickness, to, under the influence of the Rehbinder effect: (a) hardened copper; and (b) annealed copper [57].
due to the small grain sizes relative to the cutting depth. Under this con-
dition, the manifestation of the Rehbinder effect appears to be negligible
but does not warrant the conclusion that small grain sizes reduce the
physicochemical influence. Minute force reductions could be observed
in the microcutting of RSA-6061 that has nanometric grains [57]. Sim-
ply, the fundamental mechanism of the Rehbinder effect on the chip for-
mation process seems to depend on crystallographic relationships (e.g.
slip system activation, dislocation motion, etc.). However, it is also im-
portant to note that the weakly manifested Rehbinder effect during cut-
ting of RSA-6061 may not be reasoned with single crystal plasticity due
to the different deformation mechanism of nano-grained polycrystals.
The shearing action largely occurs at grain boundaries instead of
intragrain slip deformation when dealing with nano-grained materials
[85].
2.4. Surface-active media
Little discussion revolves around the correlation between the surfac-
tant and the adsorbent material. The studies on the chemisorption phe-
nomenon shifted from organic acids to liquid metals in the 1970s, which
is otherwise termed as the liquid-metal embrittlement (LME) phenom-
enon. Its importance grew after the reports on LME-induced damage by
gallium in an aircraft, and molten zinc that accelerated the failure of
high-pressure stainless steel pipes during the Flixborough disaster
[86]. The principles of the mechanism closely follow the Rehbinder ef-
fect, with the use of a liquid-metal as the surface-active medium to tem-
porarily modify the material properties. Lynch [87] described the
process as an “adsorption-induced dislocation emission” process that
facilitates dislocation nucleation and motion away from the crack tip
under applied stresses. However, the LME phenomenon will not be
discussed in detail due to the obvious challenges in controlling the pro-
cess for application. Elevated temperatures to achieve melts could in-
duce additional factors of atomic excitation to alter material
properties. Moreover, traces of the liquid-metal were reportedly diffi-
cult to remove from the surface [88].
Various surface-active media have been tested over the years such as
oleic acid, carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), and marker ink. Table 1 summa-
rizes the surfactants, work materials, cutting conditions and the exper-
imental findings. These include the work by Kaneeda [89] despite the
effort to propose an alternate mechanism of friction reduction along
the tool-chip interface in place of the Rehbinder effect. The notion was
merely supported by a descriptive hypothesis that lacked experimental
evidence. It was acclaimed that the surfactant on the pre-machined sur-
face could lower the friction load at the tool-chip interface. Although the
statement is not inaccurate, it is definitely not the direct result of lubri-
cant application. The evidently thinner deformed chip thickness directly
corresponds to a change in the shear angle and shortening of the shear
plane, which would indicate a shift in the resultant force vector and fric-
tion angle. This could mistakenly lead to the assumption that the tool-
chip friction was reduced but, in reality, the fundamental mechanism
causing the difference initiated from the change in material flow.
Thus, the results could be indeed a product of the Rehbinder effect
with chip embrittlement due to shear localization.
Various surfactants that have been reported comprise household
media and reactive chemicals with the common ability to bond with
the work materials by adhesion, which has been determined to be a
necessary criterion for the manifestation of the Rehbinder effect [59].
However, the governing criterion of the surfactant to induce the
Rehbinder effect has not been confirmed. On one hand, highly viscous
liquids appear to promote greater force reductions with the acclaimed
unnecessary penetration of surfactants into micro-voids on the pre-
machined surface, assuming that the results presented by Kaneeda
[89] were under the influence of the Rehbinder effect. On the other
hand, chemical activity of these surfactants on the work material is gen-
erally agreed to be an essential initiator for the enhanced machinability
[90], which requires the infiltration of surface-active molecules into
cracks. Regardless, Shchukin et al. [51] stated that there will always be
a medium containing the appropriate chemical composition and struc-
ture to induce the strength-reduction in any type of solid [53].
The application of liquids on the pre-machined surface also presents
an additional case of surfactant hardening and high resistance viscous
flow during cutting, which may cause complications during the inter-
pretation of the Rehbinder effect. For example, the physicochemical
phenomenon does not occur with liquid Dykem marker ink on calcium
fluoride (CaF2) but beneficial implications on the material machinability
have been reported with solidified Dykem ink [91]. This phenomenon
will be discussed in subsequent sections on physical effects.
3. Physical effects
3.1. Solid coatings
Coatings have been adopted in micromachining with the main aims
of reducing tool wear by tool coating [92–97] and workpiece coating
[98–100]. It is sensible to prevent tool wear by implementing a protec-
tive coating on the tool. However, workpiece coating applications tend
to replace the actual material with a de facto modified surface that can
only be accepted on the conditional acceptance of an altered final ma-
chined product surface. For example, electroless nickel plated dies
have been found to be functional and diamond-turnable [101], which
essentially benefits the production of hard optical surfaces and reduces
diamond tool wear rates [102,103]. However, the ideal modus operandi
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688 9

Table 1
Observations of the Rehbinder effect on various metals.

Material vc t0 α Surfactant Reductions/observations Ref.

(mm/min) (μm) (°)

Pb 25.4 127 15 CCl4, H2O, C6H6 Cutting forces: 0%, 25%, 37.5% [62]
B1112 Steel 146.05 254 30 CCl4 Cutting energy [62]
B1213 Steel 25.4 127 15 H2O, CCl4 Cutting forces: 22%, 49% [62]
Low carbon 12.7 0 CCl4 Force curve area: 10% [65]
steel
Hot rolled 12.7 127 20 CCl4, C2H3Cl3, H2O Cutting forces [65]
steel
Armco Fe 120 50 0 C3H8O, G1, G3, I1 Cutting forces: 0%, 71%, 67%, 75% [59]
AA-1100 120 50 0 Glue1, Ink 1, C3H8O, C2H5OH, C4H9OH, C3H6O, H2O Cutting forces: 50%, 42%, 78%, 74%, 77%, 5%, 0% [59]
120 50 45 Glue 1, Glue 2, Ink 1, C3H8O, P&G soap, Wax, Cutting forces: 37.5%, 17%, 44%, 50%, 41%, 33%, 0% [59]
distilled water
Al (H14) 120 50 0 Glue 1, C3H8O, Wax, C7H8, distilled H2O Cutting forces: 9%, 29%, 29%, 0%, 0% [59]
H-Cu 50 10 0 Ink 2 Cutting forces and deformed chip thickness: 50% [57]
H-OFHC Cu 25.2 50 0 Ink 2 No effect [60]
AA-6061-T6 50 10 0 Ink 2 Cutting forces: 30% [57]
RSA-6061 50 10 0 Ink 2 Cutting forces: 30% [57]
Al-1050-H24 8800 30 0 Mineral oil, C18H36O2, C18H34O2, Graphite, MoS2 Cutting forces: 58%, 62%, 66%, 70%, 72%, respectively. Deformed chip [89]
thickness with segmentation with surfactant
A-Cu 120 50 0 Glue 1, Glue 2, Glue 3, Ink 1, Ink 2, Ink 3, C3H8O, Cutting forces: 60%, 44%, 62%, 37.5%, 44%, 39%, 0%, 0%, 0%, 0% [59]
C2H5OH, C4H9OH, C6H12O2 Deformed chip thickness with segmented features
120 50 45 Glue 1, Glue 3, Ink 1, P&G soap, C3H8O Cutting forces: 17%, 20%, 13%, 9%, 0% [59]
50 10 0 Ink 2 Cutting forces and deformed chip thickness: 50% [57]
Cu 254 254 20 Mineral oil, C18H34O2, CCl4 Increasing in concentration of crack formation on the free surface of chips in [65]
the respective order
Cu (99.3%) 1422 102 15 CCl4 Cutting forces: 21% [66]
A-OFHC Cu 25.2 50 0 Ink 2 Cutting force: N50% [60]

Pb: lead, Fe: iron, AA: annealed aluminum, RSA: rapidly solidified aluminum, Al: aluminum, H-Cu: hardened copper, H-OFHC Cu: hardened oxygen-free high conductivity copper, A-OFHC
Cu: annealed oxgyen free high conductivity copper, A-Cu: Annealed copper, CCL4: carbon tetrachloride, H2O: water, C6H6: benzene, C3H8O: isopropyl alcohol, C2H5OH: ethanol, C4H9OH: 1-
butanol, C3H6O: acetone, Glue 1: Scotch restickable glue stick, Glue 2: Scotch super glue gel, Glue 3: Gorilla super glue, Ink 1: Sharpie permanent marker, Ink 2: Dykem permanent marker,
Ink 3: Paper Mate liquid paper correction fluid, C7H8: toulene, C18H36O2: stearic acid, C18H34O2: oleic acid, MoS2: Molybdenum disulfide, C6H12O2: diacetone alcohol, P&G soap: Procter &
Gamble soap.

of the coating technique should produce a finished product without its
coating layer. In this aspect, investigations on microcutting at a depth
that removes the actual work material while being “sandwiched” by
the coating layer has never been reported, until recently.
3.1.1. Ductile–brittle transition
Lee et al. [91] uncovered the use of Dykem marker ink as a solidified
coating film to enhance the machinability of brittle calcium fluoride
(CaF2) single crystals. The machinability of brittle materials is often de-
termined by the cutting depth-dependent ductile–brittle transition
(DBT) [104]. Brittle cracks appear on the machined surface within the
brittle-regime at large cutting depths, while defect-free surfaces can
be achieved at smaller cutting depths in the ductile-regime [105,106].
It is apparent that the application of the solidified film resulted in a
significant delay in the DBT of CaF2 during orthogonal taper grooving
(Fig. 11). Taper grooving is a commonly adopted method for determin-
ing the critical uncut chip thickness (i.e. ductile–brittle transition) dur-
ing machining of brittle single crystal materials [107–109].
The potential influence of the Rehbinder effect may be postulated
with the use of Dykem ink, but the purely mechanical influence of the
coating was described by Lee et al. [91] in Vickers microhardness testing
and a coating-thickness-dependency on the DBT as shown in Fig. 12. It
was described that chemisorption effects should influence the mode
of cutting (i.e. ductile or brittle) on the conditional presence of the sur-
face coating, but the fact that brittle-mode cutting manifested when
microcutting with a thin layer of coating signaled a physical mechanism
to enhance ductile-mode cutting. Close examination of Fig. 12 reveals
that microcracks begin to re-manifest on the machined surface as the

Fig. 11. Optical microscopic top view of plunge-cut microgrooves on CaF2 single crystal and the corresponding ductile–brittle transitions: (a) without coating; and (b) with coating [91].
10 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
Fig. 12. Microgrooves on CaF2 single crystal (to = 0.5 μm) demonstrating the coating-
thickness-dependency on the micro-cutting mode on CaF2 single crystal [91].
coating thickness gradually declined, indicating the influence of the
coating to be mechanical in nature.
It was believed that the coating served as a control measure on the
mechanics of chip formation by regulating the material flow, as com-
pared to the irrepressible activation of multiple slip systems within
the primary deformation of the chip [110] that leads to irregular chip
formation [111,112]. By this action, the deflection of the resultant
force vector reduces and stable shear deformation by slip was achieved
for ductile-mode cutting.
3.1.2. Effects of compressive pressure
The surface coating technique is analogous to cutting under the
high-pressure liquid as illustrated in Fig. 13. This follows the findings
of 1946 Nobel Prize laureate in physics, Percy Williams Bridgman, on
high-pressure deformation mechanisms. In 1945, Bridgman [113] dem-
onstrated increases in ductility of various steels, copper, aluminum,
brass and bronze under hydrostatic pressures of up to ~2.9 GPa by im-
mersion. He reasoned that the externally applied pressure inhibited in-
ternal crack formation and subsequently increases the fracture
toughness required for material failure.
Shearing differs slightly from tensile stress application under hydro-
static pressures in that the external pressure keeps atoms along the slip
plane in contact to encourage “self-healing” during shear action, while
the interatomic contact immediately disappears at the fracture zone
under tension [114]. The phenomenon reflected differences in the
stress-strain curves where shear testing displayed indications of the ap-
proaching failure point and tensile testing abruptly ended without
warning. This perspective of shearing can be applied to the shearing
process during chip formation [115] to explain the continuity in mate-
rial flow under external pressures instead of submission to brittle fail-
ure. It is good to note that the hydrostatic pressure has a large
influence on the mechanical properties on various types of engineering
materials such as plastics [116,117] and metals [118,119].
The enhanced plasticity was also observed in brittle crystalline sub-
stances such as synthetic sapphire and glasses under externally applied
hydrostatic pressures [120]. Following these concepts, pressurized ves-
sels have been developed to perform ductile-mode scratching on silicon
crystals [121], glass and quartz [122]. Fig. 14 displays an innovative
Fig. 13. Analogous comparison between cutting in pressurized liquid.
experimental micro-cutting/scratching setup constructed of steel to
exert pressures of up to 500 MPa with kerosene. A turntable was
employed in this setup with the concept of load-based scratch testing.
Subsequently, advanced improvements in setups were equipped with
precision control orthogonal microcutting capabilities [123].
Beyond the surface influence on the chip flow, the pressures applied
by the pressurized fluid or coating resistance to deformation extend into
the work material during cutting. These compressive pressures tend to
close microcrack growth from subsurface defects within the stress
field in the cutting zone, which was thought to be the origin of brittle-
mode machining [124,125]. Nakasuji et al. [126] explained the occur-
rence of brittle and ductile-mode cutting based on the elementary con-
cept of deformation by slip and brittle failure by cleavage in the
presence of these pre-existing subsurface defects. Plastic deformation
can be enabled when the stress in the cutting zone ranges between
the stress necessary for plastic deformation and the cleavage stress for
crack propagation. In this sense, compressive stresses can benefit
ductile-mode cutting with a “crack shielding zone” [127,128].
An analytical fracture mechanics model proposed by Sakata and
Aoki [129] was adopted to explain the reduction in effective stresses
acting on the subsurface cracks. The fundamental theory revolves
around the stress intensity factor, where crack propagation occurs
when it exceeds the fracture toughness (KI ≥ KIC). The stress intensity
factor is typically expressed by the stress σt acting on the crack of size
c in Eq. (1). Under an externally applied pressure pl, the resolved stress
is reduced, and the effective stress intensity factor is lowered (Eq. (2)).
This reduction correspondingly lowers the tendency for subsurface
microcrack propagation and subsequently requires larger critical stress
to achieve brittle failure.
pffiffiffiffiffi
K I ¼ σ t πc ð1Þ
pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
K 0I ¼ ðσ t −pl Þ πc ¼ σ t πc−pl πc ¼ K I −K p ð2Þ
However, this theory only holds with the assumptions of defects
present in the work material and a crack-free interface between the ma-
terial surface and the pressurizing medium [130,131]. If cracks were
originally present on the workpiece surface, crack propagation can be
anticipated under the influence of the pressurized medium due to an
immediate tensile force on the cracks. In the case of a pressurized
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
Fig. 14. (a) Overview schematic of the experimental setup for scratching under hydrostatic pressure; (b) close up view of the apparatus within the pressurized chamber: 1 – pressure
vessel, 2 – pressure intake, 3 – turntable, 4 – angular bearing, 5 – Bridgman seal, 6 – Sleeve, 7 – Bridgman seal, 8 – lid, 9 – bolts for securing, 10 – sample, 11 – tool holder, 12 – tool
holder fulcrum, 13 – tool, 14 – spring, and 15 – spring adjuster [121].
chamber, the stresses on the crack tip will be balanced by the surround-
ing pressure and the enhancement in machinability would be voided.
Fig. 15 illustrates the differences in the effects of pressurized fluids on
cracks initiating from the surface and the subsurface.
Phase transformations can also occur under compressive stresses as
observed in diamond [132], silicon [133], germanium [134], and quartz
[135]. If adopted correctly, these contact loading conditions can support
the understanding of wear, friction and erosion, particularly in cutting,
polishing and indentation testing [136]. These physical changes can be
beneficial to the microcutting process in view of the material softening
nature such as the transition of silicon (Si) single crystals to the Si-II
phase, which is relatively ductile and transforms into an amorphous
state (α-Si) upon release of pressure [123,137]. Microcutting of Si with
negative rake angled tools demonstrate the pressure-dependent degree
of phase transformation after machining [138,139]. Typically, a larger
negative rake angle tends to induce higher resultant machining forces
[140], corresponding to larger contact pressure and consequently a
thicker amorphized Si layer on the machined surface.
Yoshino et al. [123] agreed that the pressures adopted in their cham-
ber were insignificant in megapascals as compared to the pressure nec-
essary to induce phase transformations on Si in gigapascals, but
suggested that the hydraulic pressures assisted the phase transforma-
tion process. It is important to remember that the phase transformation
process during deformation of silicon is also strongly dependent on the
rates of loading and unloading besides the effective contact pressure
[141–144].
3.1.3. Subsurface damage
Differences in the topography of machined surface quality indefi-
nitely affect the degree of damage in the subsurface regions. The forces
induced to mechanically remove material by shear deformation extend
beyond the evacuated material by chip formation, into the bulk of the
work material. On one hand, the increase in hydrostatic pressure may
seem beneficial for the ductile-mode cutting process in relation to
phase transformations, but on the other hand, excessive pressure may
result in unnecessary high-pressure phase transformed subsurface
damage on brittle materials such as silicon [145,146] and germanium
[147]. Removal of the damaged layer is a challenging process even
with polishing, which exhibits significantly milder loading conditions
for mechanical material removal [148].
Fortunately, phase transformation during cutting is not a generic oc-
currence in machining as observed in lattice deformation by slip and ro-
tation in CaF2 [110]. When cutting CaF2 with the surface coating, lattice
11
distortion was observed with a 45% decrease in subsurface damage
thickness [91]. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopic
(TEM) imaging of the machined subsurface (Fig. 16) depicts the degree
of distortion in the subsurface. An obvious contrast in the structure of
the bulk material and the immediate subsurface revealed the decrease
in thickness of the damaged layer [149]. Controlled slip deformation in
the subsurface was suggested to occur under the influence of the coat-
ing as observed by the evident rows of atoms in the high-resolution
TEM (HRTEM) images in Fig. 16 that correspond to the ð100Þ½011 slip
direction. Fast Fourier transform (FFT) imaging confirms the disorienta-
tion of the lattice structure under conventional cutting with the inade-
quate order of diffraction spots in the HRTEM image [150–153], while
the lattice structure remained in alignment with the original crystal
orientation.
Lee et al. [91] proposed that the surface coating induced a degree of
resistance to deformation that creates a reaction force on the work ma-
terial and stabilizes the material removal process. The controlled resul-
tant forces reduced the rotational deformation in the subsurface lattice
to promote plastic deformation by slip. According to Bishop and Hill
[154], the material stress state during incremental strain determines
the maximum plastic work done during deformation. The plastic work
done during deformation is defined in Eqs. (3) and (4) [155]:
dW ¼ σdεw ð3Þ
dΓ
σ¼ τc ¼ Mτ c ð4Þ
dεw
where σ is the equivalent stress state, τc is the critical resolved shear
stress, dεw is the macroscopic effective strain, Γ is the total dislocation
shear strain, and M is the crystal orientation-dependent Taylor factor.
The deviation in shear angle from the direction of maximum shear
stress (45° to the cutting direction), ψ, affects the effective Taylor factor
(M' = M/cos 2ψ) [156]. While the Taylor factor corresponds to the shear
strength of the material, it also provides an indication of the direction of
the main shearing action during cutting based on the minimum work
principle, such that shear banding occurs at the minimal Taylor factor
[157]. In crystal plasticity, an increment of strain imposed on the crystal
corresponds to the shear on independent slip systems but the preferred
slip system during deformation is determined by the minimum sum of
shear on the system [157]. The cumulative shear then influences the lat-
tice rotation tensor, which alters the crystal orientation during deforma-
tion. Without the influence of the surface constraint, the shear-
12 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688

Fig. 15. Illustrations of pressurized fluid on the origins of defects: (a) in the subsurface; and (b) on the surface [121].
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688 13

Fig. 16. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopic (XTEM) image comparison of the machined subsurface, high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) of each location marked by red boxes in
the XTEM images, and fast Fourier transform (FFT) analysis of each HRTEM image: (a) without coating; (b) with coating [91].

dependent lattice rotation tensor varies according to the activated slip
system resulting in the uncontrollable crystal distortion in the ma-
chined subsurface. However, due to the control of the resultant forces
and the shear angle under the constraint of an external pressure [91],
the effective Taylor factor would remain relatively constant such that
the preferred slip system during deformation remains unchanged ac-
cording to the minimum sum of shear on the system. Thus, the subsur-
face deformation undergoes shearing along a consistent direction and
subsurface distortion may be reduced.
3.2. Machine tool design
Beside surface films and pressurized chambers to intentionally mod-
ify the material response during microcutting, tool modifications can
also induce a similar compressive surface effect. Conventionally, ma-
chine tool modifications include changes in the cutting tool geometry
and chip breakers. Negative rake angled cutting tools are classic exam-
ples that are well established to enable ductile-mode cutting of brittle
substances due to the increase in compressive pressure as observed in
macroscopic drilling of rocks [158] and precision grinding [159–161].
While an excessively large negative rake angle theoretically increases
the compressive pressure into the work material from the surface to
suppress the stress intensity factor for crack propagation [162], it can
also change the material flow and the resultant machined surface qual-
ity [163].
Fig. 17 illustrates the different material flow types under the influ-
ence of the rake angle. Conventional cutting conditions involve shearing
of the work material as the chip is formed and displaced upwards. As the
rake angle becomes increasingly negative, material removal by extru-
sion occurs such that a stagnation point evolves, and the final machined
surface comprises a fraction of deformed material that was not evacu-
ated through the chip. Further increase in the negativity of the rake
angle leads to ploughing and rubbing where the respective upheaval
and elastic deformation of the material occurs and produces scratches
or grooves, while the material is not physically removed [164]. There-
fore, the changes in the material flow mechanism limit the extensive
use of negative rake angled tools to induce the necessary compressive
pressures in the work material.
Although the change in the negative rake angle of the cutting tool
presents a familiar influence on compressive pressure and material
flow, it can only be considered as a machining parametric condition in-
stead of a surface effect. Fortunately, the change in the negative rake
angle is not the only modification in tool design to induce compressive
pressures.
14 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
Fig. 17. Material deformation mechanisms under varying effective rake angles: (a) shearing, (b) extrusion, (c) ploughing, and (d) rubbing [20].
3.2.1. Extrusion-cutting
In 1975, a unique method of material removal was proposed by
Akiyama et al. [165] involving a constraining upper plate above the
pre-machined work material surface. In this condition, work material
flows through the defined gap between the tool and the upper bound-
ary to enable control of the shear angle (ϕ) and the chip compression
ratio (λ), which is the ratio between the deformed chip thickness (tc)
over the undeformed chip thickness (t0). Fig. 18 illustrates the
constrained cutting process where the constraint is position ahead of
the cutting tool on the pre-machined surface and leaves a gap between
for chip flow, dictating the deformed chip thickness.
The innovation has since been adopted as an advanced technique to
overcome challenges in the formation of materials with ultrafine-
grained (UFG) microstructures. These nano-grained materials were
conventionally attained through severe plastic deformation (SPD) tech-
niques such as equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) [167–169], tubu-
lar channel angular pressing (TCAP) [170,171] and high-pressure
torsion (HPT) [172,173]. Unfortunately, these conventional methods
were limited in terms of the strain rates and the number of deformation
passes to achieve the desired strains and microstructure [166]. The SPD
under constrained machining has greatly diversified the types of
Fig. 18. Illustration of the constrained cutting process [166].
microstructural production by varying the shear strain and deformation
rates [174,175], as described in Fig. 19 for copper.
3.2.2. Shear strain theory
While the production of UFG materials with this innovative method
is not of importance to this paper, the cutting mechanics involved with
this constraint can be considered to be an important surface effect in
machining to control the shear directions and deformation history
[176]. This novel idea was coined as “extrusion-cutting” in 1976 by De
Chiffre [177], who elaborated the geometrical relationship between
the chip compression ratio and the shear strain in the primary deforma-
tion zone during cutting. The shear strain along the shear plane in metal
cutting was defined by Merchant [178,179] in Eq. (5), based on the
shear angle that can be determined from the chip compression ratio in
Eq. (6). Over the years of research in metal cutting, discrepancies in
Merchant's prediction of shear angles have often been reported such
as the disregard for strain hardening and thermal softening effects.
However, Akiyama et al. [165] demonstrated that Merchant's argument
holds for the minimum energy principle when the corresponding shear
Fig. 19. Microstructure map for deformed copper under varying severe plastic
deformation conditions [181].
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688 15

 cosα 
ϕ ¼ tan−1 ð6Þ
λ− sinα

λ 1
γ¼ þ −2 tanα ð7Þ
cosα λ cosα

In 2015, Cai et al. [182] proposed that the major influence of the con-
straint was in the deviation of material flow by an angle χ, as depicted in
Fig. 20. This was based on mesoscale cutting tests (t0 = 200 μm) with
high speed imaging and digital image correlation shown in Fig. 21. By
considering the trigonometric relations, the shear strain during defor-
mation under extrusion-cutting can then be revised to Eq. (8) [182].
When χ = 0, Eq. (8) is simplified to Eq. (7) to describe the strain in con-
ventional machining.

λ− sinα þ cosα tanχ 1

γ¼ þ − tanα ð8Þ
Fig. 20. Illustration of the actual material flow during extrusion-cutting denoted with solid cosα−ðλ− sinα Þ tanχ λ cosα
lines and the comparison with conventional cutting in dotted lines [182].
Cutting force considerations are essential in cutting analysis due to
the common correlation to thermal effects and tool wear [183,184].
The extrusion pressure (i.e. cutting force), which may need some revi-
angle was controlled during extrusion-cutting. By controlling the posi- sion in light of the recent new findings [182], was first proposed by De
tion of the constraint, the shear strain can be expressed as Eq. (7) Chiffre [177] in Eq. (9) by considering the cutting energy required to de-
based on upper bound analysis [180]. form the volume of material.

cosα p λ 1þm
γ¼ ð5Þ ¼ þ −ð2 þ mÞ tanα−m tanβ ð9Þ
sinϕ cosðϕ−α Þ k cosα λ cosα

Fig. 21. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) analysis of chip formation during extrusion-cutting of lead: (a) high-speed imaging; (b) strain rate field; (c) strain rate along material flow path a-
b-c-d; and (d) strain along a-b-c-d [176].
16 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
where k is the shear flow stress, α is the tool rake angle, β is the friction
angle, and m is a friction factor. In the cutting of 63% Cu-brass, De Chiffre
[185] acclaimed that the chip compression ratio should be 1.5 to achieve
the lowest cutting forces, which was consistent with his previous work
on wax (λ = 1.414) [177]. The minimum extrusion pressure was sug-
gested to occur when λ = (1 + m)1/2, independent of the rake angle.
Here, m is assumed to be in relation to the friction angle (m = cos 2β).
3.2.3. Chip formation
With respect to cutting, the chip morphology and microstructure are
often employed as indicators of the machining performance. Moreover,
the flow of material during its removal is correlated to the plastic strains
and residual stresses on the machined surface [181]. According to
Eq. (8), an increase in the chip compression ratio raises the shear strain
within the chip, which results in the hardening of the material. The
hardness corresponds with the deformed microstructure shown in
Fig. 22, where relatively larger and elongated grains can be observed
at lower strain levels (λ = 2.2) and the refinement of nano-sized grains
(~250 nm) evolve under larger deformation (λ = 11) [186]. An upper
limit on the chip compression ratio is defined where the free surface is
no longer in contact with the constrain during cutting and is material
dependent.
Conversely, material flow transits to an extrusion process that also
exhibits large strains at significantly small ratios (λ b 1) [187].
Sagapuram et al. [188] experimented with magnesium alloy MG
AZ31B and titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V and determined that the optimal
chip compression ratio for each material were in the lower range of
0.7 and 0.6, respectively, for the suppression of shear banding in the
chips. Generic chip morphologies can be categorized into three groups
with different mechanisms to initiate unstable flow, namely segmenta-
tion, vortex-like flow, and shear banding. This unstable cyclic fluctua-
tion of cutting force and shear angle during shear banding can cause
high-frequency multimode tool-tip vibrations that are detrimental to
the accuracy of ultraprecision machining [189]. Hence, the suppression
of shear banding would be beneficial for improving surface quality and
tool wear caused by tool-tip vibrations [190–192].
Fig. 22. Transmission electron microscopic (TEM) and selective area diffraction (SAD) imaging of OFHC copper under different compression conditions: (a) λ = 2.2; (b) λ = 4.3; (c) λ =
7.4; and (d) λ = 11 [186].
Sagapuram et al. [193] described conventional shear banding as a
two-phase process of initiation and sliding, where the chip weakens
under the initial phase and undergoes severe plastic strain under slid-
ing. However, the implementation of the modified tool demonstrated
effective capabilities to suppress the secondary plastic strain and unsta-
ble chip morphology of Mg and Ti alloys to produce continuous chips as
shown in Fig. 23 [188]. The geometric flow constraint determines the
shear angle, which influences the second phase sliding velocity (vs) in
Eq. (10) [193], where vc is the cutting speed.
vs cosα
≈ ð10Þ
vc cosϕ
It was suggested that the dynamic recrystallization of the chips can
be controlled by varying the cutting speed, such that a relatively lower
vs can achieve ultrafine equiaxed nanograins. However, the critical pa-
rameter to suppress shear banding remains as the chip compression
ratio, which dictates the shear strain and increases the sliding velocity
within the chip. However, as the chip compression ratio progresses fur-
ther down (λ b 1), a complex extrusion process manifests where mate-
rial flow stagnation at the tool-tip occurs [187]. This appears to be
similar to the observed material flow when using a large negative rake
angled tool to induce ploughing. While this notion may be true, the pre-
sented test results by Guo et al. [187] revealed the non-rigidity of the
constraining tool (Fig. 24), which questions the accuracy of the de-
scribed material flow.
Understandably, the reduction in λ inadvertently increases the shear
angle such that the direction of the shear force approaches the thrust
force (i.e. perpendicular to the cutting direction) and leads to the in-
crease in thrust force, which potentially causes the deformation of the
constraint. The disregard of a rigid constraint simply suggests an addi-
tional degree of freedom for material flow, which could cause instabil-
ities during cutting manifesting as the aforementioned complex
extrusion process. Nonetheless, the fundamental theory of the con-
straint still stands where the increase in flow resistance and material
separation corresponds to a substantial amount of cutting energy to
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688 17

Fig. 23. Continuous chip formation of (a) Mg AZ31B and (b) Ti-6Al-4V with the associated homogenous microstructure [188].

support the deformation of the subsurface. Therefore, a critical com-
pression ratio exists to achieve the optimal machining conditions for su-
perior surface finishing as demonstrated in Fig. 25.
3.2.4. Constrained micro/nano-cutting
To date, investigations on extrusion-cutting have been limited to
mesoscale cutting with no engagement with the microscale. Theoreti-
cally, the concepts established in by De Chiffre [177] and Cai et al.
[182] can apply to the microscale just as classical machining theories
are often adopted to elucidate microcutting phenomenon.
With the advanced computational power and establishment of in-
teratomic potentials, modelling of extrusion-cutting in the micro/
nano-level has been simulated to understand the material flow dynam-
ics at the atomic level. Uezaki et al. [194] investigated the constrained
cutting method for nanometric cutting of aluminum single crystal in
molecular dynamic (MD) simulations and reported the increase in ma-
terial yield strength during cutting with the constraint. In theory, the
material mechanical properties should remain unchanged under both
cutting conditions, but the resultant stresses applied in the cutting
zone can be directed along the shear plane to depict the higher material
strength under the constrained configuration.
Fig. 26 illustrates the increase in hydrostatic stresses under the pro-
posed tool (i.e. extrusion-cutting). The stabilization of material flow
stress enabled the distinct activation of slip planes under extrusion-

Fig. 24. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) in-situ analysis of chip formation during extrusion-cutting of OFHC copper (H04) with high-speed imaging, strain rate field, and strain field
measurement, from top to bottom [187].
18 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688

Fig. 25. Scanning electron microscope images of the machined surfaces under different constraining conditions [187].

cutting, while multiple narrow slips systems were reported under con- scale. Considerations for geometrical surface effects can be particularly
ventional conditions [194]. This is synonymous to the analysis with useful in the post-processing of trending additive manufacturing appli-
solid coatings on CaF2. Other benefits of the modified tool included re- cations where fabricated metal parts arrive with periodic features in the
duced burr formation as observed by the absence of an additional microscale such as rippling effects [195,196], balling effects [197,198]
layer of atoms above the initial workpiece surface plane in Fig. 26(a). and stair effects [199–201].
This is suspected to be a result of the constraint geometry that physically While encompassing these attributes, an emphasis should be made
restricts the burr formation and not the representative suppression of on the present lack of research development at the microscale, which
plastic flow. While MD simulations are effective in illustrating the ef-
fects of the extrusion-cutting method on the interatomic relations and
slip system activation, the modelling length scale remains far from the
experimental capabilities.
The classification of extrusion-cutting as a novel machining innova-
tion in the ranks of ultrasonic vibration-assisted machining and cryo-
genic cutting remains unclear given the relatively few investigations
on this unorthodox methodology. The idea of extrusion-cutting as a sur-
face effect has not been explored but can be categorized as one of the
physical influences. The theories describing the cutting principles over
the last 35 years can be used to analyze the critical problems of surface
films. On one hand, the constraint in extrusion-cutting is assumed to be
a rigid body but, on the other hand, a coating is deformable, which adds
on to the set of parameters for investigation.

4. Future directions in ultraprecision microcutting with surface

effects

By and large, the physicochemical and physical surface effects

discussed in this paper are generally beneficial to the machining process
in terms of augmenting cutting efficiency and improving the machined
surface quality. Fig. 27 presents an overview of the main attributes for
consideration in the research field of surface effects in microcutting.
Six main surface effects are worth mentioning with past works on five
of them (i.e. Rehbinder effect, WGL-model, surface coating, extrusion-
cutting, and pressurized fluids). Geometric effects (denoted by a green
dotted box) represent the potential effect of the initial surface quality
prior to machining that has never been reported before. Imperfections
on the surface include microcracks and voids that could alter the stress
distribution and chip flow during ultraprecision machining where the Fig. 26. Cross-sectional view of hydrostatic stress distribution during nanometric cutting
characteristic length scale of these defects are coherent with the cutting in molecular dynamics simulations: (a) extrusion-cutting; (b) conventional cutting [194].
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
Fig. 27. Overview of the attributes for consideration in surface effects of microcutting
where physicochemical effects are boxed in orange and physical effects are boxed in
green.
is at the forefront of most research works on cutting due to the stringent
industrial requirements of high-quality surface finishing and miniatur-
izing of engineering components. It is important to establish the corre-
sponding fundamentals of material removal across all surface effects in
relation to the microcutting level given the similar characteristic length
scales of surface effects. As an example, extrusion-cutting has been
shown to benefit the manufacturing process of UFG materials and supe-
rior quality machined surfaces at the mesoscale. Typical concerns in
microcutting such as tool wear and, in this example, constraint wear be-
come critical in the microscale where the slightest occurrence of wear
will significantly degrade the machined surface quality.
One imperative group of investigations is the inevitable relationship
with size effects in the microscale. Besides the tool-edge radius effect
that has been described in Fig. 16, material properties in the micro-/
nano-scale are inherently different as described by the indentation
size effect (ISE) [202]. The ISE accounts for the conventionally neglected
density of geometrically necessary dislocations that support the plasti-
cally deformed shape, in addition to the statistically stored dislocations
that alone is sufficient to describe the macroscopic hardness of a mate-
rial [203,204]. This typically leads to the exponential increase in specific
cutting energy during micro-/nano-cutting [205]. A progression further
into the nanoscale below 100 nm and a pop-in behavior on hardness
will manifest corresponding to the nucleation of dislocations
[206–208]. The awareness of such effects opens a wide avenue of theo-
retical studies in the future.
In Fig. 26, three typical classes of engineering materials are men-
tioned, most of which have been covered in the literature such as copper
(ductile), silicon (brittle), and titanium alloys (difficult-to-machine).
Metals were commonly studied in the literature of surface effects due
to the rich history of applications over the last century. However, the
rapidly advancing developments in technology across industries call
for the manufacturing capabilities of a wider spread of engineering ma-
terials such as ceramics and brittle semiconductor materials.
Material removal investigations on these materials necessitate post-
process characterization that involves nano-/microscopic assessment of
the machined surface quality for both top surface and subsurface, and
the microstructure evolution in chips. Chip morphology and micro-
structural studies were exemplified in the research work of extrusion-
cutting using transmission electron microscopic (TEM) and particle im-
aging velocimetry (PIV) techniques. Process evaluations on cutting effi-
ciencies are also essential in post-process characterization in terms of
energy transfer, which is correlated to machine system life, cutting
tool life, and machined surface quality. To date, the correlations be-
tween the machining forces and any of the surface effects have no qual-
itative explanations behind the evident differences with conventional
cutting.
19
System-specific studies focus on the applicability of surface effects in
machining processes with the end goal of meeting industrial needs and
adoption. Process control indefinitely requires the knowledge of the de-
terministic parameters to ensure repeatability of the product in fabrica-
tion. To achieve this, appreciation of the material deformation
mechanics and the fundamental scientific theory is inevitable. With
this framework in mind, the main research gaps in the surface effects
of microcutting are discussed in the subsequent sections.
4.1. Rehbinder effect
Presently, the research topic on the Rehbinder effect in
micromachining of metals retains its uniqueness as an interdisciplinary
phenomenon that many may find difficult to accept due to the poor re-
peatability and non-conventional stance in material deformation. Its
benefits in microcutting of metals have been shown in recent years to
manifest at a larger degree. One of the major benefits is the commonly
reported improved machined surface quality [57–59] as demonstrated
by the lower density of serrations on the machined surface of annealed
copper in Fig. 28. However, the occurrence has only been reasoned to be
a result of the reduction in cutting energy dissipation that translates to
reduced tool-tip-vibrations [209].
While most experimental findings support the proposed mechanism
of the Rehbinder effect, the material deformation characteristics are yet
to be fully explained, particularly at the micrometric length scale. More-
over, the wide range of surface-active media that are capable of induc-
ing the mechanochemical effect tentatively show no measurable
relationship to arrive at the criteria for an ideal surfactant. The dynamic
evolution of material deformation under the influence of a surfactant
(Fig. 9) undeniably creates great challenges in analyzing the physico-
chemical effect in cutting chips, and it appears that post-process analy-
ses are unable to fully capture the essence of the occurrence. In this age
of highly advanced material characterization techniques and in-situ ex-
perimental equipment, the prospects of uncovering the mysteries of the
phenomenon are considerably high.
With the decreasing length scale, the incorporation of cutting size ef-
fects with the Rehbinder effect needs to be established. Besides grain
size effects, Chaudhari et al. [57] observed diminishing Rehbinder ef-
fects at lower cutting depths (~2 μm) that was reckoned to be the shift
in material removal mechanism from shearing to ploughing. Ploughing
occurs as a function of the ratio between the uncut chip thickness and
the tool edge radius, otherwise known as the relative tool sharpness
(RTS = t0/re) [20]. The importance of this consideration on the micro-
level becomes critical with cutting tools that are inherently never
sharp except for single crystal diamond tools that arrive with
nanometric cutting edges [110]. It is suggestive that the compressive ac-
tion of ploughing and the large change in material flow pattern inhibit
the manifestation of the Rehbinder effect. Meanwhile, it may be sug-
gested that lower cutting depths involved smaller volumes for disloca-
tion activity such that any macroscopic influence of the Rehbinder
effect is undetectable. Therefore, there is an important question to be
answered concerning the characteristic length scale, that is the depen-
dence of the material removal volume against the material flow type
on the manifestation of the Rehbinder effect.
The Rehbinder effect is not exclusive to metal cutting but a wide va-
riety of materials, such as minerals [210], polymers [211] and ceramics.
This is a critical area of research that has not been touched. The increas-
ing use of various ceramics and ionic crystals as engineering materials
for optics and semiconductors now share the same interest level with
metalworking in microfabrication. While vibration-assisted machining
(VAM) [212–215] and thermal-assisted machining (TAM) [216–220]
have been studied in the last few decades to enhance ductile-mode ma-
chining of brittle materials, the research on the physicochemical phe-
nomena on brittle material machining has been relatively limited and
isolated to quasi-static material characterization. Ion implantation of
brittle materials prior to ductile-mode machining may also involve
20 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
Fig. 28. Scanning electron microscope images of the machined surface quality on annealed copper (t0 = 10 μm, vc = 50 mm/min) [57].
physiochemical relationships, but has been mainly reported to be due to
irradiation damage [221].
An adsorption-locking phenomenon was proposed by Westwood
[55] where the adsorbate pins half-loop surface sources of dislocation
due to the interatomic bonds between the adsorbate molecules and
high-energy sites of dislocation emergence, particularly in lithium fluo-
ride (LiF). Fig. 29 depicts the proposed illustration by Westwood where
the adsorbed molecule inhibits the motion of the screw dislocation AB,
thereby increasing the necessary stress to break the bond. This returned
with an increase in yield point of LiF crystals that is a hardening effect.
Kochanova et al. [222] also reported a similar influence of various
surface-active media on LiF and explained the phenomenon as a compe-
tition between plasticizing and embrittlement. On one hand, the pres-
ence of the surfactant reduced the yield strength and hardening
coefficient of the crystal. On the other hand, the lowered surface energy
suggested reduced stresses necessary for microcrack propagation.
Quite the opposite occurs with CaF2 [223] and magnesium oxide
(MgO) [224,225] crystals, where enhanced dislocation mobility (i.e. ma-
terial softening) was described under hydrous environments. Buckley
[226] reported an increase in deformation resistance on the adsorbed
CaF2 surface in sliding tests under surface-active media, oleic acid and
dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). High plastic deformation was observed in
the inert aqueous environment of hexadecane, while the limited strain
in surface-active media resulted in subsurface microcracking in the ma-
terial. Water is also proved to inhibit plastic deformation, even though it
portrayed the lowest coefficient of friction during sliding.
Fig. 29. Illustration of the adsorption-locking phenomenon of adsorbate molecules at
emergent points of screw dislocations [55].
Although Rehbinder discouraged the association of WGL model with
the hypothesis for reduction in surface energy, Westwood et al. [227]
coined the physicochemical occurrences in both metals and ionic crys-
tals as chemomechanical effects, which can be defined as the observed
differences in the strength of solids in different solution environments
under the same loading conditions [228]. To this date, there lacks re-
search on the anhydrous cutting of brittle materials due to the inherent
challenges in fabricating the dehydrated environment for industrial ap-
plications. However, it is critical to understand the influence of the envi-
ronment humidity and the use of surface-active media on the
machinability of these brittle ionic crystals.
4.2. Surface coating
Machining pre-coated work materials is a novel method to enhance
cutting at this point and has only been covered on one brittle material.
However, the positive improvements in DBT along different crystallo-
graphic cutting directions suggest that the methodology should apply
to other materials that deform according to crystallographic relation-
ships. At this stage, it is clear that the modified machining process is
not fit for industrial adoption due to a lack of understanding of the fun-
damental relationships between the coating properties and the cutting
process. Critical problems that impede the likelihood of adoption in-
clude precise coating application, solidification time, and ineffectiveness
in cross-feed applications such as turning. Nevertheless, the findings of
this research are opportunistic in revealing the possible influence of a
surface film on the machining process, particularly in the case of unin-
tentional coating formation.
The case of applying a surfactant on the work material can be an in-
tentional alteration to material properties as described in earlier sec-
tions on chemisorption and the chemical reaction to form a modified
surface layer, but the formation of oxide films often goes unaccounted
for in micromachining.
Oxide layer formation can be both beneficial and disadvantageous in
material removal processes, depending on the hardness of the oxide
layer relative to the host material. In some cases, such as polishing of sil-
icon carbide (SiC), the reaction of SiC and the polishing liquid assists the
process through a continual formation and removal of the softer silica
oxide layer [229,230]. In most metals, the formation of an oxide layer
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
Table 2
Comparison of hardness between metals and their oxides [238].
Material Metal hardness (Hv) Oxide hardness (Hv)
Molybdenum 272 80
Tantalum 480 250
Copper 110 175
Niobium 157 280
Nickel 209 400
Lead 4 80
Aluminum 27 2000
Tin 7 650
exemplifies surface hardening, such as the formation of aluminum
oxide (i.e. alumina) [231]. The formation of oxide films on metals has
posed a great challenge in polishing by affecting the material removal
rates with the harder [232,233] and discontinuous layers of oxide
[234]. Table 2 presents the comparison of hardness between a metal
and its oxide. As the cutting length scale approaches the nanometric
range, the effects of these oxide layers should have considerable impli-
cations on machinability.
In general, oxides are investigated as a localized particle rather than
a film itself, requiring advanced techniques such as vibration-assisted
machining to address this issue in optical quality surface production
[235]. Inamura et al. [236] reported a great resistance to deformation
during microcutting of silicon owing it to the presence of SiO2. Plunge-
cut experiments on the silicon single crystals revealed higher ductile–
brittle transition (DBT) values without pre-oxidation of the surface
[237]. Interestingly, the discussion of oxide layers in microcutting has
never been considered.
The surface strengthening of metals through the formation of super-
ficial oxide layers on metals such as cadmium, zinc, and aluminum
[43,239,240] can be described to be dependent on the mechanical
strength of an oxide film, which affects the material responses to ap-
plied loads based on dislocation dynamics. Head [241] proposed a
model that determines the attractive and repulsive forces on screw dis-
locations under the influence of a surface film. This follows the differ-
ences in elastic constants that induce varying stress fields from
dislocation images across boundaries. It was suggested that a surface
film with a greater shear modulus than that of the metal would exert
long-range attraction and short-range repulsion forces on the near-
surface screw dislocations. Conners [242] provided a theoretical solu-
tion to explain the mechanical effect of thin films acting as barriers to
dislocation egression on the surface of metals. Forces on dislocation
lines (i.e. glide forces) indicated the tendencies for plastic flow, which
could be determined based on stress components evaluated at disloca-
tion locations in the metal. In the quantitative model, there exists an
Fig. 30. Surface film deformation scenarios: (a) film fracture and (b) film separation from
substrate surface [244].
21
equilibrium position where the attraction–repulsive transition occurs
as the dislocation approaches the interface.
The significance of these theories may manifest in the accelerated
motion of long-range dislocations towards the surface under applied
stress that is described to be a distance further away from the surface.
On the other hand, reduced dislocation spacing (i.e. pile-up) can be pre-
dicted as the dislocations approach the equilibrium position to cause
failure. As predicted by Grosskreutz [243], the equilibrium distance
away from the interface occurs in hundreds of nanometers. This corre-
sponds to the machining length scale of ultraprecision machining,
which corroborates the significance of the surface films on the machin-
ing performance.
In scenarios where a hard surface coating is desirable during
microcutting, the fracture mechanics of the coating must be considered
to ensure the adherence and mechanical operation of the surface film.
The theory of oxide fracture was elaborated by Grosskreutz and McNell
[244] to be dependent on the slip step evolution during deformation.
Two main scenarios may be considered during the formation of a slip
step in the substrate material that is the disability (Fig. 30(a)) and abil-
ity (Fig. 30(b)) for the coating to sustain the strain and stresses neces-
sary for interfacial separation [245].
An analytical model [244,246] was proposed to determine the frac-
ture outcome of the film by correlating the slip step angle relative to
the surface, and the mechanical properties of the surface film. The de-
tails of the model will not be described here given the relatively new
perspective of machining with surface films. However, the theory of
the surface film fracture mechanics based on bending may serve as
the foundation to determine the resistive stresses and sustainability of
the film during microcutting.
Particular attention should be paid to the natural phenomena of
oxide film generation on metals and metalloids. This consideration is
key when the intragranular dislocation activity plays a critical role in de-
termining the deformation characteristics of chip formation in the mi-
croscale. Moreover, the uneven distribution of an oxide layer on the
workpiece surface would demand a controlled oxidation process for ho-
mogeneity of work material during cutting.
5. Concluding remarks
An uncommon perspective of various surface effects involved in ma-
chining is critically reviewed. The collective survey has shown the great
potential for further research progress with the intentions of augment-
ing machining processes, particularly at the microscale. Although the
number of reports on such phenomena has declined towards the end
of the 20th century, the rejuvenation of studies in this area has been ini-
tiated and growing over the last decade. With the present-day techno-
logical advancements in material characterization and machining
capabilities with ultraprecision accuracies, it is opportunistic to revital-
ize the research in this field of surface effects. It is certain that the pres-
ence of a foreign particle or body on the surface of a work material will
influence its machinability. The understanding of the surface phenome-
non has never been so needful for precise control of the desired out-
come, as we advance from the micro-scale to the nano-scale dedicated
to ultraprecision machining.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yan Jin Lee:Formal analysis, Visualization, Writing - original draft.
Hao Wang:Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, Funding
acquisition.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
22 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
Acknowledgements
The financial supports from the Singapore Ministry of Education Ac-
ademic Research Fund Tier 1 (Grant No.: R-265-000-686-114) and AcRF
Tier 2 (Project No.: MOE2018-T2-1-140) are greatly appreciated.
References
[1] E.M. Trent, P.K. Wright, Metal Cutting, 4th ed. Butterworth-Heinemann,
2000https://doi.org/10.2298/SOS0401054U.
[2] D. Dornfield, D.-E. Lee, Introduction to precision manufacturing, in: D. Dornfeld, D.-
E. Lee (Eds.), Precis. Manuf, Springer US, Boston, MA 2008, pp. 1–33, https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-0-387-68208-2.
[3] N. Ikawa, R.R. Donaldson, R. Komanduri, W. König, T.H. Aachen, P.A. McKeown, T.
Moriwaki, I.F. Stowers, Ultraprecision metal cutting — the past, the present and
the future, CIRP Ann. 40 (1991) 587–594, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0007-8506
(07)61134-2.
[4] N. Taniguchi, Current status in, and future trends of, ultraprecision machining and
ultrafine materials processing, CIRP Ann. 32 (1983) 573–582, https://doi.org/10.
1016/S0007-8506(07)60185-1.
[5] A.Y. Yi, W. Lu, D.F. Farson, L.J. Lee, Overview of polymer micro/nanomanufacturing
for biomedical applications, Adv. Polym. Technol. 27 (2008) 188–198, https://doi.
org/10.1002/adv.20134.
[6] N.Y.J. Tan, X. Zhang, D.W.K. Neo, K. Liu, A.S. Kumar, Ultra-precision diamond shap-
ing of microchannels for microfluidic applications, 19th Int. Conf. Eur. Soc. Precis.
Eng. Nanotechnol., Bilbao, Spain 2019, pp. 358–361.
[7] J. Guo, J. Zhang, H. Wang, K. Liu, A.S. Kumar, Surface quality characterisation of dia-
mond cut V-groove structures made of rapidly solidified aluminium RSA-905, Precis.
Eng. 53 (2018) 120–133, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2018.03.004.
[8] Y.-C. Cheng, W.-Y. Hsu, K. Abou-El-Hossein, O. Olufayo, T. Otieno, Investigation of
diamond turning: of rapidly solidified aluminum alloys, Proc.SPIE, 2014https://
doi.org/10.1117/12.2060176.
[9] T. Otieno, K. Abou-El-Hossein, W.Y. Hsu, Y.C. Cheng, Z. Mkoko, Surface roughness
when diamond turning RSA 905 optical aluminium, Proc.SPIE, 2015https://doi.
org/10.1117/12.2185470.
[10] K. Cheng, D. Huo, Micro-cutting: Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd, West Sussex, 2013https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118536605.
[11] S.S. To, H. Wang, W.B. Lee, Factors influencing machined surface quality, Mater.
Characterisation Mech. Micro-cutting Ultra-precision Diam. Turn, Springer Nature,
Berlin, Germany 2018, pp. 7–20, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-54823-3.
[12] S. Venkatachalam, O. Fergani, X. Li, J. Guo Yang, K.-N. Chiang, S.Y. Liang, Microstruc-
ture effects on cutting forces and flow stress in ultra-precision machining of poly-
crystalline brittle materials, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 137 (2015) 021020-1–8, https://doi.
org/10.1115/1.4029648.
[13] A. Simoneau, E. Ng, M.A. Elbestawi, Grain size and orientation effects when
microcutting AISI 1045 steel, CIRP Ann. 56 (2007) 57–60, https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.cirp.2007.05.016.
[14] C.H. Lauro, L.C. Brandão, D. Carou, J.P. Davim, Specific cutting energy employed to
study the influence of the grain size in the micro-milling of the hardened AISI
H13 steel, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 81 (2015) 1591–1599, https://doi.org/10.
1007/s00170-015-7321-x.
[15] J. Grum, M. Kisin, Influence of microstructure on surface integrity in turning - part
II: the influence of a microstructure of the workpiece material on cutting forces,
Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 43 (2003) 1545–1551, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0890-
6955(03)00200-1.
[16] F. Fang, F. Xu, Recent advances in micro/nano-cutting: effect of tool edge and ma-
terial properties, Nanomanufacturing Metrol 1 (2018) 4–31, https://doi.org/10.
1007/s41871-018-0005-z.
[17] A. Aramcharoen, P.T. Mativenga, Size effect and tool geometry in micromilling of
tool steel, Precis. Eng. 33 (2009) 402–407, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.
2008.11.002.
[18] X. Wu, L. Li, N. He, C. Yao, M. Zhao, Influence of the cutting edge radius and the ma-
terial grain size on the cutting force in micro cutting, Precis. Eng. 45 (2016)
359–364, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2016.03.012.
[19] K. Liu, S.N. Melkote, Finite element analysis of the influence of tool edge radius on
size effect in orthogonal micro-cutting process, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 49 (2007)
650–660, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2006.09.012.
[20] M.A. Rahman, M.R. Amrun, M. Rahman, A.S. Kumar, Variation of surface generation
mechanisms in ultra-precision machining due to relative tool sharpness (RTS) and
material properties, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 115 (2017) 15–28, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2016.11.003.
[21] K. Yang, Y. Liang, K. Zheng, Q. Bai, W. Chen, Tool edge radius effect on cutting tem-
perature in micro-end-milling process, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 52 (2011)
905–912, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-010-2795-z.
[22] M.A. Rahman, M. Rahman, A.S. Kumar, Influence of relative tool sharpness (RTS) on
different ultra-precision machining regimes of Mg alloy, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
96 (2018) 3545–3563, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-1599-4.
[23] M.A. Rahman, K.S. Woon, V.C. Venkatesh, M. Rahman, Modelling of the combined
microstructural and cutting edge effects in ultraprecision machining, CIRP Ann.
67 (2018) 129–132, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2018.03.019.
[24] J.S. Wang, Y.D. Gong, G. Abba, K. Chen, J.S. Shi, G.Q. Cai, Surface generation analysis
in micro end-milling considering the influences of grain, Microsyst. Technol. 14
(2008) 937–942, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00542-007-0478-y.
[25] E. Brinksmeier, D. Meyer, A.G. Huesmann-Cordes, C. Herrmann, Metalworking
fluids—mechanisms and performance, CIRP Ann. 64 (2015) 605–628, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.cirp.2015.05.003.
[26] P.G. Fox, Mechanically initiated chemical reactions in solids, J. Mater. Sci. 10 (1975)
340–360, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00540358.
[27] V. Godlevskiy, 1 - mechanisms of action of metalworking fluids in metal cutting, in:
V.P. Astakhov, S.B.T. Joksch (Eds.), Metalwork. Fluids Cut. Grind, Woodhead Pub-
lishing Limited, Cambridge, UK 2012, pp. 1–22, https://doi.org/10.1533/
9780857095305.1.
[28] T. Moriwaki, A. Horiuchi, K. Okuda, Effect of cutting heat on machining accuracy in
ultra-precision diamond turning, CIRP Ann. 39 (1990) 81–84, https://doi.org/10.
1016/S0007-8506(07)61007-5.
[29] M.B.G. Jun, S.S. Joshi, R.E. DeVor, S.G. Kapoor, An experimental evaluation of an
atomization-based cutting fluid application system for micromachining, J. Manuf.
Sci. Eng. 130 (2008) 031118-1–8, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2738961.
[30] M.H. Sadeghi, M.J. Haddad, T. Tawakoli, M. Emami, Minimal quantity lubrication-
MQL in grinding of Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 44
(2009) 487–500, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-008-1857-y.
[31] A. Devillez, G. Le Coz, S. Dominiak, D. Dudzinski, Dry machining of Inconel 718,
workpiece surface integrity, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 211 (2011) 1590–1598,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2011.04.011.
[32] W.-T. Huang, D.-H. Wu, J.-T. Chen, Robust design of using nanofluid/MQL in micro-
drilling, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 85 (2016) 2155–2161, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00170-015-7382-x.
[33] G. Boothroyd, Temperatures in orthogonal metal cutting, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 177
(1963) 789–810, https://doi.org/10.1243/PIME_PROC_1963_177_058_02.
[34] T. Childs, K. Maekawa, T. Obikawa, Y. Yamane, Metal Machining: Theory and Appli-
cations, Elsevier Ltd, Co-published by John Wiley & Sons Inc, Oxford, New York,
2000https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-23990-0.
[35] C.Y. Chan, W.B. Lee, H. Wang, Enhancement of surface finish using water-miscible
nano-cutting fluid in ultra-precision turning, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 73 (2013)
62–70, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2013.06.006.
[36] L. DeChiffre, Lubrication in cutting—critical review and experiments with restricted
contact tools, A S L E Trans 24 (1981) 340–344, https://doi.org/10.1080/
05698198108983030.
[37] I.R. Kramer, The effect of surface-active agents on the mechanical behavior of alu-
minum single crystals, Trans. AIME 221 (1961) 989–993.
[38] V.I. Kryuk, V.S. Kortov, R.I. Mints, The exoelectronic emission of germanium and sil-
icon, Sov. Phys. J. 11 (1968) 70–72, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00820481.
[39] G. Kanzler, Zur frage der elektronennach- und induzierten photoemission von ger-
manium und silizium, Zeitschrift Für Phys 164 (1961) 120–125, https://doi.org/10.
1007/BF01377655.
[40] K. Seeger, Verzögerte elektronenemission und äußerer photoeffekt von germa-
nium nach elektronenbeschuß, Zeitschrift Für Phys 149 (1957) 453–470, https://
doi.org/10.1007/BF01327054.
[41] L. Grunberg, A survey of exo-electron emission phenomena, Br. J. Appl. Phys. 9
(1958) 85–93, https://doi.org/10.1088/0508-3443/9/3/301.
[42] R. Roscoe, XXXII. The plastic deformation of cadmium single-crystals, London, Ed-
inburgh, Dublin, Philos. Mag. J. Sci. 21 (1936) 399–406, https://doi.org/10.1080/
14786443608561592.
[43] S. Harper, A.H. Cottrell, Surface effects and the plasticity of zinc crystals, Proc. Phys.
Soc. Sect. B. 63 (1950) 331–338, https://doi.org/10.1088/0370-1301/63/5/303.
[44] D.H. Buckley, Effect of surface films on deformation of zinc single-crystal surface
during sliding, A S L E Trans 15 (1972) 96–102, https://doi.org/10.1080/
05698197208981406.
[45] T. Evans, D.R. Schwarzenberger, The effect of surface films on the slip of substrates,
Philos. Mag. A J. Theor. Exp. Appl. Phys. 4 (1959) 889–898, https://doi.org/10.1080/
14786435908238263.
[46] I.R. Kramer, Comment on “effect of applied potential and surface dissolution on the
creep behavior of copper”, Scr. Metall. 8 (1974) 1231–1233, https://doi.org/10.
1016/0036-9748(74)90336-6.
[47] A.F. Joffe, Physics of Crystals, McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc, London, 1928.
[48] J. Dunning, B. Douglas, M. Miller, S. McDonald, The role of the chemical environ-
ment in frictional deformation: stress corrosion cracking and comminution, Pure
Appl. Geophys. 143 (1994) 151–178, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00874327.
[49] S. Mendelson, Role of surfaces in plastic flow of NaCl single crystals. II, J. Appl. Phys.
33 (1962) 2182–2186, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1728924.
[50] D.H. Buckley, Chapter 9 effect of surface films on the mechanical behavior of solid
surfaces, in: D.H. Buckley (Ed.), Surf. Eff. Adhes. Frict. Wear, Lubr, Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company, New York 1981, pp. 553–567, https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0167-8922(08)70682-5.
[51] E.D. Shchukin, Y.V. Goryunov, N.V. Pertsov, L.S. Bryukhanova, Development of in-
vestigations of the adsorption reduction of the strength of solids in the works of
P. A. Rebinder and his school, Sov. Mater. Sci. a Transl. Fiz. Mekhanika Mater./
Acad. Sci. Ukr. SSR. 14 (1978) 341–346, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01154708.
[52] P.A. Rehbinder, New physico-chemical phenomena in the deformation and me-
chanical treatment of solids, Nature 159 (1947) 866–867, https://doi.org/10.
1038/160650a0.
[53] P.A. Rehbinder, E.D. Shchukin, Surface phenomena in solids during deformation
and fracture processes, Prog. Surf. Sci. 3 (1972) 97–188, https://doi.org/10.1016/
0079-6816(72)90011-1.
[54] E.N.D.C. Andrade, R.F.Y. Randall, The rehbinder effect, Nature 164 (1949) 1127,
https://doi.org/10.1038/1641127a0.
[55] A.R.C. Westwood, The rebinder effect and the adsorption-locking of dislocations in
lithium fluoride, Philos. Mag. 7 (1962) 633–649, https://doi.org/10.1080/
14786436208212629.
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
[56] J. Ferrante, Exoelectron emission from a clean, annealed magnesium single crystal
during oxygen adsorption, A S L E Trans 20 (1977) 328–332, https://doi.org/10.
1080/05698197708982851.
[57] A. Chaudhari, Z.Y. Soh, H. Wang, A.S. Kumar, Rehbinder effect in ultraprecision ma-
chining of ductile materials, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 133 (2018) 47–60, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2018.05.009.
[58] K. Viswanathan, A. Udupa, H. Yeung, D. Sagapuram, J.B. Mann, M. Saei, S.
Chandrasekar, On the stability of plastic flow in cutting of metals, CIRP Ann. 66
(2017) 69–72, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2017.04.027.
[59] A. Udupa, K. Viswanathan, M. Saei, J.B. Mann, S. Chandrasekar, Material-
independent mechanochemical effect in the deformation of highly-strain-
hardening metals, Phys. Rev. Appl. 10 (2018) 1, https://doi.org/10.1103/
PhysRevApplied.10.014009.
[60] H. Yeung, K. Viswanathan, W.D. Compton, S. Chandrasekar, Sinuous flow in metals,
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112 (2015) 9828–9832, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.
1509165112.
[61] A. Chaudhari, H. Wang, Effect of surface-active media on chip formation in
micromachining, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 271 (2019) 325–335, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.04.011.
[62] M.C. Shaw, On the action of metal cutting fluids at low speeds, Wear. 2 (1958)
217–227, https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(59)90006-7.
[63] E.M. Kohn, Role of extreme pressure lubricants in boundary lubrication and in
metal cutting, Nature 197 (1963) 895, https://doi.org/10.1038/197895a0.
[64] E.M. Kohn, A theory on the role of lubricants in metal cutting at low speeds and in
boundary lubrication, Wear 8 (1965) 43–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648
(65)90250-4.
[65] E. Usui, A. Gujral, M.C. Shaw, An experimental study of the action of CCl4 in cutting
and other processes involving plastic flow, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. 1 (1961)
187–197, https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7357(61)90002-6.
[66] P.L. Barlow, Rehbinder effect in lubricated metal cutting, Nature 211 (1966)
1076–1077, https://doi.org/10.1038/2111076a0.
[67] V.P. Astakhov, Tribology of Metal Cutting, Elsevier Ltd, Oxford, 2006.
[68] A.I. Malkin, Regularities and mechanisms of the Rehbinder’s effect, Colloid J 74
(2012) 223–238, https://doi.org/10.1134/S1061933X12020068.
[69] A. Udupa, K. Viswanathan, Y. Ho, S. Chandrasekar, The cutting of metals via plastic
buckling, Proc. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 473 (2017), 20160863. https://doi.
org/10.1098/rspa.2016.0863.
[70] E.O. Hall, The deformation and ageing of mild steel: III discussion of results, Proc.
Phys. Soc. Sect. B. 64 (1951) 747–753, https://doi.org/10.1088/0370-1301/64/9/
303.
[71] N.J. Petch, The cleavage strength of polycrystals, J. Iron Steel Inst. 174 (1953)
25–28.
[72] G.K. Williamson, R.E. Smallman, III. Dislocation densities in some annealed and
cold-worked metals from measurements on the X-ray debye-scherrer spectrum,
Philos. Mag. A J. Theor. Exp. Appl. Phys. 1 (1956) 34–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/
14786435608238074.
[73] H. Wang, S. To, C.Y. Chan, C.F. Cheung, W.B. Lee, Elastic strain induced shear bands
in the microcutting process, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 50 (2010) 9–18, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2009.10.002.
[74] J. Barry, G. Byrne, D. Lennon, Observations on chip formation and acoustic emission
in machining Ti–6Al–4V alloy, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 41 (2001) 1055–1070,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0890-6955(00)00096-1.
[75] J.T. Black, Flow stress model in metal cutting, J. Eng. Ind. 101 (1979) 403–415,
https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3439527.
[76] J. Chae, S.S. Park, T. Freiheit, Investigation of micro-cutting operations, Int. J. Mach.
Tools Manuf. 46 (2006) 313–332, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2005.05.
015.
[77] Z. Shi, Q. Zhao, H. Wang, J. Chen, T. Jin, T. Ji, On the effect of grain structure in micro-
cutting of polycrystalline aluminate magnesium spinel (PAMS) crystals, Int. J.
Mech. Sci. 160 (2019) 372–385, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2019.07.003.
[78] Z. Shi, H. Wang, Q. Zhao, T. Ji, Y. Wang, Y. Pan, B. Guo, Damage mechanisms of poly-
crystalline aluminate magnesium spinel (PAMS) under different loading condi-
tions of indentation and micro-cutting tests, Ceram. Int. 46 (2019) 7235–7252,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.11.218.
[79] T.H.C. Childs, G.W. Rowe, Physics in metal cutting, Reports Prog. Phys. 36 (1973)
223–288, https://doi.org/10.1088/0034-4885/36/3/001.
[80] D.V. Wilson, J.A. Chapman, Effects of preferred orientation on the grain size depen-
dence of yield strength in metals, Philos. Mag. A J. Theor. Exp. Appl. Phys. 8 (1963)
1543–1551, https://doi.org/10.1080/14786436308207317.
[81] M.A. Meyersm, E. Ashworth, A model for the effect of grain size on the yield stress
of metals, Philos. Mag. A. 46 (1982) 737–759, https://doi.org/10.1080/
01418618208236928.
[82] J.S. Hayes, R. Keyte, P.B. Prangnell, Effect of grain size on tensile behaviour of a
submicron grained Al–3 wt-%Mg alloy produced by severe deformation,
Mater. Sci. Technol. 16 (2000) 1259–1263, https://doi.org/10.1179/
026708300101507479.
[83] W.B. Lee, C.F. Cheung, S. To, Characteristics of microcutting force variation in ultra-
precision diamond turning, Mater. Manuf. Process. 16 (2001) 177–193, https://doi.
org/10.1081/AMP-100104299.
[84] X. Wu, L. Li, N. He, M. Zhao, Z. Zhan, Investigation on the influence of material mi-
crostructure on cutting force and bur formation in the micro cutting of copper, Int.
J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 79 (2015) 321–327, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-
6828-5.
[85] H. Conrad, Grain-size dependence of the flow stress of Cu from millimeters to
nanometers, Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 35 (2004) 2681–2695, https://doi.org/10.
1007/s11661-004-0214-5.
23
[86] M.G. Nicholas, C.F. Old, Liquid metal embrittlement, J. Mater. Sci. 14 (1979) 1–18,
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01028323.
[87] S.P. Lynch, Mechanisms and kinetics of environmentally assisted cracking: current
status, issues, and suggestions for further work, Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 44 (2013)
1209–1229, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-012-1359-2.
[88] E. D. Shchukin, Physical–chemical mechanics in the studies of Peter A. Rehbinder
and his school, Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 149 (1999) 529–537,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-7757(98)00607-4.
[89] T. Kaneeda, Spreading effect in ductile metal cutting, Seventh Int. Conf. Prod. Eng.
4th Int. Conf. High Technol., Elsevier, Chiba, Japan 1994, pp. 385–390, https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-444-81901-7.50078-5.
[90] R.W. Mould, H.B. Silver, R.J. Syrett, Investigations of the activity of cutting oil addi-
tives II. Organochlorine containing compounds, Wear 22 (1972) 269–286, https://
doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(72)90280-3.
[91] Y.J. Lee, J.Y. Chong, A. Chaudhari, H. Wang, Enhancing ductile-mode cutting of cal-
cium fluoride single crystals with solidified coating, Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf.
Technol. (2019) https://doi.org/10.1007/s40684-019-00126-0.
[92] A.R. Zareena, S.C. Veldhuis, Tool wear mechanisms and tool life enhancement in
ultra-precision machining of titanium, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 212 (2012)
560–570, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2011.10.014.
[93] V.P. Astakhov, J.P. Davim, Tools (geometry and material) and tool wear, in: J.P.
Davim (Ed.), Mach. Fundam. Recent Adv, Springer-Verlag London Limited,
London 2008, pp. 29–57, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84800-213-5_2.
[94] J. Dosbaeva, G. Fox-Rabinovich, J. Dasch, S. Veldhuis, Enhancement of wet- and
MQL-based machining of automotive alloys using cutting tools with DLC/polymer
surface treatments, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 17 (2008) 346–351, https://doi.org/10.
1007/s11665-008-9209-5.
[95] M. Lahres, P. Müller-Hummel, O. Doerfel, Applicability of different hard coatings in
dry milling aluminium alloys, Surf. Coatings Technol. 91 (1997) 116–121, https://
doi.org/10.1016/S0257-8972(96)03121-0.
[96] P.E. Hovsepian, Q. Luo, G. Robinson, M. Pittman, M. Howarth, D. Doerwald, R.
Tietema, W.M. Sim, A. Deeming, T. Zeus, TiAlN/VN superlattice structured PVD
coatings: a new alternative in machining of aluminium alloys for aerospace and
automotive components, Surf. Coatings Technol. 201 (2006) 265–272, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2005.11.106.
[97] M. Nouari, G. List, F. Girot, D. Coupard, Experimental analysis and optimisation of
tool wear in dry machining of aluminium alloys, Wear 255 (2003) 1359–1368,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1648(03)00105-4.
[98] E. Brinksmeier, R. Gläbe, Advances in precision machining of steel, CIRP Ann. 50
(2001) 385–388, https://doi.org/10.1080/713819805.
[99] Z.J. Li, F.Z. Fang, H. Gong, X.D. Zhang, Review of diamond-cutting ferrous metals,
Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 68 (2013) 1717–1731, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00170-013-4970-5.
[100] Z.J. Li, F.Z. Fang, H. Gong, X.D. Zhang, Effects of surface modifications on steel’s ma-
chinability in single-point diamond turning, Int. J. Precis. Technol. 3 (2013)
105–116, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPTECH.2013.053299.
[101] J.M. Casstevens, C.E. Daugherty, Diamond turning optical surfaces on electroless
nickel, Proc. SPIE 0159, Precis. Mach. Opt, 1978https://doi.org/10.1117/12.956844.
[102] C.K. Syn, J.S. Taylor, R.R. Donaldson, Diamond tool wear vs. cutting distance on elec-
troless nickel mirrors, Proc. SPIE 0676, Ultraprecis. Mach. Autom. Fabr. Opt,
1987https://doi.org/10.1117/12.939527.
[103] A. Pramanik, K.S. Neo, M. Rahman, X.P. Li, M. Sawa, Y. Maeda, Cutting performance
of diamond tools during ultra-precision turning of electroless-nickel plated die ma-
terials, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 140 (2003) 308–313, https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0924-0136(03)00751-9.
[104] K. Liu, H. Wang, X. Zhang, Ductile Mode Cutting of Brittle Materials, Springer
Nature Singapore, Singapore, 2020https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-
9836-1.
[105] F.Z. Fang, V.C. Venkatesh, Diamond cutting of silicon with nanometric finish, CIRP
Ann. 47 (1998) 45–49, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0007-8506(07)62782-6.
[106] X. Gu, H. Wang, Q. Zhao, J. Xue, B. Guo, Effect of cutting tool geometries on the
ductile-brittle transition of monocrystalline sapphire, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 148 (2018)
565–577, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2018.09.015.
[107] H. Wang, A. Senthil Kumar, O. Riemer, On the theoretical foundation for the
microcutting of calcium fluoride single crystals at elevated temperatures, Proc.
Inst. Mech. Eng. Part B J. Eng. Manuf. 232 (2018) 1123–1129, https://doi.org/10.
1177/0954405416666907.
[108] X. Chen, J. Xu, H. Fang, R. Tian, Influence of cutting parameters on the ductile-brittle
transition of single-crystal calcium fluoride during ultra-precision cutting, Int. J.
Adv. Manuf. Technol. 89 (2017) 219–225, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-
9063-9.
[109] J. Yan, T. Asami, H. Harada, T. Kuriyagawa, Crystallographic effect on subsurface
damage formation in silicon microcutting, CIRP Ann. 61 (2012) 131–134, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2012.03.070.
[110] H. Wang, O. Riemer, K. Rickens, E. Brinksmeier, On the mechanism of asymmetric
ductile-brittle transition in microcutting of (111) CaF2 single crystals, Scr. Mater.
114 (2016) 21–26, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2015.11.030.
[111] X. Guo, Y. Wei, Z. Jin, D. Guo, W. Maosen, A numerical model for optical glass cut-
ting based on SPH method, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 68 (2013) 1277–1283,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-013-4919-8.
[112] K. Liu, X. Li, S.Y. Liang, X. Dong Liu, Nanometer-scale, ductile-mode cutting of soda-
lime glass, J. Manuf. Process. 7 (2005) 95–101, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1526-
6125(05)70086-4.
[113] P.W. Bridgman, Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on the plastic properties of
metals, Rev. Mod. Phys. 17 (1945) 3–14, https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.17.
3.
24 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
[114] P.W. Bridgman, The effect of hydrostatic pressure on plastic flow under shearing
stress, J. Appl. Phys. 17 (1946) 692–698, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1707772.
[115] H. Wang, S. To, C.Y. Chan, C.F. Cheung, W.B. Lee, A study of regularly spaced shear
bands and morphology of serrated chip formation in microcutting process, Scr.
Mater. 63 (2010) 227–230, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2010.03.059.
[116] K.D. Pae, S.K. Bhateja, The effects of hydrostatic pressure on the mechanical behav-
ior of polymers, J. Macromol. Sci. Part C. 13 (1975) 1–75, https://doi.org/10.1080/
15321797508068145.
[117] H.L.D. Pugh, E.F. Chandler, L. Holliday, J. Mann, The effect of hydrostatic pressure on
the tensile properties of plastics, Polym. Eng. Sci. 11 (1971) 463–473, https://doi.
org/10.1002/pen.760110605.
[118] M. Sakata, T. Okubo, An experimental study on the deformation of materials under
high hydrostatic pressures: 1st report, on the deformation of cylinders under inter-
nal and external pressures, Bull. JSME. 13 (1970) 1059–1065, https://doi.org/10.
1299/jsme1958.13.1059.
[119] M. Sakata, S. Aoki, T. Tsujimoto, An experimental study on the deformation of ma-
terials under high hydrostatic pressures: 2nd report, on torsional deformation,
Bull. JSME. 14 (1971) 737–744, https://doi.org/10.1299/jsme1958.14.737.
[120] P.W. Bridgman, The effect of hydrostatic pressure on the fracture of brittle sub-
stances, J. Appl. Phys. 18 (1947) 246–258, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1697610.
[121] M. Yoshino, T. Aoki, T. Shirakashi, R. Komanduri, Some experiments on the
scratching of silicon: in situ scratching inside an SEM and scratching under high
external hydrostatic pressures, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 43 (2001) 335–347, https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0020-7403(00)00019-9.
[122] M. Yoshino, T. Aoki, T. Sugishima, T. Shirakashi, Scratching test on hard-brittle ma-
terials under high hydrostatic pressure, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 123 (2001) 231–239,
https://doi.org/10.2493/jjspe.65.1481.
[123] M. Yoshino, Y. Ogawa, S. Aravindan, Machining of hard-brittle materials by a single
point tool under external hydrostatic pressure, J. Mater. Sci. Eng. 127 (2005)
837–845, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2035695.
[124] E.K. Antwi, K. Liu, H. Wang, A review on ductile mode cutting of brittle materials,
Front. Mech. Eng. 13 (2018) 251–263, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11465-018-0504-
z.
[125] P.S. Sreejith, Machining force studies on ductile machining of silicon nitride, J.
Mater. Process. Technol. 169 (2005) 414–417, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmatprotec.2005.04.092.
[126] T. Nakasuji, S. Kodera, S. Hara, N. Ikawa, Diamond turning of brittle materials for
optical components, CIRP Ann. 39 (1994) 89–92, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0007-
8506(07)61009-9.
[127] T. He, K. Liu, X.P. Li, M. Rahman, A Method of Atomic Dynamic Modeling for
Nanometric Ductile Cutting of Silicon Wafer Material, in: Int, Conf. Precis. Eng,
Singapore, 2004 409–417.
[128] K. Liu, H. Wang, X. Zhang, Molecular dynamics simulation of ductile mode cutting, in:
K. Liu, H. Wang, X. Zhang (Eds.), Ductile Mode Cut. Brittle Mater, Springer Singapore,
Singapore 2020, pp. 75–99, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9836-1_5.
[129] M. Sakata, S. Aoki, Torsional strength of glass under hydrostatic pressure, J. Eng.
Mater. Technol. 95 (1973) 83–86, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3443136.
[130] S.B. Ainbinder, Effect of hydrostatic pressure on the strength properties of polymer
materials, Polym. Mech. 5 (1969) 382–386, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00855157.
[131] S. Rabinowitz, I.M. Ward, J.S.C. Parry, The effect of hydrostatic pressure on the shear
yield behaviour of polymers, J. Mater. Sci. 5 (1970) 29–39, https://doi.org/10.1007/
BF02427181.
[132] Y.G. Gogotsi, A. Kailer, K.G. Nickel, Transformation of diamond to graphite, Nature
401 (1999) 663–664, https://doi.org/10.1038/44323.
[133] A. Kailer, Y.G. Gogotsi, K.G. Nickel, Phase transformations of silicon caused by con-
tact loading, J. Appl. Phys. 81 (1997) 3057–3063, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.
364340.
[134] A.P. Gerk, D. Tabor, Indentation hardness and semiconductor–metal transition of
germanium and silicon, Nature 271 (1978) 732–733, https://doi.org/10.1038/
271732a0.
[135] K.J. Kingma, C. Meade, R.J. Hemley, H. Mao, D.R. Veblen, Microstructural observa-
tions of α-quartz amorphization, Science 259 (1993) 666–669, https://doi.org/
10.1126/science.259.5095.66680-.
[136] V. Domnich, Y. Gogotsi, 5. High-pressure surface science, Exp. Methods Phys. Sci.
38 (2001) 355–445, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1079-4042(01)80052-7.
[137] B.V. Tanikella, A.H. Somasekhar, A.T. Sowers, R.J. Nemanich, R.O. Scattergood, Phase
transformations during microcutting tests on silicon, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69 (1996)
2870–2872, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.117346.
[138] J. Yan, T. Asami, H. Harada, T. Kuriyagawa, Fundamental investigation of subsurface
damage in single crystalline silicon caused by diamond machining, Precis. Eng. 33
(2009) 378–386, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2008.10.008.
[139] M. Zhou, X.J. Wang, B.K.A. Ngoi, J.G.K. Gan, Brittle-ductile transition in the diamond
cutting of glasses with the aid of ultrasonic vibration, J. Mater. Process. Technol.
121 (2002) 243–251, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(01)01262-6.
[140] P. Dahlman, F. Gunnberg, M. Jacobson, The influence of rake angle, cutting feed and
cutting depth on residual stresses in hard turning, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 147
(2004) 181–184, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matprotec.2003.12.014.
[141] S.-M. Jeong, H.-S. Oh, S.-E. Park, H.-L. Lee, Phase transformation of single crystalline
silicon by scratching, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 42 (2003) 2773–2774, https://doi.org/10.
1143/jjap.42.2773.
[142] T. Juliano, Y. Gogotsi, V. Domnich, Effect of indentation unloading conditions on
phase transformation induced events in silicon, J. Mater. Res. 18 (2003)
1192–1201, https://doi.org/10.1557/JMR.2003.0164.
[143] A.B. Mann, D. van Heerden, J.B. Pethica, P. Bowes, T.P. Weihs, Contact resistance
and phase transformations during nanoindentation of silicon, Philos. Mag. A. 82
(2002) 1921–1929, https://doi.org/10.1080/01418610208235704.
[144] J.E. Bradby, J.S. Williams, J. Wong-Leung, M.V. Swain, P. Munroe, Mechanical defor-
mation in silicon by micro-indentation, J. Mater. Res. 16 (2001) 1500–1507,
https://doi.org/10.1557/JMR.2001.0209.
[145] J. Yan, Laser micro-Raman spectroscopy of single-point diamond machined silicon
substrates, J. Appl. Phys. 95 (2004) 2094–2101, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1639953.
[146] J.C. Morris, D.L. Callahan, Origins of microplasticity in low-load scratching of silicon,
J. Mater. Res. 9 (1994) 2907–2913, https://doi.org/10.1557/JMR.1994.2907.
[147] Z. Li, X. Zhang, Subsurface deformation of germanium in ultra-precision cutting:
characterization of micro-Raman spectroscopy, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 91
(2017) 213–225, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-9749-z.
[148] S. Johansson, J. Schweitz, Contact damage in single-crystalline silicon investigated
by cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 71
(1988) 617–623, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1988.tb06378.x.
[149] Y. Mizumoto, H. Amano, H. Kangawa, K. Harano, H. Sumiya, Y. Kakinuma, On the
improvement of subsurface quality of CaF2 single crystal machined by boron-
doped nano-polycrystalline diamond tools, Precis. Eng. 52 (2018) 73–83, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2017.11.005.
[150] Y. Mizumoto, H. Kangawa, H. Itobe, T. Tanabe, Y. Kakinuma, Influence of crystal an-
isotropy on subsurface damage in ultra-precision cylindrical turning of CaF2, Precis.
Eng. 49 (2017) 104–114, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2017.01.017.
[151] Y. Kakinuma, S. Azami, T. Tanabe, Evaluation of subsurface damage caused by ultra-
precision turning in fabrication of CaF2 optical micro resonator, CIRP Ann. 64
(2015) 117–120, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2015.04.076.
[152] T.-H. Tan, J. Yan, Atomic-scale characterization of subsurface damage and structural
changes of single-crystal silicon carbide subjected to electrical discharge machin-
ing, Acta Mater. 123 (2017) 362–372, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.10.
045.
[153] Y. Mizumoto, H. Kangawa, Y. Nakagawa, H. Itobe, T. Tanabe, Y. Kakinuma, Influence
of nose radius on surface integrity in ultra-precision cylindrical turning of single-
crystal calcium fluoride, Procedia CIRP 45 (2016) 139–142, https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.procir.2016.02.075.
[154] J.F.W. Bishop, R. Hill, XLVI. A theory of the plastic distortion of a polycrystalline ag-
gregate under combined stresses., London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Philos. Mag. J. Sci. 42
(1951) 414–427, https://doi.org/10.1080/14786445108561065.
[155] Z.J. Yuan, W.B. Lee, Y.X. Yao, M. Zhou, Effect of crystallographic orientation on cut-
ting forces and surface quality in diamond cutting of single crystal, CIRP Ann. 43
(1994) 39–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0007-8506(07)62159-3.
[156] W.B. Lee, M. Zhou, A theoretical analysis of the effect of crystallographic orienta-
tion on chip formation in micromachining, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 33 (1993)
439–447, https://doi.org/10.1016/0890-6955(93)90050-5.
[157] W.B. Lee, C.F. Cheung, S. To, A microplasticity analysis of micro-cutting force vari-
ation in ultra-precision diamond turning, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 124 (2002) 170–177,
https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1454108.
[158] P. Kaitkay, S. Lei, Experimental study of rock cutting under external hydrostatic
pressure, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 159 (2005) 206–213, https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jmatprotec.2004.04.418.
[159] P.S. Sreejith, B.K.A. Ngoi, Material removal mechanisms in precision machining of
new materials, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 41 (2001) 1831–1843, https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0890-6955(01)00014-1.
[160] R. Komanduri, N. Chandrasekaran, L.M. Raff, Some aspects of machining with
negative-rake tools simulating grinding: a molecular dynamics simulation ap-
proach, Philos. Mag. B 79 (1999) 955–968, https://doi.org/10.1080/
13642819908214852.
[161] Y. Ohbuchi, T. Obikawa, Surface generation model in grinding with effect of grain
shape and cutting speed, JSME Int. J. Ser. C Mech. Syst. Mach. Elem. Manuf. 49
(2006) 114–120, https://doi.org/10.1299/jsmec.49.114.
[162] K. Liu, X.P. Li, S.Y. Liang, The mechanism of ductile chip formation in cutting of brit-
tle materials, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 33 (2007) 875–884, https://doi.org/10.
1007/s00170-006-0531-5.
[163] Y. Kita, M. Ido, N. Kawasaki, A study of metal flow ahead of tool face with large neg-
ative rake angle, J. Eng. Ind. 104 (1982) 319–325, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.
3185836.
[164] D.A. Doman, A. Warkentin, R. Bauer, Finite element modeling approaches in grind-
ing, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 49 (2009) 109–116, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijmachtools.2008.10.002.
[165] T. Akiyama, T. Kishinami, K. Saito, K. Hoshi, A study of the orthogonal cutting
mechanism by controlled shear angle experiments, Mem. Fac. Eng. Hokkaido
Univ. 14 (1975) 13–20.
[166] T.L. Brown, C. Saldana, T.G. Murthy, J.B. Mann, Y. Guo, L.F. Allard, A.H. King, W.D.
Compton, K.P. Trumble, S. Chandrasekar, A study of the interactive effects of strain,
strain rate and temperature in severe plastic deformation of copper, Acta Mater. 57
(2009) 5491–5500, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2009.07.052.
[167] L.S. Tóth, Texture evolution in severe plastic deformation by equal channel angular
extrusion, Adv. Eng. Mater. 5 (2003) 308–316, https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.
200310084.
[168] D.H. Shin, B.C. Kim, K.-T. Park, W.Y. Choo, Microstructural changes in equal channel
angular pressed low carbon steel by static annealing, Acta Mater. 48 (2000)
3245–3252, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6454(00)00090-2.
[169] V.M. Segal, Materials processing by simple shear, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 197 (1995)
157–164, https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-5093(95)09705-8.
[170] G. Faraji, M.M. Mashhadi, H.S. Kim, Tubular channel angular pressing (TCAP) as a
novel severe plastic deformation method for cylindrical tubes, Mater. Lett. 65
(2011) 3009–3012, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2011.06.039.
[171] C. Wang, F. Li, L. Wang, H. Qiao, Review on modified and novel techniques of severe
plastic deformation, Sci. China Technol. Sci. 55 (2012) 2377–2390, https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11431-012-4954-y.
 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
[172] M. Liu, H.J. Roven, X. Liu, M. Murashkin, R.Z. Valiev, T. Ungár, L. Balogh, Grain re-
finement in nanostructured Al–Mg alloys subjected to high pressure torsion, J.
Mater. Sci. 45 (2010) 4659–4664, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-010-4604-3.
[173] D.R. Leiva, A.M. Jorge, T.T. Ishikawa, J. Huot, D. Fruchart, S. Miraglia, C.S. Kiminami,
W.J. Botta, Nanoscale grain refinement and H-sorption properties of MgH2 proc-
essed by high-pressure torsion and other mechanical routes, Adv. Eng. Mater. 12
(2010) 786–792, https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.201000030.
[174] C. Saldana, S. Swaminathan, T.L. Brown, W. Moscoso, J.B. Mann, W.D. Compton, S.
Chandrasekar, Unusual applications of machining: controlled nanostructuring of
materials and surfaces, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 132 (2010) https://doi.org/10.1115/1.
4001665.
[175] Y. Liu, S. Cai, L. Dai, A new method for grain refinement in magnesium alloy: high
speed extrusion machining, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 651 (2016) 878–885, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.msea.2015.11.046.
[176] Y. Guo, M. Efe, W. Moscoso, D. Sagapuram, K.P. Trumble, S. Chandrasekar, Deforma-
tion field in large-strain extrusion machining and implications for deformation
processing, Scr. Mater. 66 (2012) 235–238, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.
2011.10.045.
[177] L. De Chiffre, Extusion-cutting, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. 16 (1976) 137–144,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7357(76)90032-9.
[178] M.E. Merchant, Mechanics of the metal cutting process. I. Orthogonal cutting and a
type 2 chip, J. Appl. Phys. 16 (1945) 267–275, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1707586.
[179] M.E. Merchant, Mechanics of the metal cutting process. II. Plasticity conditions in
orthogonal cutting, J. Appl. Phys. 16 (1945) 318–324, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.
1707596.
[180] M.C. Shaw, Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford, Clarendon Press, New York, 1984.
[181] Y. Guo, R. M’Saoubi, S. Chandrasekar, Control of deformation levels on machined
surfaces, CIRP Ann. 60 (2011) 137–140, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2011.03.138.
[182] S.L. Cai, Y. Chen, G.G. Ye, M.Q. Jiang, H.Y. Wang, L.H. Dai, Characterization of the de-
formation field in large-strain extrusion machining, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 216
(2015) 48–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.08.022.
[183] A.S. Kumar, M. Rahman, S.L. Ng, Effect of high-pressure coolant on machining per-
formance, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 20 (2002) 83–91, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s001700200128.
[184] Y.J. Lee, L. Hao, J. Lüder, A. Chaudhari, S. Wang, S. Manzhos, H. Wang,
Micromachining of ferrous metal with an ion implanted diamond cutting tool, Car-
bon N. Y. 152 (2019) 598–608, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2019.06.043.
[185] L. De Chiffre, Extrusion cutting of brass strips, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. 23 (1983)
141–151, https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7357(83)90013-6.
[186] W. Moscoso, M.R. Shankar, J.B. Mann, W.D. Compton, S. Chandrasekar, Bulk nano-
structured materials by large strain extrusion machining, J. Mater. Res. 22 (2007)
201–205, https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2007.0021.
[187] Y. Guo, J. Chen, A. Saleh, In situ analysis of deformation mechanics of constrained
cutting toward enhanced material removal, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 142 (2020)
https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4045613.
[188] D. Sagapuram, H. Yeung, Y. Guo, A. Mahato, R. M’Saoubi, W.D. Compton, K.P.
Trumble, S. Chandrasekar, On control of flow instabilities in cutting of metals,
CIRP Ann. 64 (2015) 49–52, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2015.04.059.
[189] S. Zhang, P. Guo, Z. Xiong, S. To, Cyclic shear angle for lamellar chip formation in
ultra-precision machining, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci. (2020),
0954406220908890. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954406220908890.
[190] H. Wang, S. To, C.Y. Chan, C.F. Cheung, W.B. Lee, Dynamic modelling of shear band
formation and tool-tip vibration in ultra-precision diamond turning, Int. J. Mach.
Tools Manuf. 51 (2011) 512–519, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2011.02.010.
[191] H. Wang, S. To, C.Y. Chan, C.F. Cheung, W.B. Lee, A theoretical and experimental in-
vestigation of the tool-tip vibration and its influence upon surface generation in
single-point diamond turning, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 50 (2010) 241–252,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2009.12.003.
[192] H. Wang, S. To, C.Y. Chan, Investigation on the influence of tool-tip vibration on
surface roughness and its representative measurement in ultra-precision diamond
turning, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 69 (2013) 20–29, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijmachtools.2013.02.006.
[193] D. Sagapuram, K. Viswanathan, A. Mahato, N.K. Sundaram, R. M’Saoubi, K.P.
Trumble, S. Chandrasekar, Geometric flow control of shear bands by suppression
of viscous sliding, Proc. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 472 (2016) 20160167,
https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2016.0167.
[194] K. Uezaki, J. Shimizu, L. Zhou, Development of metal cutting process accompanied
by a localized compressive hydrostatic stress field formation: examination by mo-
lecular dynamics simulation, Precis. Eng. 38 (2014) 371–378, https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.precisioneng.2013.12.002.
[195] D. Brown, C. Li, Z.Y. Liu, X.Y. Fang, Y.B. Guo, Surface integrity of Inconel 718 by hy-
brid selective laser melting and milling, Virtual Phys. Prototyp. 13 (2018) 26–31,
https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2017.1392681.
[196] M. Król, T. Tański, Surface quality research for selective laser melting of Ti-6Al-4V
alloy, Arch. Metall. Mater. 61 (2016) 1291–1296, https://doi.org/10.1515/amm-
2016-0213.
[197] R. Li, J. Liu, Y. Shi, L. Wang, W. Jiang, Balling behavior of stainless steel and nickel
powder during selective laser melting process, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 59
(2012) 1025–1035, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-011-3566-1.
[198] Y. Bai, A. Chaudhari, H. Wang, Investigation on the microstructure and machinabil-
ity of ASTM A131 steel manufactured by directed energy deposition, J. Mater. Pro-
cess. Technol. 276 (2020), 116410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.
116410.
[199] J. Zhang, A. Chaudhari, H. Wang, Surface quality and material removal in magnetic
abrasive finishing of selective laser melted 316L stainless steel, J. Manuf. Process.
45 (2019) 710–719, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.07.044.
25
[200] H.K. Rafi, N.V. Karthik, H. Gong, T.L. Starr, B.E. Stucker, Microstructures and me-
chanical properties of Ti6Al4V parts fabricated by selective laser melting and elec-
tron beam melting, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 22 (2013) 3872–3883, https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11665-013-0658-0.
[201] J. Zhang, A.Y. Xiang Toh, H. Wang, W.F. Lu, J.Y.H. Fuh, Vibration-assisted conformal
polishing of additively manufactured structured surface, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part
C J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 233 (2018) 4154–4164, https://doi.org/10.1177/
0954406218811359.
[202] W.D. Nix, H.J. Gao, Indentation size effects in crystalline materials: a law for strain
gradient plasticity, J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 46 (1998) 411–425, https://doi.org/10.
1016/s0022-5096(97)00086-0.
[203] K. Durst, B. Backes, M. Göken, Indentation size effect in metallic materials:
correcting for the size of the plastic zone, Scr. Mater. 52 (2005) 1093–1097,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2005.02.009.
[204] J.G. Swadener, E.P. George, G.M. Pharr, The correlation of the indentation size
efffect measured with indenters of various shapes, J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 50
(2002) 681–694, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5096(01)00103-X.
[205] F. Fang, F. Xu, M. Lai, Size effect in material removal by cutting at nano scale, Int. J.
Adv. Manuf. Technol. 80 (2015) 591–598, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-
7032-3.
[206] D. Lorenz, A. Zeckzer, U. Hilpert, P. Grau, H. Johansen, H.S. Leipner, Pop-in effect as
homogeneous nucleation of dislocations during nanoindentation, Phys. Rev. B -
Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 67 (2003) 1–4, https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.
67.172101.
[207] J. Chua, R. Zhang, A. Chaudhari, S.J. Vachhani, A.S. Kumar, Q. Tu, H. Wang, High-
temperature nanoindentation size effect in fluorite material, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 159
(2019) 459–466, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2019.06.020.
[208] K. Durst, B. Backes, O. Franke, M. Göken, Indentation size effect in metallic mate-
rials: Modeling strength from pop-in to macroscopic hardness using geometrically
necessary dislocations, Acta Mater. 54 (2006) 2547–2555, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.actamat.2006.01.036.
[209] K. Viswanathan, A. Mahato, H. Yeung, S. Chandrasekar, Surface phenomena re-
vealed by in situ imaging: studies from adhesion, wear and cutting, Surf. Topogr.
Metrol. Prop. 5 (2017), 14002. https://doi.org/10.1088/2051-672x/aa612a.
[210] O. Ojo, N. Brook, The effect of moisture on some mechanical properties of rock,
Min. Sci. Technol. 10 (1990) 145–156, https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-9031(90)
90158-O.
[211] A.L. Volynskii, N.F. Bakeev, Regularities of the Rehbinder effect in polymers. Re-
view, Prot. Met. Phys. Chem. Surfaces. 49 (2013) 493–509, https://doi.org/10.
1134/S2070205113050109.
[212] E. Shamoto, T. Moriwaki, Ultaprecision diamond cutting of hardened steel by ap-
plying elliptical vibration cutting, Ann. CIRP 48 (1999) 441–444, https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0007-8506(07)63222-3.
[213] X. Zhang, D. Hui, K. Liu, H. Wang, Effect of air blow pressure in ultrasonic vibration
cutting of steel using PCD tools, 17th Int. Conf. Eur. Soc. Precis. Eng. Nanotechnol.,
Hannover, Germany, 2017.
[214] X. Zhang, M. Arif, K. Liu, A.S. Kumar, M. Rahman, A model to predict the critical unde-
formed chip thickness in vibration-assisted machining of brittle materials, Int. J. Mach.
Tools Manuf. 69 (2013) 57–66, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2013.03.006.
[215] Z. Shi, B. Guo, Q. Zhao, T. Ji, A study on micro-machining spinel by applying ordi-
nary cutting and ultra-sonic elliptical vibration cutting, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
104 (2019) 1677–1692, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-03905-w.
[216] H. Shahinian, J. Navare, D. Zaytsev, D. Ravindra, Microlaser assisted diamond turn-
ing of precision silicon optics, Opt. Eng. 58 (2019) 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1117/1.
OE.58.9.092607.
[217] Y.J. Lee, Thermal expansion control in heat assisted machining of calcium fluoride
single crystals, 19th Int. Conf. Eur. Soc. Precis. Eng. Nanotechnol., Bilbao, Spain,
2019.
[218] K. Liu, H. Wang, X. Zhang, Thermally assisted ductile mode cutting, in: K. Liu, H.
Wang, X. Zhang (Eds.), Ductile Mode Cut. Brittle Mater, Springer, Singapore,
Singapore 2020, pp. 255–285, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9836-1_12.
[219] Y.J. Lee, A. Chaudhari, J. Zhang, H. Wang, Thermally assisted microcutting of cal-
cium fluoride single crystals, Simul. Exp. Mater. Ultra-Precision Mach, Springer,
Singapore 2019, pp. 77–127, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3335-4_4.
[220] A. Chaudhari, Y.J. Lee, H. Wang, A.S. Kumar, Thermal effect on brittle-ductile tran-
sition in CaF2 single crystals, 17th Int. Conf. Eur. Soc. Precis. Eng. Nanotechnol.,
Hannover, Germany, 2017.
[221] S. To, H. Wang, E.V. Jelenković, Enhancement of the machinability of silicon by hy-
drogen ion implantation for ultra-precision micro-cutting, Int. J. Mach. Tools
Manuf. 74 (2013) 50–55, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2013.07.005.
[222] L.A. Kochanova, V.M. Kuchumova, V.I. Savenko, E.D. Shchukin, Environmental effect
on sclerometric brittleness of ionic crystals, J. Mater. Sci. 27 (1992) 5516–5522,
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00541614.
[223] A.R.C. Westwood, D.L. Goldheim, Occurrence and mechanism of rebinder effects in
CaF2, J. Appl. Phys. 39 (1968) 3401–3405, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1656788.
[224] A.R.C. Westwood, D.L. Goldheim, R.G. Lye, Rebinder effects in MgO, Philos. Mag. A J.
Theor. Exp. Appl. Phys. 16 (1967) 505–519, https://doi.org/10.1080/
14786436708220861.
[225] D.A. Shockey, G.W. Groves, Origin of water-induced toughening in MgO crystals, J.
Am. Ceram. Soc. 52 (1969) 82–85, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1969.
tb13346.x.
[226] D.H. Buckley, Effect of Surface Active Media on Friction, Deformation, and Fracture
of Calcium Fluoride, 1969.
[227] A.R.C. Westwood, J.S. Ahearn, J.J. Mills, Developments in the theory and application
of chemomechanical effects, Colloids and Surfaces. 2 (1981) 1–35, https://doi.org/
10.1016/0166-6622(81)80050-9.
26 Y.J. Lee, H. Wang / Materials and Design 192 (2020) 108688
[228] U. Schneider, S.-W. Chen, The chemomechanical effect and the mechanochemical
effect on high-performance concrete subjected to stress corrosion, Cem. Concr.
Res. 28 (1998) 509–522, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00015-5.
[229] Q. Zhao, Z. Sun, B. Guo, Material removal mechanism in ultrasonic vibration
assisted polishing of micro cylindrical surface on SiC, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
103 (2016) 28–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2016.01.003.
[230] Y. Zhou, G. Pan, X. Shi, L. Xu, C. Zou, H. Gong, G. Luo, XPS, UV–vis spectroscopy and
AFM studies on removal mechanisms of Si-face SiC wafer chemical mechanical
polishing (CMP), Appl. Surf. Sci. 316 (2014) 643–648, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apsusc.2014.08.011.
[231] Y.L. Wang, J. Wu, C.W. Liu, T.C. Wang, J. Dun, Material characteristics and chemical–
mechanical polishing of aluminum alloy thin films, Thin Solid Films 332 (1998)
397–403, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-6090(98)01200-0.
[232] Y. Li, M. Hariharaputhiran, S.V. Babu, Chemical–mechanical polishing of copper and
tantalum with silica abrasives, J. Mater. Res. 16 (2001) 1066–1073, https://doi.org/
10.1557/JMR.2001.0148.
[233] M. Hariharaputhiran, Chemical mechanical polishing of Ta, Electrochem. Solid-
State Lett. 3 (1999) 95, https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1390969.
[234] N. Wang, G. Pan, Y. Liu, Synergistic roles of mixed inhibitors and the application of
mixed complexing ligands in copper chemical mechanical polishing,
Microelectron. Eng. 88 (2011) 3372–3374, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mee.2011.06.
029.
[235] Y. Bai, Z. Shi, Y.J. Lee, H. Wang, Optical surface generation on additively
manufactured AlSiMg0.75 alloys with ultrasonic vibration-assisted machining, J.
Mater. Process. Technol. 280 (2020), 116597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmatprotec.2020.116597.
[236] T. Inamura, G.Y. Feng, N. Takezawa, N. Mohri, Effect of surface oxidation on
micromachinability of monocrystalline silicon, CIRP Ann. 50 (2001) 393–396,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0007-8506(07)62148-9.
[237] Y. Liu, T. Inamura, N. Takezawa, S. Shimada, Y.F. Guo, Effects of air and surface ox-
idation in ultra-micro cutting of mono-crystalline silicon, Proc. Int. Conf. Lead. Edge
Manuf. 21st Century LEM21 2003, pp. 45–48, https://doi.org/10.1299/jsmelem.
2003.45.
[238] E. Rabinowicz, Lubrication of metal surfaces by oxide films, A S L E Trans 10 (1967)
400–407, https://doi.org/10.1080/05698196708972199.
[239] I.R. Kramer, Effect of surfaces on mechanical behavior of metals, in: L.J. Bonis, P.L.
de Bruyn, J.J. Duga (Eds.),Surf. Phenomena. Fundam. Phenom. Mater. Sci., Springer,
Boston, MA 1966, pp. 171–193, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-6347-5_10.
[240] A.H. Cottrell, D.F. Gibbons, Thermal hardening of cadmium crystals, Nature 162
(1948) 488–489, https://doi.org/10.1038/162488a0.
[241] A.K. Head, X, The interaction of dislocations and boundaries, London, Edinburgh,
Dublin, Philos. Mag. J. Sci. 44 (1953) 92–94, https://doi.org/10.1080/
14786440108520278.
[242] G.H. Conners, The interaction of a dislocation with a coated plane boundary, Int. J.
Eng. Sci. 5 (1967) 25–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7225(67)90052-3.
[243] J.C. Grosskreutz, The effect of oxide films on dislocation-surface interactions in al-
uminium, Surf. Sci. 8 (1967) 173–190, https://doi.org/10.1016/0039-6028(67)
90080-5.
[244] J.C. Grosskreutz, D.K. Benson, The effects of the surface on the mechanical proper-
ties of metals, Surfaces Interfaces II, Springer US, Boston, MA 1968, pp. 61–94,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-0178-4_2.
[245] J.C. Grosskreutz, Mechanical properties of metal oxide films, J. Electrochem. Soc.
116 (1969) 1232, https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2412286.
[246] D.H. Kaelble, Theory and analysis of peel adhesion: bond stresses and distributions,
Trans. Soc. Rheol. 4 (1960) 45–73, https://doi.org/10.1122/1.548868.