Geo 100 Module 3

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Contents
UNIT 1.......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Culture and Resource Utilization .............................................................................................................. 5
1.1 Learning outcomes ............................................................................................................................. 5
1.2 Culture ............................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.6 Classification of Culture ................................................................................................................. 8
Huxleys’s Model. ...................................................................................................................................... 8
(iv) Material and non- material ............................................................................................................... 10
1.2.7 Aspects of cultural development in pre – colonial Africa. ............................................................... 10
1.3. Resource Utilization......................................................................................................................... 16
1.3.3. Let us now define “Resource Utilization” ..................................................................................... 17
1.3.4. Types of Resources ....................................................................................................................... 18
(i) Material and Non-Material Resources ................................................................................................ 18
(ii)Natural Resources and Human Resources .......................................................................................... 18
Renewable and Non- renewable Resources. ........................................................................................... 20
1.3.4.1. Different types of natural resources........................................................................................... 21
1.3.5. Resources and culture- ................................................................................................................. 22
1.3.5.1 Culture and economic activity ..................................................................................................... 23
1.3.5.2. Resources, Technology and Economic Exploitation .................................................................... 24
1.3.5.3. Resource Development.............................................................................................................. 25
1.3.5.4 Resource conservation................................................................................................................ 25
1.4 Let Us Sum Up .................................................................................................................................. 27
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 28
UNIT 2. ....................................................................................................................................................... 29
Land Tenure Systems and Agricultural Development, ............................................................................. 29
2.1 Learning Outcomes........................................................................................................................... 29
2.2 Land Tenure Systems ........................................................................................................................ 30
2.3 Types of land tenure systems ........................................................................................................... 31
THE LOZI/KOLOLO PRE-COLONIAL AGRARIAN/SOCIAL STRUCTURE ......................................................... 35
3. Some general principals governing pre- colonial African land tenure (among shifting cultivators) ....... 38
2.4 Land as a basis for nationalist and revolutionary struggle............................................................ 41
Allocation of land in urban and rural in Zambia ...................................................................................... 43
Revolutionary land reform in Ethiopia .................................................................................................... 43
Land as a basis for revolutionary nationalist struggle some parts of Africa.............................................. 45
WHY LAND REFORM? ............................................................................................................................. 46
10.5 SOME ISSUES .............................................................................................................................. 46
10.6. LET US SUM UP ....................................................................................................................... 48
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 49
UNIT 3. ................................................................................................................................................ 52
INDUSTRIALISATION ............................................................................................................................... 52
3.1 learning outcome........................................................................................................................ 52
3.2 Resource Conversion and Industrialization.................................................................................. 52
3.2.3 Resource Conversion as Manufacturing. ................................................................................. 53
3.2.4 THE PROCESS OF INDUSTRIALISATION ..................................................................................... 54
3.2.4.1 The evolution of Industrial procedure ..................................................................................... 55
3.2.4.2 CHANGE IN SOCIETY ................................................................................................................ 56
SOCIAL CLASS DIFFERENTIATION ............................................................................................................ 57
3.2.4.3. Spatial Significance of industrialization. ............................................................................... 57

3.2.5 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ............................................................................................... 58
3.2.5.1 Causes of the Industrial Revolution. ........................................................................................ 58
3.2.5.2 Effects of the Industrial Revolution ......................................................................................... 63
3.2.6. The Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution. ...................................................................... 65
3.2.6.2 Results of the diffusion of the industrial revolution ..................................................................... 66
3.2.6.3 Need for new thinking. ............................................................................................................... 67
3.7 Economic Growth, Economic Development and Modernization ........................................................ 67
3.7.2. Rostows’s Model of economic Growth .......................................................................................... 68
3.7.3 Economic Development ................................................................................................................. 71
3.7.3.1 Some indicators of Economic Development ................................................................................ 72
3.7.3.2 Major Factors in Economic Development .................................................................................... 73
3.7.3.3. Modern – Traditional Dichotomy ............................................................................................... 74
Summary of the major characteristics of the modern – traditional dichotomy theory............................. 74
3.8 Let us sum up ................................................................................................................................... 76
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 77
UNIT 1
Culture and Resource Utilization
1.0 Introduction
Welcome to this unit. In this unit you will be introduced to the concept of culture and
resource utilization. This unit will attempt to give you various definitions of culture. In
addition the unit will show the relationship between culture and resource utilization.
1.1 Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
• Define the term ‘Culture’.
• Classify culture.
• Relate culture to resource utilization.
1.2 Culture
1.2.1 You might have come across the term ‘culture’
1.2.2 Activity:
What do you understand by the term culture?
Write down your definition of culture.
1.2.3 Let us now look at the definition of culture by referring to other scholars. Try to compare your
definition with these definitions.
(i) Culture involves totality of learned human behavior that is passed on from one generation
to another or from one group to another. Culture is not biological or that one is born with
culture but is learned. (Haggett, 2001).
(ii) Culture may be defined as the beliefs, traditions, symbols, ideas and values which
influence behaviour and social structure within a particular group. (Butt, 2000).
(iii) Lambert and Balderstone hold that culture refers to the ideas, values, processes and
products which reflect and influence the way people think, feel and live. They further
explain that the cultural dimensions includes the creative arts as well as coming to an open
awareness and critical understanding of lived experience – one’s own ‘cultural context’ and
that of others in wider society. Key words include identity, belonging, and diversity.
(iv) T.S Eliot, who in this notes towards the definition of culture (1948) called culture” the
incarnation of religion”.
(v) Clifford Geertz, defined culture as everything that is produced by and capable of
sustaining shared symbolic experience, including, for example, cooking and sport.
Fundamentals of Human Geography. Module 3 2010
(vi) For Tylor culture was that “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, customs and many other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society.”
(vii) Culture is the pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the
matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world.
(Mathew Arnold 1822 – 1888)
(viii) For Marx, the material base along with modes of production determined systems of
meanings and values. Culture was “superstructure”.
(ix) Claude Levi – Strauss, has treated culture as comprehensive and universal, and society
as derivative: “Man reaches his essence, his universality only in culture”.
(x) For less idealistic social critics who wished to distinguish among different cultures,
sometimes in the name of evolution, ‘Culture’ was the creative expression of a particular
society through its symbols, literature, art and music and, for some, its institutions and the
values and experiences that shaped them. Such creative expression was thought of as
constituting a cultural heritage transmitted from one generation to the other next. It had to be
safeguarded as well as communicated.
(xi) Knox and Marson define culture as a shared set of meanings that is lived through the
material and symbolic practices of everyday life. The “shared set of meanings” can include
values, beliefs, practices, and ideas about religion, language, family, gender, sexuality, and
other important identities. Culture is not something that is necessarily tied to a place and
thus a fact to be discovered. Rather, we regard the connections among people, places, and
cultures to be social creations that can be altered and are therefore always changing,
sometimes in subtle and other times in more dramatic ways.
(xii) According to Redfield, culture is an organized body of conventional understandings
manifest in art and artifact, which, persisting through tradition, characterizes a human group.
(xiii) Culture is the sum total of mans effort to adjust himself to his environment and and to
improve his modes of living. (Kennings)
(xiii) Bierstedt defines culture as the complex whole that consists of everything we thick and
do and has as members of society.
(xiv) Panneerselvan and Ramakrishnan (2007) observed that culture is a system of learned
behaviour that is shared by and transmitted among the members of a group .Man begins to
learn it at birth. Man is expected to pick up the culture and by doing so and by tapping the
heritage of his past, man becomes distinctly human,
1.2.4 As seen from the various definitions of culture given by different scholars, the concept of
culture is complex. However, considerable efforts have been made by cultural geographers
to define culture in a precise and positive way. We can summarize their view by stating that:
(i) “Culture” is the totality of learned behaviour or cumulative way of life of a people that is
passed on from one generation to another. This includes such trait complexes as language,
art. Music, ideology, technology, material possessions etc. Culture is invented, carried on,
and slowly modified by people living and working in groups and distinctive systems of
culture.
In other words, “culture” as Hagget pointed out describes the patterns of learned human
behaviour that makes up a durable template by which ideas and images can be handed over
from one generation to another or from one group to other.
(ii) We should note that all human societies or groups have “Culture”. Some cultures may be
more advanced in certain aspects – such as the level of development of technology – but this
does not mean that one culture is necessary better than the other. That is a value judgment.
1.2,5 Activity 2
Using the ideas from other authorities on culture, come up with your own comprehensive
definition of culture.
1.2.6 Classification of Culture

Some authorities have classified culture in several ways. Let us look at some of these
categories of culture.
Huxleys’s Model.
One of the simplest ways of categorizing culture was proposed by English biologist
Julian Huxley. Huxley’s model classifies culture into three categories:
(a) Mentifacts – These are the most central and durable elements of a culture. They cover
the abstract and mental aspects of culture e:g beliefs of individuals such as religion,
traditions, magic, language, folklore, artistic traditions etc. Mentifacts relate to the
human ability to think and forge ideas, and they form the ideals and images against
which other aspects of culture are measured.
(b) Sociofacts – These are concerned with relationships between individuals and groups for
example reproduction, sexual behaviour and child rearing, political and educational
systems.
(c) Artifacts - These are material aspects of culture including technology. Sometimes
termed ‘Culture freight, they allow basic needs for food, shelter, transport etc, others are
systems of land use and agriculture production. In addition tools and clothing of a
particular design are cultural artifacts.
(i) Some cultural geographers divide culture into two major categories: folk and popular
culture.
Folk Culture – is seen by specialists as the traditional practices of small groups, especially
rural people with a simple lifestyle (Compared with modern urban people), such as the Amish in
Pennsylvania or the Roma (also known as Gypsies or Travelers) in Europe, who are seen as
homogeneous in their belief systems and practices.
(a) Popular Culture - is considered as the practices and meaning systems produced by large
groups of people whose norms and tastes are often heterogeneous and change frequently,
often in response to commercial products.
(ii) Some less idealistic social critics classified culture into “High culture” and “Peasant
Culture”
(a) High culture-The origins of high culture were tracked back through cities – with a debate
about whether there was a significant difference between “Culture” and “Civilization” or
through monasteries, Universities, and societies.
(b) Peasant culture – the practices and way of life of poor agricultural societies.
(iv) Material and non- material

(a) Material culture- According to Ogburn, are things like tools, utensils, machines,
dwellings, manufacture of goods and transportation. Discoveries and inventions are rapidly made to
which non –material culture is to adjust.
(b) Non –material culture.
In the non –material culture aspect of culture are included family, religion,
Government and education.
Non- material culture is often slow to respond to the rapid inventions in material culture.
1.2.7 Aspects of cultural development in pre – colonial Africa.
(i) It is important to note that Africans had their own culture before the coming of
European colonialist. This culture was quite unique and influenced geographical
behaviour – how people lived within a given geographical space – i.e. space
utilization.
(ii) African countries were colonized by European Imperialist powers beginning from
the Berlin conference 1884, the products of this colonial domination were subjected
to “cultural imperialism”. The process in which the colonizing power imposes its
own cultural values by force or in a subtle way on the subjected races or peoples – e:
g language. The countries that were colonized by the British had to adopt English as
the official language, those that were colonized by France adopted French or
Portuguese etc. Because of being subjected to cultural and other forms of imperialist
domination, the colonized African was made to despise his / her culture and became
(iii) Inferior – suffering from inferiority complex. However, we need to remind

ourselves as Dr. Walter Rodney (1976) has done in his famous book
(iv) “How Europe underdeveloped Africa.” In this book, Rodney shows that Africa
developed in her own way before the coming of Europeans, and he defines culture
as:-
“A total way of life. It embraces what people ate and what they were; the way they walked
and the way they talked; the manner inn which they treated death and greeted the new –
born”.
This in term of cultural development, Rodney is of the view that the following happened:-
(a) African Music

That African peoples reached the highest point of achievement in that sphere” Rodney asks:
“who in this world is competent to judge whether an Australian waltz is better than a
Makonde Ngoma?” or Kalindula?
Colonialism tended to despite African music. The educated preferred foreign western music
– but has seen a resurgence of African music – Rhumba, and other types and traditional
dances are being promoted through National dancing troupes etc.
(b) Fine Arts
Africa has made a tremendous contribution to humankind e: g Ife and Benin bronzes dating
from 14th and 15th centuries – i.e. before European contact.
(c) Religion
That although African religious had certain unique characteristics, there was several
similarities to religions elsewhere – such as belief in God – LEZA, the super being. That,
this as well, can be used as an index to the level of development of Africa before European
impact in the 15th century.
Religion is one area in which colonial penetration has had a major impact. Most countries in
Black Africa have become Christianized – others adopted Islam.
(d) Communication
During the pre-colonial period, the social relations of production (i.e.) ownership of land
and use of labour in most parts of Africa were based on kinship and communalism-owning
land in common. In some case this has persisted even to the present day. That although
details could have differed, “similar social institutions were found among the gauls of 11th
century France, among the Viet of Indo-China at the same date, and virtually everywhere
else in the world at one time or another-because communalism is one phrase through which
all human society passed.”
(e) Transition form communalism to Feudalism

(Introduction Marx and Engels Schema)
We should note that this transition was more pronounced in Europe- where communalism
broke down and gave way to wide spread slavery as the new way of organizing labour. This
continued through the middle ages. The crusade between Christians and Muslims gave an
added excuse for enslaving people. Slavery in turn gave way to self dome in which the self
or laborer was tied to the land and could not be sold.
Slavery also existed in Africa e.g. most pre-colonial kingdoms in Zambia such as the
Bemba, Lunda of Mwata Kazembe, the Ngoni of Mpenzeni and the Lozi- were and chiefly
classes. These slaves were controlled by a regular army and also paid tribute in food, meat,
fish to the chiefly classes and the Aristocracy. The development of a quasi feudal regime
was most developed in Barotseland where the missionary Coillard commented that the Lozi
kingdom was, “a depraved despotic kingdom.” In Barotseland, the slaves were used to
construct canals on the Zambezi flood plain to allow for cultivation and transport.
Other states and societies comparable to feudalism existed else where in Africa. For this
reason, in a sense, “all history is transition from one stage to another though some historical
situations along the line have more clearly distinguishable characteristics than others.”
(f) Agriculture and Environment

That before the coming of Europeans, the dominant activity in Africa was agriculture. By
the 15th century, Africans were able to understand the ecology of the soils, climate, animals,
plants and their multiple interrelationships. This knowledge of the ecology was practically
applied by way of: trapping animals; building houses; making utensils (e.g. pottery); finding
medicine and devising systems of agriculture, involving advanced methods such as crop
rotation, green manuring, regulated swamp farming (as in Barotseland) irrigation (as in
Egypt) e.g. The single most important technological development was the introduction of
Iron tools (i.e. the axe and the hoe) replacing wooden and stone tools.
(g) Manufacturing
That certain achievements in manufacturing in Africa prior to the coming of the white man
have been underestimated-because when people talk about “manufacturing,” they always
think in terms of factories and machines. In the actual fact,” manufactures” literally mean
“things made by hand.”
Some of the African manufacturers of high quality included:-
(i) Red Leather or “Moroccan Leather “-reached Europeans through North Africa; tanned and
dyed by Hausa and Mandinga specialists in Northern Nigeria and Mali
(ii) Bark and Palm fibre cloth:-from the old kingdom of Kongo was brought to the notice of the
Portuguese; also bark cloth from the Baganda.
(iii)Cotton cloth-20th century local cottons from Guinea coast were stronger than Manchester
cottons.
(iv) Copper-Local copper from Zambia and Katanga was of high quality, copper was mined in
central Africa over 2,000 years ago before the arrival of the 1st white man. At Kansanshi
(v) in Solwezi, the copper smelted by the Kaonde was found to be 98.0% pure and the local
people made bullets which were quite effective.
(vi) Iron-Local iron in Sierra Leone was equally impressive. The only draw back was that the
production was at a low level. This is because the “African manufacturers had not made
a break through”-i.e. cotton looms, iron and copper smelters etc were small; pottery was
turned slowly by hand and not on a wheel etc.
(vii) Guilds-European industry changed from domestic production to the factory system, with
the guild making an intermediary by stage (note: The guild was an association of
specialists, passing on their skills by training apprentices and working in building set
aside for that purpose).
-Africa also had elements of the guild system e.g.

(a) Tailoring guilds at Timbuktu (Mali).
(b) Brass and Bronze guilds at Benin.
(c) Glass and Bead industry in Nupe in Northern Nigeria i.e. evidence for specialization and
division of labour.
(h) Trade-Both short and long distance trade

e.g. across the Sahara in salt and copper and ivory into Katanga and East Africa, were part
of cultural development- as trade indicates the production of surplus goods.
-Barter system of trade soon gave way in some places to a more sophisticated trade system
involving currency in the form of salt, cloth, iron, implements, cowry shells, copper, and
gold.
-That in “North Africa, Ethiopia and Kongo, the monetary systems were quite sophisticated,
indicating that that economy was far removed from simple barter and subsistence”.
(i) Social Stratifications

Other developments in the culture of African people included the division in society –i.e.
social stratification on basis of gender or sex as well as in the following.
(a) Age-young vs. old
(b) Specialization of labour - e.g. hunters, black-smiths; craftsmen and women; professional
such as oral historian, secret societies; soldiers and warriors.
(c) Ownership of the means of production agricultural vs. postoralistis.
Hence, the rise of social classes such as conquerors on top and the conquered at the bottom.
(j) State Formation also occurred

State here refers to an organized political entity of a nation including the government and
all its apparatus e.g. the army etc.
That the period of transition in Africa from communalism to feudalism was one of state
formation. In these states or kingdoms, the ruled paid taxes and labour to the ruling classes.
Among the Bemba for example, the subsistence cultivation peasantry paid a labour tax
called UMULASA to the Kings- the chiefly classes-several days of free labour were
provided in a year at the chief’s or king’s home. Tribute in food, millet, and beer was also
paid.
The pre-colonial Agrarian/social structure of the major kingdoms in Zambia was as follows:
King
Chiefly Classes and Aristocracy
Professional Army
Subsistence Cultivation Peasantry
Slaves
(k) Traditional Education, Traditions and Culture

In addition to the above elements of cultural development in Africa, Carmedy (2004:105)
has pointed out that before the arrival of missionaries the people of Zambia lived in tribal
groups and had a variety of traditions and cultures. They also had their own system of
education which prepared their young members for life in the community. This type of
education included instruction in the history and traditions of the group identity. For
example the Tonga, Lozi, Chewa, or Bemba recognized the bonds that held them together
and transmit it to the next generation.
Thus from what has been discussed above, we can see that the “culture” of the African
people before the coming of Europeans, was quite rich and dynamic-i.e. it was evolving
through internal dynamics-just like any other group of people in the world.
1.3. Resource Utilization
1.3.1. Activity 3
The terms “resource” and” resource utilization” are quite common.
How would you define the two terms mentioned above? Write down
your definitions.
1.3.2. Here is how some people have defined a resource. Is there any similarity with your
definitions?
(i) Milner John (2001) defines a resource as something that can be used to satisfy some human
want or deficiency. It may not be intrinsically valuable, such as water, but it is a resource
because a society needs it and will pay for it.
(ii) According to Widdowson et.al. (2004) a resource is something that is needed, and can be
used by people.
(iii) James, S. Fisher and Don, R. Hoy (1978) define a resource as anything that can be
used to satisfy a need or desire. It is a means to an end (i.e. that if a person needs to
walk from A to B, his/her legs are a resource).
(iv) According to Peter Hag get (2001) resources are that portion of the total stock that
could be used under specified technical, economic, and social conditions. Resources
as such are determined by human concepts of what is useful, and we can expect
resource estimates to change with technological and socioeconomic conditions.
1.3.3. Let us now define “Resource Utilization”

Resource utilization refers to how the resource can be used by human beings to satisfy their
needs. Of course, there is need to emphasize that each resource should be used wisely or
sustainably.
This wise use of resources would lead to saving some portion of the resource for future
generations. The current generation will be able to meet its own needs without compromising
the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. This is what is known as the concept
of sustainable development.
We should note that each cultural group utilizes resources in a unique way. This can be seen
in the mentifacts, sociofacts and artifacts for that cultural group.
1.3.4. Types of Resources

The following are the types of resources:
(i) Material and Non-Material Resources
(a) Material resources-are those resources which are tangible and such resources can be
used by a category of resource users. For example a farmer uses tools, seeds, fertilizers, soil,
water, etc.
Minerals such as copper, oil, iron etc. may be resources for a mining industry.
(b)Non-Material Resources-These are non-tangible resources. Resources are not only

material objects. The farmers knowledge of when and how to plant, cultivate, and harvest
crops is absolutely necessary and do constitute non-material deposits requires skills and
organization.
Other non-material resources include various things such as inventiveness, good
government, useful education, co-operation, and adequate social order or peace.
(ii)Natural Resources and Human Resources
(a) Human Resources-These are resources which human beings can generate e.g. qualified
personnel, capital, tools etc.
(b) Natural Resources-These are resources found in nature where man lives. In other
words natural resources are the resources of nature. Man depends on the exploitation of
natural resources such as soil, water, coal, oil, gas, nuclear and solar energies etc.
Natural resources are further divided into two categories: Renewable and non-renewable
resources.
The diagram below shows the Human Resources and Natural Resources
RESOURCES
Natural resources Human resources
Non-renewable Renewable People Capital

(e.g. soil)
Non-recyclable Recyclable
(e.g. coal) (e.g. metal)
Flow Continuous Only if
Cyclical (e.g. wind) Well managed
(e.g. crops) (e.g. soil)
Source: Widdowson et.al (2004) GCSE geography in focus.p.275.
.
Renewable and Non- renewable Resources.
(a) Renewable resources-These are resources which can be replaced or replenished and do not
change the ecological balance. For example the cut trees can be grown again, soil forms
again and animals reproduce themselves.
Renewable resources comprise such things as timber, food crops, fish, animals (both wild
and domesticated including man) etc.
(b) Non-renewable resources-These are resources which once used up, will be exhausted for
ever. Non-renewable resources consist of a number of raw materials including fossil fuels
(coal, oil, and natural gas), metals in the form of their naturally occurring ores and inorganic
fertilizers. None of these things can be replaced once they have been used up.
The diagram below shows Renewable and Non-renewable Natural resources
Natural Resources
Non-renewable resources Renewable resources Others

(capital or stock) (flow or income) (e.g. scenic resources)
Resource Resource Direct Indirect Geothermal

Altered or available solar solar energy
Destroyed for energy energy
By use recycling
(fossil fuels) (e.g. copper)
e.g. natural gas
Geophysical channels Photosynthetic
(e.g. wind, tidal power, stream flow) channels
Short run Long run

(e.g. annual field crop) (e.g. timber)
Source: Hagget, P. (2001) Geography. A Global Synthesis.
1.3.4.1. Different types of natural resources

(a) Mineral resources- are off several types; metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals.
Non-metallic or industrial minerals include substances which comprise building materials
such as rock, sand, gravel cement, and clay. The non –metallic materials are fertilizers
which increase agricultural yield. Large amounts of nitrogen in the form of nitrates available
in the natural deposits. Phosphorus- obtained from phosphate rock. Potassium is quite
abundant in the world. Metals include iron, nonferrous metals, silver and gold as more
important.
(b)Forest resources-Is an important natural resource. It is the most important natural

habitant for wild life. It is utilized by farmers for commercial and recreational purposes. It is
a source of many products useful to man. It provides raw materials for many products of
daily use. It feeds several industries which depend on wood products. For instance
turpentine oil, paint, resins and printing paper, industries get raw materials from the forest.
Green plants of the forest are food producing organisms and are primary producers of the
“food chain”. They trap energy from the sun and use it to transform CO2 from the air,
together with water and nutrients from the soil into food substances such as starch, sugars,
through the process of photosynthesis. The forest plays a most important role in keeping the
atmosphere balanced by consuming Co2 and releasing O2, the latter is essential for animal
life.
(c)Water resources – is most important for the life of living organisms e.g. plants, animals,
man and birds. It is also necessary for agriculture, industries, drinking and many other uses.
Other functions performed by water are washing, cleaning, extinguishing and flushing.
Water is raw material for photosynthesis. In the body serves as a solvent. It promotes
chemical activities. Its serves as a mode of transport for nutrients, hormones and enzymes.
(d)Soil resources – soil is natural habitant for plants and animals. It provides water and
water and nutrients to the living organisms.
(e)Marine resources- oceans has been the source of many needs of human beings. The
ocean surface of 1cm thickness known as surface micro layer plays a crucial role in air-sea
interaction. This micro-layer transfers not only energy and water vapour but also rich
nutrients like nitrogen into the atmosphere.
(f)Wild life – wild life is wealth that is transferable to future generations if well managed.
They are economically important in form of meat and other products as well as tourist
attractions which bring in the much needed foreign exchange. They are educative, a source
of recreation as they provide relaxation in the flora and fauna.
(g)Food and agriculture resources- Human beings need energy for his various activities as
movement, growth, respiration, reproduction and many others. Energy is essential for
physical and metabolic activities. food provides this energy. A food is a substance mixed of
nutrients and non- nutrient substances. The main component of food is carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, minerals, vitamins and water. These are provided through cereals, pulses, oil eggs,
sweets, milk, meat, cheese as well as fruits.
1.3.5. Resources and culture-

Resources are usually worked upon by man. This is the concept of resource creation.
Resources are created through the medium of man’s culture. Diverse cultures have different
resources and they view their resources according to the set of customs, laws organizational
structure set up such as kinship etc. these attributes of culture govern the lives and shape the
attributes of the members of each community towards their resources. As a result cultural
controls affect the perception of resources. In pre-colonial Africa, for instance, the
indigenous people reserved the hunter land to their villages for extraction of forest
resources. However, during the process of cultural contact which Europeans, the later
perceived most of this land as the unoccupied land which could be alienated for European
and yet these forests resources were held in common and all members of the village had
access to them. As seen in the example above where as one group (e.g. hunters or gatherers)
may view something as a resource, another culture may think it is useless. In some cases,
many plants used for making mats and containers are perceived as resources to people in the
third world/ developing world countries but these of “western” culture these same plants
may be weeds e.g. killing of snakes whereas others eat them.
1.3.5.1 Culture and economic activity
Culture plays an important role in directing economic in which resources are utilized. Some
cultures such as the “western” culture (based on the capitalist mode of organizing economic
and social life) are more materialistic. They ethicize excessive accumulation of wealth.
Other culture such as those in pre colonial African societies, the values of these cultures
emphasized more egalitarian principles-sharing and the provision of basic needs. The values
of these culture were closer to the biblical teaching that “A man‘s life does not consist in the
abundance of his possessions” (Luke 12:15).
In economic activity, Technology, which is an attribute of culture, plays a very pivotal in the
utilization or transformation of resources from potential to actual resources which satisfy
human need. The industrial revolution in Europe has seen the birth of the multinational
corporations whose advanced technology is used to extract and process resources- most of
which are located in third world countries like Zambia (where copper is extracted and
processed).
1.3.5.2. Resources, Technology and Economic Exploitation
It is sometimes argued that most of mineral resources in pre-colonial Africa (and other third
world countries and situations such as the availability of coal among American Indians –
holy: 15) were not resources as such, since they were not utilized before the coming of the
Europeans. This is a mistake notion which should be dismissed. These mineral deposits
were resources to the people. They were mined and smelted. The difference was only the
matter of scale. Furthermore, this kind of thinking would seem to suggest that those with
advanced technology should have a free hand at the potential resources which lie below the
ground or on the surface of third world countries. Many colonial European plundered the
resources of Africa for the benefit of the industries of Europe. This trend continued in one
way or another even in the post colonial phase. However many developing countries are
struggling to have much control concerning the utilization of resources in their own
countries, but are still cheated by western industrialized who pay them very cheaply for their
resources but charge them highly for manufactured goods. These western powers
manipulate the price of the raw materials on the world market to their own advantage but to
detriment of raw materials or resource producers. This situation must change through
negotiations and favourable terms of trade. For instance, one of the reasons for the serious
economic difficulties in Zambia was the drastic fall in the price of copper. On the London
metal exchange, this stood as follows between 1970 and 1984:
Year Average Price/Pound

1970/72 148 U.S case
1979/81 87 U.S case
1984 60 U.S case
(Source: C. co/dough, 1988, ‘Zambian adjustment strategy, with and without the IMF”, in
IDS Bulletin, vol.19, No.1, Jan P.52, Table2).
1.3.5.3. Resource Development
We should note that resources are not fixed amount or static. Resources are created by
mankind especially through the improvement in technology. for instance in the post 100
years, minerals which were found in low deposits were previously not extracted. However,
once technology became available to mine these deposits, they became resources. Most of
the world’s copper is produced from ores containing less than 3% copper.
In Zambia today establishment of the leach plant such as at Nchanga has made it possible to
recycle waste which was previously discarded. Now more copper is being extracted from
the waste.
In agriculture, mechanization is making it possible for the farmer to cultivate what was
formerly considered non arable land, and to expand the area cultivated to increase total
income.
1.3.5.4 Resource conservation

The industrial revolution which has led to the expansion in technology has created
a in which there is greater awareness in the need for sustainable use of finite resources. This
is due to the fact that more advanced countries require greater volumes of resources – and
therefore both developing and developed countries are required to conserve the limited
resources if the poorer countries have also to develop and experience improved living
standards. Since resources are finite, there is need for resource conservation at all levels of
resource utilization.
The industries of Western Europe and America continue to be dependant on the third world
as sources for raw materials. It is estimated that although the U.S.A has about 1/10 of the
world’s population it consumes over 1/3 of all the world’s resources.
This situation calls for the calls for the proper and rational utilization of resources entailing
CONSERVATION – since, some of the resources like oil, wild life etc. are DEPLETE – or
non – renewable – they run out and it is difficult to replace them. In Africa, the past 10 – 15
years have seen a tremendous increase in commercial poaching of wild life. The Elephant
and Rhino are now endangered species, since they are killed in large numbers for their ivory
and horn.
We also need to conserve our forest resources which are being depleted through charcoal
and firewood use especially in urban areas. Reforestation measures should be encouraged to
replace the wood.
Conservation is an intelligent and judicious management of resources towards their

optimum utilization without depleting the basic stock. (Shukla and Chandel, 2006:327).
Thus resource conservation “is the scheduling of resource so as to provide the greatest yield
for the greatest number over the longest time period,” (Haggett, 1983,P 220) – saving for
future generation some portion of a resource that would otherwise have been used in the
present generation.
In the west, the need for resource conservation has led to the rise of the conservation
movement – to conserve resources and protect the environment, e:g GREEN PEACE in
U.K. which struggles against non peaceful uses of energy, the FRIENDS OF THE EARTH
and even the ANIMAL LIBERATION FRONT – SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
REQUIRES RESOURCE CONSERVATION.
The concept of resource conservation should also be related to the role of the state and
people’s interests. It is quite common to find that the state will take over resources e: g land
from peasants for public use at the expense of the local people, especially where large dams
like the Kariba are constructed. Also when large scale agricultural projects are undertaken
what should be done? Should arable and grazing land be seen as competing land uses? The
new thinking is that there should be local participation in determining the use of resources in
order to empower local communities, who should use such resources to raise their living
standards in a sustainable manner.
1.4 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit you have learnt about culture and some categories of culture. You also looked at
Some aspects of cultural development in pre-colonial Africa. You later went on to study the
meaning of “resource” and “resource utilization”; Types of resources, the relationship
between culture and resources, resource development and conservation. The unit has also
introduced you to various terminologies such as “sustainable use of resources”, “sustainable
development “and “resource conservation”.
1.5 Check Your Progress

Having gone through unit 1 of this module, would you now try to answer the following self-
assessment questions?
1. By referring to various scholars give definitions of the term “culture”.
2. Explain each one of the following terms
(a) Mentifacts
(b) Sociofacts
(c) Artifacts
(d) Popular culture
(e) Folk culture
3. Identify some of the cultural elements which were developed in pre-colonial Africa by the
Africans.
4. What do you understand by the following terms?
(a) Resource
(b) Renewable and non-renewable resources.
(c) Sustainable use of resources.
(d) Material and non-material resources.
(e) Sustainable development.
5. What is the relationship between culture and resource utilization?
6. What is meant by resource conservation?
7. Why is resource conservation important?
REFERENCES
Butl, G (2002) Reflective Teaching of Geography
11-18 London: Continuum.
Carmody, B. (2004) the Evolution of Education in Zambia, Ndola: Mission Press.
Chambers Pocket Dictionary (2005) Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishes Ltd.
Colclough, C. (1988) “Zambia Adjustment Strategy With and Without the IMF”, in IDS bulletin,
vol 19, no 1 January P52, table 2.
Don R.H (Ed) (1978) Geography and Development.

Hagget, P. (2001) Geography: A Global Synthesis
Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Lambert and Balderstone, D. (2007) Learning to Teach Geography in the Secondary School.
London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Marston, A.S and Knox, L.P. (2007) Human Geography. Places and Regions in Global Context.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall Reason Education Inc.
Rodney, W. (1976) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa
Shukla, S.R. and Chandel, S.P (2006) A Textbook of Plant Ecology. New Delhi: S. Chandi and
Company.
Stoddard, R.H (1986) Human Geography; People Places and Culture. Prentice Hall.
Widows, J. et .al (2004) GCSE Geography in Focus. London: John Murray.
University of Zambia (UNZA) Study Material GEO112. Lusaka: UNZA Press
Zimmermann, W.E (1964) Introduction to World Resources
UNIT 2.
Land Tenure Systems and Agricultural Development,
2.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit ten. In this unit you will be introduced to various land tenure systems. Through
these land tenure systems the aspect of resource utilization will be discussed. You will also learn
about land being a basis for nationalist and revolutionary struggle. This unit will also attempt to
give you knowledge and ideas on agricultural development, rural development and land tenure
during the post colonial period in selected countries.
2.1 Learning Outcomes

• Define land tenure.

• identify and explain about various land tenure system that have been practised in different
places
• discuss resource utilization in relation to land tenure systems
• discuss land as a basis for nationalist and revolutionary struggle.
• explain on agricultural development, rural development and tenure during the post colonial
period in Zambia, Ethiopia and Zimbabwe.
2.2 Land Tenure Systems

2.2.1 You might have come across the term “Land Tenure”
2.2.2 Activity 4
What do you understand by the above mentioned term.
2.2.3 Let us now look at the definition of “Land Tenure”
(i) White (1959) defines land tenure as: “the rights of individuals or groups over arable grazing and
residential land, how such rights are acquired, what they consist of , how they operate in the
holding, transfer and inheritance of land and how they may be extinguished” ( White, 1959: 172) .
(ii) Land Tenure refers to the rights of people to hold land, the length of time land it is held and the
conditions by which land is held. Land tenure also refers to the way in which land is placed in the
authority of either an individuals or a group of people for the purpose of utilization for a specific
period of time.
(iii) According to Parsons (1988: 5) Land tenure is a condition or period for which someone may
have a right to a piece of land.
2.2.4. Having defined land tenure let us briefly look at the importance of discussing land tenure
firstly the discussion of land tenure is important because it tells us quite a lot about how one
important resources – land is utilized in any way given country. It also tells us something about the
ownership pattern which prevails in a given society or country and therefore, about the structure
(agrarian /social structure. We are interested in discovering who controls/has access to or owns the
land and how the labour is also controlled hence who benefits.
Secondly the question of the rights of individuals or groups over land is very crucial because in
some historical situation, there were /are instances where some groups may deprive others of their
rights of where the rights few may predominate over those of the majority. Hence, leading to
differential access to land resources and the consequent impact on agricultural development.
Women and land in Africa – women get access to land through (a) husband (a) family members e.g.
brothers or male relatives. Thus women need more security of tenure for the land they cultivate;
need for new land to secure equal land tenure rights for both men and women in the cities or rural
area (African farmer)
2.3 Types of land tenure systems

Land tenure system can be broadly grouped into two categories. Those which emphasis: (a)
communal ownership and (b) private ownership of the land.
Communal Ownership Private Ownership

(i) Land owned by community (i) Land held under
Freehold by an
Individual
or by the state on behalf of The individual accumulates all
The people.
returns for improvements ;
make capital gains as land
prices rise, uses land as security
for borrowing or collateral. eg
western countries – USA, UK
etc.
(ii ) Individuals work the plots (ii) Land held under
leasehold
. Security of tenure assured

by length of lease eg.
100years (Zambia).
- Tenant restricted in use of
land by clauses in the lease.
- Lease tends to be short when
land is in great demand.
- Lease hold and freehold
farmers usually
compensated for if the state
dispossesses them of land.
(iii) Village as a corporate body may hold and (iii) Tenancies: others variation
allocate land to individuals or families. e.g. landlord tenant
– Tenant pays rent; share
cropping i which ten and
pays a proportion of crop
as rent – i.e. equipment,
accommodation etc. e .g.
Ethiopia before
revolution.
(Iv) Land in trust by the chief

(E.g. some Africa land tenure system)
– Community and socialist not for sale.
(v) U.S.S.R sovkhoz = state farms owned and managed directly by the state kolkhoz =
collective / co-operative farm – land held correctively by farm workers / co-operators, NB. Under
perestroika, cops are being given more latitude to accumulate surpluses.
-In china rural communes emphasised co-operative production and ownership up to the 1970s
during the reign of Chairman Mao Tsetung. After his death in 1976. Economic and land reforms
were began which facilitated peasants to obtain leaseholds to the land which they farm, while the
state is still the legal custodian of land.
In Africa, white (1959) is of the view that the following types of land tenure system existed in the
pre-colonial period:
(a) Land holding under the control of lineages in this system , land could only be exclusively
reserved for the use of the members who trace their heritage from a common ancestry –
members of a lineage could inherit the land e.g. in west Africa and Zambian (Luvale, Ngoni,
Lungu)
(b) Feudal system with landlords and tenants: - this is the land tenure system which evolved in
much of Ethiopian history and especially prior to the 1974 revolution.
According to Patrick gilks (1975)
According to Patrick Gilks (1975) in the north (Tigre/ Amhara), the system of land tenure
was controlled by lineage and was known as RIST (i.e. the land belonged to the family. No
user could sell land out side the family without permission. Individual right was restricted.
All members had equal share theoretically.
In the south and west new patterns of feudal land tenure emerged towards the end of 19th as
conquest took place. The emperor granted land to the military commanders; Aristocracy; the
nobility and the church .e.g.
(i) SISO LAND- This land was granted to the military/ aristocracy. These could lease
mortgages or sale the land. They paid tax to the emperor/state.
(ii) RIST GULT- this land was given to the nobility or members of the royal house. They
performed military service; paid a little/tax to the state and used the tax money raised
from the land. This land was inherited.
(iii)CHURCH LAND- the church had vast lands from which various taxes were collected: -
land tax, a little-from the tenants.
(iv) TERNANTS/SERFS- these were the primary producers on the land. It was estimated that by
the eve of the revolution in 1974, holdings were distributed as follows.
TYPE OF HOLDING NO
Owned holdings 1,622,975
Tenant holdings 1,495,939
Land less households 446,660
On the whole, tenant holdings represented between 65-80% of all holdings in rural areas.
(i) These tenants /serfs usually paid rent in kind, and the rent varied depending on the land lord.
Usually tenants were expected to pay 50% of the harvest. In some cases rent was up to
75% of the harvest.
(ii) In addition the tenants were required to put aside 1/10 of the harvest to cover for
Other taxes and little which the land lord was supposed to pay- i.e. land tax health tax,
education tax, cattle tax, agricultural income tax i.e. landlords passed on the economic
burdens to the tenants/serfs.
(iii)The tenants could be evicted (and became landless) according to the wish of the land lord. If
he/she defaulted on his/ her obligation. The judges in the courts were themselves land
lords.
(iv) Absentee landlordism was quite common especially in the south where big estates existed.
Thus pre revolution quasi feudal/ quasi capitalist system land tenure the south and west part of
Ethiopia was to the advantage of the ruling class- the Emperor, nobility, the
military/Aristocrats- and was to the disadvantage of the tenants/serfs-working peasantry-who
were thus exploited through the extraction of 50-75 or more of their agricultural surpluses-
through various taxes and tithes.
(c) Societies in which chiefs exercised direct control over allocation with descending hierarchy of
Estates. Here in Zambia, Barotseland (now western province) evolved a quasi or semi feudal
system, agrarian/social structure from 1650 to 1880-a period of 230 years. Between 1830-1865
(35years), the Kololo ruled the kingdom, but the Lozi line of Kings was restored 1865.
THE LOZI/KOLOLO PRE-COLONIAL AGRARIAN/SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Level (I) The king/ queen- Litunga- with National council, the Lekhatla. (Gann,1964,p48).
Level (ii) the nobility and aristocracy .e.g. Nyambela- prime minister and chiefly classes-Princes,
princesses, indunas or counselors.
Level (iii) the army and state bureaucracy. The Kololo introduced Regiments and age grades in the
army.
Level (IV) the common subsistence cultivation peasantry practicing Transhumance and specialists
e.g. pottery maker.
Level (v) Slaves and serfs. The slaves and serfs performed public works of constructing and
maintaining a network of communication and drainage canals which controlled the flooding of the
Zambezi; human made mounds for cultivation and settlement and tilled land.
LAND- Land and other land/water resources. According to Lozi law, all land in Barotseland was
vested in the Litunga. He controlled some Human made mounds. Others were controlled indirectly
by attaching them to aristocracy or individuals/counselors, the nobility (i.e Princes and Princesses),
care takers of royal graves and guardians of the king’s cattle.
The most prolific fishing sites, reed beds, grazing sites, bird-resources and turtle lakes were
reserved for the Litunga (Gluckman: 26).
Some moulds belonged to commoners or peasant/serfs, and could be inherited. Those who
controlled moulds also controlled other land... the moulds were lightly productive and were the
main gardens on which the staple sorghum crop (makonga) was grown. The mounds acquired great
scarcity value.
- The village/ home stead heads- tended to monopolise the use of land with which they in turn
used to acquire several wives, i.e. women obtained land through husbands.
- Surpluses: the king and the other ruling classes extracted surpluses through bureaucracy and
the military from the serfs and peasantry by way of:-
(a) A permanent tribute or tax in kind- items included food, cattle, game meat, fish, crafts,
ivory etc.
(b) Using the labour of slaves who were accumulated in the kingdom to till the land for the
king and other ruling classes who constituted the state. Hence labour intensive sishanjo
cultivation for semi permanent (manured agriculture to grow fruits, vegetables,
sorghum, maize etc).
The serfs and the slaves performed other public work especially casual building. In October, 1893 a
slave rebellion occurred in Sesheke at the height of canal building when thousands of slaves were
required to offer their labour (Van hon, 1976:150).
- The major producer of “food wealth” was the common subsistence cultivation peasantry
who practiced transhumance; the serfs and the slaves; and they performed public works.
- The system of semi-final land tenure made some members of the aristocracy the indunas,
very powerful since they also controlled personnel (Langworthy, 1972:82).
- Although rather exploitative, the agricultural structure was part of the pre-colonial African
civilisation, and Barotseland enjoyed security before colonial rule as noted by David
Livingstone in 1853
(c) Societies where individuals obtained land rights by residence, without allocation through a
hierarchy of estates.
White (1959) argues that this was the most prevalent type of land tenure in pre-colonial Zambian,
and in other parts of Africa. in Zambia and in other parts of Africa , land was generally plentiful.
Individual’s families within a given village usually acquired land through clearing virgin bush. As
long as individuals were politically acceptable in the community they acquired a piece of land after
consulting the village headman- who in turn had constant contact with the sub-chief.
One an individual hat acquired a piece of land his/her rights to its use was protected by the
community as long as he/she continued to use it. The individual did not own the land as such but
enjoyed the usufruct of the land.
The chief did not own the land either but held it in trust for his people. Since the chief did not own
the land, he did not extract surpluses from the substances cultivation peasantry in form of a
permanent land tax , although the people could give him /her gift of food and relish such as meat
and fish at special cerebrate the new harvest thus , the agrian/social structure such as among the
Tonga, Kaonde,Lamba,Lala,etc. Where no major centralized states existed was as follows:
Administrative levels
Level i the chief/chieftainess royal
Level ii sub chief /chieftainess
Level iii village headman /headwoman
Level IV villagers /families.
“Although the Kaonde society had an administrative hierarchy, it was not differentiated into classes
or castes with resources” (Jaeger 1981:40). No accumulation of durable wealth took place as the
material culture of the Kaonde was rather poor.
What was crucial is that all the people at all the four levels of the administrative hierarchy, engaged
in direct production of food. the produce of sorghum and millet in the granary was controlled by the
chief (Crehan, 1983:56) the shifting cultivation peasantry controlled the producer in their own
granary without being obligated to pay a permanent tax on land because there was no tax in kind,
the chief could not ever accumulate, and the village died not lose socio – economic surpluses
to others. (Cabral, 1969: 47 and Mao Tse-tung, 1965:23-59) co-operative labour was mobilised
through work parties – mobile
3. Some general principals governing pre- colonial African land tenure (among shifting
cultivators)
Although there was different system of agricultural land tenure in pre-colonial African as we have
seen certain bread principles governing social relations with respect to tenure could be discerned
among shifting cultivators.
(a) Land was to be occupied corporately by a nation, a clan, a lineage or a family; it belonged to
the tribal group or to the ancestors. For example, Charles Scriber says that land belong to the
dead, the living and to those not yet born.
(b) There shall be no private ownership of land. The land occupied by the traditional
community shall belong to that community and con not be alienated without its consent of
tenure ,e.g. security as collateral,)
(c) Every individual within the community shall have security of tenure.
(d) No members of the community shall be without land (Yudelman , 1964 :14) African on the
land)
(e) Land reverted to the community when not in use.
Note. These general principles worked in such a way that all adult members of the community had
access to a piece of land which they tilled to produce food for subsistence. Although land was
generally plentiful, it was still implied that no one was to be landless - although the landless existed
in feudal systems of land tenure. Birgegard, 1993 argues that indigenous tenure systems are
dynamic and not static – they change due to different pressures.
4. Colonial Land Rights and Dispossession of Africa ns.
Before outlining the spatial aspects of land tenure during the colonial period, it should be noted that
the colonialists had the following Economic motives:-
(a) To secure cheap land

(b) To secure cheap labour
(c) To secure cheap raw materials e.g. crops and minerals
(d) Land for settlements
(e) To spread Christianity and progress
(Jack Woddis, 1967).
Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) was conquered and incorporated in the early 1890s by the
B.S.A Company. Company rule continued up to 1924, when the British Crown took over
administration.
In the 1920s – (1924 – 29) Land Commissions were appointed to facilitate the process of
creating reservations where certain African populations could be resettled so as to make land
available for European Settlement. With the exception of Barotseland (which was a
Protectorate)
Land was alienated along the line of rail, in the Eastern Province and Northern
Province. Fertile land, and land close to the railway line and near urban markets was
reserved for Europeans. Africans were pushed into reserves which were tsetse flies
infested, far from markets, on poor soils, and where crowding of both humans and
cattle led to over grazing and soil erosion.
During the colonial period land was classified as follows: Crown land; Native
Reserve land-for Africans only; Native Trust lands (more lands for Africans after
1942 to alleviate population pressure in reserves). Barotseland Protectorate.
(i) Crown Lands-were identified in large blocks mainly along the rail line between
Livingstone and the Copper belt and in the mining areas of the copperbelt and was
reserved for freehold or leasehold ownership by white settlers.
(ii) Native Reserve Land-was placed under traditional leaders in their areas of
jurisdiction to be managed through traditional laws and systems of allocation and
tenure.
(iii) Native Trust Lands- Was established as the government realized that settler
demand was too low to utilize the full area designated for this purpose. Trust lands
were governed by the central authority in trust for the indigenous population.
(iv) Barotseland Protection- The Barotseland territory was under the protection of the
British government.
Thus with the imposition of colonial rule, a whole new pattern of land organization
was introduced. The control and use of agricultural space was altered. Although
Africans were still allowed to continue practicing subsistence agriculture, in some
cases, the colonial administration introduced conservation measures to control soil
erosion. Other developments relating to agricultural development occurred:
(i) Because Africans were now confined to smaller areas, they could not practice
their shifting cultivation as before-hence, productivity was negatively
affected. Population pressure and livestock contributed to environmental
degradation especially soil erosion (P. Blackie, 1985, The Political Economy
of soil erosion in developing countries).
-In the southern province where the Tonga Farmers began to adopt modern
methods of cultivating maize, they began to compete with Europeans for
markets and the Africans were paid less money for their maize than was paid
to Europeans. The process of creating a cash cropping peasantry had started.
(Kagoba, 1988).
(ii) In the rest the peripheral areas, the process of labour migration was set in
motion with the introduction of hut tax in 1911, so that Africans could be
compelled to offer their labour on the copper mines which were opened in
the 1920s, and on European farms.
This process of labour migration which mostly affected males-up to 60% in

some areas-led to the under development of agriculture in the country side.
This was very critical not only among Bemba(where boys and young males
have to climb and lop the trees) but throughout Northern Rhodesia.
iii) In the areas where Africans began to grow maize, cotton, tobacco commercially, there were
pressures to individualize land tenure contrary to tradition. This led to the building of
permanent houses, boreholes e.t.c.
2.4 Land as a basis for nationalist and revolutionary struggle
2.4.1 Agricultural land Tenure and rural Development during the post colonial period .(The case
of Zambia, Ethiopia and Zimbabwe.)
(1) Zambia:-That land did not feature prominently in the demand for independence.
At independence Zambia inherited a land tenure structure following ways:
(a) On freehold basis – In perpetually: on crown/state land.

(b) On leasehold basis in perpetually : on crown /state land.
(c) In the traditional ways: on reserve and trust lands.
Because many farms which belonged to European absentee landlords were left unfarmed, the
government passed the 1979 land acquisition Act-which empowered the Presidency to acquire
such farms – with compensation paid.
- To ensure that the state had more say in the use of agricultural land, the state 1975 lands
conversion of Titles Act was passed which entrusted all land in the state and converted all
free hold titles into leasehold for 99 years.
- By 1985, in order that traditionally held land may be developed for agriculture, the state
allows individuals who acquire up to 250 ha. Of such land titles to convert it to leaseholds-
so that titles to land can be given to guarantee security of tenure which can be used as
collateral to secure loans from banks – (The Sakala land commission report, 19850.
- Land Tenure Reforms in Zambia have been evolutionary rather than revolutionary.
The following types of land tenure systems are currently being practiced:
(1) Private ownership (freehold).

In this type of land tenure system the person with the right to use or occupy the land will have
a title deed for the piece of land. Since he/she has a title deed, he/she can mortgage it for a
loan. The owner can use it in any way he thinks will benefit him. The owner of the land is
secure and can make many development projects such as fencing and sinking boreholes.
(2) State ownership.

This is a system where no one has a right to the land. All the land belongs to the state. People
may be allowed to settle on this land. They can be removed from the land when the need
arises and may be compensated for their investments on the land.
(3) Communal ownership (traditional)

Under this system of land ownership, the land does not belong to any individual but to the
community. The land is marked into sections of the community such as tribe, clan, village or
member of the tribe. Those allocated the land can use it as long as they comply with the rules
that have been worked out by the tribe, village or clan. NB. As mentioned above, some tracts
or traditionally held land has been converted to leaseholds to enable landowners secure loans
from banks.
(4) Leasehold.
Under this type of land ownership the state or the landlord gives land to a tenant for a
specified period. The tenant pays rent for using the piece of land. If the land is leased by the
state, a tenant may have leasehold of a long period of 99 years. The longer the lease, the more
secure the tenant is.
(5) Cooperative land ownership.

Here land is owned by a group of people. Such a group of people will have organized itself into
a cooperative society. Members of cooperative society will have the title deed for the piece of
land they own.
(NB Zambia’s constitution is undergoing some transformation and as a result some changes in
land tenure are likely to occur).
Allocation of land in urban and rural in Zambia
Some of the proposed land administrative procedures for allocation of land in Urban and
Rural areas by the Ministry of Lands include the following provisions.
1. GRZ has ordered councils allocating residential and business plots to insist on evidence
of availability of money when considering applications.
2. Evidence of occupation must be produced by successful applicants 18 months after
issuing title deeds;
3. All land to be allocated within council boundaries must be serviced and advertised in the
National Press; at least three applicants must be recommended for each stand.
(Reference: Mashawila, A.C, Zulu,. 1992, “The proposed land alienation Procedures – who
are the beneficiaries in ZIPNEWZ, Issue No. 1/92, P.8 and 9).
Revolutionary land reform in Ethiopia

The 1974 Socialist Revolution brought radical measures which included the following:-
1. All Private ownership of land was abolished. It became the collect property of the
Ethopian people. Compensation was paid for immovable property.
2. Peasants were given 10 hectors each.
3. Tenancy wads abolished (i.e. quasifendal relations)
4. Hired labour in agriculture was abolished.
5. Land cold not be sold, mortgaged or leased anymore.
6. Rent in land was abolished.
7. Farmers / Titles of land were given USUFRUCTUAY rights.
8. Socialist cooperatives were formed.
9. Large commercial farms operations were nationalized - they became state farms.
10. Peasant Associations were formed to deal with land redistribution, marketing,
marketing, forestry, built schools , clinics, establish judicial tribunals e.g.
11. Urban housing were also nationalized – one house per family and per person.
To achieve the aims of revolutionary land reform programme, the revolutionary government
in Ethiopia mobilized University students through national service to go to the country side
– where they in turn mobilized the small holders the landless peasants and agricultural
workers. These were the rural class forces with the greatest revolutionary potential. An
intense class struggle was waged leading to radical agrarian socio-economic transformation
in the country side.
NOTE
Prof. Fassil Kiros (1993) has observed that “although the 1975 agrarian reform dramatically
attired the relations of production in the agricultural sectors, some of the negative features of
land distribution which had prevailed in the Pre – revolution period continued to
characterize the land holding system prevailing in the post-revolution period ‘and the new
rural mass organizations “failed to induce effective grassroots participation……….” And in
the methods of agriculture production. (p.149)
(i) THE EXPERIENCE OF ZIMBABWE

1889 - Rudd concession - Cecil Rhodes obtains “rights in land” From King
Lobengula -or ‘mineral rights.
1890 - Pioneer column in Salidality, BSA Company allocated land to

pioneers.
1896 -97 Mateble and Shonarebelions.
1930 - Land appointment act – separate land purchase areas for Africans and
Europeans,
1950 - Native land husbandry act – farming and grazing rights to individuals.
1970 - Armed Liberation struggle.

1980 - Negotiated settlement – Lancaster agreement of 1989 – “willing seller
– willing buyer”.
1992 - Land Acquisitions Act.
Land as a basis for revolutionary nationalist struggle some parts of Africa

Dispossession of land by the Africans led to Resistance
(i) 1896 – 97 Matebele and Shona rebellions in Zimbabwe.
(ii) 1915 - Chilembwe Rising in Malawi
(iii) 1970s Armed Liberation struggle by ZANU, ZAPU and later the P.F – of
Independence in 1980.
(iv) 1950s - Mau Mau Land Freedom Army and the struggle for independence
In Kenya.
(v) Apartheid, Britain and the Land question and Liberation
Struggle.
Theory : That “all revolutions are based on land” Malcolm x –e.g. in china in 1949,
Ethiopia, 1974, Nicaragua, 1970, Nicaragua, 1979.
Hence (vi) LAND REFORM REQUIRED to make idle land productive and improve the
Condition of the small peasant farmers.
WHY LAND REFORM?

(i) To correct Historial injustice;
(ii) To increase productivity of agricultural land;
(iii)To re-organise society.
(iv) To empower small scale farmers.
In trying to achieve increased productivity as well as the other aims, there is need to try and
balance the promotion and, therefore, the contributions of both the small –scale and the large –
scale development as both have a role play in ensuring sustainable agricultural development.
10.5 SOME ISSUES

(a) Land Speculation
This is the process by which private land owners buy land cheaply, hold it and then
sell it to make large profits when there is a change in the market value of the land-
without making significant improvements on it. The process leads to escalating land
values.
(b) Fragmentation of land – Cf. Consolidation where private land owners can make a
greater net profit from the rents of several small plots/farms than from a single large
one, there will be a tendency towards land fragmentation, where local custom also
favors he division of wealth between all sons or children, there is also tenancy
towards land fragmentaition and reduction in farm size.
Where land is privately owned and is scarce, there is a tendency for the richer
farmers to grab and consolidate holding by buying out the small farmers – who get
displaced as landless peasants/agricultural labourers. Mukaru Nganga (1981, What is
happening to the Kenyan peasantry? Shows that the operation of International
Capital in rural Kenya is not only contributing to exploitation but also to landless
and increased peasant differentiation.
(c) Peasant Differentiation

E.g. in Muranga District, the following picture emerged:-
Rich Peasantry 1.6% of population.
Middle peasants probably 34% of population
Landless peasants 10-20%
This is the process where peasantas become differentiated, or divided into sub
classes depending on their access to land and capital.
That the Kenyan Capitalists system and they are exploited.
(d) Tenure Security and Investment Traditional Security Vs Security as collateral. That
land registration provides greater security and an improvement.
(e) The “Tragedy of the commons” – put forward by Garret Harding (1968) –
overgrazing on range land and even in forestry. Thinking in terms of
individualization and Privitisation.
(f) Tenure reform, Bigegard (1993) is of the view that “in the African context tenure
reform generally refers to changes in the forms and conditions on which land is held
rather than to redistribution of hand” as land reform tends to have political motives
rather than consideration of economic efficiency. But we need land reform tends
consideration of economic efficiency. But we need land reform in its BROADEST
SENSE.
10.6. LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have learned about land tenure systems that have been practiced in
different places. You also looked at resource utilization in relation to land tenure
systems. Your further discussed land as a basis for Nationalist and revolutionary
struggle in some parts of the world. The unit has also helped you to understand the
concepts of agricultural development and rural development. Land tenure systems in
the past colonial period in Zambia, Ethiopia and Zimbabwe were also tackled.
10.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Having gone through unit 10 of this module, try to answer the following self-
assessment questions.
1. Give a definition of “land Tenure”.

2. Identify and explain on the types of land tenure systems that have been practiced
in Pre-Colonial period in Africa.
3. What is the relationship between land tenure system and resource utilization?
4. With the aid of examples show how land has been a basis for nationalist and
Revolutionary struggle.
5. What do you understand by the following terms:
(a) Agricultural development
(b) Sustainable agricultural development.
(c) Native Trust lands.
(d) Discuss the role of Local Councils in allocation residential and commercial
plots in urban areas in Zambia.
REFERENCES
Barnett, D. (1973) Peasant and Revolutionary Potential in Colonial Africa .Richmond: I.S.M. Press.
Bruce, W.J. and Doner :( 1982) Agricultural land Tenure in Zambia: Perspectives, Problems,
and Opportunities, University of Wisconsin, Land Tenure
Center, and Research Papers No. 76.
Cabral, A. (1969), Brief Analysis of the Social Structure in Guinea” in Gabral A,

Revolution in Guinea: an African Peoples struggle, stage1, London: 46-61
Cohen,M.J. (1950), “Land Tenure and Rural Development in Africa; In Robert H. Bates and
Michael F. Lofchie, 1980, Agriculture Development in Africa:
Issues of Public Policy, Praeger, N.Y.
Grehan, K. (1983), “Women and Development in North – Western Zambia: From

Producer to Housewife”, in Review of African Political
Economy, No. 27/28.
Gilks, P. (1975) The Dying Lion: Feudalism and modernization in Ethiopia,

London: Julian Friedman Publishing LTD.
G.Luckman, M. (1968) Economy of the Central Barotse Plain, Rhodes Livingstone

Papers number seven. Manchester University Pres.
Jaeger, D. (1981) Settlement patterns and Rural Development. A human

Geographical Study of the Kaonde, Kasempa District, Zambia
Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute.
Kayeba, M.G, (1976) Recent Development in Land Administration Zambia, Mimeo.
Kires, G.F, (1993) The Subsistence Crisis in Africa: The Case of Ethiopia
OSSREA.
Long worthy, H, W, (1972) Zambia before 1890; Aspects of Pre-Colonial History

London: Longman
Livingstone, D. (1957) Missionary Travels and Researchers in South Africa.
Mao Tse – Tung (1965); “ Respect on the Investigation of the Peasant movement in
Humans; in selected works of Mao Tse – Tung, Vol.V.
Foreign Languages Press Peking, PP.384-419.
Morgan, W.B and Munton, R.J.C (1971) Agricultural Geography, London: Methuen and Co.
Ltd.
Mvunga, P.M. (1980) The Colonial Foundations of Zambia’s Land Tenure System
Lusaka: NECZAM.
Mvunga, P.M. (1982) Land Law and Policy in Zambia, The University of Zambia
Institute for African studies Mambo Press.
Palmer, R (1973) ,”Land in Zambia”, in R.Palmer (ed), Zambia Land and

Labour Studies, Vol. 1. National Archives Occasional Paper.
Parson, J.B. (1988) Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary. Ndola: Printpak (Zambia)
Limited.
Republic of Zambia Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. The National Environmental
Action Plan, December 1994.
Sidle, J.D. (1972) “Colonial Land Rights “in D. Hywel Davies (ed) Zambia in
Maps. London: University London Press. PP.48-49
University of Zambia (UNZA) study material Geo112.Lusaka: UNZA Press.
Van Henry, L. (1977) “The Agricultural History of Barotseland 1940-1964”; in R.

Palmer and N. Parsons (ends), The Roots of Rural Poverty in
Central and Southern Africa, London: Heinemann pp164-169.
UNIT 3.
INDUSTRIALISATION
3. O. Introduction
Welcome to unit three. In this unit you will be introduced to the concepts of Resource
conversion and Industrialization. You will also learn about the processes of industrialization
and Industrial revolution and effects. You will also look at the diffusion of the Industrial
Revolution and its results. This unit will also give you knowledge and ideas on Economic
growth, Economic development and modernization.
3.1 learning outcome

• Discuss resource conversion and industrialization.
• Explain the process of Industrialization, Industrial Revolution and its effects.
• Discuss the concepts of Economic growth, Economic development and Modernization
with confidence.
3.2 Resource Conversion and Industrialization

3.2.1 Resource Conversion
The Concept of Resource has already been dealt with. Here we want to state that Resources
also include cultural resources. We are tying to argue that the exploitation of natural
resources refers to what is known as cultural appraisal.
3.2.2 ACTIVITY 5
Define Resource Conversion
In discussing Resource Conversion, we logically have to deal with Industrialization. There

are three major types Industrial activities with regards to resource conversion:-
(a) Primary Industries: These Industries are concerned with the extraction of renewable and non
renewable resources from the environment e.g. fishing coal or copper mining in Zambia,
extractions of oil and gas in Libya e.g.
(b) Secondary Industries: These industries are involved with resources conversion or Processing
of raw materials. The extracted raw materials are turned into end products that are consumed
by people. The products of secondary industries are known as manufactured goods. In some
instances many factories turn by Products.
(c) Tertiary Industries: These are concerned with the distribution of goods and services to the
consumers, and include transport, banking, commerce, education, medicine, defense,
tourism e.g.
3.2.3 Resource Conversion as Manufacturing.

(I) According to Spencer and Thomas, the word “Manufacture” signifies operations carried on
by hand to improve the quality of raw material. On the while, resource conversion is the
turning of raw materials into end products that are consumed by people i.e. manufacturing.
(ii) Types of Resources Conversion Process. There are three types of process related to resource
conversion. These are processing related to resource conversion. These are processing
manufacturing and assembling.
(a) Processing: This is the rearing of the Primary raw materials so as to make them unusable i.e.
Iron ore as Primary raw materials is processed to make metallic Iron an agent that is
combined with secondary agents, the Ferro alloys, to make steel in the stage of primary
manufacturing.
(b) Manufacturing: This is the making of more complex products out of primary products e.g.
the steel which is manufactured during the Primary manufacturing stage is turned into
machine tools or producer goods, which through secondary manufacturing are employed to
shape beams and sheets of steel into units for instance the body components of a car. Two
pairs of terms often employed for the operations for Primary manufacturing and light
industry and heavy industry.
(c) Assembling: This is the putting together of the “end-products” so as to form consumer
Products eg. A car, a refrigerator or television set –this is made from hundreds of Primary
raw materials. These raw materials are processed through hundreds of operations requiring
intricate equipment, and subjected to hundreds of manufacturing process by complex
machinery before a sufficient number of end products” can finally be assembled into a
consumer product”.
We should mention here that Assembling has become a popular process of “Industrialization” in
the third world countries. It is what is known as import substitution. However, it should be
noted that this form of import substitution has not brought about genuine industrialization
instead, it has led to dependency since the end “end products” to be assembles or the “raw
materials” required for assembling are not manufactured locally but are imported hence, losing
foreign exchange (e.g. the Livingstone motor assembly.
3.2.4 THE PROCESS OF INDUSTRIALISATION

In the industrialization process, a number of things happened:
(i) There were fundamental changes or revolutions in the methods of extraction of natural
resources. These changes were accompanied by huge increase in human population and
this large population gradually began to demand more products than what individuals
could make at home in cottage industries – Greater Projects productivity.
(ii) People came to realize that the conversion of raw materials into more finished products
could only be done through the efficiency of specialization in the conversion process.
For this reason, Division and specialization of labour emerged.
(iii)This specialization in the conversion of raw materials was accompanied by rapid
mechanization.
(iv) Rapid mechanisaton was made possible by shift to inanimate sources of power such as coal
to run the combustion engine-hence, the system engine facilitated railway transportation.
All these changes vastly increased production of manufacturing goods. Industrialization:-The

growth of the manufacturing process as a result of rapid mechanization and the application of
large – scale power is what is called industrialization. It is also the process of building up a
country’s capacity to process raw materials and to manufacture goods for consumption or
further production.
3.2.4.1 The evolution of Industrial procedure

(i) ‘Primitive’ Household industry:-Simple manufacturing operations began in
campsites, working sites and such places as men/women chose to carry on their
individual operations. Use of simple technologies.
(ii) Simple – powered household industry:-As simple technologies evolved and man
learned to harness sources of power e.g. the water wheel; the windmill, a draught
animal or a group of human laborers newer and different kinds of raw materials
could be processesed in greater volumes.
(iii) Community workshop industry: - Technological process and labour skills without
development of inputs of energy. The volume of out put was greater than when
people worked alone. The site of operations became a specialised building.
(iv) By the late 19th century the evolution of industrial procedures had produced what
could be designated as energy – powered factory industry. This was due to the
advancement of technology which involved:
(a) The employment of huge amounts of energy making labour the manipulated of
power.
(b) The deployment of technology in the processing of raw materials by which
many kinds of physical, chemical and manipulative changes were made in the
raw materials.
(c) The development of the physical plant, the factory “building “ which became a
specialised instrument for specific purposes.
(v) By the mid – twentieth century, the evolution of industrial procedures had produced what
could be designated as corporate, powered production line in which machines take over
more and more of the operations, with skilled labour now tending to become machine
managers. These industries are owned by Global or Transnational corporations. It was
estimated that by 1985 about 300 global corporations will control most of the non
socialist world’s productive assists.
3.2.4.2 CHANGE IN SOCIETY

The changes which occurred in the processing of raw materials were also accompanied by
changes in societies such as:-
(a) Population Redistribution and social transformation.
Before industrialization in Europe many people were employed in agriculture but with the
advent of Industrialization there was a large scale redistribution of population from rural areas
to processing centers. In the case of Britain, this process was a violent one for it involved the
forceful removal of peasants from communal land through introduction of enclosure Acts. The
agricultural bourgeoisies took over what was formerly communal land and turned it into private
property. The landless peasants were thus economically forced to migrate to urban areas to sell
their labour in the budding industries.
(b) INCRESE IN WEALTH
Societies became more and more affluent (wealthy). This had a great influence on
industrialization in that more complex products demanded by the affluent society resulted in
the emergence of affluent economics.
SOCIAL CLASS DIFFERENTIATION
It should be noted, however, that although capitalist Industrialization produced affluent

societies, class differentiation led to existence of large segments of the poor. Cecil
Rhodes(the well known British Financier and imperialist) said the following in 1885: “I was
in the East End of London” (Working –Class quarters) yesterday and a meeting of the
unemployed which was just a cry for “bread” and on my way home I pondered over the
scene and I became more than convinced of importance of imperialism. My cherished idea
is a solution for the social problem, i.e. in order to save the 40,000,000 inhabitants of the
United Kingdom from a bloody civil war, we colonial statesmen must acquire new land to
settle the surplus population, to provide new markets for the goods produced in the factories
and mines. The empire, as I have always said is a bread and butter question. If you want to
avoid civil war, you must become imperialists.
NB: Cecil Rhodes was actually advocating the exportation of contradictions from the
Britain to the third world.
3.2.4.3. Spatial Significance of industrialization.
(a) URBANISATION
The population became more generally concentrated in cities. Areas with clusters of
urban settlements were created and these clusters (towns) have taken new forms.
(b) DIFFERENTIATION:
Sharp distinction became evident between prosperous and poor areas (e.g. the abode
of the rich and the abode of the poor in third world citizens).
(c) REGIONAL INTERACTIONS:

Goods were moved increasingly long distances between regions as a result of
improvement in the means of transportation. Furthermore, there was weakening of
regional and local self-sufficiency due to the great demand for long distance
movement of raw materials, fuel and foods. Because resources are located in
particular places and industrial enterprises are large scale, industrialization requires
great spatial interdependent.
3.2.5 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Industrialsation meant that mans economic activities were directed along new paths
and his productivity multiplied by leaps and bounds. Th changed was so abrupt and
the results for reaching that the process came to be known as the Industrial
Revolution.
The industrial Revolution was a series of inventions and innovations which occurred
between the 18th and 20th centuries – and which led to the increase in the production
of manufactured goods due to machine and inanimate power in the manufacturing
process. The Industrial Revolution, first took place in England in the 18th Century.
3.2.5.1 Causes of the Industrial Revolution.

There were two types of factors which contributed to industrial transformation in
Europe and Britain in particular. These were internal and external factors. Internal
factors contributed to industrial revolutions as Western Europe was the first to
evolve from Feudalism to capitalism; and that there were external factors and
especially the integration of the third world and particularly Africa which provided
raw materials such as ivory, dye woods from the textile industry, e.g. and slake trade
and slave labour in the pre – colonial period,. It should be pointed out that Europe
has been in commercial contract with Africa during the Pre – Colonial period for
many centuries. During this time Africa provided raw materials, human beings and
human labour. Which contributed to the foundations of the industrialization of
Europe?
Capital Accumulation: Increased savings (from commerce and agriculture-this
includes commerce with Africa – Ivory, slaves, the Caribbean and American e.g.
Sugar cane, cotton grown by African slaves and the exporting of manufactured
goods to Africa and Asia. David and Alexander Barclay, slave traders in 1756 used
the wealth to set up Barclays Bank – (Rodney, 1976:96), “Throughout the 17th and
18th Centuries, and for most of the 18th centuries, and for most of 19th Century,
exploitation of African labour continued to be a source for the accumulation of
capital to be re-invested in We stern Europe” (Rodney 1976:8).
Internally industrial profits reinvested better mobilizing of savings because of
improved financial institutions; economy of savings because of improved transport
e.g.
Inventions and Innovations: There were changes in the Technology and
Organization of agriculture and industry e.g. capitalist agriculture replaced feudal
agriculture; new and improved machinery; new sources of power; larger scale
productions (e.g. enclosures and factories); greater division of labour; industrial
localization.
Externally international trade with Africa, Asia and the new world stimulated
innovations in ship building and localization.
Internally international trade with Africa, Asia and the New World stimulated
Innovations in ship building and navigation.
Fortunate Factor Endowments: Britain had raw materials – coal, iron ore, economy
(small country-hence from Africa, Asia and the Americans.
Other raw materials like cotton, tobacco, Ivory, gold and silver obtained from Africa,
Asia and the Americans. Ports such as Liverpool based on textiles – cotton from
black labour cultivated plantations south of the United State.
Urban workers:
Skilled labour force; increased populations-more labour inputs; relatively large
industrial labour force, the result of greater agricultural productivity.
Entrepreneurial and inventing talents:

The spirit of risk taking.
Laissez –fair: Longterm changes from feudal to capitalist philosophy, religion,

science and law; culminating in the 18th century in secularism (separation of state
and church);rationalism (the practice of treating reason as in other subjects of study;
economic individualism; propagandists for free enterprise or laissez-faire (policy of
allowing individual activities especially in commence to be conducted without
government control) such as Adam Smith (‘the wealth of Nations” – basically
argued that Britain’s wealth or that of other nations was basically a result of free
nations enterprise, that market forces acted as some kind of invisible hand leading
entrepreneurs to act in such a manner that development and accumulation of wealth
took place).
External Factors /Conditions
Market expansion: Increasing foreign trade internally and externally. (In some
cases, these foreign markets like in Africa became dumping grounds for excess
goods); Increasing domestic grounds for excess goods); increasingly domestic
consumption because of:-
(a) Rising real incomes; urbanization
(b) Rising real incomes; urbanization; improved transport which lowered costs and
prices, stimulating demand; relatively lower prices of industrial goods –
increasingly demanded – creating a market for the industrial products.
Colonialism and Imperialism: Rodney writing in his famous book “How Europe
under developed Africa; argues that before advent of colonialism, Africa made a
contribution to European Capitalist Development i.e. to the Industrialization of
Europe. People’s press meeting writing in with freedom in their Eyes: A Photo essay
of Angela” 1976 point out like Rodney, that the slave trade in Africa which lasted
for about 4 centuries or 400 years, provided free labour in the gold and silver mines
of Latin America where not withstand the stress and the small pox introduced by
Europeans; provided free labour on the sugar plantations of the Caribbean’s and
provided free labour on the cotton fields in the Southern part of the U.S.A. The
Gold, Silver, sugar cane, cotton e.g. provided the raw materials upon which the
capitalist industrialization of Europe was based in the 18th, 19th centuries. All these
things took place before the eve of colonialism in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Rodney points out that Karl Marx also commented on the way Europeans capitalists
tied Africa, the West Indies and Latin America into the capitalist system; and went
on to point out that” what Marx noted that “the discovery of gold and silver in
America, the enslavement of the aboriginal population, the turning of Africa into a
commercial warrior for the hunting of black skins signalized the rosy down of the
era of capitalist production” (Rodney 1976 A93) with regards to colonialism and
imperialism, Lenin has the following to say (V.I) Lenin, Imperialism, the Highest
stage of capitalism, 1975 PP.104-106):
“Imperialism emerged as the development and direct continuation of the
fundamental characteristics of capitalism in general. But capitalism only became
capitalist imperialism at a definite and very high stage of its development.
Economically the main thing in this process is the displacement of capitalist free
competition by capitalist monopoly. Free completion is the fundamental
characteristics of capitalism and of commodity production generally; monopoly is
the exact opposite of free competition , but we have seen the latter being transformed
into monopoly creating large –scale industry and forcing out small industry,
replacing large-scale by still large scale industry, and carrying concentration of
production and capital to the point where of it has grown and is growing monopoly:
cartels, syndicates and trusts, and merging with them, the capital of a dozen or so
banks, which manipulate thousands of millions . At the same time the monopolies,
which have grown out of free completion do not eliminate the later but exist over it
and alongside of it and thereby give rise to a number of very acute intense
antagonism, frictions and conflicts. Monopoly is the transition from capitalism to a
higher system”.
3.2.5.2ACTIVITY 6
What do you understand by the term imperialism? Write down your definition.
Let us now try to give a definition of imperialism. Compare your definition with the
definition we shall give in the next section.
According to Kasoma, Imperialism refers to a policy of extending a country’s power
and influence on to another. It involves the political, economic, religious and social
domination of one race by another.
If it were necessary to give the briefest possible definition of imperialism we would
have to say that imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism.
A definition of imperialism will have to include the following basic features:-
(1) The concentration of production and capital has developed to such a high
stage that it has created monopolies which play a decisive role in economic
life;
(2) The merging of bank capital with industrial capital and the creation, on the
basis of this ‘Finance capital’ of a financial oligarchy; (3) the export of
capital as distinguished from the export of commodities acquires exceptional
importance; (4) the formation of international monopolist capitalist combines
which share the world among themselves, and (5) the territorial division of
the whole world among the biggest capitalism in that stage of development in
which the dominance of monopolies and finance capital has established
itself; in which the dominance of monopolies and finance capitals has
established itself; in which the export of capital has acquired pronounced
importance; in which the division of the world among the international trust
has begun, in which the division of all the territories of the globe among the
biggest capitalist powers has been completed.
Hence in viewing the industrialization of Europe we realize that because of
these fundamental changes which were taking place in the capitalist
economics , European powers wanted to export capital, goods and settlers to
the the third world and particularly Africa-hence, colonialism. By directly
colonisng Africa from 1884-1985 up to the 1960s, the Europeans capitalist
powers wanted:-
(1) Markets for their goods; (2) Cheap labour for the mines and plantations
which they established in order to obtain Raw materials for their
industries at home;(3) cheap and fertile land on which Europeans settlers
could settle and farm while using the cheap African labour of Kenya,
Malawi and Zimbabwe; these settlers were paid for their finance capital
so that it could make more super profits since the land and labour were
free and cheap. All these advantages or factors further fueled
industrialization in Europe. It is therefore important to consider the
important role played by external factors as well when looking at
European industrialization process.
As a matter of fact, Rodney argues correctly that “the developed and
underdeveloped parts of the present capitalist section of the world have been
in continuous contact for four and half centuries. The contention here is that
over the period Africa helped to develop western Europe in the same
proportion as western Europe helped to under develop Africa” (Rodney,
1976: 85)
3.2.5.2 Effects of the Industrial Revolution
(i) THE industrial revolution led to great changes in social organization and
cultural development particularly associated with urbanization, cultural changes and
so may be seen as a breaking point in the evolution of cultural society.
The industrial revolution as an agent of cultural change has led to changes in
tradition, increased interregional trade, inter-cultural contact (this includes cultural
imperialism-films, books, music e.g. ; the extermination of American Indians e.t.c);
basic alterations in employment patterns; a shift from rural to urban dwelling for vast
numbers of people; decrease in death rate; release of the women from home;
disappearance of child labour due to the introduction of child labour laws prohibiting
the exploitation of child labour; increase in educational opportunities for the poor;
increase in the secondary and tertiary activities.
(ii) Other social changes were improvements in the standards of dwellings, increase
in the skills possessed by people.
(iii) High growth societies
Economically it marked a change from low growth societies to high growth
societies; from low productivity per capital. The increased productivity by
man was due to the use of animate energies, machinery and new techniques.
(iv) Changes in Production Organization:

Many changes took place in this area –increased specialisation; increased
division of labour; increased number of stages in the production process;
increased spatial dispersion of the stages in production process; greatly
increased use in animate power.
(v) A higher material standard of living increased productive capacity makes it

possible to provide large funds for research.
(vi) Demographic structure
There were changes in the demographic structure; the absorption of the
agricultural surplus population into industries; creation of industrial
agglomerations brought about a new pattern of population distribution;
increase in life expectancy. Creation of new centers of production and
distribution; increased flow of goods in national and international trade and
expansion of all services.
(vii) Changes in the physical Environment. A greatly accelerated modification
Of physical environment took place. The entire landscapes have been
Remolded and often deformed by industrialization. Increase in pollution.
The growth of the industrial landscape- primary, secondary and tertiary
Industries all modify the landscape; industrial landscapes designed for
Utility and not for beauty, charm, aesthetic appeal (artistic beauty)
Primary in landscape include factory buildings; tertiary landscapes
Are quite varied-include high rise bank buildings, roads, highways, bridges,
River transport.
3.2.6. The Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution.
Origin: The industrial revolution first took place in certain European countries
during the second half of the 18th century. England took the lead in this
development. In all the countries where the Industrial Revolution started, the
process evolved from one level of manufacturing to the other until the
development of the modern energy-powered factory industries.
The cotton (or household) industry and guild industry (associations of persons for
helping one another in industry) evolved first. These occurred during the pre-
industrial revolution era. Both depended on hand labour and human power.
A series of inventions and innovations arose in England in the 1700s which led to
the use of machines and inanimate power in the manufacturing processes.
During this stage, manufacturing industries remained largely rural, scattered about
at the sites where rushing streams could be found, especially waterfalls and
rapids. Later in the 18th century the inventions of the steam engine provided a
better source of power, and a shift away from water-powered machines was made.
3.2.6.1 The Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution-In looking at the spread or diffusion of
the Industrial Revolution, the following should be taken into account:
A. The incredible expansion in some countries was based on the creation of markets for
those products in other countries. This process was often a forcible one e.g. Britain’s
deliberate deindustrialization of its Indian colony to create a market for its colon
products.
B. Colonialism and Imperialism: Britain’s political and military pressure helped to
conquer a world market for its expanding industrial plant. In a sense then it “spread”
the industrial revolution to other parts of the world. However, in practical terms, it
turned its colonies into giant plantations of raw materials to be processed in Britain.
C. Search for raw materials: It has already been mentioned that one of the reasons for
colonialism and imperialism is a reach for raw materials. The machines which had
been developed during the industrial revolution needed more raw materials. The raw
materials from the original countries were not enough.
The efforts of government and corporations: The activities related to

industrialization such as the search for markets and raw materials are conducted and
promoted by national governments large transnational corporations.
3.2.6.2 Results of the diffusion of the industrial revolution

A. Widening of the gap between the more industrialized and the less industrialized
countries. This gap resulted from exploitation and the “spread” of industrialization through
imperial expansion. Even internally the gab between the developed and the underdeveloped
regions still exist and in many cases is widening. Only Japan, the U.S.S.R, China etc have
succeeded in bridging that gap.
The gap seems to be intensifying as the present day industrial expansion is done by the
global corporation. In many cases this has increased the dependence of less industrialized
countries on more industrialized ones.
B. The siphoning of corporate profits from less industrialized world is decapitalizing the less
developed countries. It was estimated that if the trends continued by 1985 about 300 global
corporations will control most of the western worlds companies and assets.
C. Industrialized has tied the whole world together in the one manufacturing system, the
separate sector of which operate at different levels in many differing regions of the earth.
It should be noted, however, that the present international division of labour in the capitalist
world, condemns the third world countries to be the producers of raw materials and markets
or the dumping of excess goods produced in the capitalist industrialized countries. This
accounts for the increasing gap between the north and the south and increasing
underdevelopment.
Babu argues that imperialism wants Africa to remain the rural area of Europe. Spencer and
Thomas (1978: 2010- 212) in the section on “the haves and the have – not: development and
underdevelopment” put forward a theory of cultural minims bourgeois apoplogist. They
argue that the developed societies have creative and aggressive cultures which make the
most use of their environments; and continue to argue that these societies are the civilized
ones. They further argue that because some societies are more creative than others, global
inequality and control / domination of less developed societies by those more developed
ones will continue.
These authors do not seem to pa adequate attention to the fact that Africa resources and
slave labour were the foundation for the industrialization of Europe. They are cultural
determinists. They see their own culture as being superior to others. They portray the
poverty of bourgeois philosophy by believing that the exploitation of the third world
countries by imperialism is a pre – ordained thing that will continue for ever and ever. They
seem to have no room for revolution.
3.2.6.3 Need for new thinking.

In the past cold war period in the 1990s, resulting from changes in the farmer soviet Union
and Eastern Europe, efforts have been made to restructure economics and ensure more
diffusion of the effects of industrialized to third world countries. There is need for new
thinking so that a new partnership is forged between the North and the south in order that
capital, technology and skills can be transferred through bilateral, and multi – lateral
arrangements and through the efforts of Non Governmental organizations. Hence, the need
to emphasis pragmatism rather than polemics.
3.7 Economic Growth, Economic Development and Modernization
3.7.1 Economic growth:-

Growth is essentially a matter of output. Economic growth is an expansion of the
Economy in one or more dimensions without any change in its structure: more of the
same such as increased production of copper on Zambia.
It is argued by some scholars that substituting the term growth for development has
not been accidental. An emphasis on economic growth perpetuates the imbalance
between underdeveloped and developed countries. The imbalance concerns the
existing international division of labour in which developed nations concentrate on
high technology and manufactured products, while underdeveloped nations produce
raw materials and luxury goods. (de Souza and Foust, 1979).
3.7.2. Rostows’s Model of economic Growth
Rostow’s model argues that the development history of west will be repeated in the
underdevelopment world. His book “The stages of economic Growth: A non
communist manifesto” aims at providing rebuttal to the communist manifesto of
1940 written by Marx and Engels, Rostow argues that the highest stage of evolution
is not socialism but developed capitalism.
According to Rostow, it is possible to identify, all societies in their economic

dimensions, as lying within one of five categories (1) the traditional society; (2) the
preconditions for take - off; (3) the take – stage; (4) the drive to maturity; (5) and the
age of high mass – consumption.
1. The traditional society: A traditional society is one whose structure is

developed within limited production functions based on primitive technology
and on traditional attitudes towards the physical environment. But the central fact
about the traditional society was that a ceiling existed on the level of attainable
output per head. This ceiling resulted from the fact that the potentialities which
flow from modern science and technology were either not available or not
regularly and systematically applied.
2. The Preconditions for take – off
When this stage occurs, revolutionary changes overcome obstacles to growth.
Outside influence usually stimulate the initial growth of productive investment,
the installation of roads, railways, and utilities, and the emergence of new elite.
Agriculture surrenders it dominance to secondary and tertiary activities. Society
develops a new mentality; a propensity to accept new techniques, and a freedom
for a new class of businessmen to operate. Production of goods, greater national
power, improved social welfare and higher materials standards of living attained.
Rostow dates this phase in Western Europe as the (17th century and 18th century
Britain, fovoured by national resources, trading possibilities, and social and
political structure) was the first to develop fully the preconditions for take – off.
In the underdeveloped world, the idea of economic progress usually came with
European intervention, and diffused within and through social elites.
Third world countries considered as not having their own history. History starts
with the coming of Europeans.
3. The take off stage:

This is the great watershed in the life of modern societies... in a critical decade or
two the forces of economic progress expand and dominate society. Growth
becomes more or less automatic. The rate of effective investment and saving
increased from 5 percent of national income to over 10% one or more substantial
manufacturing sectors expand rapidly and they become leading sectors of
growth. A political, social, and institutional framework emerges quickly it
exploits the impulses to expansion in the modern sector. This stage in Britain is
estimated to have been after 1783; France and USA. Around 1860, Germany
towards the end of 1800s; Russia and Canada around 1914; India and China
around 1950s.
4. Drive to Maturity
The society becomes a force in the international economy and begins to import
raw materials and export finished products. Economic growth extends to all
sectors of the expanding economy. Growth extends to technologically complex
industries – from iron, steel and coal toward machine tools and electronics.
About 10 – 20% of the national income is reallocated for reinvestment each year
– output out strips population growth. Society with technological skills and the
industrial leadership necessary to produce almost anything it chooses to produce.
Britain completed the drive to maturity by 1850, the USA, Germany and France
by 1900 and the Soviet Union more recently.
5. The stage of high mass consumption:
The society becomes technically and technologically mature; a shift toward
durable consumer goods and services; high per capita income and
consumption transcend basic food, shelter and clothing. People buy cars,
sewing machines, electric powered household gadgets etc. Urbanization and
the proportion of the population working in offices and in skilled factory jobs
increase. Society pays attention to social welfare and security. The USA
attained this from the 1920s to the 1950s.Western Europe and Japan entered
this phase in the 1950s, and the Soviet Union was technically ready for it by
the 1960s.]
Some Criticism
Marxist rejects Rostow’s version of history [or lack of history]. They dismiss Rostow’s
claim that the present state of backwardness of underdeveloped countries is an original state
or is one of the natural transitional stages of the evolution from the original primitive state
toward development. They reject Rostow’s claim that the now developed countries were
once underdeveloped. They argue that these interpretations are not consistent with history.
Andre Gunder Frank, for instance, noted that Rostow’s model attributes a history to the
developed countries but denies all history to the underdeveloped ones; and argues further
that the model simply disregards the historical fact that the economic and political
expansion of Europe since the 15th century has come to incorporate the new underdeveloped
countries into a single stream of world history, which has given rise simultaneously to the
present development of some countries and the present underdevelopment of others. (de
Souza and Focust 1979:487).
Marxist insist that the world has been one at the least since the 15th century and all that time
the European trading powers have been transferring the surplus of the countries with whom
they have traded back to Europe to invest in development there. Their trading activities
enriched western Europe, but impoverished the underdeveloped world.
The intrusion of Europeans not only impoverished the people, it sometimes eliminated them.
The coming of Spaniards to Mexico meant the destruction of the Aztec civilization, and
population declined from 13 million to about 2 million by the end of the 16th century (de
Souza and Foust, 1979:.488).
Some Support
Despite the above criticisms of Rostow’s model, it is necessary to revisit the model in the
post cold war period. It cannot be denied that a certain amount of modernization is taking
place. Greater efforts should be made to facilitate the diffusion of international capital,
technology and skills to facilitate restructuring in development.
Africa has to embark on the read of industrialization and development – through diffusion of
technological and development impulses to achieve transformation and raise living
standards.
3.7.3 Economic Development

Economic development can be viewed as set of interrelated changes in the structure of an
economy that are required for its continued growth. They involve the composition of
production, demand and employment as well as the external structure of trade and capital
flows. Taken together these structural changes define the transformation of a traditional to a
modern economic system.
3.7.3.1 Some indicators of Economic Development

(I) Gross National Product per capital: The G.N.P per capita is the value per person in a
given country of all goods and services produced in one year by its total population.
(ii) G.N.P per capita growth rate: - this deals with the rate at which the economy of a
country is growing per annum. Some countries such as the industrialized one have high
growth rates whereas underdeveloped ones have low growth rates e: g. in 1992 the Zambian
economy was expected to decline by 9% instead of growing by 2%.
(iii) Income per capita – income / capita is just a statistical average. There are problems
related to the use of these indicators such as inadequate data and the fact that in
underdeveloped countries many goods and services do not enter the cash economy.
(iv) Transportation: e: g kms of railway /roads per unit area.
(V) Energy – for industriazation – quality of energy.
(vi) Agricultural yields – High yields in developed countries and low yields in
underdeveloped.
(vii) Trade – value of foreign trade turnover (exports and imports). Exports should be more
than imports for balanced trade.
(viii) Urbanization – rate of urbanization (Rural / urban migration may lead to a high rate of
urbanization – such as in the case with Zambia – but does not reflect real development of
the country. However, industrialized societies are highly urbanized)
(ix) Demographic: Population density, population growth rate; infant mortality rates, life
expectancy etc.
(x) Social / Economic Indicators.
3.7.3.2 Major Factors in Economic Development

(a) Land, labour and capital.
(b) Technology and culture – culture here refers to the system of social organization, values,
goods or objectives which all societies possess in different combinations:
- Land – natural resources
- Labour – numbers, health, skills, discipline etc.
(i) Employment.
(ii) Equality.
(iii) Reduction of poverty.
For a country or society to undergo development economically, there is an aspect of

modernity, from old ways to new ways. Modernization refers to the genesis, and spread of
ideas; new ways of life and adaptation to modern styles and conditions. This results from the
transformation of traditional societies into those capable of sustaining Industriazation and
economic development. The essence of this genesis and diffusion process is change –
psychological, social, culture, spiritual, economic and political. This includes the creation of
a new infrastructure of transportation and other services, integration of the space –
economy, improvements in communication and the spread of ideas, the abandonment of
certain traditional attitudes and the acceptance of money economy.
3.7.3.3. Modern – Traditional Dichotomy
The modern – Tradition Dichotomy, a major evolutionary theory of social and economic
change encouraged social scientists to view development as the penetration of traditional
systems by western elements of modernization.
The study of the urbanization and modernization of the underdeveloped countries has been
dominated by the assumption of incompatibility between “modern” and traditional societies.
Modernization is viewed as a process of diffusing western culture (i.e. westernization). In
this theme, modernization becomes a problem of changing a “traditional society into a
modern western one”. It was assumed that with industrialization came a “modern” western
urban industrial society as, distinguished from a “traditional” pre – industrial society.
Singer (1971) stated that traditional societies are not dominated by unchanging traditions
values and beliefs. Rather they are highly flexible and able to change. But the adaptability of
traditional societies cannot be treated adequately if “modern” is made synonymous with
“foreign”. Singer preferred to view modernity as a permanent dimension of any culture and
not a collection of foreign imports recently adopted by the people of that culture.
Summary of the major characteristics of the modern – traditional dichotomy theory.
1. Theory of social change: the study of modernization has been dominated by the idea that
western culture, more than any other, invented or perfected most things associated with
modernization and that in due course people in underdeveloped countries will enjoy them
too.
2. Conceptualization of the traditional and modern: A theory of social change needed a
beginning and an end to the process, 19th and 20th century sociologists and social
philosophers proposed ideal polarities e: g.
Pre – industrial Society Urban – Industrial society
(i) Demographic: High mortality, fertility (i) Low mortality, fertility
(ii) Societal: Km – group solidarity, (II) Atomization / nuclear family
Extended family.
(III) Economic: Non – monetary craft (iii)Money economy, Factory productivity.
industries.
(iv) Spatial: Parochial relationships; close (IV) Regional and National Inter –
ties to immediate environment dependence.
The stimulus for these polarities was provide by the history of English urbanization and
industrialization.
3. Evolutionary schema: An evolutionary rationale (as opposed to the revolutionary one) is
implicit in studies examining the process of transformation from traditional to modern. It is
assumed that the path of change is a unitary process governed by the linear laws of history
[Note: History does not only proceed in a linear fashion – there are “Twists and Turns” –
and “jumps” or “leaps” when radical transformation takes place].
Elites: The role of elites is considered crucial for evolution of class society. Leadership
groups – political, bureaucratic, entrepreneurial, intellectual, and military – are charged with
the responsibility of providing the conditions needed for “take – off”
Modernization theory does not take into serious consideration the concept of class and
hence class – struggle as being a key link and major /motive force of history. Radicals argue
that the experience of Africa since independence has shown that the elites are corrupt and
incapable of bringing development to the people. The elites are consumption oriented and
try to make themselves carbon copies of the former colonial masters. The elites are agents of
neo – colonialism and are transmission lines between the metropolis and the satellites or the
periphery.
However, modernization theory argues earnestly that elites are necessary if new ideas have
to be adopted and diffused to the rest of the population. Since people do not adopt
innovations all at once, it is the elites who have the responsibility of popularizing
innovations which lead to the transformation and development of society.
3.8 Let us sum up

In this unit you have learned about resource conversion and types of processes related to
resource conversion. You also discussed the concept of industrialization as well as the
process of industrialization and its effects. You further looked at the process of industrial
revolution, its effects and diffusion of industrial revolution, including the results of the
diffusion of the industrial revolution. Finally you discussed the concepts of economic
growth, economic development and modernization.
3.9 Check your progress
Having completed the work on unit 11 of this module try to answer the following self –
assessment questions.
1. Define resource conversion and outline the three major types of industrial activities that
are associated with resource conversion.
2. Identify and explain clearly the three processes related to resource conversion.
3. Explain in detail the process of industrialization.
4. Discuss the causes and effects of the industrial revolution.
5. Discuss the diffusion of the industrial revolution stating the factors that led to the spread
and also outlining the results of diffusion.
6. Explain the following concepts;
(a) Economic growth.
(b) Economic development.
(c) Modernization.
REFERENCES
Bayliss, T. (1995) A concise advanced geography. Oxford: oxford university press
Gluckman, M. (1968) Economy of the Central Barotse plain. Rhodes Livingstone papers
number seven. Manchester University press.
Hartwell, M.R(ed) (1959) The causes of the industrial revolution in England Methuen
and co. ltd.
Kasoma, L, A. ( ) Senior Secondary World History
Lang worthy, W.H. (1972) Zambia before 1890: Aspects of pre-colonial history. London: Longman.
Livingstone, D. (1857). Missionary travels and researchers in South Africa.
Rodney, W. (1976). How Europe underdeveloped Africa
Spencer and Thomas (1978). Introducing Cultural Geography.
Todaros and Smith, S. (2009). Economic development. Harlow: Pearson Education
University of Zambia (UNZA) study material GEO 112. Lusaka: UNZA press.
Van Horn, L. (1977) ″The Agricultural History of Barotseland 1940-1964″ in R. Palmer and N.
Parsons (ed), The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and southern Africa. London; Heinemann pp
164-169.
Webb, J.W. and J.O.M. (1968). The geography of mankind. MCgrans-Hill Book C

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Culture and Resource Utilization .............................................................................................................. 5

1.1 Learning outcomes ............................................................................................................................. 5

1.2 Culture ............................................................................................................................................... 5

1.2.6 Classification of Culture ................................................................................................................. 8

Huxleys’s Model. ...................................................................................................................................... 8

(iv) Material and non- material ............................................................................................................... 10

1.2.7 Aspects of cultural development in pre – colonial Africa. ............................................................... 10

1.3. Resource Utilization......................................................................................................................... 16

1.3.3. Let us now define “Resource Utilization” ..................................................................................... 17

1.3.4. Types of Resources ....................................................................................................................... 18

(i) Material and Non-Material Resources ................................................................................................ 18

(ii)Natural Resources and Human Resources .......................................................................................... 18

Renewable and Non- renewable Resources. ........................................................................................... 20

1.3.4.1. Different types of natural resources........................................................................................... 21

1.3.5. Resources and culture- ................................................................................................................. 22

1.3.5.1 Culture and economic activity ..................................................................................................... 23

1.3.5.2. Resources, Technology and Economic Exploitation .................................................................... 24

1.3.5.3. Resource Development.............................................................................................................. 25

1.3.5.4 Resource conservation................................................................................................................ 25

1.4 Let Us Sum Up .................................................................................................................................. 27

2.1 Learning Outcomes........................................................................................................................... 29

2.2 Land Tenure Systems ........................................................................................................................ 30

2.3 Types of land tenure systems ........................................................................................................... 31

THE LOZI/KOLOLO PRE-COLONIAL AGRARIAN/SOCIAL STRUCTURE ......................................................... 35

2.4 Land as a basis for nationalist and revolutionary struggle............................................................ 41

Allocation of land in urban and rural in Zambia ...................................................................................... 43

Revolutionary land reform in Ethiopia .................................................................................................... 43

Land as a basis for revolutionary nationalist struggle some parts of Africa.............................................. 45

WHY LAND REFORM? ............................................................................................................................. 46

10.5 SOME ISSUES .............................................................................................................................. 46

10.6. LET US SUM UP ....................................................................................................................... 48

3.1 learning outcome........................................................................................................................ 52

3.2 Resource Conversion and Industrialization.................................................................................. 52

3.2.3 Resource Conversion as Manufacturing. ................................................................................. 53

3.2.4 THE PROCESS OF INDUSTRIALISATION ..................................................................................... 54

3.2.4.1 The evolution of Industrial procedure ..................................................................................... 55

3.2.4.2 CHANGE IN SOCIETY ................................................................................................................ 56

SOCIAL CLASS DIFFERENTIATION ............................................................................................................ 57

3.2.4.3. Spatial Significance of industrialization. ............................................................................... 57

3.2.5.1 Causes of the Industrial Revolution. ........................................................................................ 58

3.2.5.2 Effects of the Industrial Revolution ......................................................................................... 63

3.2.6. The Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution. ...................................................................... 65

3.2.6.2 Results of the diffusion of the industrial revolution ..................................................................... 66

3.2.6.3 Need for new thinking. ............................................................................................................... 67

3.7 Economic Growth, Economic Development and Modernization ........................................................ 67

3.7.2. Rostows’s Model of economic Growth .......................................................................................... 68

3.7.3 Economic Development ................................................................................................................. 71

3.7.3.1 Some indicators of Economic Development ................................................................................ 72

3.7.3.2 Major Factors in Economic Development .................................................................................... 73

3.7.3.3. Modern – Traditional Dichotomy ............................................................................................... 74

Summary of the major characteristics of the modern – traditional dichotomy theory............................. 74

3.8 Let us sum up ................................................................................................................................... 76

1.1 Learning outcomes

Fundamentals of Human Geography. Module 3 2010

1.2.6 Classification of Culture

Fundamentals of Human Geography. Module 3 2010

(iv) Material and non- material

1.2.7 Aspects of cultural development in pre – colonial Africa.

Fundamentals of Human Geography. Module 3 2010

(iii) Inferior – suffering from inferiority complex. However, we need to remind

(a) African Music

Fundamentals of Human Geography. Module 3 2010