EE 3CL4, §5

1 / 70
Tim Davidson

Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
EE3CL4:
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Introduction to Linear Control Systems
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Section 5: Root Locus Procedure
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for Tim Davidson
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
McMaster University
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Winter 2017
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
2 / 70
Tim Davidson Outline
1 Preliminary examples
Preliminary
examples 2 Principles
Principles 3 Sketching the Root Locus, Steps 1–4
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1 and 2
Steps 1–4 Review of Principles
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles Review of Steps 1, 2
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3 Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
Step 4
design for
VTOL aircraft
4 Compensator design for VTOL aircraft
Sketching the 5 Sketching the Root Locus, Steps 5–7
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7 Review of Steps 1–4
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Step 6
Example
Step 7
Parameter
Design Example
“Negative” 6 Parameter Design
Root Locus
7 “Negative” Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
4 / 70
Tim Davidson Simple example
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3 Let us use Kamp to represent the amplifier gain, rather than K
Step 4

Compensator
design for
Open loop transfer function: Kamp G(s)
VTOL aircraft
Kamp G(s)
Sketching the Closed loop transfer function T (s) = 1+Kamp G(s)
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4 Char. eqn: s2 + 2s + Kamp = 0
Step 5
Step 6
p
Step 7 Closed-loop poles: s1 , s2 = −1 ± 1 − Kamp
Example

Parameter What paths do these closed-loop poles take as Kamp goes

Design
from 0 to +∞?
“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
5 / 70
Tim Davidson Simple example
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
6 / 70
Tim Davidson Another example
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator Again, use Kamp to represent the amplifier gain, rather than K
design for
VTOL aircraft
Kamp G(s)
Sketching the
Closed loop transfer function T (s) = 1+Kamp G(s)
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Consider Kamp to be fixed
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Char. eqn: s2 + as + Kamp = 0
Example q
Parameter Closed-loop poles: s1 , s2 = (−a ± a2 − 4Kamp )/2
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
What paths do these closed-loop poles take as a goes from
0 to +∞?
EE 3CL4, §5
7 / 70
Tim Davidson Another example
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
8 / 70
Tim Davidson What to do in the general case?
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
In the previous examples we exploited the simple
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
factorization of second order polynomials
Step 4

Compensator
design for
However, it would be very useful to be able to draw the
VTOL aircraft paths that the closed-loop poles take as Kamp increases for
Sketching the
Root Locus,
more general open-loop systems
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
10 / 70
Tim Davidson Principles of general procedure
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Again, use Kamp to represent the amplifier gain, rather than K
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2 Kamp G(s) p(s)
Review of Principles Closed loop transfer function T (s) = 1+Kamp G(s)
= q(s)
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Closed loop poles are solutions to q(s) = 0
Step 4

Compensator These are also sol’ns to 1 + Kamp G(s) = 0; i.e., Kamp G(s) = −1 + j0
design for
VTOL aircraft
In polar form, |Kamp G(s)|∠Kamp G(s) = 1∠(180◦ + k 360◦ )
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Therefore, for an arbitrary point on the complex plane s0 to be a
Steps 5–7 closed-loop pole for a given value of Kamp the following equations must
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
be satisfied
and ∠Kamp G(s0 ) = ∠(180◦ + k 360◦ )
Step 6
Step 7 |Kamp G(s0 )| = 1
Example

Parameter
where k is any integer
Design

“Negative”
We will also keep in mind that R(s) and Y (s) correspond to real signals.
Root Locus Hence, closed-loop poles are either real or occur in complex-conjugate
pairs
EE 3CL4, §5
11 / 70
Tim Davidson In terms of poles and zeros
For s0 to be a closed-loop pole, we must have
Preliminary
examples

Principles |Kamp G(s0 )| = 1 and ∠Kamp G(s0 ) = ∠(180◦ + k 360◦ )

Sketching the
Root Locus, QM
Steps 1–4 K (s+z )
Steps 1 and 2
Write G(s) = GQn i=1(s+pj )i , which means that the
j=1
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2 open loop zeros are −zi ’s; open loop poles are −pj ’s
Step 3
Step 4
For s0 to be a closed-loop pole
Compensator
design for QM
VTOL aircraft |Kamp KG | i=1 |s0 + zi |
Qn =1
j=1 0 + pj |
|s
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
M n
Review of Steps 1–4 X X
Step 5 ∠Kamp + ∠KG + ∠(s0 + zi ) − ∠(s0 + pj ) = 180◦ + k 360◦
Step 6
Step 7 i=1 j=1
Example

Parameter (From the definition of the factorization of G(s), when M = 0 the

Design
terms related to the zeros “disappear” a natural way)
“Negative”
Root Locus
Can we interpret these expressions in a geometric way?
EE 3CL4, §5
12 / 70
Tim Davidson Vector difference
Preliminary • Let u and v be complex numbers.
examples

Principles • Can you describe v − u in geometric terms?

Sketching the
Root Locus,
• Use the fact that v = u + (v − u).
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
• That means that v − u is the vector from u to v
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
• v − u = `ejθ . That is,
Step 7
Example • |v − u| is the length of the vector from u to v .
Parameter • ∠(v − u) is the angle of the vector from u to v
Design

“Negative”
• In our expressions we have terms of the form
Root Locus s0 + zi = s0 − (−zi ) and s0 + pj = s0 − (−pj )
EE 3CL4, §5
13 / 70
Tim Davidson Geometric interpretation
Magnitude criterion:
Preliminary
examples
QM
|Kamp KG | i=1 |s0 + zi |
Principles Qn =1
j=1 0 + pj |
|s
Sketching the
Root Locus, QM
Steps 1–4 |Kamp KG | i=1 distances from zeros (if any) of G(s) to s0
Steps 1 and 2
Qn =1
Review of Principles j=1 distances from poles of G(s) to s0
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4 Phase criterion:
Compensator M n
design for
X X
VTOL aircraft ∠Kamp + ∠KG + ∠(s0 + zi ) − ∠(s0 + pj ) = 180◦ + k 360◦
Sketching the i=1 j=1
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4 M
X
Step 5
Step 6 ∠Kamp + ∠KG + angles from zeros (if any) of G(s) to s0
Step 7
Example
i=1
n
Parameter X
Design − angles from poles of G(s) to s0
“Negative” j=1
Root Locus
= 180◦ + k 360◦
EE 3CL4, §5
14 / 70
Tim Davidson Now for the challenge
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
• Can we build on these geometric interpretations of the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
equations in the simple case of amplifier gains to
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
develop a broadly applicable approach to control
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
system design?
Step 4

Compensator • The first step will be to develop a formal procedure for

design for
VTOL aircraft sketching the paths that the closed-loop poles take as a
Sketching the design parameter (often an amplifier gain) changes.
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7 These are called the root loci.
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6 • We will develop the formal procedure in a slightly more
Step 7
Example general setting than what we have seen so far
Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
16 / 70
Tim Davidson Preparing for formal procedure
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator Gc (s)G(s)
design for Y (s) = R(s)
VTOL aircraft 1 + H(s)Gc (s)G(s)
Sketching the G(s)
Root Locus, + Td (s)
Steps 5–7
1 + H(s)Gc (s)G(s)
Review of Steps 1–4
H(s)Gc (s)G(s)
Step 5 − N(s)
Step 6 1 + H(s)Gc (s)G(s)
Step 7
Example

Parameter • Note that all transfer functions have the same denominator
Design
• Note that the form of the denominator is 1 + F (s)
“Negative”
Root Locus • The closed loop poles are the solutions to 1 + F (s) = 0
EE 3CL4, §5
17 / 70
Tim Davidson Preparing for the formal
Preliminary procedure, II
examples

Principles
• Closed-loop poles are solutions to 1 + F (s) = 0, where
Sketching the
Root Locus, F (s) = H(s)Gc (s)G(s)
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2 • We would like to know what paths (loci) the closed-loop poles take
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2 as we change a design parameter that is embedded in Gc (s)
Step 3
Step 4
• Our techniques will work for cases where we can rearrange the
Compensator
design for
equation 1 + F (s) = 0 into the form 1 + KP(s) = 0, where
VTOL aircraft
• K is the design parameter, or a function thereof
Sketching the
Root Locus,
• the numerator and denominator of P(s) are monic
Steps 5–7 polynomials (coefficient of highest power of s is 1)
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6 • In the previous discussion of the principles,
Step 7
KG M
Q
Example (s+zi )
• F (s) = Kamp G(s), where G(s) = Qn i=1
(s+pj )
.
Parameter j=1
QM
Design (s+z )
• That means that K = Kamp KG and P(s) = Qni=1 (s+pi )
“Negative” j=1 j
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
18 / 70
Tim Davidson Formal Procedure
Preliminary
• When closed loop poles are solutions to 1 + KP(s) = 0,
examples
• what paths (loci) do the poles move along as K goes from 0 to ∞
Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
19 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 1
Preliminary • Write the characteristic equation as 1 + F (s) = 0
examples

Principles • Rearrange so that the parameter of interest is

Sketching the contained in the multiplier K in an expr’n of the form
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
1 + KP(s) = 0,
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4 where the numerator and denominator of P(s) are
Compensator monic polynomials
design for QM
VTOL aircraft (s+zi )
• Factorize P(s) into poles and zeros, P(s) = Qni=1
Sketching the (s+p )
j=1 j
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7 • Hence characteristic equation is equiv. to
Review of Steps 1–4 Qn QM
Step 5
j=1 (s + pj ) + K i=1 (s + zi ) = 0
Step 6
Step 7
Example • Where does the locus start?
Parameter
Design • Where are poles for K = 0?
“Negative”
Root Locus
• They are the poles of P(s). Mark each with an ×
EE 3CL4, §5
20 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 1
Preliminary
examples n
Y M
Y
Principles (s + pj ) + K (s + zi ) = 0
Sketching the j=1 i=1
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
• Where do the poles end up?
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3 • Where are poles for K → ∞?
Step 4
Qn QM
Compensator • Rewrite as (1/K ) j=1 (s + pj ) + i=1 (s + zi ) = 0
design for
VTOL aircraft • The zeros of P(s). Mark each with a ◦
Sketching the
Root Locus, • Since M ≤ n there will often be zeros at ∞, too
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6 Summary: Root locus starts at poles of P(s) and ends at
Step 7
Example zeros of P(s)
Parameter
Design Note: Often P(s) ∝ Gc (s)G(s) and K is an amplifier gain.
“Negative” In that case, root locus (of the closed loop) starts at the
Root Locus
open loop poles and ends at the open loop zeros.
EE 3CL4, §5
21 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 2
Preliminary Phase condition:
examples
M n
Principles X X
Sketching the
∠K + ∠(s0 + zi ) − ∠(s0 + pj ) = 180◦ + k 360◦
Root Locus, i=1 j=1
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles Recall that for K > 0, ∠K = 0.
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4
What does this tell us when s0 is on the real axis?
Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
Any complex conjugate pairs have no impact
EE 3CL4, §5
22 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 2, cont.
Phase condition for K > 0:
Preliminary PM Pn ◦ ◦
i=1 ∠(s0 + zi ) −
examples
j=1 ∠(s0 + pj ) = 180 + k 360
Principles

Sketching the
Let’s examine effects of poles on the real axis
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft • For s0,1 , all angles from poles to s0,1 are zero
Sketching the
Root Locus, • For s0,2 , right pole generates an angle of 180◦ , others zero
Steps 5–7
• For s0,3 , − nj=1 ∠(s0 + pj ) = −360◦
P
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5

• For s0,4 , − nj=1 ∠(s0 + pj ) = −540◦

Step 6
P
Step 7
Example

Parameter Something similar for zeros.

Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
Therefore: sections of real axis on the locus must lie to left of odd
number of (real-valued) poles and (real-valued) zeros of P(s)
EE 3CL4, §5
23 / 70
Tim Davidson Example
(s+2)
Preliminary P(s) = s(s+4)
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Step 1: Poles s = 0, −4; Zeros s = −2
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2 Step 2: Determine segments on real axis
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4 In this case, this is enough to generate the complete root
Compensator locus
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
24 / 70
Tim Davidson Review of Principles of Root
Preliminary Locus
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
• We would like to know where the closed-loop poles go
Step 4
as a parameter of the loop (typically a controller design
Compensator
design for parameter) is changed.
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the • We would like to gain insight from how the closed-loop
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7 poles move in order to guide our design of the controller
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
25 / 70
Tim Davidson Sketching the Root Locus
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
26 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 1
Preliminary • Write the denominator of the closed-loop transfer
examples

Principles
function in the form
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
1 + KP(s) = 0,
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
QM
(s+zi )
Review of Steps 1, 2
where P(s) = Qni=1
Step 3
j=1 (s+pj )
Step 4
K contains the parameter of interest
Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft
• We will focus on the case in which K ≥ 0
Sketching the • We will discuss the “negative” root locus case later
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5 • Root loci start at poles of P(s) and end at zeros of P(s),
Step 6
Step 7 including the zeros of P(s) at infinity
Example

Parameter
Design
• Mark the poles of P(s) with an ×
“Negative”
Root Locus • Mark the (finite) zeros of P(s) with a ◦
EE 3CL4, §5
27 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 2
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Using the phase condition, we showed that for K > 0,
Step 3
Step 4 • any part of the root locus on the real axis lies to the left
Compensator
design for
of an odd number of (real-valued) poles and
VTOL aircraft (real-valued) zeros of P(s)
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
28 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 3
QM
(s+zi )
Preliminary • P(s) = Qni=1
examples j=1 (s+pj )
Principles
• closed-loop characteristic equation
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4 n
Y M
Y
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles (1/K ) (s + pj ) + (s + zi ) = 0
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3 j=1 i=1
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft • As K → +∞, there are M finite values of s that satisfy
Sketching the the equation
Root Locus, M
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
• How many zeros at infinity? Recall that P(s) = ssn +...
+...
Step 5
Step 6
Therefore, n − M zeros at infinity
Step 7
Example

Parameter • How do the loci approach the zeros at infinity?

Design

“Negative” • Along equi-angular rays that intersect somewhere on

Root Locus
the real axis
EE 3CL4, §5
29 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 3, Angles
Preliminary • Consider a point s0 on the root locus far from the poles of
examples
P(s) and the finite zeros of P(s)
Principles
• Phase condition (for positive K ):
Sketching the
Root Locus, PM Pn ◦ ◦
Steps 1–4 i=1 ∠(s0 + zi ) − j=1 ∠(s0 + pj ) = 180 + k 360
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
• Since the point s0 is far away from all −zi and −pj ,
Step 3
Step 4
all angles are approximately the same, say φ
Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
• Hence, phase cond. is approx: (M − n)φ = 180◦ + k 360◦
Design

“Negative”
• Re-arranging, and using multiples of 360◦ ,
Root Locus 2k +1 ◦
φ= n−M 180 for k = 0, 1, . . . , (n − M − 1)
EE 3CL4, §5
30 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 3, Centroid
Preliminary • From where do these rays eminate?
examples
QM
Principles (s+zi )
• Recall P(s) = Qni=1
Sketching the (s+p )
j=1 j
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2 • For large s, effects of finite zeros almost cancelled out
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
by that of M of the finite poles
Step 4

Compensator • Therefore, as s gets large, the roots follow a similar

design for
VTOL aircraft path to those of P̃(s) = 1/(s − σA )n−M .
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7 • By equating first couple of terms of Taylor’s expansion,
Review of Steps 1–4
P P
Step 5
Step 6 poles of P(s) − zeros of P(s)
Step 7 σA =
Example n−M
Parameter
Design Pn PM
j=1 (−pj ) − i=1 (−zi )
“Negative”
Root Locus
=
n−M
EE 3CL4, §5
31 / 70
Tim Davidson Example
Preliminary
examples

Principles
s+1
Sketching the Sketch the root locus of the char. eqn: 1 + K s(s+2)(s+4)2 = 0
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Step 1: Poles of P(s): s = 0, −2, −4, −4;
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Zeros of P(s): s = −1
Step 4

Compensator
design for Step 2: Intervals on real axis:
VTOL aircraft
• Order poles and zeros of P(s): -4, -4, -2, -1, 0
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
• Examine from the right for intervals that are to the left of
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
an odd number of poles and zeros
Step 6
Step 7 • [−1, 0], [−4, −2],[−∞, −4]
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
32 / 70
Tim Davidson Example
Preliminary
Partial root locus after Step 2
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
33 / 70
Tim Davidson Example
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Step 3: Asymptotes:
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3 • Angles: n − M = 4 − 1 = 3.
Step 4

Compensator
Hence, angles are 60, 180, 300
design for
VTOL aircraft
Note that we already knew 180!
Sketching the • Centroid: σA = −3
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
34 / 70
Tim Davidson Example
Preliminary Hence the complete root locus
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
What is the largest gain for which system is stable?
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Step 4
Preliminary
examples
• Find values of K for which closed-loop poles lie on
Principles

Sketching the
imaginary axis.
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4 • Also find the positions of these closed-loop poles
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles • How can we do this?
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
• Routh-Hurwitz table (as in tutorial)
design for
VTOL aircraft
• Gains of interest correspond to zero rows,
Sketching the
Root Locus, but remember not all zero rows correspond to
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4 closed-loop poles on jω-axis
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7 • Find the closed-loop pole positions by factorizing the
Example

Parameter
auxiliary polynomial
Design (polynomial with coeffs in row above zero row)
“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Procedure
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Steps 1 to 4
Preliminary 1 Write the denominator ofQthe closed loop as
examples M
(s+z )
Principles
1 + KP(s), with P(s) = Qni=1 (s+pij )
j=1
Sketching the Put an × at the −pj ’s; put a ◦ at the −zi ’s
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4 Loci start at the ×’s and end at the ◦’s or at infinity
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles 2 Parts of loci on real axis: to the left of an odd number of
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3 (real-valued) poles and (real-valued) zeros of P(s)
Step 4

Compensator 3 n − M asymptotes as K gets large: Angles

design for
VTOL aircraft
2k + 1
Sketching the φ= 180◦ for k = 0, 1, . . . , (n − M − 1)
Root Locus, n−M
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4 Centroid: Pn PM
Step 5
Step 6 j=1 (−pj ) − i=1 (−zi )
Step 7 σA =
Example n−M
Parameter
Design

“Negative” 4 Roots on jω-axis and corresponding K ’s from zero rows and

Root Locus auxiliary polynomial of Routh-Hurwitz procedure
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Using root locus for design
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4 • For this loop, P(s) in root locus procedure is G(s)
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
• What can we do if the root locus is not to our liking.
Step 3
Step 4
• Can we use the insight that we Q
have developed to
Compensator (s+z̃i )
design for design a compensator C(s) = Q(s+ p̃j )
that we insert
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
between the amplifier and G(s) so that the root locus
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
with P(s) ∝ C(s)G(s) is more to our liking?
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5 • Note that in the compensated system
Step 6
Step 7 • the zeros of P(s) are the −zi ’s from G(s)
Example
and the −z̃i ’s from C(s)
Parameter
Design • the poles of P(s) are the −pj ’s from G(s)
“Negative” and the −p̃j ’s from C(s)
Root Locus
• Let’s attempt this for a VTOL aircraft
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Compensator design for VTOL
Preliminary aircraft
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
• In this experiment we will work with a model for the
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
vertical control system for a VTOL aircraft, such as the
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Harrier jump jet
Step 4

Compensator • The transfer function of the process/plant can be

design for 1
VTOL aircraft approximated by G(s) = s(s−1)
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
• Do you notice anything interesting about this model?
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
• Tasks:
Step 7
Example
• Sketch the root locus of a proportional controller
Parameter
• Highlight some features of that root locus
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Compensator design for VTOL
Preliminary aircraft
examples

Principles • Is there a point on the root locus where the closed-loop

Sketching the poles are in a position that will correspond to
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4 satisfactory performance?
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
• That is, is there any satisfactory proportional controller?
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for • If not, use insight from the root locus sketching
VTOL aircraft
procedure to choose a compensator so that the
Sketching the
Root Locus, closed-loop has a satisfactory root locus.
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5 • That is, replace Gc (s) = K by Gc (s) = KC(s)
Step 6
Step 7
1
• Start with something simple. Try C(s) = s+a
Example ,
Parameter
Design
with a being a design parameter
“Negative” • If that doesn’t work, try C(s) = s+b
s+a ,
Root Locus
with both a and b being design parameters
EE 3CL4, §5
43 / 70
Tim Davidson General Procedure
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Steps 1 to 4
Preliminary 1 Write the denominator ofQthe closed loop as
examples M
(s+z )
Principles
1 + KP(s), with P(s) = Qni=1 (s+pij )
j=1
Sketching the Put an × at the −pj ’s; put a ◦ at the −zi ’s
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4 Loci start at the ×’s and end at the ◦’s or at infinity
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles 2 Parts of loci on real axis: to the left of an odd number of
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3 (real-valued) poles and (real-valued) zeros of P(s)
Step 4

Compensator 3 n − M asymptotes as K gets large: Angles

design for
VTOL aircraft
2k + 1
Sketching the φ= 180◦ for k = 0, 1, . . . , (n − M − 1)
Root Locus, n−M
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4 Centroid: Pn PM
Step 5
Step 6 j=1 (−pj ) − i=1 (−zi )
Step 7 σA =
Example n−M
Parameter
Design

“Negative” 4 Roots on jω-axis and corresponding K ’s from zero rows and

Root Locus auxiliary polynomial of Routh-Hurwitz procedure
EE 3CL4, §5
45 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 5
Preliminary • Since complex poles appear in conjugate pairs,
examples
the root locus can leave the real axis only in even
Principles

Sketching the
multiplicities; often just a pair
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
• Due to phase criterion, angles of break away are evenly
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
spaced; when a pair, they depart at ±90◦ ; Examples:
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
• What is the point of departure?
EE 3CL4, §5
46 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 5
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4 • Recall that the characteristic equation is 1 + KP(s) = 0
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
• Rewrite as K = p(s), i.e., p(s) = −1/P(s)
Step 4

Compensator
design for • We want to find the largest K such that there real
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
solutions to K = p(s) in the neighbourhood of interest
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
• This will occur at the solutions of dp(s)
ds = 0 that are real
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Step 5, Example
(s+1)
Preliminary • Root locus of 1 + KP(s), with P(s) = s(s+2)(s+3) .
examples

Principles • Outcome of Steps 1-3 of root locus sketching procedure

Sketching the
Root Locus,
(Step 4 is not relevant in this case)
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7 • Step 5: Define p(s) = −1/P(s).
Example

Parameter • dp(s)
ds = 0 ⇒ 2s3 + 8s2 + 10s + 6 = 0
Design
• The only real root in the interval [−3, −2] is −2.46.
“Negative”
Root Locus This is the breakaway point
EE 3CL4, §5
48 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 6
Preliminary • Determine angle of departure from (complex) poles
examples

Principles
and angle of arrival to (complex) zeros
Sketching the • Let’s consider a particular pole, −p1 ; e.g.,
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7 • In which direction does the locus leave −p1 ?
Example

Parameter • Use the fact that the phase condition must hold at any
Design
point on the root locus.
“Negative”
Root Locus • Apply that to test points close to −p1 ; e.g., s1
EE 3CL4, §5
49 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 6, cont
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the • Phase condition at test point s1 :

Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4 sum of angles from zeros to s1
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
− sum of angles from other poles to s1
Example
− angle from (−p1 ) to s1 = 180◦ + k 360◦
Parameter
Design
• When s1 is close to −p1 the angles from zeros and
“Negative”
Root Locus angles from other poles are essentially the same as the
angles to −p1
EE 3CL4, §5
50 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 6, cont
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4

• Phase condition at test point s1 : −θ2 − θ3 − θ1 = 180◦

Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example • θ2 ≈ 90◦
Parameter
Design
θ3 from triangle with corners −p3 , −p1 and
“Negative” Re(−p1 ) + j0.
Root Locus
• Hence, θ1 = 90◦ − θ3 .
EE 3CL4, §5
51 / 70
Tim Davidson Step 6, cont
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter Note that conjugate pole moves in a direction that preserves

Design
conjugate symmetry
“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Step 6, Summary
Preliminary
examples

Principles
• Using the phase condition,
Sketching the angle of departure from pole at −pj0 is
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
X
Review of Principles θj 0 = angles from zeros to (−pj0 )
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
X
Step 4 − angles from other poles to (−pj0 )
Compensator
design for − 180◦ + k 360◦
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
• Conjugate pairs move in complementary directions
Example

Parameter
Design • Angle of arrival at zeros is calculated in the same way
“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Step 7
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles • Join the segments that have been drawn
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3 • with a smooth curve
Step 4

Compensator • Curve should be as simple as possible

design for
VTOL aircraft • Curve must respect conjugate symmetry of poles and
Sketching the
Root Locus,
zeros of a system with real inputs and real outputs
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson General Procedure
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Example
Preliminary
examples

Principles
Sketch root locus of 1 + KP(s) = 0 for K ≥ 0, where
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4 1
Steps 1 and 2 P(s) =
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
s4 + 12s3 + 64s2 + 128s
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
1 poles: 0, −4, −4 ± j4; zeros: no finite zeros;
VTOL aircraft n − M = 4 − 0 =⇒ 4 asymptotes
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7 2 Segments of real axis: [−4, 0]
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6 3 Angles of asymptotes: 45◦ , 135◦ , 225◦ , 315◦
Step 7
Example Centroid: (−4 − 4 − 4)/4 = −3
Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Example, cont
Preliminary Partial sketch from Steps 1–3
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Example, cont
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
4 Closed loop denom: s4 + 12s3 + 64s2 + 128s + K = 0
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Routh table implies stability for K < 568.89.
Step 3
Step 4
Poles on jω axis at ±j3.266
Compensator
design for 5 To find breakaway point,
VTOL aircraft
p(s) = −(s4 + 12s3 + 64s2 + 128s).
Sketching the
Root Locus, Set deriv. to zero: 4s3 + 36s2 + 128s + 128 = 0
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4 Breakaway point ≈ −1.577
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Example, cont
Preliminary Partial sketch from Steps 1–5
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Example, cont
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5 6 Angle of departure from −4 + j4:
Angle from pole at −4: 90◦
Step 6
Step 7

Angle from pole at −4 − j4: 90◦

Example

Parameter
Design Angle from pole at origin: θ3 = 135◦
“Negative” Hence angle of departure:
Root Locus
θ1 = −90◦ − 90◦ − 135◦ − 180◦ ≡ 225◦
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Example, cont
Preliminary Partial sketch from Steps 1–6
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Actual Root Locus
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Parameter Design
Preliminary
examples
• In the examples so far, 1 + KP(s) has been the
Principles
denominator of a closed loop with
Sketching the
Root Locus, • negative feedback
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
• proportional control, with positive gain,
Review of Principles • possibly, some compensation; i.e., P(s) = Gc (s)G(s).
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator • However, same principles can also be applied to some

design for
VTOL aircraft other design parameters
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7 • The key step is to rewrite the characteristic polynomial
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5 of the closed loop in the form 1 + αP(s), where α is the
Step 6
Step 7 (non-negative) parameter to be designed
Example

Parameter • This is not always possible, but when it is possible it

Design
can be very useful
“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Parameter Design: Example 1
Preliminary
examples • Suppose that the characteristic equation of the closed
Principles loop is:
Sketching the
Root Locus,
s3 + (3 + α)s2 + 3s + 6 = 0
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
• Suppose we are interested in root locus for α > 0
• Rewrite as s 3 + 3s 2 + 3s + 6 + αs 2 = 0. Hence,
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft
s2
Sketching the 1+α =0
Root Locus, s3 + 3s2 + 3s + 6
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
• Now sketch the root locus of 1 + αP(s), where
Example

Parameter
Design
s2
P(s) =
“Negative” s3 + 3s2 + 3s + 6
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Parameter Design: Example 2
Preliminary
examples
• We can adapt this to designs with two parameters, too.
Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus, • Consider a characteristic equation of the form
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
s3 + s2 + βs + α = 0.
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3 • The effect of varying β from zero to infinity for a given
Step 4
value of α corresponds to the root locus for
Compensator
design for 1 + βP(s) = 0, where P(s) = s3 +ss2 +α
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
• Note that, among other things, α determines the
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
starting point of the root locus for β;
Step 5
Step 6
i.e., the roots for β = 0
Step 7
Example
• With β = 0, the root locus for α is the roots of
Parameter 1
Design 1 + αP̃(s), where P̃(s) = s2 (s+1)
“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Sketches
Preliminary
examples

Principles Locus for α with β = 0 Locus for β with α = α1

1
Sketching the
Root Locus,
i.e., roots of 1 + α s2 (s+1) i.e., roots of 1 + β s3 +ss2 +α
1
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
as α : 0 → +∞ as β : 0 → +∞
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson “Negative” Root Locus
Preliminary
examples • Our root locus procedure has been for parameters that
Principles change from 0 to +∞
Sketching the
Root Locus, • What if our parameter of interest goes from 0 to −∞?
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
• The underlying principles remain the same
Step 3
Step 4 • For s0 to be on the root locus, 1 + KP(s0 ) = 0.
Compensator
design for
• This implies
VTOL aircraft • Magnitude condition: |KP(s0 )| = 1
Sketching the • Phase condition ∠KP(s0 ) = 180◦ + k 360◦
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7

• However, since K is now negative, its phase is 180◦ .

Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7 Therefore, some of the interpretations change.
Example

Parameter
• That said, interpretations can be derived in the same
Design
way as they were for the case of positive K ,
“Negative”
Root Locus and they are quite familiar
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Sketching Negative Root Locus
Preliminary
examples

Principles
From the 12th edition of the textbook
Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus
EE 3CL4, §5
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Tim Davidson Sketching Negative Root Locus
Preliminary
examples

Principles

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 1–4
Steps 1 and 2
Review of Principles
Review of Steps 1, 2
Step 3
Step 4

Compensator
design for
VTOL aircraft

Sketching the
Root Locus,
Steps 5–7
Review of Steps 1–4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Example

Parameter
Design

“Negative”
Root Locus