CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In 2014, Sivaprasad et al. [4] analyzed the drive shaft with composite
materials. In this paper more attention is given on material properties. In present
investigation, the author focused on composite material. FEA approaches by the
researchers for drive shaft were also studied here. Reduction in weight is a need of
automobiles Industry. Thus they focused on to design shaft which is less weight. This
leads to critical material and manufacturing processes. Finite element analysis has
used for shape optimization of drive shaft as well as for validation of final geometry.
This process was performed in order to have minimum weight under design
constraints. These optimizations were carried out under static load conditions. The
geometry and manufacturing constraints were considered during optimization process.
The optimized geometry was analyzed under natural frequency using FEA tool. The
ultimate object of this study was to provide a tool which can be used to decrease the
bending stress. In this long continuous drive shaft is made by replacing the
discontinuous two piece conventional driveshaft. The materials which used in this
were E-glass epoxy, high strength carbon Epoxy and high modulus carbon epoxy.
Madhu et al. [4] also made buckling analysis of composite drive shaft for
automobile. In this the author carried out work on the stress analysis of drive shaft
which is employed in rear wheel driving vehicles. In the design the author has been
made attempt to check the suitability of one piece composite drive shaft with various
composite material combinations to fulfill the functional requirements. In addition to
this analytical relation to calculate the critical load of composite shaft have been
carried out the structural reliability of the drive shaft must therefore be ensured so for
this purpose the static stress analysis using finite element method ANSYS 10 has been
done in order to find out the detailed stress distribution of the drive shaft.
K.V.N. Parvathi et al. [4] investigated on structural design of composite drive
shaft in 2012. In this work an attempt is made to evaluate the
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suitability of composite material for the purpose of automotive driveshaft. A static

and dynamic analysis composite shaft is analyzed using finite element analysis
software which helps to minimize the weight of the shaft which is subjected to the
constraints such as torque transmission, critical buckling torque capacity and also they
are modifying the geometric shape to improve efficiency.
Deepti et al. [4] had written a paper about the composite drive shaft for light
commercial vehicle. In this paper more attention is given on modeling and analysis of
both the steel and composite drive shaft. In this the author used same drive shaft by
changing in diameter to carry out the work. In this the modeling have been done by
using Pro-E and done analysis the same using ANSYS 12.1 software. In this the
driveshaft is of light commercial vehicle such as cars. By using such material drive
shaft would induce less amount of stress which additionally reduces the weight of the
vehicle.
R.Srinivasa et al. [4] had written a paper in which they proposed the design of
automobile driveshaft by using Carbon/Epoxy and Kevlar/Epoxy Composites. The
aim of this work is to replace the conventional steel driveshaft of automobiles with an
appropriate composite driveshaft .The conventional driveshaft’s are made in two
pieces for reducing the bending natural frequency, whereas the composites shafts can
be made as single-piece shafts, thus reducing the overall weight. Use of advanced
composites has resulted in remarkable achievements in many fields including
aviation, marine and automobile engineering, medicine, prosthetics and sports, in
terms of improved fatigue and corrosion resistances, high specific strength and
specific modulus and reduction in energy requirements owing to reduction in weight.
Carbon/ Epoxy and Kevlar/Epoxy composites were designed and analyzed for their
appropriateness in terms of torsional strength, bending natural frequency and torsional
buckling by comparing them with the conventional steel driveshaft under the same
grounds of design constraints and the best suited composites was recommended. Since
one piece composites driveshaft will suffice in the place of a two-piece steel
driveshaft. It substantially reduces the inertial mass. Moreover, a composites
driveshaft can be perfectly designed to effectively meet the strength and stiffness
requirements.

2.1 Transmission System of Vehicle

A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides
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controlled application of the power. Often the term transmission refers simply to
the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed and torque conversions
from a rotating power source to another device [6].
In British English, the term transmission refers to the whole drivetrain,
including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft (for rear-wheel drive), differential, and final
drive shafts. In American English, however, the term refers more specifically to the
gearbox alone, and detailed usage differs [6].

Figure 2.1 Five-speed gearbox of Volkswagen Golf [6]

The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the
output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to
operate at a relatively high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting,
stopping, and slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the
slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. Transmissions are also used on
pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and where different rotational speeds and torques are
adapted [6].

2.1.1 Manual Transmission

Manual transmissions come in two basic types:

1. A simple but rugged sliding-mesh or unsynchronized/nonsynchronous system,

where straight-cut spur gear sets spin freely, and must be synchronized by the
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operator matching engine revs to road speed, to avoid noisy and damaging
clashing of the gears.
2. The now ubiquitous constant-mesh gearboxes, which can include non-
synchronised, or synchronized/synchromesh systems, where typically diagonal
cut helical (or sometimes either straight-cut, or double-helical) gear sets are
constantly "meshed" together, and a dog clutch is used for changing gears. On
synchromesh boxes, friction cones or "synchro-rings" are used in addition to
the dog clutch to closely match the rotational speeds of the two sides of the
(declutched) transmission before making a full mechanical engagement [6].

2.1.2 Automatic Transmission

An automatic transmission, also called auto, self-shifting transmission, is a
type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the
vehicle moves, freeing the driver from having to shift gears manually.

Figure 2.2 An eight-speed auto transmission [6]

The most popular form found in automobiles is the hydraulic planetary

automatic transmission. Similar but larger devices are also used for heavy-duty
commercial and industrial vehicles and equipment. This system uses a fluid coupling
in place of a friction clutch, and accomplishes gear changes by hydraulically locking
and unlocking a system of planetary gears. These systems have a defined set of gear
ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of transmission to keep
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the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machine with limited
speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as some forklifts and lawn mowers, only
use a torque converter to provide a variable gearing of the engine to wheels.
The advantage of an automatic transmission to the driver is the lack of clutch
pedal and manual shifting in normal driving. This allows the driver to operate the car
with as few as two limb, allowing individuals with disabilities to drive [6].

2.2 History of Driveshaft

The term drive shaft first appeared during the mid-nineteen century. In
Stover’s 1861 patent reissue for a planning and matching machine, the term is used to
refer to belt-drive.  The term is not used in his original patent.  Another early use of
the term occurs in the 1861 patent reissue for the Watkins and Bryson horse-
drawn mowing machine.  Here, the term refers to the shaft transmitting power from
the machine's wheels to the gear train that works the cutting mechanism. [6]
In the 1890s, the term began to be used in a manner closer to the modern
sense. In 1891, for example, Battles referred to the shaft between the transmission and
driving truck of Climax locomotive as the drive shaft, and Stillman referred to the
shaft linking the crankshaft to the rear axle of shaft-driven bicycle as a drive shaft. In
1899, Bukey used the term to describe the shaft transmitting power from the wheel to
the driven machinery by a Universal joint in Horse Power. In the same year, Clark
described Marine Velocipede using the term to refer to the gear-driven shaft
transmitting power through a Universal joint to the propeller shaft. Crompton used the
term to refer to the shaft between the transmission of his steam-powered Motor
Vehicle of 1903 and the driven axle. The pioneering automobile industry company
was the first to use a drive shaft in a gasoline-powered car. Built in 1901, today this
vehicle is in the collection of the Smitsonian Institution [6].

2.3 Purpose of the Drive Shaft (Or Propeller Shaft)

The torque that is produced from the engine and transmission must be
transferred to the rear wheels to push the vehicle forward and reverse. The drive shaft
must provide a smooth, uninterrupted flow of power to the axles. The drive shaft and
differential are used to transfer this torque [4].
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Figure 2.3 3D model of a drive shaft [4]

2.4 Functions of the Drive Shaft

The functions of drive shaft are as follow;
1. First, it must transmit torque from the transmission to the differential
gear box.
2. During the operation, it is necessary to transmit maximum low-gear
torque developed by the engine.
3. The drive shafts must also be capable of rotating at the very fast speeds
required by the vehicle.
4. The drive shaft must also operate through constantly changing angles
between the transmission, the differential and the axles. As the rear
wheels roll over bumps in the road, the differential and axles move up
and down. This movement changes the angle between the transmission
and the differential.
5. The length of the drive shaft must also be capable of changing while
transmitting torque. Length changes are caused by axle movement due
to torque reaction, road deflections, braking loads and so on. A slip
joint is used to compensate for this motion. The slip joint is usually
made of an internal and external spline. It is located on the front end of
the drive shaft and is connected to the transmission. Now days all
automobiles (which are having front engine rear wheel drive) have the
transmission shaft as shown in figure. A pair of short drive shafts is
commonly used to send power from a central differential, transmission,
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or transaxle to the wheels. Two piece drive shaft increases the weight
of drive shaft which is not desirable in today’s market. Many methods
are available at present for the design optimization of structural
systems and these methods based on mathematical programming
techniques involving gradient search and direct search. The reduction
in weight of the drive system is advantageous in overall weight
reduction of automobiles which is a highly desirable goal of design
engineer [4].

Figure 2.4 Drive Shaft of a Truck [6]

2.5 Application of Drive Shaft

Drive shaft are used in many places where is needed to transmit the power
from one place to another. Especially, it can be seen in most of automobile. In
automobile, the driveshaft is connected from the gear box output shaft to differential
input shaft, and through which the power is transmitted to the wheels. Some
automobiles are used single-piece driveshaft. But, luxury car and heavy duty truck are
used two-piece driveshaft in order to reduce the drive shaft vibration. And it is also
used in locomotive. As well as in aircraft, industry used this drive shaft to transmit
power. Although in these days, most of the bikes used chain and sprocket to transmit
power to wheels, the driveshaft used bikes can be seen in some bikes.
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2.5.1 Automobile Drive Shaft

In rear-drive vehicle (RWD), a long drive shaft is also required to send power
the length of vehicle. Most of these vehicles have a clutch and gear box mounted
directly on the engine, with a drive shaft leading to final drive in the rear axle. When
the vehicle is stationary, the drive shaft does not rotate. A drive shaft connecting a
rear differential to a rear wheel may be called a half-shaft. The name derives from the
fact that two such shafts are required to form one rear axle. Early automobiles often
used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather than a drive shaft. Some used
electrical generators and motors to transmit power to the wheels [6].

Front differential

Front
driveshaft Transmission
Transfer Rear
case Driveshaft

Rear differential

Figure 2.5 Four-wheel drive systems [7]

In four-wheel drive vehicle (FWD), these evolved from the front-engine rear-
wheel drive layout. A new form of transmission called the transfer case was placed
between transmission and final drives in both axles. This split the drive to the two
axles and may also have included reduction gears, a dog clutch or differential. At least
two drive shafts were used, one from the transfer case to each axle. In some larger
vehicles, the transfer box was centrally mounted and was itself driven by a short drive
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shaft. The drive shaft to the front axle is noticeably shorter and more steeply
articulated than the rear shaft, making it a more difficult engineering problem to build
a reliable drive shaft, and which may involve a more sophisticated form of universal
joint [6].
Modern light cars with all-wheel drive may use a system that more closely
resembles a front-wheel drive layout. The transmission and final drive for the front
axle are combined into one housing alongside the engine, and a single drive shaft runs
the length of the car to the rear axle.

2.5.2 Locomotive Drive Shaft

The Shay, Climax and Heisler locomotives, all introduced in the late 19th
century, used quill drives to couple power from a centrally mounted multi-cylinder
engine to each of the trucks supporting the engine. On each of these geared steam
locomotives, one end of each drive shaft was coupled to the driven truck through
a universal joint while the other end was powered by the crankshaft, transmission or
another truck through a second universal joint. A quill drive also has the ability to
slide lengthways, effectively varying its length. This is required to allow the bogies to
rotate when passing a curve [6].

Figure 2.6 Rear drive shaft and crankshaft of a Shay locomotive [6]

Cardan shafts are used in some diesel locomotives (mainly diesel-hydraulics,

such as British Rail Class 52) and some electric locomotives. They are also widely
used in diesel multiple units [6].
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2.5.3 Marine
On a power-driven ship, the drive shaft, or propeller shaft, usually connects
the propeller outside the vessel to the driving machinery inside, passing through at
least one shaft seal or stuffing box where it intersects the hull. The thrust, the axial
force generated by the propeller, is transmitted to the vessel by the thrust block or
thrust bearing, which, in all but the smallest of boats, is incorporated in the main
engine or gearbox. The portion of the drive train which connects directly to the
propeller is known as the tail shaft [6].

2.6 Drive Line

When an engine produces power and clutch and transmission convert it into
required torque, some assembly is needed to carry this torque to driving axle or
usually to rear axle. This assembly is known as drive line. A drive line consist one or
more drive shaft (propeller shaft), universal joints, and slip joints. Various types of
propeller shaft, universal joint, and slip joints are used to carry engine power from the
transmission box to the driving wheels.  Today I am going to tell you about drive
shaft component and there working in detail. These are the main components of drive
shaft [5].

Universal
Joint

Propeller shaft
Slip Joint

Figure 2.7 Drive line [5]

2.6.1 Propeller shaft

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The propeller shaft is a driving shaft which connects the transmission main
shaft to the differential of the rear axle. It transmits the power from gear box to rear
axle with the help of universal joints. The propeller shaft is also known as drive shaft.
It performs the following function.
To receive the power from the gear box output shaft and without any change
in speed transmit it to the input pinion of the differential for onward transmission to
the rear axle and rear wheels. To cope the difference in line with the level of the gear
box output shaft and the differential input pinion shaft. The propeller shaft has to
operate at varied lengths and varied angles. The engine of the automobile is somewhat
rigidly attached to the frame by springs. As the vehicle moves on the road there are
jerks and bumps due to which the springs expand and contract. This changes the angle
of drive between the propeller shaft and the transmission shaft. The distance between
the gear box and differential also changes due to the movement of the springs. So the
propeller shaft has to meet both the angular change coming between the gear box and
differential and change in length of the distance between the gear box and differential.
The propeller shaft is also not on the same line as the gear box output shaft but it runs
to the rear axle at an angle because the level of the rear axle is lower than the gear
box. So to adjust angular motion universal joints are provided and to adjust for the
change in length of the propeller shaft, a slip joint is provided. The propeller shaft has
to withstand the torsional stresses of the transmitting torque, and yet it must be light
and well balanced so that vibrations will not occur at high speed. So it is usually made
of a strong steel tube [5].

2.6.2 Universal Joint

A universal joint allows driving torque to be carried through two shafts that
are at an angle with each other. A simple universal joint consist two Y-shaped yoke,
one on the driving shaft and other on the driven shaft. The four arms of spider are
assembled in needle bearings in the two yokes. The driving and yoke force the spider
to rotate. The other two turnnions of the spider then cause the driven yoke to rotate.
When the two shafts are at an angle with each other, the needle bearings permit the
yokes to swing around on the turnnions with each revolution. A simple universal joint
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does not transmit the motion uniformly when the shafts are operating an angle.
Because of this, two universal joints are used in a vehicle, one between the gear box
and the propeller shaft and other between the propeller shaft and the differential
pinion shaft [5].

Driving Spider
yoke
Driving
yoke

Trunnions

Figure 2.8 Universal joint [5]

2.6.3 Slip Joint

Slip joint is attached to the driven yoke in order the increase or decrease the
length of propeller shaft. It has outside splines on the shaft and matching internal
splines in a mating hollow shaft or yoke. When assembled the splines cause the shafts
to rotate together while they can move back and forth. This changes the length of
propeller shaft.

Slip yoke
Internal
External
spline
Transmission spline
shaft
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Figure 2.9 Slip joint [5]

2.7 Differential
In automobiles and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows the
outer drive wheel to rotate faster than the inner drive wheel during a turn. This is
necessary when the vehicle turns, making the wheel that is traveling around the
outside of the turning curve roll farther and faster than the other. The average of the
rotational speed of the two driving wheels equals the input rotational speed of the
drive shaft. An increase in the speed of one wheel is balanced by a decrease in the
speed of the other.
When used in this way, a differential couples the longitudinal input propeller
shaft to the pinion, which in turn drives the transverse ring gear of the differential.
This also usually works as reduction gearing. On rear wheel drive vehicles the
differential may connect to half-shafts inside an axle housing, or drive shafts that
connect to the rear driving wheels. Front wheel drive vehicles tend to have the engine
crankshaft and the gearbox shafts transverse, and with the pinion on the end of the
main-shaft of the gearbox and the differential enclosed in the same housing as the
gearbox. There are individual drive-shafts to each wheel. A differential consists of
one input, the drive shaft, and two outputs which are the two drive wheels, however
the rotation of the drive wheels are coupled to each other by their connection to the
roadway. Under normal conditions, with small tyre slip, the ratio of the speeds of the
two driving wheels is defined by the ratio of the radii of the paths around which the
two wheels are rolling, which in turn is determined by the track-width of the vehicle
and the radius of the turn [6].
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Figure 2.10 Differential of a car [7]