Chapter 4

Multidimensional steady-
state heat conduction

1
 Chapter 4: Multidimensional Steady
Heat Conduction
Introduction
We shall now consider some methods for
analyzing conduction in two- and three-dimensional
systems. The emphasis will be placed on two-
dimensional problems because they are less
cumbersome to solve, yet they illustrate the basic
methods of analysis for three-dimensional systems.
Heat conduction in two- and three-dimensional
systems can be treated by analytic, graphic, and
analogic methods.
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 4.1 Analytic Solution

• 2D system without heat sources, steady state,

k=constant  2T  2T (4.1)
G.E.  0
x 2
y 2

B.C. specified according

to problems
 T  T(x, y)

heat flow per unit area (or heat flux).

q T
qx     k
 A x x 
q  kT
q T
qy     k
 A y y
3
 1.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
Consider a thin rectangular plate, free of heat sources and
insulated at the top and bottom surfaces. Since
T z is assumed to be negligible, the temperature is a
function of x and y only. If the thermal conductivity is
uniform, the temperature distribution must satisfy Eq.
(4.1), a linear and homogeneous partial differential
equation that can be integrated by assuming a product
solution for T(x,y) of the form
T = XY (4.2)
where X = X(x) only, Y = Y(y), a function of y alone.
Substituting Eq. (1.2) into Eq. (1.1) yields
1 2X 1 2Y (4.3)
   λ 2

X x 2 Y y 2 4
1.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
2X
 λ 2
X0 (4.4)
x 2

2Y
 λ 2
Y0 (4.5)
y 2

FIGURE 1.1

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 1.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
The general solution to Eq. (4.4) is
X  Acosλx  Bsinλx
and the general solution to Eq. (4.5) is
Y  Ce λy  Deλy
and therefore, from Eq. (1.2)
T  XY  (Acos x  Bsin x) (Ce y  De y ) (4.6)
where A, B, C, and D are constants to be evaluated from
the boundary conditions. As shown in Figure 4.1, the
boundary conditions to be satisfied are

6
 1.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
B.C. (1) T=0 at y=0
(2) T=0 at x=0
(3) T=0 at x=L
(4) T=Tmsin( π x/L) at y=b

(1)(Acosx+Bsin x)(C+D)=0 C+D=0

(2) A(Ce- y+De y)=0 A=0
(3) (AcosL+Bsin L)(Ce- y+De y)=0
BCsin L (e- y - e y)=0
or 2BCsin Lsinh y=0
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1.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
sin L=0 or =n π /L where n=1,2,3…...
nπ nπ
so. Tn  Cn sin xsinh y n  1,2,3...
L L
Satisfies the G.E. & B.C. (1)(2)(3)

nπ nπ
 T   Cn sin xsinh y (4.7)
n 1 L L
Where Cn’s are constants to be determined by
the B.C. (4)

nπ nπ πx

n 1
Cn sin xsinh b  Tmsin
L L L
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 1.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
Tm
C1  , C 2  0, C3  0,.....
πb
sinh
L
The solution
sinh πy 
 L  πx
T(x, y)  Tm
sinh  
πb
L
sin
L
(4.8)

The corresponding temperature field is shown in Fig.

4.2.
If the temperature at y = b is T(x,b) = F(x)
nπy
sinh

2  nπ  L nπx
T L sin  x   F  x  sin dx (4.9)
n 1 L
sinh
nπb  L  0 L
9
L
FIGURE 4.2
4.1

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4.2 Graphic Method and Shape Factors
The graphic method presented in this section can rapidly yield
a reasonable good estimate of the temperature distribution and
heat flow in geometrically complex two-dimensional systems,
but its application is limited to problems with isothermal and
insulated boundaries. The objective of a graphic solution is to
construct a network consisting of isotherms (lines of constant
temperature) and constant-flux lines (lines of constant heat
flow). The flux lines are analogous to streamlines in a potential
fluid flow, that is , they are tangent to the direction of heat
flow at any point. Consequently, no heat can flow across the
constant-flux lines. The isotherms are analogous to constant-
potential lines, and heat flows perpendicular to them. Thus,
lines of constant temperature and lines of constant heat flux
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4.2 Graphic Method and Shape Factors (continued)
intersect at right angles. To obtain the temperature distribution
one first prepares a scale model and then draws isotherms and
flux lines freehand, by trial and error, until they form a
network of curvilinear squares. Then a constant amount of heat
flows between any two flux lines can be found. The procedure
is illustrated in Fig. 1.3 for a corner section of unit depth with
faces ABC at temperature T1, faces FED at temperature T2,
and faces CD and AF insulated. Figure 1.3(a) shows the scale
model, and Fig. 1.3(b) shows the curvilinear network of
isotherms and flux lines. It should be noted that the flux lines
emanating from isothermal boundaries are perpendicular to the
boundary, except when they come from a corner. Flux lines
leading to or from a corner of an isothermal boundary bisect
the angle between the surfaces forming the corner.
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4.2 Graphic Method and Shape Factors (continued)

FIGURE 1.3

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4.2 Graphic Method and Shape Factors (continued)
A graphic solution, like an analytic solution of a heat
conduction problem described by the Laplace equation and the
associated boundary condition, is unique. Therefore, any
curvilinear network, irrespective of the size of the squares, that
satisfies the boundary conditions represents the correct
solution. For any curvilinear square [for example, see Fig.
4.3(c)] the rate of heat flow is given by Fourier's law:
ΔT
q  k (l 1)  kT
Δl

This heat flow will remain the same across any square within
any one heat flow lane from the boundary at T1 to the
boundary T2. The T across any one element in the heat flow
lane is therefore
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4.2 Graphic Method and Shape Factors (continued)
T2  T1
T=
N
where N is number of temperature increments between the two
boundaries at T1 and T2. The total rate of heat flow from the
boundary at T2 to the boundary at T1 equals the sum of the heat
flow through all the lanes. According to the above relations,
the heat flow rate is the same through all lanes since it is
independent of the size of the squares in a network of
curvilinear squares. The total rate of heat transfer can therefore
be written n=M
M M
q   q n  k  T2  T1   kToverall (4.10)
n=1 N N

where q n is the rate of heat flow through the nth lane, and M
is the number of heat flow lanes.
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4.2 Graphic Method and Shape Factors (continued)

In any two-dimensional system in which heat is

transferred from one surface at T1 to another at T2 , the
rate of heat transfer per unit depth depends only on the
temperature difference T1  T2  Toverall , the thermal
conductivity k, and the ratio M/N. This ratio depends on
the shape of the system and is called the shape factor , S.
The rate of heat transfer can thus be written
q  kSToverall (4.11)
When the grid consists of curvilinear squares, values of
S for several shape of practical significance are
summarized in Table 4.1.

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4.2 Graphic Method and Shape Factors (continued)
Table 4.1- Conduction shape factors for selected two-dimensional systems ( q  S k (T1  T)2 )

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Table 4.1(continued)

18
Table 4.1(continued)

19
Table 4.1(continued)

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Table 4.1(continued)

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 Example 4.1
A long, 10-cm-OD pipe is buried with its centerline 60
cm below the surface in solid having a thermal
conductivity of 0.4 W/mK, as shown in Fig. 4.4. (a)
prepare a curvilinear square network for this system and
calculate the heat loss per meter length if the pipe surface
temperature is 100°C and the soil surface is at 20 °C, (b)
Compare the result from part (a) with that obtained using
the appropriate shape factor S.
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Example 4.1 (continued)

FIGURE 4.4
4.1

23
Example 4.1 (continued)

FIGURE 4.5
4.1

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 Example 4.1(continued)
(Sol)
(a) The curvilinear square network for the system is
shown in Fig. 1.5. Because of symmetry, only half of this
heat flow field needs to be plotted. There are 18 heat flow
lanes leading from the pipe to the surface, and each lane
consists of 8 curvilinear squares. The shape factor is
therefore 18
S   2.25
8
q  (0.4 W/mK)(2.25)(100 - 20)(K)  72 W/m

and the rate of heat flow per meter is, from Eq. (4.11)
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 Example 4.1 (continued)
(b) From Table 4.1
3D 2L 2 (1)
or z  60 cm  3  15 cm  S    1.98
2 ln ( 4 z/D) ln ( 4  60 / 10 )

and the rate of heat flow per meter length is

q  0.4 1.98  (100  20)  63.4 W/m

The reason for the difference in the calculated the

heat loss is that the potential field in Fig. 4.5 has a finite
number of flux lines and isotherms and is therefore only
approximate.
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4.2 Graphic Method and Shape Factors (continued)
For a three-dimensional wall , as in a furnace,
separate shape factors are used to calculate the heat flow
through the edge and corner sections. When all the
interior dimensions are greater than one-fifth of the wall
thickness,
Swall = A/L Sedge = 0.54D Scorner = 0.15L
where A = inside area of wall
L = wall thickness
D = length of edge
These dimensions are illustrated in Table 4.1. Note
that the shape factor per unit depth is given by the ratio
M/N when the curvilinear-squares method is used for
calculations. 27
 Example 4.2
A small cubic furnace 50 cm×50 cm on the inside is
constructed of fireclay brick (k = 1.04 W/m°C) with a
wall thickness of 10 cm as shown in Fig. 4.6. The inside
of the furnace is maintained at 500°C and the outside at
50°C. Calculate the heat lost through the walls.

FIGURE 4.6 4.2

 Example 4.2 (continued)
(Sol)
We compute the total shape factor by adding the shape
factors for the walls, edges, and corners.

Walls:
A (0.5)(0.5)
S   2.5 m
L 0.1

Edges:
S  0.54D  (0.54)(0.5)  0.27 m

Corner:
S  0.15L  (0.15)(0.1)  0.015 m

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 Example 4.2 (continued)
There are 6 wall sections, 12 edges, and 8 corners, so that
the total shape factor is
S  (6)(2.5)  (12)(0.27)  (8)(0.015)  18.36 m

and the heat flow is calculated as

q  kSΔT  (1.04 W/mK)(18.36 m)(500 - 50)(K)  8.59 kW

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