A Tale of Two Zs:

An Overview of the Reformist and

Traditionalist Zoroastrian Movements
By Pablo Vazquez
SOAS, University of London

Introduction
This essay’s aim is to elucidate the main points of contention between the Reformist and
Traditionalist movements that hold much sway in modern Zoroastrianism. “Religions are born
and grow within fluid and ever-changing socio-political and cultural context” (Rose, 2011, p.
XVII) and Zoroastrianism is no exception to this observation, especially as one of the world’s
oldest continuously practiced religions. However, the Reformist/Traditionalist divide is a recent
development in Zoroastrianism’s rather long history, having become a matter of consequence
only after the arrival of European missionaries in the 1820s (Hinnells, 1997, p. 68). In order to
explore their main points of contention, I will begin with an exploration of the Reformist
argument over the last 200 years through its history. This will trace a path of the development
and substance of Reformist thought from its origins in European missionary activity to how it
expresses itself internationally in the present day, which as of the time of this writing is 2019 CE.
Following this will be a section exploring the Traditionalist movement, which itself developed as
a response to the growing Reformist movement of the 1800s onwards. It will provide the
counterargument and explore its own historical development and show how it has maintained
itself as rather uniquely Parsi movement. The concluding section will reiterate the main points of
contention espoused by both the Reformist and Traditionalist movements and speculate as to the
future of the religion regarding these unique viewpoints within it.

The Reformist Movement

The beginnings of the Reformist movement can be traced back to a major event that still
reverberates throughout modern expressions of Zoroastrianism: The arrival of Rev. John Wilson
to Bombay in the 1820s. His attacks and arguments against Zoroastrianism in his monumental
work The Parsi Religion as contained in the Zand Avesta and propounded and defended by the
Zoroastrians of India and Persia, unfolded, refuted and contrasted with Christianity were a
“massive cultural shock” to the Parsis, who proceeded to blame the priests and their lack of
Western acculturation and education (Hinnells, 1997, p. 68). For decades following Rev.
Wilson’s attacks and charges of dualism, polytheism, falsehood, and dead ritual, Zoroastrians
wrestled with what was to be done. The arrival of the philologist Martin Haug provided a major
impetus to the development of the Reformist movement, especially with the publication of his
1862 work Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings and Religion of the Parsees. In this work
and others, including essays and lectures (Hinnells, 1997, p.68), Haug argued that the Gathas
preached a pure monotheism “untouched by the speculation of later ages” and were the only
work that could be credited to Zarathushtra (Rose, 2011, p. 207). He further asserted that the
prophetic author of the Gathas did not teach a religion of rituals and superstition (Stausberg,
Tessmann and Vevaina, 2015, p. 167) and that the Parsis should reject “priestly speculation”
(Hinnells, 1997, p. 68) in order to return to the purity of the original text. This “return to the
Gathas” approach and a proclamation of Zoroastrianism as a non-ritualistic monotheism have
become the core tenants of Reformist movement.

The earliest Parsi pioneer of the Reformist movement was Khorshedji Rustamji Cama, a
Western-educated businessman who at the time considered education amongst the Zoroastrian
clergy to be deplorable (Rose, 2011, p. 207) and established schools and societies to educate the
priests and laypeople in Avestan and Pahlavi (Hinnells, 1997, p.70), along with promoting a
general education in the religion in Parsi society (Rose, 2011, p. 207). However, if any figure is
to be viewed as the ideological and spiritual founder of the Reformist movement, it would be
Dastur Maneckji Nusserwanji Dhalla, who was sponsored by K.R. Cama and received a Western
education (Hinnells, 1997, p. 70). The High Priest of Karachi, he was heavily opposed to
excessive ritualization including the use of the Towers of Silence and supported a revitalized
conversion movement declaring it “the thread on which hangs the very existence of this
microscopic community" (Dhalla, 1975, pp. 713–714). Labeled as the “Protestant Dastur” by the
Traditionalists, Dhalla declared Zoroastrianism to be the first ethical monotheism and the highest
point in the spiritual ladder of religious development (Stausberg, Tessmann and Vevaina, 2015,
p. 168), which was highly reminiscent of Protestant Bible study and theological thinking at the
time (Hinnells, 1997, p. 71). He cast aside many of the Pahlavi writings and chose to focus on
the Gathas, furthering his teachings that the teachings on the afterworlds were actually about
states of mind and that the laws of purity should not be stressed (Hinnells, 1997, p. 71). His
followers would go on to reject many if not all forms of ritualization and the use of Avestan,
considered a dead language by the Reformist movement, despite Dastur Dhalla’s own devotional
objections to ridding the religion of its non-Gathic elements (Rose, 2011, p. 209). In Iran, under
the influence of Zoroastrian scholar and Dhalla admirer Ebrahim Pourdavoud, Zoroastrianism
began to further Westernize and align itself to modern Western ideas of ethics and rationalism
(Amighi, 2016) but would not encounter a rise in the influence of the Reformist movement until
the latter half of the 20th century.

These very arguments formulated by Dastur Dhalla and carried on by his followers have been
essential cores of the Reformist movement up to the present day with modern inheritors of the
movement developing these concerns in new fashions. One major example is the case of Dr. Ali
Akbar Jafarey, founder of the Zarathushtrian Assembly and an Iranian convert to Zoroastrianism
who considers Dastur Dhalla his spiritual teacher. Considered anathema and heavily despised by
the Traditionalist movement, Jafarey began his reformist teachings in Tehran, having to flee to
the United States due to the Islamic Revolution (Stausberg, 2007, p. 246). Jafarey declares the
Gathas to be the only worthy canon of Zoroastrianism and furthermore considers these ritual
poems to be aligned to modern politically progressive thought. He views them as teaching an
ethics of egalitarianism and liberalism (Stausberg, 2007, p. 247) with an ideal democracy
embodied by the concept of “Vohu Khshathra Vairya” which he translates as “Good Domain
Worthy of Choice” (Jafarey, 2007). Jafarey’s Zarathushtrian Assembly has been the most
successful Reformist organization in the modern era, welcoming hundreds of converts
internationally yearly and has had a massive influence on Iranian and Kurdish Zoroastrianism
(Stausberg, 2007, p. 247-248). Another modern example is a rationalist-deistic Zoroastrian
movement that views Zoroaster solely as a philosopher, pushing Reformist ideas to an extreme
that is still widely tolerated in Reformist communities. An intellectual leader of this movement is
Kersee Kabraji, a Parsi engineer whose book Rationalism in Zoroastrianism is a common sight
wherever Zoroastrians of a Reformist inclination sell their books. Kabraji establishes authority
early on in his text through forewords by both His Holiness the Dalai Lama, the acknowledged
head of the Tibetan Buddhist community, and Lord Karan Billimoria, a Zoroastrian member of
the British House of Lords (Kabraji, 2015, p. V-VIII). He also immediately acknowledges the
debt he owes to Dastur Dhalla in his preface alongside Dr. Richard Dawkins stating that the
latter helped him realize that there is “no personal god” and that Zoroaster’s teachings were a
“rational way of life” (Kabraji, 2015, p. X) supported by a god of logic (Kabraji, 2015, p. XIII).
Kabraji states that by following this rationalist version of Zoroastrianism, one can have great
success in their lives like the Tatas and Wadias and that in the 21st century “blind faith” will
vanish (Kabraji, 2015, p. XIII-XIV). Of particular interest are the mentions of his gratitude for
the support and advice from the Association for Revival of Zoroastrianism, a Reformist
organization which 2017 established the Dagdah Asha Vahishta fire temple in Pune open to all
including converts and espousing Reformist teachings (Bari, 2018).

The Traditionalist Movement

If the Reformist movement can be said to be a reaction to interaction with Western thought, the
Traditionalist movement is a response to that reaction as a sort of “conservative backlash”
(Hinnells, 1997, p. 72). This idea of a “backlash”, however, is countered by adherents of the
Traditionalist movement and even by some academics who hold that this “movement” is nothing
more than a continuation of practice and belief which stands against the Reformist newcomers
seeking to change the religion. Suffused by an ethno-centric closed perspective that believes that
Zoroastrianism is “inborn and cannot be acquired” (Gerth, 2009, p. 124), the Traditionalist
movement rejects many of the key points of the Reformist movement wholesale including
gender egalitarianism (Stausberg, Tessmann and Vevaina, 2015, p. 287), conversion (Stausberg,
Tessmann and Vevaina, 2015, p. 202), the Gathas-centric approach, intermarriage, and the
rejection of ritual (Gerth, 2008, pp. 124-126). The beginnings of this approach regarding being a
counter to the Reformists derives from responses to Rev. Wilson in defense of the faith yet did
not develop into what it is today until the late 1800s and further Western interaction. The arrival
of the Theosophists in Bombay after the transferring of their headquarters from New York City
in 1879 (Hinnells, 1997, p. 72) and their interactions with the local Parsi community is
considered within this overview to be the genesis of the modern Traditionalist movement. These
Theosophists, emphasizing an esoteric and occultist approach to religion, encouraged the
Zoroastrians to preserve their rituals and supernatural beliefs and to reject Western scholarship
and notions of reform, referring to Zoroastrianism as resting on the “rock of truth, the living rock
of Occult Science” which they saw as being concordant with discoveries of modern science at
the time (Hinnels, 1997, p. 73). This drew much agreement from the developing Traditionalist
movement which saw their own views confirmed of the supremacy and mystical nature of
Zoroastrianism. However, after the departure of the Theosophists from Bombay, a hunger for
arguments in support of the now-perceived mystical foundation of Zoroastrianism developed
which was filled by Behramshah Shroff’s Ilm-e Kshnoom movement. Shroff claimed to have
learned the secret truths of Zoroastrianism from hidden spiritual masters who lived under Iran’s
Mount Damavand (Stausberg, Tessmann and Vevaina, 2015, p. 549), where it is claimed that he
entered fully illiterate but returned a master orator with a deep grasp of occult knowledge and
even Hindu Ayurvedic medicine (Hinnells, 1997, p. 73). While heavily Theosophical in its
emphasis on the vibrations of Avestan prayers, vegetarianism, and other mystical teachings,
Shroff attributed his learning not to Tibetan masters but rather ancient Iranian masters, which
coincided with a “return to Iran” attitude prevalent among Parsi circles at the time (Hinnells,
1997, p. 74).

Shroff’s followers and admirers went on to have a major influence in the development of the
Traditionalist movement, with Framroz Sorabji Cinivala being noted for being quite prolific and
whose still-popular book Nikiz-I Veh-Daen: An Exposition of the Good Religion explores various
Avestan and Pahlavi texts through an esoteric and symbolic perspective (Stausberg, Tessmann
and Vevaina, 2015, p. 549). Phiroze Shapurji Masani, writing in 1917, added a new element to
Traditionalist theology by claiming that the whole Avesta was written by Zoroaster, that chanting
the mantras was essential to the development of mind, body, and soul, that eating a vegetarian
diet was aligned to the faith, and that Zoroastrianism was only for those souls who were at the
highest stage of spiritual progress (Stausberg, Tessmann and Vevaina, 2015, p. 169). He further
argued that the purity laws and rituals of the faith, which were mostly rejected by the Reformist
movement, aided in the soul’s progress and as such were essential for any devout Zoroastrian
(Hinnells, 1997, p. 74). Later writers, including a Mr. Dastoor in 1984, would go on to
emphasize Zoroaster’s worshipful divinity as a yazata, an older concept revived within the
Traditionalist milieu and contemporary Indian philosophy reminiscent of the Hindu idea of the
“avatar” and would continue to clamor against non-Zoroastrians entering fire temples and being
involved in any aspect of the faith due to their spiritual impurity (Hinnells, 1997, p.74). Even
critics of the Ilm-e Kshnoom movement have been influenced by it as many of its ideas have
become rather the norm in the Traditionalist movement. For example, Dastur Kurshed Shapurji
Dabu, a greatly respected high priest in the Parsi community in the mid-20th century, embraced
vegetarianism, asceticism, devotional to a personal God, reincarnation, and esoteric
interpretations of Zoroastrian mythology, along with stressing that Hinduism and Zoroastrianism
were “cousins” and his teachings were rather consistent with traditional Indian religious
philosophy. Such connections and teachings make the Traditionalist movement a stringently
Parsi one with little influence outside of Parsi communities.

However, despite being rather Parsi ethno-centric, the Traditionalist movement thrives online
where some of its major voices and influencers hold sway among interpretations of the faith
among believers and observers alike. The internet is proclaimed as an avenue by some
Traditionalist adherents to “expose fakes, charlatans, fake-scholars, and ignorant idiots” through
debate and the direct presentation of the Traditionalist argument (Gerth, 2009, p. 127). The
bastion of the Traditionalist movement online, however, is a website established in 1996 known
as The World of Traditional Zoroastrianism. A massive project collecting the works of various
figures past and present involved in the Traditionalist movement, the website declares that it
seeks to protect the “spiritual strength…and the ethnic identity of the Zarathushtri Aryans”
through a supernatural belief in the power of the scriptures as ethical and ritual tools of the
utmost power (Parsizoroastrianism.com, 1996). Offering a newsletter known as The Parsee
Voice, the website also has article upon article of every possible topic of interest to the
Traditionalist movement, especially refutations of Reformists arguments and pillars of thought.
The website is not shy about its connection and promotion not just of the Kshnoomist teachings,
but also of other mystical matters including the Pundol Group, hagiographies of Zoroastrian
saints, and even promotes a Zoroastrian historical romance called The Saga of the Aryans
(Parsizoroastrianism.com, 1996). The website is linked consistently in online communities and
promoted by prominent figures and organizations in the Parsi community not just in India, but
internationally, and can likely attribute its spread to having all of its writings in English, allowing
for an international readership. Another voice of the Traditionalist movement, albeit admittedly
controversial, is Khojeste Mistree, a former student of the well-respected scholar of
Zoroastrianism Dr. Mary Boyce. Mr. Mistree founded his Zoroastrian Studies Foundation in the
mid-20th century as a Traditionalist revitalization movement which has now gone international
and promotes a strong maintenance of the boundaries advocated for by the Traditionalist
movement (Stausberg, Tessmann and Vevaina, 2015, p. 16). In a fascinating case of the
unexpected influence of western scholarship on the development of the religious thinking of a
movement that is established as mostly rejecting Western influence, Mistree is adamant that
Zoroastrianism is solely an ethnic religion and uses the work of Dr. Boyce to solidify his claims
in this area (Stausberg, Tessmann and Vevaina, 2015, p. 16). Mistree has, unlike many other
Traditionalist figures, lauded the modern state of Zoroastrian studies at Western universities,
pointing towards the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, as upholding
a Traditionalist viewpoint in its teaching methods (Hornsby, 2018). Mr. Mistree is not without
detractors on both sides, however, with Reformists and Traditionalists alike viewing him with
disdain and online both movements can be seen sharing videos ridiculing him and also
attempting to catch him committing some sort of blasphemy (yezdidastoor, 2009).

Conclusion
This essay’s purpose has been to provide the reader with an overview of the history and
arguments of the Reformist and Traditionalist movements which drive Zoroastrian theology,
praxis, and discussion even in modern day. History has shown that both have deep roots in
European interpretations of Zoroastrianism and developed through attempts to take those very
interpretations and elaborate on them within a uniquely Zoroastrian and particularly Parsi
context. The inclusion of modern examples of the movements has aimed to show that these ideas
are still relevant within Zoroastrianism internationally and has continued to influence the
perception of the religion among believers and observers alike. Zoroastrianism is not a monolith,
but rather a diverse and heterodox religion with varied schools of thought, two major ones
mentioned in this essay, that some scholars believe would be better referred to not in the singular
as defining all of Zoroastrianism, but as Zoroastrian “communities”, “beliefs and practices”, or
even “Zoroastrianisms” in the plural (Rose, 2011, p. XVIII). As such, while this has been a mere
overview of the Reformist and Traditionalist movements, the complexity of the Zoroastrian faith
means that there are more movements and sub-movements that have existed and currently exist
and the future of Zoroastrianism no doubt will see more debates and discussions pop up as this
rather ancient faith makes it way into the 21st century CE.
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