Ecology

List of terms to define

Ecosystem
Abiotic factors
Biotic factors
Habitat
Niche
Community
Population
Decomposers
Carnivores
Omnivore
Herbivore
Predator
Prey
Commensalism
Mutualism
Parasitism

Studying ecosystems

Sampling methods used to study organisms present

1. Observation: common plants and animals should be listed and adaptations and interrelationships
noted

2. Quadrats: a square frame of known area. It is placed several times, at random, within the
ecosystem and the number of each species of plant and stationary or slow moving animals within
the boundary of its sides is counted. If it is impossible to distinguish individual plants, the
percentage cover is estimated.

3. Line transects: horizontal line made of string or measuring tape placed across part of an
ecosystem. Plant species and stationary or slow moving animal touching the line at fixed intervals
are recorded. Measuring the height of the line at each sampling point gives a profile of the ground
below the line. This is usually used where one habitat changes into another.

4. Sweep nets: used to sample flying insects. The number of each species or insect collected at each
place is counted. This can be used in addition to quadrats or line transects

5. Capture-recapture: used to estimate population sizes of animals which move. A representative

sample of animals of a species is trapped counted and marked (with paint). They are released and
a second sample is trapped and counted.
Estimated population size= no. of organisms in 1st sample x no. in 2nd sample
Number of marked individuals recaptured
 6. Pitfall trap: for walking or crawling insects. A jar or plant pot is sunk into the ground and covered
to keep out excess water. This is usually set up overnight, the organisms are counted on the next
day. The animals that fall in can’t climb the side of the funnel to get out.

7. Tullgren funnel: soil is collected and placed into a funnel on the top of a wire mesh. The funnel is
placed over a collecting jar which might contain water or alcohol. A light bulb is then placed over
the funnel to give light and generate heat. Organisms will move downwards and fall through the
mesh into the container.

Treatment of results

Species density: average number of species per m 2.

Species cover: percentage of ground covered by a species; used if individual organisms were difficult to
count

Species frequency: the percentage of quadrats in which a particular species was found.
Classification

Organisms are placed in groups based on visible characteristics, example, hairiness, colours, shape,
number of legs, etc. they are also grouped based on internal structures, life cycles, development patterns,
etc. A more common form of characteristics uses DNA sequence to determine ancestry.

The different names of groups organisms are classified in are as follows:

KingdomPhylum ClassOrderFamilyGenusSpecies

There are 5 major kingdoms.

The figure above shows the phyla of the plant kingdom. Flowering plants phylum is divided into the
classes; monoctyledons and dicotyledons.

Below you can see the phyla and classes of the animal kingom. Describe the features of the classes
found below. The last figure shows the taxonomic classification of humans.
 Feeding relationships

Predator/prey relationship

A predator is an organism that kills and feeds on other organisms. An apex predator is at the top of a food
chain and has no predators, e.g. killer whales, tiger sharks, hawks and owls.

A prey is the organism that the predator eats.

A predator and prey evolve together. The predator must evolve to catch its prey and the prey evolves to
escape its predator and avoid being eaten.

Predator-prey relationships serve as biological controls and keeps the numbers of organisms relatively
constant. If the predator overhunts its prey, the prey population would decrease and this will cause the
predator population to decrease. This causes the prey population to increase again causing the predator
population to increase.

Detritivores and decomposers

These organisms are responsible for recycling or chemical elements within all ecosystems.

Detritivores: these are animals which feed on pieces of decomposing organic matter, breaking them into
smaller fragments.

Decomposers: these are micro-organisms which feed saprophytically (secrete enzymes to break down
complex into simple compounds then absorbs the nutrients) on dead and waste organic matter causing it
to decompose.

Symbiotic relationships

Symbiosis is any close relationship between two organisms of different species. It can be divided into
three types:

Parasitism: one organism benefits while the other is harmed e.g. licks and ticks on mammals, tapeworms
in animals.
Commensalism: one organism benefits while the other neither gains nor is harmed e.g. cattle egrets and
cows, remoras and sharks, epiphytes and plants

Mutualism: both organisms benefits and in some cases can’t survive without the other e.g. leguminous
plants and nitrogen fixing bacteria, coral polyps and green algae, termites and protozoans.

Energy flow in ecosystems

Producers absorb sunlight energy and convert it into chemical energy. Some of the energy is released
during respiration and some is passed on to the next trophic level. At each level energy is lost in faeces
and in excretory products e.g. urea. Some is used in respiration or lost as heat. Some is used in growth
and repair of the organism and other daily activities. The remaining energy would be passed on the next
trophic level. Only 10% of energy is passed on to the next level.

Ecological pyramids

Energy, biomass and number of organisms at successive levels can be represented by ecological
pyramids.

Pyramid of numbers

This shows the number of organisms at each trophic level of a food chain within a given area. The
ecosystem usually contains a large number of small organisms and a smaller number of large organisms.
There can be different shapes of numbers of pyramids. For example, one tree may be eaten by many
caterpillars or one dog can be host to many ticks which may have several parasites. Meanwhile, you may
have a large number or leaves being eaten by a small number of caterpillars, eaten by a smaller number or
birds, eaten by one cat.
Pyramid of biomass

Instead of estimating the numbers at each trophic level we can estimate their biomass or dry weight. The
width of the boxes indicates the relative amounts of biomass present at each trophic level. The pyramid
above shows a large amount of plant material which supports a smaller mass of herbivores which
supports a smaller mass of carnivores.

Recycling

Materials are constantly being recycled and re-used in nature. The different chemical elements that make
up the bodies of all living organisms, mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur
and calcium, are continually cycled through these living organisms and the physical environment.
Decomposers are essential to the recycling of most of these elements.

Carbon cycle

Carbon atoms are cycled by being converted into different compounds containing carbon e.g. carbon
dioxide and all other organic compounds. Cycling of carbon is essential to ensure that:

 Plants have continuous supply of carbon dioxide to manufacture organic food by photosynthesis.
 Animals and decomposers have continuous supply of organic food.
Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen atoms are cycled by being converted into different compounds containing nitrogen, e.g. nitrates
and proteins. The cycling of nitrogen is essential to ensure that:

 Plants have a continuous supply of nitrates to manufacture proteins.

 Animals and decomposers have continuous supply of proteins.
 There are three types of bacteria that helps in the cycling of nitrogen: nitrifying bacteria (convert
ammonia compound into nitrites then into nitrates), denitrifying bacteria (converts nitrates into
nitrogen gas) and nitrogen fixing bacteria (convert nitrogen to nitrates).

Recycling of waste materials

This helps to change waste materials into new products. The materials can be divided into two categories:

Biodegradable materials: these can be decomposed by the action of living organisms, mainly bacteria
and fungi. They include waste from the food industry, farmyard and garden waste.

Non-biodegradable materials: these cannot be decomposed by living organisms. They include glass,
plastics, rubber, construction waste, synthetic fabrics such as nylon, and metals such as iron, steel,
aluminum, copper and lead.

Recycling of non-biodegradable materials is important because it:

  Prevents wastage of useful materials
 Conserves natural resources by reducing the quantity of fresh raw materials used in
manufacturing.
 Reduces energy usage.
 Reduces the quantity of waste requiring disposal
 Reduces pollution of air, land and water

Difficulties encountered in recycling manufactured materials.

 Getting persons to separate their waste into different types.

 It’s more difficult to collect, transport and store waste items after they have been separated.
 It is time consuming to clean materials before they are recycled and also to sort materials into all
the different types.
 It can be hazardous because recyclable materials have to be separated from any toxic materials.
e.g. the acid has to be removed from lead batteries before recycling the lead.
 Most small countries do not have the facilities to use recycled raw materials.

The impact of humans on the environment

The human population is currently growing at about 1.2% per year. This growth, together with improved
standards of living, is having a profound effect on all other living organisms, natural resources and the
environment in general.

Human activities are having a negative impact on both non- renewable and renewable natural resources,
and in many cases, these resources are being rapidly depleted.

Non-renewable resources are present in the earth in finite amounts; they cannot be replaces and so are
running out. They include energy resources such as fossil fuels. And mineral resources such as iron ore,
bauxite (aluminum ore), copper and tin.

Renewable resources can be replaced by natural processes. However plant and animal species are being
overexploited such that their numbers are decreasing, in some cases to the point of extinction. They hunt
animals for food, for their skin and tusks. They also cut areas of forest and in so doing destroy habitats,
disrupts the water cycle, increases soil erosion and decrease the rate of photosynthesis.

Pollution
This is the contamination of the natural environment by the release of unpleasant and harmful substances
into the environment. Humans pollute the environment and may harm living organisms.

Agricultural practices and pollution

Pesticides e.g. insecticides and herbicides are used in agriculture and to control vectors. Some of these
pollutants become incorporated into the food chains and can harm top consumers as they accumulate in
their bodies.
Nitrates and phosphates ions are used in chemical fertilizers and detergents and may cause
eutrophication (rapid growth of algae in lakes, ponds and rivers which causes the water to turn green.
They use up the dissolved oxygen causing aquatic organisms to die).

Industries and air pollution

Carbon dioxide (CO2): comes from burning fossil fuels in vehicles, airplanes, industries etc. The buildup
of this gas enhances the greenhouse effect and leads to global warming. It also causes ocean acidification.

Carbon monoxide (CO): comes from burning fossil fuels, bush fires and cigarette smoke. This combines
with haemoglobin preventing oxygen from binding to it. It causes dizziness, headaches and visual
impairment, and can lead to unconsciousness and death.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2): comes from burning fossil fuels. Causes respiratory problems e.g. bronchitis and
reduces growth in plants. Dissolves in rain water forming acid rain and decreases the pH of soil, damages
plants, harms animals and corrodes buildings.

Oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO 2): comes from combustion at high temperatures in industry, motor
vehicles and power stations. They are very toxic and can cause lung damage and even at low
concentrations can irritate respiratory system, skin and eyes. They can also reduce plant growth and form
acid rain by dissolving in rain water.

Dust and other particulate matter: released from industries, mining and quarrying. This can cause
respiratory problems and coat leaves which reduces photosynthesis.

Improper disposal of garbage causing pollution

Only a small fraction of garbage is recycled. Most are dumped in landfills, gullies, waterways and even
by the roadside.

Toxic chemicals: when thrown in the garbage this can leach out and contaminate the soil, aquatic
environments and water sources.

Greenhouse gases: e.g. methane and carbon dioxide can be releases into the atmosphere where they
contribute to the greenhouse effect.

Hydrogen sulfide gas: this gas is extremely toxic and even low amount can cause eye irritation and
respiratory irritation.

Plastics: can enter waterways and can be harmful to aquatic organisms.

Bacteria: from untreated sewage can enter groundwater and cause disease e.g. cholera

Garbage attract rodents which can spread diseases.

Garbage is unattractive and can negatively impact tourism.

Pollution of marine and wetland ecosystems

Marine ecosystems are aquatic ecosystem where the water contains dissolved compounds, especially
salts. They include coral reefs, seagrass beds, rocky and sandy seashores, mangrove swamps, estuaries
and Open Ocean.

Wetland ecosystems are transitional ecosystems where dry land meets water and the water may be fresh,
brackish or salt. They are areas of land that are covered with water for either part or all of the year and are
usually found alongside rivers, lakes and coastal areas. They include mangrove swamps, freshwater
swamps, and marshes.

Both of the ecosystems above contribute to the economies of small island developing states of the
Caribbean through tourism, fisheries and coastal protection. However, they are being polluted by
untreated sewage, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, industrial waste, hot water, garbage and oil from oil
spills. This impacts negatively on both the ecosystem and the general appearance. These ecosystems are
also being overfished, and destroyed for developmental purposes. Damage to coral reefs, mangrove
swamps and other marine and wetland ecosystems results in a loss of:

Biodiversity

Habitat

Natural resources

Attractions and recreational sites

Nursery grounds

Nesting and breeding grounds

Protection

Flood control

The greenhouse effect and global warming

Methane, carbon dioxide and dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) are all examples of greenhouse gases. They
form a layer around the earth and lets radiation from the sun pass through but prevents most of it from
being reflected back out into space. This radiation causes warming of the earth which is known as the
greenhouse effect.

Burning of fossil fuels and deforestation enhance the greenhouse warming effect which is called global
warming. The effects of global warming is already showing. They include:

 Melting of ice caps and glaciers

 Rise in sea levels
 Flooding of low-lying coastal areas
 Changes in weather patterns
 More severe weather events and natural disasters
  Changes in the ecosystem and numbers of some species decline while others increase. Some may
even become extinct
 Certain diseases to become widespread
 A rise in sea temperature which can cause corals to bleach and die.

Ocean acidification

Some of the carbon dioxide is absorbed by oceans which causes the pH of the water to decrease, known
as ocean acidification. This affects shellfish ability to produce and maintain their shells. It can also affect
coral reefs and cause erosion of them.

Conservation and restoration of the environment.

It is important that the environment is conserved and restored. This can be achieved in a number of ways.

-conserve and restore natural resources

 Use alternative energy sources

 Recycle renewable resources e.g plastics
 Re-use materials e.g glass bottles
 Use materials made from renewable resources instead of non-renewable resources, e.g cotton
instead of polyester
 Re-use land used in mining and landfills e.g. replace soil and replant vegetation
 Set up breeding and aquaculture programmes for endangered and overexploited species, e.g fish
farms
 Set up nature reserves
 Put legislation in place to make it illegal to kill endangered species e.g. turtles

- Reduce pollution
 Use alternative sources of energy that do not cause pollution
 Use organic fertilizers
 Use biodegradable pesticides and herbicides or biological control instead of synthesis
pesticides and herbicides
 Dispose of waste using appropriate methods
o Purify all waste from factories
o Treat all sewage in treatment plants, use the sludge as fertilizer and the water to
irrigate crops
o Collect and recycle materials or re-use recyclable materials
o Compost organic waste
 Use aerosol propellants and refrigerants without chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Others strategies

 Develop educational programmes

 Implement monitoring programmes
  Sign international agreements to control pollution and conserve natural resources
 Pass legislation to protect the environment

The growth and survival of populations

Four factors affect the rate of population growth:

 Birth rate
 Death rate
 Immigration
 Emigration

A Sigmoid growth curve is used to represent population growth.

When members of a species colonise an area and start reproducing the birth rate exceeds the death rate
and the population increases in size until the area cannot support any more individuals. This area is said to
have reached its carrying capacity. At this point factors limit further population growth.

Factors include:

 Food shortages
 Overcrowding
 Diseases
 Predators

The only factors that can drastically reduce a population after it has gotten to a stationary carrying
capacity are:
  Natural disasters
 Invasive species
 Pests

The human population is currently at a stage of exponential growth since the mid-1800s because
humans have:

 Developed modern medicine

 Improved water supply and sanitation
 Improved agricultural techniques
 Developed a better understanding of nutritional requirements

Research the negative impact of growth on the human population on the environment.