Methods for Collecting, Rearing
and Preserving Dragonflies
Abstract
Collecting and preserving methods for both nymphs and
adults of Odonata are described. Procedures for rearing
and feeding nymphs are outlined; rearing nymphs is an
essential tool in learning about their growth and develop-
ment. Suggestions for equipment and other materials, and
also safety concerns, necessary in field studies of nymphs
and adults are provided. Field guides to the adults of
North American dragonflies are listed.
To kill both the things one doesn’t know and the things one loves
is a peculiarity of humans.
Field studies are essential in learning firsthand about Odonata.
Any effort spent in studying nymphs will be greatly rewarded
(DuBois and Tennessen 2016). Seeing nymphs and adults in
their native habitats is crucial in understanding their biology
and can be a great aid in identifying them. Furthermore, iden-
tifying nymphs to species is greatly enhanced by knowing the
adults, as nearly all species definitions are based on the adult
stage. Species lists based on thorough adult collections pro-
vide many clues to nymphal identification for specific locali-
ties. Because of the tremendous differences in form between
the aquatic nymphs and the terrestrial adults, the effort
required is similar to learning two different groups of insects.
Therefore, I have included methods for collecting and pre-
serving both stages in this chapter. However, as only nymphal
identification is addressed in this book, for adults the reader
must refer to several of the excellent references on adult iden-
tification listed at the end of this chapter.
13.1 Collection of Nymphs
Almost any permanent pond, stream, or lake is likely to har-
bor dragonfly nymphs, and certain temporary water bodies at
times provide habitat for them. Success in finding nymphs is
increased if searching is concentrated mostly along the edges
of aquatic habitats. Large rivers and large lakes are difficult
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
K. J. Tennessen, Dragonfly Nymphs of North America, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97776-8_13
13
to sample, and caution is advised when trying to sample in
deep water. Nymphs of several North American species are
reportedly resistant to desiccation in habitats that become
completely dry for several months. Examples include
Somatochlora semicircularis, reported by Willey and Eiler
(1972), Aeshna sitchensis, Leucorrhinia hudsonica, reported
by Cannings (1982), and Somatochlora albicincta, reported
by Hutchinson and Moressette (1977). The nymphs appar-
ently bury themselves in the cool bottom mud and somehow
cut down on water loss from their bodies. Temporary pools
of very brief nature (filled for only 5–20 days for any particu-
lar wetting episode—the main habitat of floodwater mosqui-
toes) may be frequented by adults of some species, but I
know of no North American species of Odonata that under-
goes development in such habitat.
Whether capturing dragonfly nymphs for purposes of
field identification  and release or preparing specimens for
taxonomic study, the basic collecting equipment and initial
handling techniques are similar. The considerable variety of
aquatic habitats in which Odonata occur, however, makes dip
nets of different sizes and shapes a necessity. The various
collecting methods outlined here are based on those used by
numerous experienced collectors of dragonflies and are
intended to provide guidelines for beginners in the field.
Most collectors eventually modify and adapt existing meth-
ods and equipment to fit their circumstances or to make
improvements.
Many types of aquatic nets used for collecting aquatic
insects are sufficient for collecting dragonfly nymphs
(Usinger 1963; McCafferty 1981; Merritt et al. 2008), but I
have limited this discussion to the devices and methods most
useful for Odonata. For qualitative sampling, there are sev-
eral types of commercial dip nets available for collecting
dragonfly nymphs. A D-frame net, so-called because the rim
is shaped like the letter D, is useful in both lentic and lotic
situations (Fig. 13.1). The D-frame net is lightweight, sturdy
and has a relatively long handle. The frame is made of a stout
metal rod and measures one foot across. The upper part of
the bag is made of heavy canvas to resist wear, although the
579
580
corners eventually tear with hard use over rocks and other
abrasive substrates. The bag is made of soft, fine mesh mate-
rial (0.7–0.8  mm) that can be punctured or torn by sharp
sticks and roots. The bag is shallow for easy removal of
insects, and the fine mesh retains all sizes of Odonata except
perhaps the first few instars. However, because the mesh is
fine, large amounts of substrate, such as organic material and
coarse sand and gravel, are often retained. Nymphs are dif-
ficult to see and pick out of large masses of such material. If
a large amount of substrate is netted, I suggest dividing the
material into small portions and picking through it in a white
plastic pan. All leftover material should be returned to the
habitat from which it was collected. Other types of commer-
cial, short- and long-handled aquatic dip nets are also avail-
able, but I have found them to be more cumbersome than the
D-frame net.
Do-it-yourself aquatic nets, including simple kick screens
made from wooden dowels and window screen, can be fash-
Fig. 13.1  D-frame net with fine mesh bag
Fig. 13.2  Homemade aquatic nets: (a) kick screen; (b) shallow box net with long handle.
13  Methods for Collecting, Rearing and Preserving Dragonflies
ioned to the collector’s own specifications of shape and mesh
size. A kick screen (Fig. 13.2a) with a large mesh, such as 8
openings per inch, is an advantage in loose substrates with
large particles, as the material passes through more readily,
making nymphs easier to detect; however, most early instars
are lost through large mesh nets. A mesh of 6 to 10 openings
per inch retains smaller than half-grown to full-grown
nymphs. If it is necessary to collect smaller nymphs, a finer
mesh bottom can be installed. Kick screens and fish seines
are most effective when used by two or three people.
Hutchinson and Ménard (2015) described an aquatic net
made by removing the net from a commercial fish-landing
net and replacing it with screen. I have made dip nets using
stainless-steel mesh. Hardware cloth is less expensive and
more readily available than stainless steel-mesh but it will
not last as long. Nets should be inspected for damage after
returning from the field. Aluminum bands (1/8” × 1/2”) make
a light, solid frame that can be readily attached to a wooden
handle (Fig. 13.2b). Net width is based on stream size; I have
found widths greater that 14” rather cumbersome. A shallow
box (ca 3–4” deep) accommodates easy removal of nymphs.
In very shallow streams, the substrate can be scooped into
the net and then carried to deeper water for rinsing.
The above-mentioned nets can be used in lotic and lentic
habitats. In flowing water, the dip net or kick screen is held
downstream of the collector while the substrate is disturbed,
usually by loosening it  with one’s feet or a stick or rake.
Dislodged nymphs float with the current onto the screen.
Although D-frame and kick nets can be used in lentic habi-
tats also, digging down into the substrate of many such
places is difficult with these devices. A more useful device in
weedy areas and compact muddy or gravel substrates is the
Needham scraper (Usinger 1963, p.  52). The 4-foot long
handle attaches to the net box at slightly less than 30°. The
13.1  Collection of Nymphs 581

front edge of the metal frame has a fairly dull, metal cutting
blade that is set approximately at 60° to the opening of the
catch box; the bottom and sides are wire mesh (typically
2.5–3.0 mm, although a finer mesh can be installed). When
the leading edge of the scraper is dragged through heavy
vegetation or a compact substrate, it cuts down and through,
scooping the loosened material into the sturdy screened
frame. The scraper is then rinsed in the water to wash most
of the fine material out through the mesh of the side and bot-
tom screens, leaving the dragonfly nymphs easy to detect
amongst the remaining larger pieces of stems and stones on
the bottom screen. The original Needham scraper was quite
heavy (4.5 lb without the handle) and could become tiresome
when used for extended periods. I built a lighter version with
an aluminum frame, a stainless-steel cutting edge, and Fig. 13.3  Lightweight modified Needham scraper with aluminum
stainless-­steel mesh formed to make a slightly shallower box frame (f) and stainless-steel front edge (b)
(depth 3.5 inches); it weighs only 2 lb. (Fig. 13.3).
For sampling in deep water, a long-handled rake can be
used to pull leafy and/or woody debris toward the bank where
it can be examined for nymphs. In small spaces, such as
spring runs, seeps, and pockets of water in bogs and swamps,
a tea strainer or small minnow net is useful. Small dip nets
can be made from various sporting rackets (Fig. 13.4). Small
strainers and minnow nets are also handy when collecting in
phytotelmata. Picking up logs and rocks at the edges of rivers
and lakes often reveals clinging species that are rarely taken
by a net. Sturdy tree roots along river banks and in swamps
are very difficult to sample; groping by hand, diving or snor-
keling and then sighting and handpicking them are fairly
effective ways to collect nymphs clinging to such substrates.
Cook (1994) described a method using a centrifugal water
pump powered by a gasoline engine to create a water jet for
loosening nymphs from their hiding places. One person
directs the jet of water, washing nymphs into a catch net held
by an assistant. Although the equipment and effort required is
substantially greater than in more conventional techniques,
this method will increase yield and might be useful in esti-
mating population sizes. For sampling in winter conditions,
Cebulski (2009) designed a dragnet for use under the ice.
Whatever catch net is used, nymphs of most species will Fig. 13.4  Racket ball racket converted to a dip net for sampling small
try to free themselves immediately from the debris in the net, aquatic habitats
and they are thus easily detected by their movements.
Whereas Cordulegaster, Ladona and Libellula try to escape
immediately, some species, such as Hagenius, Lanthus, and Gomphidae and Cordulegastridae should be provided some
Neurocordulia, will remain motionless for a while when first mixture of sand and gravel so they do not constantly crawl in
captured. Patience and a keen sense of their shape are neces- attempts to find cover. For aeshnids, provide a damp leaf or
sary to find nymphs that tend to hide or feign death. stick onto which the nymphs can cling. If the nymphs cannot
Mortality of captive nymphs is usually highest during be transported to an artificial stream (see p. 584) within a day
transport, especially during hot weather and over long dis- or two of collection, water should be added to the container;
tances. One method that increases survival is to keep the aeration should be provided with a portable, battery-operated
nymphs wet but not in water. I put them in plastic vials with air pump (available in most stores that sell fishing supplies).
wet moss and keep the containers from becoming warm; it is Empty the water from the containers daily during transporta-
best to use snap caps that have small holes in them. tion and replace it with fresh water.
582
Few methods have been developed for quantitative sam-
pling of Odonata nymphs. Odonata are usually poorly repre-
sented in most quantitative benthic sampling efforts. For
example, Hess and Surber samples (Merritt et al. 2008) are
taken in riffle areas away from stream banks and result in few
odonates because the majority of stream-inhabiting Odonata
occupy the slower edges. Banks are usually highly irregular,
often with uneven vertical or undercut margins. A uniplanar
sample area, be it a square foot, square meter or whatever,
cannot be mechanically delineated in such multidimensional
space. However, semi-quantitative samples can be obtained
by estimating the area that is to be disturbed and washed into
the net. Another method is to collect exuviae of emerging
individuals along a shoreline for a measured distance
(DuBois 2015; see discussion below). It is necessary to col-
lect the exuviae for the entire emergence period of the spe-
cies being investigated.
For purposes of species level identification, it is best to
collect at least some late instars whenever possible. Many of
the characteristics used to identify late stage nymphs to spe-
cies (especially size, setal number, antennal segment ratios
and wing sheath characters) are not yet fully developed in
nymphs smaller than F-3. Very few characters have been
found that are reliable for identifying small nymphs.
Therefore most keys to species, including those presented in
this book, are applicable only to larger nymphs. Spring is a
good time to collect final instars, many of which will be near
emergence. However, streams and ponds are often swollen
from heavy spring rains, making them difficult to sample. In
temperate areas, autumn is usually a good time of year to
collect nymphs because streams are usually at low levels
and final instars of many species are present. Many groups
overwinter in the final instar; if nymphs are collected in
autumn and brought inside the lab, rearing to the adult stage
usually takes considerably longer than if they are collected
in spring. Also, a source of live prey organisms, such as oli-
gochaetes, must be available throughout the cold months of
the year. If only F-4 or smaller nymphs are found, I suggest
rearing some of these to F-0 or F-1 for ease of
identification.
It is important to keep two things in mind while collect-
ing. First, aquatic habitats and their surroundings can be haz-
ardous places, especially if one is alone. Currents and
bottoms in some rivers can be deceptive and unpredictable,
so proceed in unknown areas with great caution. Rocks in
rivers and lakes can be very slippery and sharp, and deep
sediment can trap the unaware. Poison ivy, thorns, smart-
weed, wasps and snakes present further dangers. Dehydration
is also likely. Therefore it is a good idea to go with a compan-
ion and be sure to pack water and a first aid kit. Secondly,
collectors must respect the habitat and the property they
visit. Refrain from unduly trampling or damaging vegeta-
tion, banks and substrate. If you wish to go on private land,
13  Methods for Collecting, Rearing and Preserving Dragonflies
explain your purpose to the landowner and politely ask per-
mission; most people are willing to let you collect if they
know what you intend to do beforehand. Appropriate collect-
ing permits are required for public lands such as national
parks, US Forest Service lands, Army Corps of Engineers,
state conservation areas, and preserves owned by The Nature
Conservancy.
Collecting Odonata, in either the adult or nymphal stages,
usually does not significantly impact dragonfly populations
or their habitats. Garrison (1993) discussed various aspects
of collecting and the lack of significant effects it has on
Odonata. Nonetheless, collectors should carefully weigh the
consequences of their actions on a species and its habitat
before they collect. I believe it is unwise and unethical to
over-collect rare species, especially those that occupy small,
fragile habitats such as spring seepages, small pristine
streams, or any unusual habitat. If a few specimens need to
be taken from such habitats, every effort should be exercised
to disturb as little of the habitat as possible. The Dragonfly
Society of the Americas (1996) adopted a collecting policy
after its members thoroughly discussed and weighed all
issues, pro and con [see Orr 1994 and access the
OdonataCentral website (http://www.odonatacentral.org/
index.php/PageAction.get/name/CuratingInfo) for further
information].
13.2 Collection of Exuviae
Picking up the exoskeletons left after adults metamorphose
is an excellent method for surveying dragonflies. Exuviae
(Fig.  13.5), also called “skins,” are fairly easy to find if
shorelines are searched shortly after emergence. No net is
necessary. Finding exuviae sometimes requires bending and
looking at potential supports from different angles. Exuviae
are usually present within a meter or so of the water line but
can be present at greater distances from the water (Tennessen
1979). Stream banks and most lake shores are fairly easy to
search whereas ponds, bogs and fens choked with emergent
vegetation present difficulties in detection.
Dry exuviae should be handled gently as they are brittle
and quite fragile; wetting dry exuviae before picking them
up helps prevent breakage. The exuviae can be placed in a
light-weight plastic container and then preserved in 70%
ethanol or isopropyl in vials. Identification is based on the
same characters as for nymphs, although setal characters are
sometimes difficult to ascertain due to matting and
breakage.
In population studies, the exuviae search method offers
several advantages over nymph and adult collecting:
1. Exuviae constitute unequivocal evidence of successful
development and  the locality and the precise habitat in
13.3  Rearing Dragonfly Nymphs
Fig. 13.5 Exuviae
(Gomphidae) left by emerging
adults: (a) Ophiogomphus
rupinsulensis; (b) Stylurus
scudderi
which species develop. Whereas adults often wander to
habitats where they do not reproduce, under most circum-
stances, exuviae remain in place where nymph develop-
ment occurred (Raebel et  al. 2010). Exuviae persist for
variable periods of time (Lubertazzi and Ginsberg 2009).
Species composition surveys based on exuviae are likely
to produce non-biased results.
2. Exuviae are non-living, so no part of the life cycle is sac-
rificed when they are collected. This consideration is
especially important when sampling for species that are
considered sensitive or vulnerable (e.g. Foster and Soluk
1994).
3. Searching requires little equipment; therefore data-­
gathering is inexpensive.
4. Results can be obtained quickly, depending on identifica-
tion skills.
Several drawbacks regarding exuviae include 1) damage
to and displacement of exuviae in severe weather; 2) the win-
dow of opportunity is narrow, requiring exuviae search
efforts to be scheduled shortly after adults emerge; 3) species
identification in some groups can be challenging; 4) some
habitats, such as fens and bogs, are difficult to sample.
Quantitative studies, such as determining population
trends over a period of years, can be achieved using exuviae
(DuBois 2015). The following steps, based on some prior
knowledge of the species and physical characteristics of the
habitat, may be helpful.
1. Establish transects (a set distance of bank or shoreline
such as 10 m or 20 m) or square area plots (quadrats such
as 1m2 or 10 m2).
583
2. Plan to sample shortly after target species are expected to
emerge.
3. Search by sight from edge of water to about 1  m from
edge; try to view from different angles and by carefully
moving stems, grasses (some are not in plain sight).
4. Make two passes through the transect or quadrat.
5. Pick exuviae off supports and preserve.
6. Identify and enumerate exuviae.
7. Note weather conditions
8. Record latitude and longitude, preferably in decimal
degrees.
13.3 Rearing Dragonfly Nymphs
Rearing nymphs to the adult stage is a valuable tool for learn-
ing about dragonflies, and the emerging adults can be used to
confirm determinations based on nymphs. Live nymphs
should be handled with great care, either with fingers or
blunt forceps to prevent injuring them. Great success in get-
ting captive nymphs to transform is achieved by collecting
final instars. If nymphs with swollen wing sheaths are found
(Fig. 13.6a, b), chances are high that they will emerge suc-
cessfully in captivity. Nymphs that are within a week of
emergence must not be dropped; the shock can cause trauma
to the pharate adult inside the nymphal skin, usually result-
ing in death before or during emergence. Lotic species
should be provided with aerated water in artificial streams
(Fig. 13.7), although aerated aquariums will work for some
species. Lentic species usually can be reared in small cups or
jars. Early instars and final instars with flat wing sheaths
need live prey to complete their development. Small oligo-
584
Fig. 13.6  Nymph of Tramea
lacerata with swollen wing
sheaths, nearing time to
emerge to the adult stage: (a)
dorsal view; (b) dorsolateral
view. Arrows indicate right
hind wing sheath. Photos
courtesy of Marla Garrison
Fig. 13.7  Small artificial stream with recirculating filter for rearing
lotic Odonata
chaete worms, chironomids and mosquito larvae are excel-
lent food sources. Although few North American species
have been reared from the earliest instars all the way to the
adult stage, existing attempts indicate that a varied diet is not
necessary  — I have reared several species of Libellulidae
(Erythemis simplicicollis, Pachydiplax longipennis) solely
on mosquito larvae. Newly-hatched dragonfly nymphs can
be fed tiny newly-hatched larvae of Chironomidae (midges)
and/or Chaoboridae (phantom midges, also called
­glassworms). Gravid females of these dipterans can be col-
lected in small plastic vials at night by setting up a UV light
under a white sheet; a little water squirted into the vials will
induce many such females to lay eggs overnight; the eggs
usually hatch within 2 or 3 days (Tennessen 2016). An
advantage of this method is that large numbers of small prey
can be obtained quickly, and the nymphs detect and catch
them quite easily. Rowe (2002) provided methods for suc-
cessfully rearing odonates from egg to adult; special empha-
sis was given to feeding early stage nymphs.
13  Methods for Collecting, Rearing and Preserving Dragonflies
When a nymph’s wing sheaths become swollen, it needs
an emergence support, such as a piece of screen, a stick, or a
sloped bank in order to leave the water and transform.
Numerous books illustrate the sequence of events that take
place during emergence (Hammond 1977, Askew 1988,
Rowe 1991). Information on details of emergence (e.g., pos-
ture, time for wings to extend) are lacking for most of our
species. Making a video of an emerging dragonfly provides
details of the sequence that can be described and timed later.
Some species tend to crawl long distances before emerging.
It is best to put a screen top on the rearing containers so that
when nymphs leave the water to emerge, they do not crawl
too far and become lost.
Newly emerged (teneral) dragonflies are soft and delicate
and should be left undisturbed until they are ready to fly. As
soon as they attempt their first flight, they can be released,
preferably near the proper habitat. If a teneral is to be kept
for a museum specimen, it should be put in a paper bag or
cardboard box so it can harden and develop its color pattern.
In dry climates, a damp piece of cotton or moss should be put
in the bag to provide moisture. The fresh exuviae should be
put immediately in a vial of alcohol with a label (noting date
of emergence and any other particular data) and kept associ-
ated with the adult. The teneral adult, if kept alive for several
days, can be hand-fed small insects such as mosquitoes and
midges, starting on the second or third day after emergence.
Hold the dragonfly gently with wings together between
thumb and forefinger and touch the prey, held by forceps, to
its mouthparts. It may take several attempts before the drag-
onfly accepts prey in this manner (Tennessen 1994a). I have
kept some species alive for up to two weeks feeding them in
this manner, but many species, especially Aeshnidae, attempt
to fly inside containers and break their wings. If museum
specimens are desired, it is best to preserve the adult either in
the alcohol vial containing its exuviae or to acetone it two or
three days post-emergence.
13.4  Collection of Adults
Fig. 13.8  Egg strings of Epitheca species; eggs in mass on left are
recently deposited, while those on the right are darkened, nearing time
to hatch
To obtain eggs, ovipositing females or females in copula
with males usually must be collected (Dunkle 1980). Hold a
captive female’s hind wings together between thumb and
forefinger and dip the tip of the abdomen in a small container
of water. Females that are going to release eggs usually will
do so within a minute or two. Although most libellulid spe-
cies usually release eggs when held captive, many other
groups are uncooperative and other methods are necessary.
Egg strings of the genus Epitheca can often be found at the
water surface, attached to emergent vegetation (Fig. 13.8) or
woody debris. One might find eggs of species that insert their
eggs into a substrate by observing exactly where a female
oviposited and then collecting a small amount of the sub-
strate (such as a stem, moss or mud). Searching is best done
under low power through a dissecting scope. For example,
Cordulegaster females jab their ovipositors into muddy and
sandy substrates; however, sifting through such material to
find the eggs is tedious work. Females of some aeshnid spe-
cies will lay eggs in moist paper towels or coffee filters when
held captive in a large plastic jug (Steve Valley pers. comm).
Eggs are easy to keep alive for observation of embryogenesis
and hatching. Aeration of the water is usually not necessary,
but the container should be loosely covered to prevent inva-
sion by fungi.
Feeding behavior, molting, and taxis can be observed by
keeping nymphs in small, narrow aquariums. The containers
can be built out of plastic or glass. I have used 5 mm thick
clear plastic sheeting for the narrow bottom and ends and
2  mm thick plastic for the bigger sides; I glued the pieces
together with epoxy [non-toxic type]. Different sized
Anisoptera require different widths, so I made them from 8
to 14 mm wide in increments of 2 mm. Dimensions of the
sides can vary from 30  mm high × 50  mm long to larger
aquariums 70 mm × 100 mm (Fig. 13.9). Miniature aquari-
ums, for early instar Anisoptera and for Zygoptera, can be
585
Fig. 13.9  Narrow, custom-made aquarium for photographing nymphs
and observing behavior
made from microscope slides stuck together using a hot glue
gun.
Because most Odonata nymphs are thigmotactic, it is best
to add stems for climbers and clingers (such as Aeshnidae)
and clean sand for sprawlers and burrowers. With these sub-
strates available, the nymphs do not constantly swim around
looking for cover. In particular, Aeshnidae adapt well to such
narrow aquariums and feed readily, providing opportunities
for behavioral observation. The small aquariums are also
useful in photography, as slender, elongate nymphs, such as
Aeshnidae and Zygoptera, are kept perpendicular to the
plane of the camera’s sensor. The aquariums can also be used
in videoing nymphs as they engage in stalking prey, breath-
ing, cleaning, etc.
13.4 Collection of Adults
Very little equipment is needed to collect adult dragonflies.
The most important item is a sturdy, long-handled net. An
aerial net can be purchased from a number of biological sup-
ply houses, or you can make your own. The handle should be
4–6 feet long, and the rim 18–22 inches in diameter. The net
bag should be of fairly large mesh (about 2 mm), providing
for a faster swing by lowering air resistance. Some collectors
say a camouflage net bag is less likely to be detected by wary
adults. However, captured dragonflies and damselflies are
difficult to see and retrieve in a green net bag. I prefer a white
bag and have found that if the net is held motionless over a
riffle some species of Gomphidae will try to perch on it
(Tennessen 1994b) Other items needed are glassine or cel-
lophane envelopes in which to place live dragonflies tempo-
rarily and a pouch to hold the envelopes, preferably one that
can be attached to a belt. Other items include: boots or old
586
shoes for wading, forceps, hand lens, insect repellent (sulfa
powder is very effective in repelling chiggers), paper bags
(for tenerals) and several small cardboard boxes.
Although adult dragonflies can be encountered almost
anywhere outdoors (and occasionally indoors!), searching
natural habitats and the surrounding areas will lead to the
most success. Nearly all bodies of water, including ponds,
lakes, swamps, rivers, creeks, seeps, springs and canals
­harbor some species of Odonata. Some species even inhabit
permanent roadside ditches. Temporary wetlands, such as
shallow pools that hold water for most of the year but dry up
for a month or more, are habitat for several species, such as
Epiaeschna heros in woodlands (Boose 2014) and Sympetrum
spp. in both woodland and more open habitats. Adults can be
seen near temporary pools of very brief nature also (depres-
sions filled for only 5–20 days for any particular wetting epi-
sode—the main habitat of floodwater mosquitoes). However,
I know of no North American species of Odonata that under-
goes development in such ephemeral habitats; opportunistic
adults in these areas are most likely seeking a place to hide
or catching small flying insects for prey.
Visiting a certain habitat on repeated occasions and visit-
ing different types of habitats is certain to increase the list of
species found based on adults. Collecting near water usually
results in collecting a preponderance of males because
females make fewer visits to the water and spend less time
while there. Walking through dry areas away from the water,
especially along fencerows and fields, can be extremely
rewarding in  locating perched and feeding females. Mated
pairs often are found away from the water also.
Collecting at different times of the day and during differ-
ent seasons of the year will also increase the number of spe-
cies seen. For example, certain species fly mostly in bright
sunlight (e.g., Gomphurus, Macromia) whereas others appear
mainly around twilight (e.g., Neurocordulia, Gynacantha).
Some groups, such as Aeshna, can appear during either light
condition. Some species appear early in spring and disappear
within a month, whereas others may be seen from spring
through fall. A few occur only in late summer and fall. A
dense flight of a certain species at a particular time one day
does not guarantee a repeat of such a flight the next day.
Approaching a dragonfly and then swinging a net swiftly
and accurately enough to capture it requires cunning and
skill. A few tips here may save some frustration and disap-
pointing misses. To net a flying dragonfly, swing in the direc-
tion in which it is flying. Their keen sight and quick reflexes
enable them to dodge head-on shots. Males of many species
patrol certain areas over a pond or stream riffle, and some-
times flight paths can be anticipated. Be patient and wait for
the dragonfly to come within reach of your net and to fly past
your midpoint. Swing quickly from behind it; if your swing
is successful, usually indicated by the rustle of wings in the
bag, quickly flip the bag over the rim by rotating the handle
13  Methods for Collecting, Rearing and Preserving Dragonflies
to prevent its escape. Individuals perched on twigs or stems
usually can be captured by a quick swing from behind.
However, sometimes the “pancake” method is required,
especially for individuals perched flat on the ground or on a
rock. This technique consists of sneaking up very slowly
from behind the dragonfly and dropping the net down over it
very quickly. Some collectors even pancake dragonflies that
are flying fast and low over water. Probably the two most
difficult situations are when a dragonfly is perched on a tree
trunk or on barbed plants or wire. I suggest bringing the rim
of the net slowly up behind such an individual almost to the
tip of the abdomen, with the tip of the bag pinched against
the handle with one hand, and quickly swinging upward.
More often than not, however, the net will become stuck or
tangled, and might be torn.
To remove a dragonfly from the bag, grasp all four of its
wings between thumb and forefinger and slowly bring it out.
If the dragonfly grasps the netting with its mandibles, be
patient until it releases its grip so as not to pull off its head.
In the field, live dragonflies can be put in cellophane or glass-
ine envelopes, but each envelope should hold only one drag-
onfly to prevent them from chewing and damaging another
individual. The male and female of a mated pair can be
placed in one envelope if it is large enough to be folded,
which keeps them associated but prevents contact with each
other. The envelopes must be kept out of direct sunlight and
out of airtight containers (such as a metal box or a hot vehi-
cle) to prevent rapid death and breakdown of pigments. A
pouch made of porous material, such as canvas or nylon
reduces stress to live specimens, especially if kept in the
shade as much as possible. It is best to record living colors in
the field soon after collecting a specimen, as some colors
change quickly due to light and temperature changes. It is
especially important to note the living colors of the com-
pound eyes. Records can consist of notes, drawings or
photographs.
The presence of mature adults near an aquatic habitat is
no assurance that the nymphs reside there. Adults usually
range quite far from the area where they spent their nymphal
life, and may spend much of their time, such as feeding, at
different types of water bodies. For example, although
nymphs of most Gomphurus species are restricted to mid-­
sized or large rivers (the habitat in which females lay eggs),
adults can be found perching near small streams or feeding
in fields near ponds. Some species are not narrow in their
habitat requirements. Nymphs of Basiaeschna janata,
Dromogomphus spinosus, and Didymops transversa can be
found in ponds, lakes and streams. Collecting nymphs gives
a more accurate picture of the species composition of a spe-
cific locality, provided the nymphs are mature enough to be
specifically identified. The species list garnered by collecting
adults at a particular locality can aid nymphal determination.
For example, if nymphs of a Sympetrum species collected
13.5  Preservation of Specimens
along a lakeshore were difficult to identify to species, the
presence of only S. costiferum adults would indicate that the
nymphs are also this species. Presence of newly emerged
adults (less than an hour post-emergence and still very soft)
is a good indicator that the species inhabits a particular habi-
tat. Soft adults must be handled carefully; I put them in paper
bags and keep them alive for a day or two so the colors pat-
terns develop fully, making identification easier. However,
some species groups, such as in the genus Erythrodiplax (see
Paulson 2003), are very difficult to separate based on imma-
ture adults. Structural characters that separate young adults
have not yet been found in many species groups.
13.5 Preservation of Specimens
Nymphs.  In the field, live dragonfly nymphs should be put
in vented plastic bags or plastic vials with a small amount of
wet sphagnum moss or other fibrous or light material and
kept cool. Too many large nymphs in one bag can lead to
predation, even though no water is present. In the lab,
nymphs can be photographed and then released, reared or
preserved. If nymphs are to be preserved, I recommend kill-
ing them by dropping in near-boiling water (remove water
from heat source and then immediately immerge nymphs).
Notes or image recording to document living color patterns
should be made prior to preserving the nymphs as delicate
color differences disappear after preservation. Large nymphs
should be left in the hot water for 45 seconds to one minute,
smaller ones for about 20–30  seconds. After this time,
remove them from the hot water and allow them to cool for
a few minutes to room temperature (do not let dry). When
cool, the specimens can be placed in 75–80% ethanol. I usu-
ally extend the labium and labial palpi at this time, when
they are still pliable; these structures usually become stiff
after being preserved for a long period, especially in 80%
alcohol, and they can then be broken if manipulated.
Injecting nearly fully-grown nymphs (F to F-4) with a small
amount of alcohol before placing them in a vial improves
preservation, but care must be taken not to distend the
nymph by over-­injecting. Isopropyl alcohol can be used if
ethanol is not available. Most species of Anisoptera fit in a
4-dram vial, although larger vials are necessary for full-
grown nymphs of some genera. Large nymphs should be
placed anal end first into the vial to facilitate removal later.
Within a month or two of initial preservation, the alcohol
should be replaced, and if a vial is packed full of nymphs,
the alcohol should be replaced again after a few more
months of storage. Because caps and stoppers do not always
seal completely, the entire vial collection should be checked
every few months for alcohol level. Although this method is
fairly time-consuming, the benefits it renders in condition
and longevity of specimens, as well as aiding identification
587
Fig. 13.10  Example vial label for associated adult and exuvia
and taxonomic study, are well worth the effort. Nymphs pre-
served by simply killing them and storing in alcohol eventu-
ally become soft, partly decomposed specimens that are soft
and distorted, making them difficult or impossible to mea-
sure accurately.
Labels should be made from acid-free bond paper, stored
within the vials, and should include GPS coordinates and a
note on the microhabitat in which the specimens were found
such as sand—moderate flow, or rocks—pool, or woody
detritus—slow flow, or poor fen—small sphagnum pool
(Fig. 13.10). I recommend printing labels with a laser or ink-­
jet printer. If the specimen was found in the field emerging,
or if the nymph was transported to a lab and allowed to
emerge to the adult stage, the label should bear “assoc.,”
meaning that the exuvia was definitely associated with the
adult. Teneral adults found a short distance away from an
exuvia, or even if found fully formed with wings out and
perched on an exuvia, might have flown and perched near a
different exuvia from which they emerged. In such cases, the
adult and exuvia can be put in the same vial but should be
labeled “not definitely associated”.
Exuviae and eggs can be put directly in 75 or 80% alco-
hol. Exuviae stored dry are brittle, and important structures
such as antennae, labium, and legs are easily broken off and
lost when handled, especially when manipulated for close
examination. Dry exuviae can be relaxed in 75 or 80% alco-
hol and their parts can then be more easily flexed so key
characteristics can be observed. Exuviae stored in alcohol
should not be allowed to become dry afterwards as they will
decompose and fall apart very easily when handled, even if
alcohol is restored to the vial. Checking vials every few
months for alcohol level prevents this problem.
Adults.  Keeping dragonflies for reexamination and study
will require maintenance of specimens in a collection, either
temporary or permanent. A collection is an irreplaceable
resource for learning about dragonflies, especially by provid-
ing reference specimens for comparison and data on species
distributions. The main value of voucher specimens is that
they can be used to verify identifications and answer future
questions on distribution. Proper techniques should be fol-
lowed to minimize the amount of work undertaken to create
588
and maintain a collection and to ensure ease of study and
accuracy of data.
A method for preserving the beautiful, bright colors and
color patterns of live dragonflies has not yet been found. The
beautiful eye colors and the array of blues, greens, yellows,
and reds of the body disappear quickly in dead dragonflies.
Simple drying procedures usually obscure or destroy colors,
and specimens become greasy. Preservation in ethanol
retains some colors (Young 1966), although in my experi-
ence, specimens in 95% ethanol become very brittle and pig-
ments eventually break up. Also, the large adults require
many vials that are expensive and require much space.
Pinned dragonflies, either in a dorsoventral plane with wings
spread horizontally or laterally through the thorax with
wings together, take a lot of storage space. Another disad-
vantage of pinned specimens is potential loss of heads, legs,
and other parts. Two methods that result in good to fair color
preservation are freeze-drying and acetoning. Because speci-
mens are preserved with wings together, space needed for
storage is kept to a minimum. Davies (1954) introduced vac-
uum drying and Carle (1978) described the freeze-drying
technique, but the equipment needed is not available to most
collectors, especially on extended field trips. The acetoning
method (first proposed by White and Morse 1973) described
below is an inexpensive, transportable method that produces
dry specimens with most colors and color patterns preserved
satisfactorily.
At the end of each day of collecting, specimens should be
removed from the envelopes, and any further notes on color
or color pattern taken. The quickest way to kill dragonflies is
by placing them directly in acetone or injecting them with a
small amount of acetone while submerged in it. Immediately
after death, the specimens are removed from the acetone, the
wings folded together, the abdomen straightened, the head
turned to one side, and the legs pulled slightly away from the
thorax (Fig. 13.11); the specimens are then placed in paper
triangles or glassine envelopes to be submersed back into
acetone.
Before putting the envelopes in acetone, the date and
locality data, or a coded number, should be written on the
envelopes in pencil or indelible ink. Be sure to check that the
lead or ink is not affected by acetone before using it for
actual specimens. Specimens are then placed in a jar of ace-
tone for soaking, medium-sized to large specimens for about
24 hours, very small dragonflies for about 12 to 18 hours.
Longer periods of time may be necessary after the acetone
becomes discolored from repeated usage. Once the acetone
becomes yellow or tannin-colored, it no longer removes
enough water and fat from the insects to properly preserve
them. Leaving specimens with certain kinds of pigment,
such as light blue, for longer periods can bleach them; expe-
rience is the best teacher. After the required time in the ace-
13  Methods for Collecting, Rearing and Preserving Dragonflies
Fig. 13.11  Position of head, wings, legs, and abdomen of adult drag-
onfly specimen ready to be acetoned
tone, the envelopes are removed from the jar, excess acetone
is drained from the envelopes and they are placed in a well-­
ventilated room for several days (preferably air-conditioned).
An alternative is to remove the envelopes from the acetone,
drain and let dry for a few minutes, and then place them in an
air-tight container containing a drying agent, such as molec-
ular sieve (4A 1/16” beads, 8-12 mesh) or calcium chloride.
This latter procedure is fairly helpful in humid climates,
although such drying agents are no longer effective once
saturated. When in extremely humid climates for extended
periods, I remove the envelopes from the acetone container
and drain them, but I then store them still wet with acetone in
an air-tight container until returning to a dry climate or an
air-conditioned room where they can be dried properly.
When thoroughly dry, acetoned specimens will be very
brittle and fragile, so take extra care when handling them.
The specimens can then be transferred to cellophane or plas-
tic envelopes containing a 3  ×  5-inch index card with the
printed data (Fig.  13.12). If known, the latitude and longi-
tude coordinates for the collection locality should also be
included, along with elevation. It is best to put only one spec-
imen in an envelope. The male and female of a mated pair
should be placed in individual, smaller cellophane envelopes
which are then put together in a 3 × 5 envelope. Species too
large for male and female to fit together in a 3 × 5 envelope
should be stored separately and the data cards marked
accordingly to indicate that they were mated.
Clear cellophane envelopes allow for rapid examination
of specimens without removing them, and they can be stored
in a box much like index cards are stored in a file drawer.
Insects stored in collections are prone to attack by scavenger
References
Fig. 13.12  Example of data
entered on a 3 × 5 inch index
card to be placed in a
cellophane or plastic envelope
with the dry specimen
insects such as psocids (small wingless insects related to
booklice) and carpet beetles (Coleoptera: Dermestidae).
They feed on the tissues of dead insects and can hollow out
or completely destroy museum specimens. Moth balls (naph-
thalene) are effective in warding off these pests but are inef-
fective once a collection is infested; moth crystals
(paradichlorobenzene) will kill most such pests. In a small
collection, the boxes can be sealed in large, zip-lock plastic
bags as a physical barrier to pests and to lessen escape of the
moth crystal fumes. The collection should be stored where
relative humidity is low to help prevent fungi from growing
on the specimens.
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