Finding the optimum conditions for

weld testing by magnetic particles

G. M. Massa

This article describes experiments to find the degree of magnetization needed to reveal
artificial defects with magnetic particles. The author interprets the results of measure-
ments of tangential magnetic field strength at the surface and the corresponding details
of the weld or prepared unwelded edge and the method of magnetization. He
recommends practical testing procedures and gives tables for magnetization by prods,
yokes and coils. He gives an empirical formula to calculate optimum magnetization by
coils.

Magnetic particle testing (with dry particles or magnetic testing and to verify how they can be obtained by the differ.
inks, both coloured and fluorescent) is one of the simplest ent techniques for different testpiece geometries and oper-
and hence most widespread testing methods for welds and ational parameters. The value of the tangential component
weldments. Magnetic particles reveal magnetic flux leakage of the magnetic field strength, Ht, on the piece surface
(or more exactly, changes in magnetic permeability) caused was selected as a typical parameter for the magnetization
by metallic discontinuities on or below the surface in mag- level of the testpiece.
netized ferromagnetic materials (Fig.l). It should be noted,
however, that if the flux in the test piece is too weak, the Direct magnetization
defect gives rise to a leakage field too weak to move and
hold the magnetic particles to the defect which is hence not The generator used for the tests was able to supply four
detected. Similarly, the defect is undetectable if the flux in different current intensities, alternating current and single-
the test piece is too strong so that the testpiece is nearly phase half-wave rectified current (popularly called direct
magnetically saturated; in this case the magnetic permeability current). The generator ammeter was previously calibrated
in the piece decreases sharply and the leakage field caused in root-mean-square (rms) values referred to the half period,
by the defect is proportionally smaller in comparison to the with an accuracy -+ 2.5% at full-scale values. The greatest
large magnetic field around the magnetically saturated test- current intensity was about 2000 A.
piece. Hence this difference is hardly detectable.
Magnetization in the piece can be produced by two different
systems. The direct system is where an electric current
flows directly through the test piece. The indirect, magnetic
system is where no electric current is flowing directly through
the test piece. The work reported here was aimed at estab-
lishing the best working conditions for three techniques of
magnetization. These were a direct electrical technique
using prods and a magnetic technique using yokes, both to
test butt welds and the edges of plates prepared for welding,
and finally magnetic techniques using coils, for testing cir-
cumferential butt welds of pipes. These tests aimed at
establishing the magnetization levels adequate for reliable
Fig.1 A crack in a magnetized matalic solid perturbs the
Dr Massa is at the Istituto Italiano della Saldatura (Italian Welding regular magnetic f l u x which leaks from the surface and can be
Institute) at Genoa, Italy. detected with magnetic particles

16 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. FEBRUARY 1976


Plate thickness s
~EE 10 - - 15mm
- - - - - - 25ram
--.--40mm
........... (55mm
..................................................................................... 56~,~-~
o
......................................................................................4P~Am.-'
"8 5 . . .
8 Thus, for simplicity, subsurface defects are presumed unde-
0 I I I
150 200 250
Prod distonce D [mini
Fig.2 Tests established the practical c o n d i t i o n s needed t o
achieve set levels of magnetization of plates with alternating
c u r r e n t passed t h r o u g h prods
Lead tipped prods were used to avoid contact flashing to
achieve as closely as possible the operational conditions used
in practical industrial ndt. The permanent connection of the
prods to the piece was found unnecessary because the dis-
tance between prods was maintained rigorously constant.
The contact pressure was found not to have a significant
influence on the results, if maintained sufficiently constant
as happens in practice when the test is made by a trained
operator.
The parameter Ht was measured by the Hall effect. The
Hall effect occurs when a thin rectangular semi-conductor
plate, in which a direct current flows in the longitudinal
direction, cuts a magnetic field at right angles to its thick-
ness. The effect consists of a transverse deviation of the
current flow. It is thus possible to measure a difference of
electric potential with two electrodes placed on the sides of
the plate. This difference depends on the current and on the
magnetic induction field strength.
A Hall-effect probe. Forster type 1.074 was lent by the Centro mild steel and the pressure of the prods had little influence
Sperimentale MetaUurgico in Rome to measure the H t. This
instrument has a range of 0.8-800 kAm "1 (full scale) and
measures the tangential component of magnetic field strength
both in constant and variable (alternating or pulsating) mag-
netic fields. The accuracy is + 2% of the full-scale value for
constant fields and + 3% for variable fields. The scale values
are mean values for the whole period of the full-wave rectified
input signals. Then, the Ht values shown by the instrument
were transformed into rms values referred to the half period,
using the formulae for sinusoidal waves (neglecting the small
error due to the harmonics).
Slight variations in the indications may occur changing the
instrument setting fro~ the +/- position (constant magnetic
field strength) to the "-"~ (altemta.ting magnetic field
strength) when m e a s m i ~ mal~aetizat~ due to half-wave
rectified single-phase current under corrstant operating con-
ditions. This is probably because of the rectification of the
various harmonics wb_ieh comprise this type of current.
Typical parameters
Either alternating current (ac) or more commonly half-wave
rectified single-phase current, popularly and incorrectly
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTI NG. FEBRUARY
called direct current, is used for direct magnetization by
prods. True direct current is not employed in practice be-
cause of the high residual magnetic field remaining in the test
Mognetizotion Ht piece and because of the difficulty of finding generators
powerful enough. It is important to note that the magnetiz-
ation is physically different for direct and alternating current.
. The magnetic field distribution across the thickness is differ.
ent because ac, which reverses its direction periodically, has
2.4kAm -I
a skin effect and so the magnetic field rapidly decreases in
strength with depth.
I tectable for ac magnetization. Hence half-wave rectified
:500
single-phase current is more generally used. This type of
magnetization has the advantage compared to ac of a better
field distribution in the depth and smaller thermal losses due
to magnetic hysteresis and eddy currents and hence smaller
local heating.
The intensities of ac and half-wave rectified current are here
expressed in rms values referred to the half period. This
parameter gives a quantitative comparison between different
types of current which, having the same peak value, also have
the same magnetizing effect. In this way the quantitative
expression of ac, half-wave rectified current and full-wave
rectified current having the same peak values, is the same.
As for the quantitative expression of the current intensity,
and for the same reason, the magnetic fieid strength value is
expressed here as rms value referred to half period.
In principle there are several parameters which may influence
the magnetic field applied to a weld by an electric current
between prods. Consequently there are several different
combinations of parameters to obtain magnetization suitable
for testing. In the particular case of butt welds, these para-
meters are: current intensity; distance between prods; type
of current; thickness of testpiece; dimensions of testpiece;
magnetic properties of material; pressure of prods on the
testpiece.
Experimental tests and results
Preliminary tests showed that of the parameters, the type of
and were therefore ignored in the investigation. The pro-
gramme of testing embraced the measurement of the tangen-
tial component of the magnetic field strength on the surface
of plates of steel Fe 52 D at the mid point of the distance
between the prods: that is in the position where the mag-
netic field has its minimum value. These measurements were
carried out for different plate thicknesses, prod separations
and intensities of current.
In practice the application of the probe for measuring the
magnetic field on the coarse surface of the weld reinforce-
ment is practically impossible because of poor coupling.
Hence unwelded plates were tested. These have, in any case,
similar behaviour to butt welds with ground, dressed or
smooth reinforcement.
The range of variation of the test parameter was carefully
chosen. The types of current were ac and half-wave rectified
current where the current intensity was from approximately
600-2000A. The prod separations chosen were 1 5 0 - 2 0 0 -
250-300 mm and the thicknesses of the plates were 1 5 - 2 5 -
4 0 - 6 5 mm (Figs 2, 3). The size of the plates used (generally
greater than 500 x 500 mm) were enough to avoid edge effect
which would have altered the distribution and intensity of the
1976 17
 magnetic field strength. The experimental results of the
tests were summarized in curves plotted as a function of the
prod distance D and of the current per unit of distance.
For both types of current, it can be seen that the measured 6
H t value is practically independent of the plate thickness
and of the distance D, in the range considered, but does
4
depend on the current per unit of distance. A comparison
of the curves for the two types of current shows that the H1
value is greater for ac than for half-wave rectified current k 2
for the same current per unit distance regardless of the prod
distance. Moreover, the correlation of lit values with current
per unit distance for both types of current are useful for I I I I I I I I
2 .3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
quickly establishing the correct current per unit distance Current per unit of distance [ A mm -t]
necessary to obtain a given level of magnetization (Fig.4).
The effects of plate thickness and prod distance were ignored Fig.4 T h e level of m a g n e t i z a t i o n is related s i m p l y t o the current
per u n i t distance for plate testing
as they proved to be of limited importance.

Detectability of known flaws //• lO00mm /

To verify that the testpiece is adequately magnetized for

the required sensitivity, the required level of magnetization
must be known first. This can be established from the resol-
ution of defects for a given level of magnetization: that is
the types, sizes and depth of the detectable defects. It is
/ //
difficult to reproduce artificial defects similar to the natural / / J / /
ones such as cracks, lack of fusion, and so on, of exact and
known sizes at a fixed and known depth. For this reason,
conventional test plates were used containing holes, of two
different diameters, at different depths.
A series of holes was drilled on a double-vee edge of a plate
(100 x 500 x 27.5 mm). These holes were parallel to the
plate surface, and had the same length (10 mm) and the
same diameter (1 mm). They were at different depths from
the surface (1; 1.5; 2; 3 ; 4 mm) (Fig.5). The prepared plate
was then welded to another of identical dimensions and pre-
paration but without holes to give a continuous specimen.
with internal flaws. A second specimen was prepared in the
same way as the first but with a series of holes of reduced
diameter (diameter 0.5 mm, length 10 mm) at the same
depths (1 ; 1.5; 2; 3 ; 4 mm). These two test plates had
overall dimensions of I000 x 1000 x 27.5 mm. The welds Fig.5 A c o n v e n t i o n a l test plate is used t o investigate testing
methods
were radiographed and the holes were found to be correctly

placed. On the other other hand there were no weld defects

Plate thickness s
which might influence the magnetic field strength distribu-
--15ram tion and hence the reliability of the tests.
I0 ----25mm
'E -'--40ram
E ........ 65mm Magnetization Ht
,¢Z
5"6 kAm "1
Tests and results
Blue 1/am dry powder was applied by an air gun and sprayed
tn
~5 4"0 kAm-I from a distance of about 1 m onto a ground and whitened
surface. Flourescent and red inks with an oil base were also
g 2"4 kAm-t employed: The red ink on a white surface; powder concen-
tration was according to the instructions of the manufacturer.
Prods were placed 150 mm apart so that the hole to be
8 investigated was at the mid point and orientated in the direc-
O I I I I tion of the line joining the prods; that is in the most favour-
t50 200 250 500 able orientation for detection. In Tables 1 - 4 the minimum
Prod distance D [mrn:]
H t values by which the holes of different diameter can be
Fig.3 Tests established the practical conditions needed t o
detected with different types of powders are reported, and
achieve set levels of magnetization of plates w i t h half-wave in brackets the corresponding values of current per unit
rectified current passed through prods length are given.

18 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. FEBRUARY 1976

Table 1. Least magnetization and lowest current intensity needed to detect artificial defects in test pieces using the prod
technique: blue 15/Jm powder; horizontal test piece; white surface; prod distance 150 mm

Minimum values of tangential component H t [kA m "1 ] and current per unit distance (in brackets) [A mm "1 ]
Depth of
defect DC rectified AC
[mm] 1 mm diameter hole 0.5 mm diameter hole 1 mm diameter hole 0.5 mm diameter hole

4 4.8 7.6-8.0 (just) more than 10.4-11.2 more than 10.4-11.2

(6.5) (11-12)
3 2.4--2.8 7,6-8.0 10.4 - 11.2 more than 10.4-11.2
(4) (11-12) (12-13)
2 less than 2.4 6.8 8-8.4 more than 10.4-11.2
(9) (9) (10)
1.5 less than 2.4 3.6-4.4 3.2-4.0 6.0-6.8
(5-6) (5) (7-8)
1 less than 2.4 2.8 less than 4.4 3.6-4.0
(4) (5)

Table 2. Least magnetization and lowest current intensity needed to detect artificial defects in test pieces using the prod
technique: blue 15/Jm powder; vertical test piece, white surface, prod distance 150 mm

Minimum values of tangential component H t [ k A m "1 ] and current per unit distance (in brackets) [A mm "1 ]
Depth of
defect DC rectified AC
[mm] 1 mm diameter hole 0.5 mm diameter hole 1 mm diameter hole 0.5 mm diameter hole

4 6.8 7.6-8.0 10.4--11.2 more than 10.4-11.2

(9) (11-12) (12--13) (12-13)
3 3.6-4.4 7.6-8.0 10.4--11.2 more than 10.4--11.2
(5-6) (11-12) (12-13) (12-13)
2 2.8 6.8 6--6.8 more than 10.4--11.2
(4) (9) (7-8) (12-13)
1.5 less than 2.4 3.6-4.4 3.6-4 6-6.8
(5-6) (5) (7-8)
1 less than 2.4 2.8 less than 3.6 3.6--4.0
(4) (5)

Table 3. Least magnetization and lowest current intensity needed to detect artificial defects in test pieces using the prod
technique: fluorescent ink; horizontal test pieces; prod distance 150 mm

Minimum values of tangential component H t [ k A m "1 ] and current per unit distance (in brackets) [A mm "1 ]
Depth of
defect DC rectified AC
[mm] 1 mrrrdiameter hole 0.5 mm diameter hole 1 mm diameter hole 0.5 mm diameter hole

4.0 7.2-8.0 more than 7.6-8.0 more than 10.4-11.2 more than 10.4-11.2
(11-12) (11-12) (12-13) (12-13)
3.0 6.8 more than 7.6-8.0 more than 10.4-11.2 more than 10.4-11.2
(9) (11-12) (12-13) (12-13)
2.0 3.6--4.4 7.6-8.0 10.4-11.2 (just) more than 10.4-11.2
(5-6) (11-12) (12-13) (12-13)
1.5 2.4-2.8 6.8 3.6-4.0 8.0-8.8
(4) (9) (5) (10)
1.0 less than 2.4 2.4--2.8 less than 3.6 3.6-4.0
(4) (5)

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING . FEBRUARY 1976 19

Table 4, Least magnetization and lowest current intensity needed to detect artificial defects in test pieces using the prod
technique: red ink; horizontal testpiece; white surface; prod distance 150 mm

Minimum values of tangential component Ht[kA m "1 ] and current per unit distance (in brackets) [A mm "1 ]
Depth of
defect DC rectified AC
[mm] 1 mm diameter hole 0.5 mm diameter hole 1 mm diameter hole 0.5 mm diameter hole

4 6.8 more than 7.6-8.0 more than 10.4-11.2 more than 10.4-11.2
(9)
3 3.6-4.4 7.6-8.0 more than 10.4--11.2 more than 10.4-11.2
(5-6) (11-12)
2 2,4-2.8 6.8 10.4-11.2 more than 10.4-11.2
(4) (9) (12-13)
1.5 less than 2.4 3.6-4.0 6.0-6.8 10.4-11.2
(5-6) (7-8) (12-13)
1 less than 2.4 2.4-2.8 3.6-4.0 3.6-4.0
(4) (5) (5)

_.9
'E I0
Width
1"8 E
J 15 mm
25turn
40turn
1'6 65mm
1'4 ............ Mognetizotion Ht
E 15 5 ....... ~'.~iL-; ..........................
~"--'--"~"~'
4 ' 0 kAm -I
. . . . . . i~......
1'2
.......................................... 2-4 kAm -!
I'0
E
0'8 I I I I
150 200 250 300
8'
~E 06 Prod distonce D rmm]

0. 4 Fig.7 Tests established the practical conditions needed to achieve

set levels of magnetization of joint edge preparations with alter-
012 nating current passed through prods
0 t I I 1 I I i i I i I i
0 I 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II 12
MogneS'ization H [ kAm -13
E I0
E Width
Fig.6 The magnetization curve for Fe52 steel shows a practical 5 15 mm
upper limit for magnetization for magnetic-particle testing ---25 mm
8¢: 11--40mm
..........65mm
Magnetization,Ht
4"0 kAm-'
,i-
5 24 kAm -I
However, it is inadvisable to magnetize the testpiece too
strongly, because of the risk of magnetic saturation of the
plate skin. In particular, for low carbon steels, 7 2 0 0 - 8 0 0 0 d I 1 1 I
Am "1 is a practical upper limit for magnetization, above 150 200 250 500

which magnetic saturation produces a consistent band of Prod distonce D [ m m ]

magnetic flux leakage which may prevent detection of
subsurface defects (Fig.6).
L)irect magnetization using prods for edge
preparations
For edge preparations of joints to be welded, prods are placed
on the surface of the prepared joint itself, on both sides of
the median line near the external surfaces of the plate. Prod
distance is usually 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 mm for longitudinal defects
(laminations or segregations). This distance is generally re-
duced to about 100 mm, or such that the line-joining the
prods forms with the plate surfaces an angle equal or greater
than 20 ° for transverse defects (cracks).
A series of tests was carried out to establish the magnetization
levels for this testing system, on plates with square butt edge
Fig.8 Tests established the practical conditions needed to
achieve set levels of magnetization of joint edge preparations with
half-wave rectified current passed through prods
preparation. However the tests results may also be con-
~idered valid for beveled joints preparations. The Ht values
were also measured at the mid point of the distance in these
tests. Moreover, the influence of the following parameters
on magnetization level of the plate edge was determined:
current intensity ( 6 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 A); type of current; prods
distance D; joint preparation width (15, 25, 40, 65 mm).
Experimental results are summarized in curves similar to
those for plates (Figs. 7, 8). These show that in this case

20 NON-DESTRUCTIVE T E S T I N G . FEBRUARY 1976

Table 5. The tangential component of the magnetic field strength due to magnetization of edge preparations of various
widths of half-wave rectified current passed through prods at different angles of inclination to the surface

Distance D Angle Width H t at specified current intensity [kA m "] ]

[ram] [o] [ram] At 650 A At 1 050 A At 1 400 A At 1 800 A

~< 100 20 15 8.64 11.92 20.48 26.40

~< 100 20 25 6.92 10.82 13.52 20.08
~< 100 20 40 5.76 9.68 12.64 16.16
100 >20 65 5.32 8.64 11.92 14.24
45 15 14.72 29.20 37.20 43.36
45 25 12.80 25.92 33.20 40.00
45 40 9.60 14.92 27.60 34.64
45 65 7.36 11.36 14.56 24.00

Table 6. The tangential component of the magnetic field strength due to magnetization of edge preparations of various
widths by alternating current passed through prods at different angles of inclination to the surface

Distance D Angle Width H t at specified current intensity [kA m"t ]

[ram] [o] [mm] At 650 A At 1 100 A At 1 500 A At 1 900 A

~<100 20 15 13.36 17.76 24.88 32.00

~< 100 20 25 10.00 15.28 21.04 25.60
~< 100 20 40 6.56 12.00 15.60 18.40
100 >20 65 6.08 9.76 13.76 16.00
45 15 22.15 32.82 43.53 55.06
45 25 14.40 22.40 30.40 38.00
45 40 12.40 19.20 26.40 32.80
45 65 7.60 13.36 18.80 23.60

also, the magnetization field strength is practically indepen- from distance D. Neither parameter has much effect on
dent of the width and of the prod distance D, (200-300 magnetization, as in the earlier case (Fig.9). To detect
mm) but chiefly depends on the current per unit of distance. transverse defects, Prods were positioned on the joint pre-
Moreover, at the same current per unit of distance, the Ht paration never more than 100 mm apart. The measurements
value is higher for ac than for half-wave rectified current. carried out also established that the lowest current the gen-
The Ht values correlate with current per unit of distance, erator could supply were sufficient to magnetize the test-
independently of the width of the edge preparation and piece adequately. Moreover these currents were often so
high as to make the area to be tested magnetically saturated,
with the unfortunate consequences described earlier. Tables
5 and 6 report the values of the tangential component of
the magnetic field strength, measured at the mid point
between the prods.
'E
,J 6
o o • •
• • •
Y o k e magnetization for butt welds
8 Q and prepared edges
o ~ °° •
.~ 4
%e The performance of portable electromagnetic yokes with a
:E
220 and 110 V ac supply was examined. The value o f H t
2; was measured at several points along the line joining the
centres of the magnetic poles of the yokes on plates of
different thickness (Figs. 10, 11). The plate thickness had
I I I I I 1 I I
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO no practical influence on the results in this series of tests
Current per unit of distonce [Amm -I] either. The most interesting result was that yokes correctly
Fig.9 T h e level o f m a g n e t i z a t i o n is related s i m p l y t o t h e c u r r e n t supplied with the nominal alternating voltage from the mains
per u n i t distance f o r testing prepared edges gave Ht values of 240-2800 Am "1 at the mid point.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. FEBRUARY 1976 21

 16 16

v
14 14 Edge width s
;ram
12
\ 12
t
'E E 65ram
I0 <= I0 --
~J
:$
8 8

6 6-
g

4 4-

2-

I I t I I I [ I
20 40 60 80 Oq
20 40 60 8O
Distonce from pole centre [mm] Oistonce from pole centre [mm]
Fig.lO Tests established the relationship between the level of
Fig.13 Tests established the relationship between the level of
magnetization at a particular distance f r o m the pole centre and
magnetization at a particular distance f r o m the pole centre for
for the magnetization of a plate 65 mm thick, by a 22 V ac yoke
t w o widths of joint edge preparations

16

14 H*l I

12
r~
'E
io

g 8

6
L I
)
4

Fig.14 A symmetrical arrangement of coils gives symmetrical

magnetization of the pipe along its axis

0 I I I I
0 20 40 60 80
Distonce from pole centre [mm]
Fig.11 Tests established the relationship between the level of The performance of the same yokes was also examined for
magnetization at a particular distance f r o m the pole centre and the dc at voltages conforming to the instructions of the manu-
plate thickness for magnetization by a 220 V ac yoke facturer. In this case the corresponding value of magnetic
16 field strength at the plate surface (Ht) is reduced, at the mid
point, to 2 4 0 - 3 2 0 Am q (Fig.12). In testing the plate edges
prepared for the weld, yokes with ac supply never gave less
than 2 0 0 0 - 2 4 0 0 Am "1 rms for any edge width: a
12
magnetization level which is always enough to detect
surface defects (Fig. 13).
'E I0 The performance of the 1 IOV ac yoke was checked on the
conventional test plates with holes as described in the sec-
8 8 tion on detectability of known flaws, where the reinforce-
ment was removed by grinding. Blue dry powder, 150/am
size was used for such tests and the yoke was positioned so
~E that the hole to be tested was at the mid point between
4 poles.
Holes of 1 mm diameter at depth of I and 1.5 mm, and
0.5 mm diameter at a depth of 1 mm could be detected
with the ac supply; all the other holes remained undetect-
% I
20 40
I
60
I |
80
able. The dc supply was generated as described according to
Distance from Dolecentre [mm] the instructions of the manufacturer. The dc current was
Fig.12 The level of magnetization of a plate 65 mm thick is equal to the rms value of the ac current previously used.
always lower for a dc supply than with a ac supply for a 110 V Only the hole of 1 mm diameter at a depth of 1 mm could
yoke be detected.

22 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. F E B R U A R Y 1976

 12 l ~(:~psDistanceD=between
IOOmm 12
Distance between
loops D=lSOmm 12
Oistonce between
loops D= 200ram

~ 5500 A I0

_rn
E 8 'E
~
~ 5 4 8 0 A 'E
I-J ~ 5 8 0 0 A
~"~4320 A
6
4-
~ " " ' ~ 5280 A ==
g
~ 3 1 2 0 A
:E 4 :E 4
5280 A

ww,....~.~ 1800 A " ]: 180OA x x 1800A

O I I I I I I 0 I I I I
I0 20 30 I0 40 75 20 50 80 I00
Distancefrom coil [mm.1 Distancefrom coil [mm] Distance from coil [mm]

Fig.15 Tests on a pipe 500 mm long, 10 mm thick and 60 mm diameter gave the levels of magnetization as a function of the distance from
the coil and of the excitation ampere turns

Tockwelds
Q Preliminary measurements on several pipes of different
Fig.16 Two half pipes with artificial flaws were re-assembled
to form a test piece
Coil magnetization for testing circumferential butt
welds in pipes
The pipe zone to be tested can be magnetized by a coil in
which an electric current is flowing. A magnetic longitudin-
al flux then flows through the pipe walls along the pipe axis.
Different results are however obtained if the loops of the
coil are all placed at one side of the zone to be tested, or if
they are divided and placed on both sides. The coil magneti-
zation technique with loops placed only at one side of the
weld is not to be recommended, and should be avoided when
aiming to detect subsurface defects. In this case the
magnetic flux emerges into the air at the weld and hinders,
or even prevents, the accumulation of magnetic powder.
The best coil configuration, therefore, to magnetize the
weld, is a symmetrical division of the number of magnetizing
turns on either side. In this way the flux is more strictly
confined in the weld thickness and does not cause unwanted
flux leakages. With this coil position the tangential com-
ponent value (Ht) of magnetic field strength along the pipe
(from measurement carried out with Hall probe) is also
symmetrical (Fig.14). The average Ht values between one
coil end and the mid point of the test zone was calculated
for a pipe of 500 mm length, 10 mm thickness, 60 mm
diameter, with distances D between the two loops of 100,
150 and 200 mm (Fig.15).
diameter and thickness showed a distance between loops of
about 200 mm to be the most suitable for testing. The
arrangement limits the Ht gradient between loops for the
different ampere turn values used. Also the minimum values
of lit are not reduced too much and the space for detecting
flaws is large enough (about 100 mm) to include the weld
and surrounding areas. The magnetic field in air prevents
correct defect detection about 50 mm on either side of the
excitation loops, especially when dry powders are used.
Varying the distance between loops from 100 to 200 mm
alters the/art values at the mid point from about 2.4 to
2.0 kAm "1 for 1800 A, and from 7.5 to 5.5 kAm "1 for
4400 A, with a decrement of magnetization sufficently
reduced.
Tests on pipes established the magnetization level necessary
to detect particular standard flaws as was the case for
plates. The aim of these tests was to establish minimum
magnetization levels for correct testing. Two conventional
test specimens made from pipes with artificial defects
(holes) were therefore prepared. Two pieces of mild steel
pipes, of length 500 mm, diameter 60 mm, thickness
10 mm, were sawn longitudinally into two halves. Holes of
different diameters and at different depth were drilled at
suitable distances on the sawn surfaces. The pipes halves
were then accurately re-assembled with four tack welds at
the ends (Fig. 16).
In the first test specimen, four holes of diameter 1 mm,
length 10 mm, at an average depth'of4, 3, 2, 1 mm from
the external surface were drilled. In the second test speci.
mens four holes of diameter 0.5 mm, length 10 mm at an
average depth of 4, 3, 2, 1 mm were similarly made. The
external surface over the holes was dressed with emery
cloth.
The detection of the holes by means of a four-loop coil
placed at one side only of the hole proved impossible, for
reasons mentioned above, with any combination of testing
parameters: type and intensity of current, distance of hole
from the coil, type of powder in ink. Tests were repeated

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING . FEBRUARY 1976 23

 The formula must depend on factors influencing pipe
magnetization. In principle, these factors may be: type of
current; excitation ampere-turn value; pipe diameter, thick-
ness and length; coil position; magnetic permeability of pipe
400 material. On the basis of the experimental results the pipe
length and magnetic permeability may be neglected. As ac
current has been found to give better performance than half-
wave rectified current, it was decided to limit the elaboration
to a formula valid for ac current.
500 As regards the influence of coil positition, dividing the coil
into two symmetrical loops has already been justified. Such
a coil arrangment also makes the Ht curve in the testing zone
symmetrical, with a minimum in the middle of D. So it is
clear that the correct selection of testing parameters is
1.2 linked to the achievement of an adequate Htc (calculated)
200 minimum value.
1.0 These considerations reduce the previous factors to four:
pipe diameter (~); pipe thickness (s); excitation ac ampere
0.8
turns (,4); distance between loops (D). These factors can be
furtherly reduced if the distance D is kept constant at 200
I00 I I I
ram: the value suitable for a reliable testing. Pipe magneti-
0..03c~L 05 07 09 I. I zation at the mid point of D; expressed as tangential com-
B ponent of magnetic field strength (Htcgives: Htc = f (~bs A).
I I I I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80 I00 120 140 160 Empirically calculating the test results reported in Table 8,
S2/B the following approximate formula was defined
Fig.17 Factor K I and K 2 are related to factor B which in turn
depends on the pipe geometry A s
Htc = - B - - x 80
K1 q~e + K2

where
with a coil of two symmetrical loops placed on both sides Htc is H t rms value at the mid point of D, expressed in Am "l
of the hole investigated (Table 7). From the analysis of A is ac excitation rms value, expressed in ampere turns
these results, ac current is recommended whenever sub-
surface defects similar to standard holes are sought, even
a - ($" - s)2
though eddy-current and hysteresis losses are higher with is a constant depending on pipe geometry
ac than with half-wave rectified current. ~e 2

Empirical formula for coil magnetization ~be is the pipe external diameter, expressed in mm
The tests showed the practical usefulness of a formula for s is the pipe thickness, expressed in mm
correlating Ht value with variables in coil systems for pipe KI is a factor depending on B, which can be obtained from
testing. Such a formula would give the approximate mag- curve 1 (Fig. 17)
netization level in the pipes as a function of the geomet-
rical and electrical parameters. A further series of measure- K 2 is the factor depending on s2/B, which can be obtained
ments was therefore carried out on pipes of various lengths, from curve 2 (Fig. 17)
diameters and thicknesses, with coils divided in two loops For the series of pipes tested in Table 9, Htc values, measur-
carrying ac current. Table 8 reports the H t (experimental ed at the mid point o f D (D = 200 mm, ac current) and
values), measured at the mid point between loops. Htc values, calculated with the formula in the same magneti-

Table 7. Least magnetization needed to detect artificial defects in test pieces using two coils of two loops each 200 mm
apart; 150/am powder; horizontal axis; ground but unwhitened surface

Depth of
defect DC rectified AC
[mm] 1 mm diameter hole 0.5 mm diameter hole 1 mm diameter hole 0.5mmdiameter hole

4 more than 9.60 more than 9.6 8,0 more than 9.6
3 more than 9.6 more than 9.6 5,60--6.0 more than 9.6
2 9.6 more than 9.6 4.8 9.6
1 6.4--6.8 9.6 (just) 3,2 4.6

24 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. FEBRUARY 1976

Table 8. Coil magnetization: the tangential component of the magnetic field at the mid point of D for various values of
excitation ampere turns A, pipe diameter and wall thickness

D = 200 mm D = 100 mm
Diameter ~b Wall thickness s A Magnetization Hte A Magnetization Hte
[ram] [mm] [A] [kAm °1 ] [A] [kAm q ]

334 10.5 2 120 2.40 2 200 3.38

3 000 3.55 3 000 4.88
4 000 4.88 3 820 6.75
408 8.5 1 800 2.18 1 680 2.84
2 720 3.20 2 680 4.18
3 640 4.76 3 800 5.90
324 6.5 1 870 2.35 1 840 3.25
2 800 3.46 2 800 4.80
4 200 4.98 3 880 6.70
220 6.0 2 480 3.38 2 200 4.00
3 400 4.80 3 320 6.22
4 920 6.56 5 800 8.50
170 7.0 2 640 3.64 2 600 4.44
3 720 5.24 3 780 6.92
4 520 7.03 4 800 9.28
170 5.0 2 800 3.82 2 600 4.08
4 160 5.38 3 800 7.47
5 000 7.20 5 000 10.24
162 10.4 2 600 3.74 2 520 4.72
3 640 5.24 3 520 7.02
4 800 7.07 4 800 9.84
60 10.0 1 800 1.95 1 800 2.35
3 280 3.64 3 280 5.06
4 400 5.02 4 400 7.47
5 800 7.36 5 500 9.76
57 7.0 2 120 3.64 1 800 4.70
3 880 5.44 3 520 8.12
4 800 7.38 4 800 11.52
6 200 9.20 6 200 14.56
38 6.0 2 120 3.56 2 000 5.76
3 680 5.44 3 680 9.28
5 120 7.48 5 000 12.40
6 600 9.12 6 350 15.92
75 3.0 2 320 3.56 2 000 5.33
3 720 5.76 3 520 8.44
5 000 7.56 4 650 11.52
6 200 8.44 5 950 15.12
42 3.0 2 520 4.09 2 520 6.40
4 000 6.24 4 000 8.52
5 200 7.28 5 282 10.20
6 800 9.76 6 550 11.88

zation conditions, are compared. In the range from 2000 to
5000 excitation ampere turns, it can be seen that the aver-
age error is around 6-7%, and usually on the safe side, that
is that the calculated value is lower than the experimental
one.
Conclusions
The tests carried out lead to the establishment of the
magnetization conditions necessary for satisfactory detec-
tion of standard defects by magnetic particle testing.
Moreover the tests lead to correlation of magnetization
conditions with essential parameters of magnetic testing
using prods, yokes and the coil system for circumferential
welds in pipes.
These results have been useful to working group 2 of
committee x, testing, of the Italian Institute of Welding to
prepare the draft of an Italian Standard (UNI-standard) for
the magnetic-particle testing of welds and edge preparations
and lead to the establishment of the definition of a number
classes of sensitivity for industrial testing.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. FEBRUARY 1976 25

References
1 Baldi, F., Giordano, V. 11 controllo magnetoscopico, sistema
elettrico; andamento del campo e condizioni ottimali di pro-
va. La Metallurgia Italiana (1971) (8)
II controllo magnetoscopico delle saldature. Manuale delle
apparecchiature e tecniche di controllo, Istituto Italiano della
Saldatura (1972)
Bets, C. E. Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing. Magnaflux
Corporation (Chicago 1967)
MeMaster, R. C. Nondestructive Testing, Handbook. The Ro-
nald Press Co, (New York, 1959)
5 Ball, D. T., Bodwall, N. A. Nondestructive testing magnetic
particle inspection. General Dynamics/Convair Division, San
Diego
6 American Welding Society: Welding Handbook, (New York,
1968)
7 Miiller, E. A. W. Handbuch der zerst6rungsfreien Materialprii-
fung. R. Oldenburg, (Miinchen, 1970)
8 American Welding Society: Welding inspection (New York,
1968)
9 C.G.M.: Controlli non distruttivi con metodo magnetico,
(Milano)

Table 9. Coil magnetization: comparison between experimental and calculated tangential component of the magnetic field
for the pipes tested

S A Hte Htc Hte - Htc (Hte - Htc) 100 [%]

[mm] [mm] [A] [kA m "1 ] [kA m "1 ] [kA m "1 ] Hte

224 10.5 2 120 2.40 2.54 -0.14 - 5.8

3 000 3.55 3.60 -0.05 - 1.4
4 000 4.88 4.80 + 0.08 + 1.60
408 8,5 1 800 2.18 2.11 +0.07 + 3.2
2 720 3.20 3.20 0.08 0
3 640 4.76 4.28 + 0.48 + 10.1
324 6.5 1 870 2.35 2.24 +0.11 + 4.7
2 800 3.46 3.36 +0.10 + 2.9
4 200 4.98 5.02 -0.04 - 0.8
220 6.0 2 480 3.38 3.44 --0.06 - 1.8
3 400 4.80 4.72 + 0.08 + 1.7
4 920 6.56 6.84 --0.28 - 4.3
170 7.0 2 640 3.64 3.92 -0.28 - 7.7
3 720 5.24 5.56 -0.32 - 6.1
4 520 7.02 6.77 +0.25 + 3.6
170 5.0 2 800 3.82 3.80 + 0.02 + 0.52
4 160 5.38 5.62 -0.24 - 4.3
5 000 7.20 6.76 +0.44 + 6.5
162 10.4 2 600 3.74 3.46 +0.28 + 7.5
3 640 5.24 4.74 + 0.50 + 9.5
4 800 7.96 6.42 + 1.34 + 16.8
60 10.0 1 800 1.95 1.86 + 0.09 + 4.6
3 280 3.64 3.40 + 0.24 + 6.6
4 400 5.02 4.56 + 0.46 + 9,2
5 800 7.36 6.02 + 1.34 + 13.8
57 7.0 2 120 3.64 3.20 + 0.44 + 12.1
3 800 5.44 5.82 -0.38 - 6.7
4 800 7.38 7.20 +0.18 + 2.4
6 200 9.20 9.28 -0.08 - 0.9
38 6.0 2 120 3.56 3.06 + 0.50 + 14.0
3 680 5.68 5.30 + 0.38 + 6.7
5 120 7.48 7.36 +0.12 + 1.6
6 600 9.12 9.48 -0.36 - 3.9
75 3.0 2 320 3.56 3.29 + 0.27 + 7.6
3 720 5.76 5.28 +0.48 + 8.3
5 000 7.56 7.10 +0.46 + 6.1
6 200 8.44 8.80 -0.36 - 4.3
42 3.0 2 520 4.08 3.80 + 0.28 6.9
4 000 6.24 6.04 + 0.20 3.2
5 200 7.28 7.86 -0.58 - 7.9
6 800 8.96 10.26 -1.30 -14.5

26 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. FEBRUARY 1976