Lecture 1 - Bioelectricity-1

Medical Physics 2.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

in medicine
Ferenc Peták
Professor, Head of Department
Department of Medical Physics and Informatics

University of Szeged
2022
1
Medical physics II.
• No major change in subject(s)
structure/requirements
• Lectures weekly – 13 lectures (!) – Coospace
attendance tests (13x0.5 points, max 4 points)
• Bioelectricity (3 lectures)
• Quantum physics
• Spectroscopy
• Lasers
• Microscopy
• X-ray
• Nuclear physics
• Nuclear medicine
• Medical imaging (2 lectures)
• Physical bases of therapeutical methods
• Molecular and cell diagnostics
• Seminars 2 weekly (10-point CS tests)
• Independent laboratory practical – Measurements in
Medical Physics II. – competence test
• More topics – challenging exam
• Regular preparation/studying!
Prof. Ferenc Peták, Dept. of Medical Physics and Informatics 2
2
Why a physician/medical student needs to know
electricity/ magnetism? Based on a slide of Prof. Ferenc Bari
1. Almost all medical devices are electrically/electromagnetically operated

2. Hospitals/wards/operating rooms need continuous power supply
3. Principles of central power supply, automatic changeover in case of power failure - for how long can it
operate, according to what “hierarchy” (risk level) should the unloading take place?
4. Power-operated devices require skill - strict set of rules
5. Electrostatic charge in heath care environment. The importance of an antistatic environment
6. Understanding organ functions is based on electrical principles (nervous system, circulation, respiration)
7. Electrical models of living systems - analysis of bioelectrical signals (ECG, EEG, EMG, ECoG) for
diagnostic purposes
8. Direct electrical (magnetic) interventions for therapeutic purposes
9. Electromagnetic/electromagnetic phenomena are essential for understanding the principles of medical
imaging procedures
10. The effect of non-ionizing electromagnetism on the living organism - should we be afraid of 4-5G,
should we take a magnetic blanket for my grandmother?
11. Every cell of a living organism has electrical properties (potential difference between the inside of the cell
and the outside world, constantly changing electric field, etc.)
12. Intracellular/intercellular communication is based on electrical signal transmission
3
Why a physician/medical student needs to know
electricity/ magnetism? Based on a slide of Prof. Ferenc Bari
Operating theater 1970 Operating theater 2020
https://u‐szeged.hu/sztemagazin/2020/attorest‐varnak‐szegedi
• Automatic door - non-contact sensors, motors
• Antistatic (no friction electricity), gap-free floor
• Low, high voltage, continuous and pulsed DC and AC currents are present simultaneously
• Central power supply, automatic switch to battery/generator in case of power failure - how long can it work, according to
what "hierarchy" should the load be performed
• Air conditioning with laminar flow, dust and bacteria filter
• Central intake and gas supply (electric motors)
• Medical imaging systems (e.g. 3D CT during surgery)
• Modern telecommunication network (robot surgery) Prof. Ferenc Peták, Dept. of Medical Physics and Informatics 4
4
Lectures on electricitiy/magnetism
Lecture 1: general phenomena (Prof. Ferenc Peták)
• Description of static / variable electrical phenomena
• Magnetism and its medical relevance
• Electromagnetic induction
• Alternating current networks - concept and extension of impedance
• Electromagnetic waves
Lectures 2-3: Organ and cellular phenomena (Prof. Ferenc Bari)

• Electrical characterization of the cell and its constituents
• Resting and time-varying potentials
• Electrical excitability and its biophysical background
• Electrical properties of ion channels
5
Learning objectives
1. What are the basic concepts of electrostatics

- medical relevance?
2. How can direct current be characterized?
- power supply considerations in health care environment
- analogies in circulation, breathing
3. What are the basic magnetic phenomena?
4. How can alternating current be characterized?
- relevance for life sciences
5. How are electromagnetic waves generated?
- characterization, physiological effects
6
1. Basic concepts: electrostatics
Partial repetition of the course Fundamentals of Medical Physics
• Basic electrical phenomena

• Electrical condition
negative excess charge – excess electrons
electron deficiency
• Electric charge (Q)
• Coulomb (C = 1A ∙ 1s)
• Q= n ∙ e (e = 1,6 ∙ 10–19 C) 1
k  9 109 Nm 2 /C2 0 vacuum permittivity
• Coulomb-force: 𝐹 𝑘 4 o
• Electric field vector (𝐸)  N V
 
• 𝐸 k  E   C   m 
• Electric flux
• Number of field lines through a given surface
• =E∙A
Electrostatics
The simplest case in electricity, it is ideal for discussing basic concepts. Nothing depends on time, the
charges are fixed in place and time and create a constant electric field around. In electrostatics, we
examine only equilibrium state, not the movement/changes of charges. According to the first law of
electrostatics, the electrostatic field performs zero work on a test charge along a closed path
(conservative field), which corresponds to the potential difference along a closed path being zero.
Basic phenomena in electricity/Electrical condition
A rubbed object (e.g. amber) exerts force on other objects. Electrical charge creates the electrical state
The electrical state can be created by two types of electrical charges (+ and ‐). There are repulsive forces
between homogeneous charges and attractive forces between heterogeneous charges. Negative
electrical condition: body with an excessive negative charge, (e.g. fur‐rubbed ebon rod or silk‐rubbed
plastic rod). Positive electrical state: electron deficiency (e.g., a glass rod rubbed with skin). In some
materials (conductors) the charge can move easily, in others not (electrical insulators).
The electric charge
The SI unit is Coulomb. A coulomb (C) is the amount of charge that flows through the conductor in one
second (1 s) when 1 amper electrical current is maintained (1 A). By definition, the ampere‐second (As)
or amber‐hour (Ah) is also used. The latter (Ah) is used to characterize the charge storage capacity of
batteries. Eg mobile phone battery 3000‐4000 mAh (10,000‐15,000 Coulomb).
The electric charge is quantized (electron charge).
Coulomb's Law: The force between two electrically charged objects is directly proportional to the product
of the two charge quantities and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Electric field, electric field strength
Electrically charged objects create an electric field with energy around them. The magnitude and direction
of the electric field are characterized by the electric field strength, which is a vector quantity. The
magnitude and direction of the electric field vector is equal to the magnitude and direction of the force
acting on a unit of positive electric test charge placed at a given point. The electric field strength can be
illustrated by field strength lines. The direction of the tangent drawn to any point of the field strength
lines gives the direction of the field strength of that point, and the density of the lines illustrates the
magnitude of the field strength.
Electric flux
Electrical flux is proportional to the number of field lines passing through a given surface.
 = E ∙ A is the product of the surface and the electric field perpendicular to it.
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1. Basic concepts: electrostatics
• Electrical voltage
• Work needed per unit of charge to move a test charge
between two points:
𝑈 𝑈 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
• Electrical potential
• Voltage relative to zero level Alessandro Volta
• Voltage is the difference in the electric potential

between two points (UAB)
Electrical voltage
Thought experiment: a Q test charge moves in a homogeneous electrostatic field. As the field
moves the test charge from point A to point B, it performs work. If the size of the test charge is
doubled or tripled, the work done by the electric field is doubled or tripled. Thus, there is a
proportionality between the work done by the field and the test charge (W/Q constant).
The quotient of the work done by the electric field between the two points of the field and the
charge moving between the two points is constant. This constant is called the voltage at point A
with respect to B. Voltage: U, unit J / C = Volt.
Electrical potential
If we arbitrarily choose a zero level in the electrostatic field and measure the voltage at any
point in the field, the potential of that point in the field is obtained. Accordingly, the voltage
measured relative to the zero level is called potential. The difference between the potentials of
two points is equal to the voltage between the two points.
8
1. Eletrostatics
Relevance in health care
Electrostatic Discharge Sensitivity (ESD) control

in health care environment
• Decreased (or eliminated) skin resistance - increased risk
of electric shock
• Active ESD control (e.g. humidification)
• Passive (antistatic flooring, furniture, footwear)
Therapy - (further lecture)
https://www.premixgroup.com/solutions/health‐wellbeing/controlling‐static‐electricity‐in‐the‐hospital‐
environment/
https://www.quora.com/Why‐is‐static‐electricity‐dangerous‐in‐hospital‐settings
https://www.rs‐online.com/designspark/the‐need‐for‐esd‐control‐an‐introduction‐to‐the‐principles‐of‐
esd‐control
https://www.quora.com/Why‐is‐static‐electricity‐dangerous‐in‐hospital‐settings
Steven J Greenfield
Why is static electricity dangerous in hospital settings?
Hospitalized patients may be very much at risk. Our skin has a relatively high resistance, from thousands
to millions of ohms, depending on skin thickness and moisture content. Enough that we generally don’t
consider voltages dangerous for casual contact until they get above 30 to 50 volts, depending on who you
ask.
However, with wounds and needles and wires puncturing the skin, the resistance of your tissues is much
lower, on the order of 10 to 100 ohms. The current is also much more concentrated, where before it got
spread out by the skin.
Once you start operating, you put nerves and muscles in direct exposure to any static discharge. Where
1mA on your skin is barely perceptable, 10mA is a bad shock, and 100mA is highly dangerous, as little as a
few 10s of microamps (millionths of an ampere) can cause your heart to go into fibrillation. Or your
muscles to jerk, you can imagine how bad that would be with a surgeon holding a scalpel just touching it.
That is why scalpel handles are just conductive enough to drain any buildup of charge, and everything
used in an operation is ESD safe by being at least slightly conductive. And all of the electronic equipment
that connects to a person must pass very rigorous design goals for extremely low levels of leakage current
and voltage. So while a household appliance is allowed up to 500uA (0.5mA) on any exposed metal parts,
anything medical is held to much tighter standards.
All those things must be grounded, or at least small enough that they, acting as an antenna, don’t pick up
enough 60Hz hum to cause that current.
The tests for this leakage current are very rigorous. Even the situation where a palm is placed on a fully
painted metal case is tested. Often, the equipment must be designed so that it passes the tests even with
a fault in the equipment or wiring, such as broken grounds.
Leakage Current Standards Simplified
As you can see, it goes WAY beyond just static electricity. Even very low voltages and currents are
hazardous and potentially lethal once you puncture the skin and opening the body up.
9
1. Eletrostatics
Relevance in health care
HFNO
ambient
O2
Incidents of fires in
Covid ICUs
Rapid spread of fire
Ease of ignition, rapid
escalation in oxygen‐
rich atmosphere HFNO: High‐flow nasal oxygen therapy
Electrical
faults,
electrostatic
discharge
Sparks
Notably, six incidents of fires in Covid ICUs have been reported as attributable to electrical faults and
some reports have quoted witnesses as being overwhelmed very quickly by the rapid spread of the fire.
The ease of ignition and rapid escalation are typical signs that an oxygen rich atmosphere is involved.
10
Learning objectives

11
2. Electric current - direct current (DC)
• Ordered motion of charged particles driven by an

electric field
• Direction: movement of positive charges (!)
• Electrical current (I): number of charges passing per
unit time
𝑑𝑄
𝐼
𝑑𝑡
• SI-unit C/s = Amper (A)
• Conductors
• Insulators
• Semiconductors
Electric current ‐ direct current (DC)
As a next step, the electric field is still considered constant over time. In this case, however, the
charges already flow at a stationary (time‐constant) rate in a circuit created by a conductor. The
direction of the current is defined by the direction of movement of the positive charges.
Technically the current direction is the direction of movement of the positive charges, which is
the opposite direction to the real electron flow.
The electric current gives the number of charges passing through the entire cross section of the
conductor in a unit time. Its SI unit is C/s = ampere (A). One of the 7 SI base units (s, m, kg, A,
Kelvin, mol, candela (cd))
Conductors: electrons in the conduction band (eg delocalized electrons of metals) move easily
Insulators: electrons are attached to atoms, do not move (eg wood, plastic)
Semiconductors: The resistivity of semiconductors falls between conductors and insulators, in
the standard state it is between ρ = 10‐2… 10 + 9 Ωcm, so they are not good insulators and
conduct current poorly. At low temperatures, semiconductor materials act as insulators. The
electrons are bound, but after absorbing energy they pass into the conduction band, becoming
free (e.g. Si, Ge, Se). Semiconductors have been used in electronics for over 50 years. They are
made up of a diode, a transistor, and many other elements (solar cell, LED, photodiode).
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2. Capacitors and capacitance
• A device that stores electic charge

• Parallel conductuive plates separated by insulator
(dielectric material)
• The ratio of the magnitude of the charge on either
plate and the voltage is constant:
Q
C
U
• C: capacitance
• [C] = [Coulomb/Volt] = [Farad]
• C depends on the area of the plates and the permittivity of
the insulation (dielectic) material
A
C 
d
A capacitor is a circuit element that can store an electric charge by creating an electric field. The
simplest capacitor consists of at least two parallel conductive materials and an electrically
insulating material (dielectric) between them. The scalar physical quantity of electric capacity,
denoted by C, is measured in farad (F). C specifies the amount of electrical charge stored by a
unit voltage. Farad (F) is a unit of electrical capacity in the SI unit system. 1 Farad = 1 Coulomb
charge is created on the plates due to a voltage of 1 volt between the plates. The name comes
from the English physicist Michael Faraday. The capacitor capacity depends on the geometrical
dimensions of the plates (A) and the permittivity of the insulating material (dielectric).
13
Power source, power supply
• Continuous transfer of electric charges from

lower to higher potential by using energy
• DC power sources
• Charged capacitor
• Galvanic cell
• Accumulator (battery)
• Fuel cell
• Other: solar panel
• AC: dynamo (pl. wind turbine, power generator)
A power source is required to generate and maintain electrical current. The power source (or power supply)
continuously forces the charges from the low potential location to the high potential location using some energy.
DC power sources:
i) Galvanic cell: A common apparatus generally consists of two different metals, each immersed in separate beakers
containing their respective metal ions in solution that are connected by a salt bridge (or separated by a porous
membrane).
A specific example is the Daniell cell (see figure), with a zinc (Zn) half‐cell containing a solution of ZnSO4 (zinc
sulfate) and a copper (Cu) half‐cell containing a solution of CuSO4 (copper sulfate). A salt bridge is used here to
complete the electric circuit. If an external electrical conductor connects the copper and zinc electrodes, zinc from the
zinc electrode dissolves into the solution as Zn2+ ions (oxidation), releasing electrons that enter the external
conductor. To compensate for the increased zinc ion concentration, via the salt bridge zinc ions leave and anions
enter the zinc half‐cell. In the copper half‐cell, the copper ions plate onto the copper electrode (reduction), taking up
electrons that leave the external conductor. Since the Cu2+ ions (cations) plate onto the copper electrode, the latter is
called the cathode. Correspondingly the zinc electrode is the anode. The electrochemical reaction is:
cathode (+) reaction: Cu2+ + 2e → Cu reduction (electron release)
anode (‐) reac on: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e oxidation (electron take up)
Electrons flow through the external conductor, which is the primary application of the galvanic cell.
2. Accumulator: An accumulator is an energy storage device: a device which accepts energy, stores energy, and
releases energy as needed. It converts the introduced electricity into chemical energy during charging, can store it in
the form of chemical energy for a longer period of time, and then converts it back into electricity when discharged.
The battery is only suitable for storing and providing DC voltage. By connecting a passive load to the battery
(discharge), the battery acts like a galvanic cell; the material of its electrodes is transformed during the charge
separation process. When this process is complete, the battery will be discharged and its initial voltage will drop.
During charging, a voltage is generated by the charger is applied (in which case the battery, as a consumer, “absorbs
energy”), which causes the former chemical process to reverse and the electrode material to return to its original
state. At the end of the process, the battery is “charged” and is able to supply power again.
3. Fuel cell: fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen) and an
oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most
batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction,
whereas in a battery the chemical energy usually comes from metals and their ions or oxides that are commonly
already present in the battery, except in flow batteries. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as
fuel and oxygen are supplied.
4. Other: Solar panel Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through
the photovoltaic effect.
AC: dynamo (wind turbine, generator) These devices generate alternating current (AC) and will be described later.
14
Chracterization of DC power sources
• Electromotive force
• Charge separation that gives voltage difference between
the terminals
• Defined as the work (W) done per charge (Q):
• E = W/Q (J/C, Volt)
• Ideal voltage (U0)
• Voltage without load
• Internal resistance (Ri)
• represents the losses of the device
• Output voltage (Uout)
• voltage supplied by the generator output when loaded
(U0  Uk)
• Capacity (Ah)
• 1 Ah (amper-hour): 1 A of current supplied for 1 hour
Parameters used to characterize power sources:
Electromotive force:
In electromagnetism and electronics, electromotive force is the electrical action produced by a non‐
electrical source. Devices provide an emf by converting other forms of energy into electrical energy, such
as batteries (which convert chemical energy) or generators (which convert mechanical energy). (The word
"force" in this case is not used to mean forces of interaction between bodies).
Source voltage, ideal voltage:
A concept analogous to electromotive force. The source voltage is the voltage measured at the output of
the generator without load. Also called ideal voltage.
Internal resistance:
Voltage sources, whether batteries, generators, etc., are not ideal. A real voltage source is composed of
an ideal voltage source in series with a resistance called internal resistance.
Each real voltage generator consists of an ideal voltage generator and an internal resistor connected in
series with it, which internal resistance represents the losses of the device. Internal resistance is the
resistance due to the properties of the materials of the structural parts. When a load is applied to the
generator, the internal resistance forms a voltage divider with the load, so the output voltage decreases
to Uout =U0 /[RL/(Ri+RL)].
Output voltage:
Due to the internal resistance, the voltage after the start of the current is less than the previously
measured electromotive force. This voltage is displayed on the generator output when loaded. Its value
according to Kirchhoff‐law Uout = U0 – Ri x IL, ahol IL is the current flowing at the load. The terminal
voltage decreases in proportion to the load current, so Uout <= U0.
Capacity:
As previously discussed by Coulomb, 1C is the amount of charge that flows through a conductor in one
second (1 s) at a current of one ampere (1 A). By definition, the ampere‐second (As) or amber‐hour (Ah) is
also used. The latter (Ah) is used to characterize the charge storage capacity of batteries. A battery has a
capacity of 1 Ah (ampere hour) that can supply 1 A of current for 1 hour. Expressed in standard SI units, an
ampere hour is 3600 coulombs. E.g. mobile phone battery 3000‐4000 mAh (10,000‐15,000 Coulomb).
Normal cell battery 1000‐3000 mAh in AAA and AA sizes.
Interesting: Ah can be converted to kWh power (Wh = Ah × Volt). A 1.5 volt 3000 mAh type pencil battery

has a power of 4 Wh (0.004 kWh). An average car has 72 hp (50 kW) that can be extracted from about
14,000 AA batteries. Tesla cars have a power of 310 kW (422 hp),
https://sustainable‐nano.com/2016/04/29/aa‐batteries‐mercedes/
15
2. Power supply in health care environment
Basic requirements
• All healthcare facilities must have a backup

power source
• Diesel generator
• Classification of medical sites based on risk
• Risk grade from E to A (UK)
• Separable supply for risk grades
• tpause <0.5 sec and tsupply >3 hours,
• for operating lights
• in the supply of critical life support devices
• National standards define requirements
• E.g. HTM 06-01 (UK)
• MSZ 2040:1995, MSZ HD 60364-7-710:2012 (HU)
Power supply in health care environment
In all health care institutions, an electromedical network must be built and a backup power
source must be provided. This can be a generator, exceptionally an inverter or a backup power
supply. Inpatient care should be provided, albeit with reduced energy consumption.
In the case of short‐term, frequent power loss lasting 20‐40 minutes according to the standard,
it is sufficient for the safety power supply to provide only the supply of electromedical circuits
and safety and emergency lighting. In the event of a prolonged (up to 2‐3 hours) expected
power failure, a part of the operating network and 20‐25% of the lighting must be connected to
the safety power supply. Even in the event of a long‐term expected power failure, it must be
ensured that the hospital can operate continuously with reduced energy consumption. In
facilities where there is no inpatient care, it is a function of the medical technology plan to
establish a backup power source.
The individual power of the installed generators should be 100‐500 kW. It requires the use of
three generators to meet power requirements of more than 500 kW. It is recommended to
choose the power of the backup power source lower than 10‐25% of the simultaneous power of
the institution. These generators must be self‐starting, internal combustion engine, 3‐phase, 50
Hz generators. The mains components for different purposes must be separable so that, if
necessary, a section of suitable capacity can be connected to the generators. This connection
can be done manually or automatically. It is important that any generator of the emergency
power supply can be connected to any mains component.
In order to share the power distribution more efficiently, it is advisable to make the generators
electrically synchronizable. The backup power supply must apply voltage to the mains supply
within 20 seconds.
16
2. Power supply in health care environment
HTM 06-01 standard defines five clinical risk grades (A -E)
Risk grade Risk grade Risk grade Risk grade Risk grade
E D C B A
circulation Abulant care general patient complex life support or

spaces, consultation care treatment & complex
waiting areas, (excluding Medical diagnostics surgery
offices and examination) monitoring or maternity, operating
non-patient or general out- test equipment endoscopy, theatre suites,
care areas patient areas such ECG accident & critical care
emergency areas
Risk grade E: typically – support services and circulation: These areas may include circulation spaces,
waiting areas, offices and non‐patient care areas. Consequently, electrical supply loss does not
immediately affect the clinical treatment or safety of patients.
Risk grade D: typically – ambulant care: these areas may include patients in consultation (excluding
examination) or general out‐patient areas. Supply loss may give rise to disruption, inconvenience and a
reduced environmental quality but would not directly compromise clinical treatment and safety. There
may be a business continuity risk if these areas are not connected to the secondary power supply (SPS) for
failures lasting for several hours.
Risk grade C: typically – general patient care: Medical monitoring or medical test equipment such as
electrocardiograms may be connected externally to the patient’s body for a short or intermittent time.
Clinical treatment and patient safety will not be immediately compromised by an interruption of electrical
power. However, any interruption should be limited to less than 15 s together with other engineering
services used in the support of the clinical treatment such as medical gases, hot and cold water, heating,
ventilation and air‐conditioning (HVAC), and communications.
Risk grade B: typically – complex treatment and diagnostics: these areas may include maternity,
endoscopy rooms, accident & emergency general/minors, therapy rooms, ultrasound and other locations.
Patients may have medical monitoring or test equipment connected externally to their body for
prolonged periods. Any interruption of the electrical supply to medical equipment should be limited to 15
s. Consideration may be given to providing an alternative electrical supply (tertiary power supply such as a
UPS) with a no‐break or within 0.5 s subject to the range of patient treatment and resilience of equipment
used. Other engineering services used in support of clinical treatment should be connected to the SPS
within 15 s of any electrical supply interruption.
Risk grade A: typically – life support or complex surgery: these areas may include operating theatre suites,
critical care areas, catheterising rooms, accident & emergency resuscitation units, MRI and other
locations. Where supply disconnection represents a threat to life an alternative source such as a UPS must
be available within 0.5 s or as a no‐break supply if critical medical electrical (ME) equipment to be used
will not continue to function without a reset after a 0.5 s break.
https://www.kohler‐ups.co.uk/matching‐your‐power‐protection‐components‐to‐your‐healthcare‐system‐
requirements/
17
Electric resistance – Ohm’s law (repeating)
• Current through a conductor is directly proportional to

the voltage across the two points (U ~ I):
R (V/A = Ω (ohm))

• Resistivity: R
• Conductivity A
• Reciprocial of resistance G=1/R (1/Ω=Siemens)
Georg Simon Ohm
• Ohmic and non-Ohmic conductors (1789‐1854)
The current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage
across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance: R=U/I. The
unit of resistance is Volt/Amper, or Ohm.
The electrical resistance of a uniform conductor is given in terms of resistivity, R= ρl/A, where l is
the length of the conductor, A is the cross‐sectional area, and ρ is the specific resistivity in units
of ohm∙meters.
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistance. Its unit is 1 / Ohm, or Siemens.
We distinguish between ohmic and non‐ohmic resistance materials between conductors.
Ohmic resistance: This ratio of U / I (the resistance) is constant over a relatively wide voltage
range
Non‐ohmic resistance: This ratio of U / I (resistance) is not constant.
Increasing resistance with increasing voltage: For example, in the case of conventional light
bulbs, the temperature of the bulbing filament increases from 20 ∘C to approx. 2500 ∘C when
operated. As a result, the ohmic resistance of the filament increases by an order of magnitude of
5‐10 times.
Decreasing resistance with increasing voltage: Such as gases and semiconductors, including
LEDs; LED = light emitting diode.
18
Resistance – temperature dependence
Metals:
• T increases → R increases
T = 0 (1+ ΔT)
T = 0 (1+ ΔT+ ΔT2 + …)
• T → 0 Residual resistance (0)
Semiconductors, graphite, electrolites:
• T increases → R decreases
• 𝜌 𝜌 𝑒 ∇
Application: thermistor
• R change → body temperature
• Medical importance:
• Fewer
• impaired thermoregulation
(neonates)
• anesthesia
• therapeutic hypo- hyperthermia
(CPB) Prof. Ferenc Peták, Dept. of Medical Physics and Informatics 19
Measurements show that the resistivity of materials depends on temperature. Upon heating,
the specific resistance of metals generally increases. Cause: Electrons flowing through the
conductor are blocked by atoms and molecules. The more intense the atoms and molecules
vibrate, the harder it is for electrons to pass through the lattice structure. Thus, the resistance of
metals is usually increases as a function of temperature.
The relative change of the resistivity of metallic conductors at ordinary temperatures (eg
between 0 ° C and 100 ° C) is approximately directly proportional to the temperature change.
The quantity that can be interpreted by the relation α is called the temperature factor of the
given substance (unit 1/K or 1/C).
Upon heating, the resistivity of graphite, semiconductors, and electrolytes generally decreases.
Under normal circumstances silicon act as a poor conductor. Each silicon atom is bonded to 4
other silicon atoms. The bonds between these atoms are covalent bonds where the electrons are
in fixed positions. So at 0 K, the electrons does not move within the lattice structure. When the
temperature in increased the forbidden gap between the two bands becomes very less and the
electrons move from the valence band to the conduction band. Thus, some electrons from the
co valent bonds between the Si atoms are free to move within the structure, and this means the
resistivity decreases.
Application: thermistor
A thermistor is a circuit element that significantly changes its electrical resistance when exposed
to heat ‐ the magnitude of the change in resistance is a million times that of metals. Eg
continuous monitoring of body temperature. Solid state (platinum or semiconductor sensors are
used).
When should temperature be measured in medicine?
In case of fewer, impaired thermoregulation (neonates, infants, administration of anesthetics),
during therapeutic cooling / heating (eg open heart surgery requiring cardiopulmonary bypass –
20 celsius). Measurement on a skin pinch or body orifice (esophagus, rectum).
19
Resistance – temperature dependence
Superconductivity
Tc critical temperature → R = 0
NbTi (Tc = 9.4 K)
The electrical resistance of a metal conductor decreases as the temperature drops. For ordinary
conductive materials such as copper and silver, there is a lower limit due to impurities; for ordinary
copper, the resistance is not zero near absolute zero degrees.
The resistance of a superconductor, on the other hand, suddenly drops to zero when the so‐called critical
temperature is reached, which is usually 20 kelvins or less (for low‐temperature superconductors).
Thus, in a superconducting circuit, the current will flow continuously even without an external source. Like
ferromagnetism or spectral lines, superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon, so it cannot
be interpreted by the methods of classical physics, by idealizing conduction.
Superconductivity occurs in a wide range of materials: chemical elements such as tin or aluminum, metal
alloys, some heavily contaminated semiconductors, and copper‐containing layered, distorted perovskite
crystal‐structured ceramics — the latter being high‐temperature superconductors.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity
Medical application: MRI
The main magnetic field in MRI is generated by a large superconducting electromagnet in which an
electric current flows. The weak resistance of superconductors allows very strong currents to flow with no
heating in the material, and hence enables to get very high field values of several Teslas. Such field
intensities could not be obtained with a copper electromagnet because the high resistance of the
conductor would cause, when strong currents flow, Joule effect losses (thermal dissipation) so strong the
coil would melt (3‐phase power, 480 volts at 200 Amps for its electrical supply).
In most of today’s MRI magnets, the superconducting coil is enclosed in a helium tank containing
approximately 1000 litres of liquid when full. Magnets are usually cooled down and filled only once, in the
factory where they are made, and remain cold for their entire life (typically 10 years). Nearly all of today's
clinical superconducting MR magnets employ superconducting coils made of niobium‐titanium (NbTi), an
alloy with transition temperature (Tc) of 9.4°K. An upcoming "high temperature" superconductor to
watch is magnesium diboride (MgB2), with Tc = 39°K.
Liquid helium super liquid as well ‐ friction‐free, zero viscosity
http://www.supraconductivite.fr/en/index.php?p=applications‐medical‐irm‐more
https://www.europhysicsnews.org/articles/epn/pdf/2012/04/epn2012434p26.pdf
20
2. Electric current - Kirchhoff's circuit laws
Kirchhoff 1st law (current law) Kirchhoff 2nd law (voltage law)
𝐼 0 𝑅𝐼 𝑈 0
U3 U4
U2 U5
U1 U6
U7
U0
If a circuit is not simple, there are specific branches and nodes. The laws on direct current
theory were formulated in 1846 by the German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff. Conservation of
charges and energy not only related to electrical circuits, but also have life science implications.
Kirchhoff’s 1st law, current law: named also as Kirchhoff's point rule, or Kirchhoff's junction rule
(or nodal rule). For any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into
that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node; or equivalently: the algebraic
sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.
Kirchhoff’s 2nd law, voltage law: This law, also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop
(or mesh) rule, or Kirchhoff's second rule. It states that the directed sum of the voltages around
any closed loop is zero.
21
2. Electric current - Kirchhoff's circuit laws
Kirchhoff 1st law (current law) Kirchhoff 2nd law (voltage law)
𝐼 0 𝑅𝐼 𝑈 0
1 1
+ + … IRe = I(R1 + R2 + R3 + ... ) 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
Application: The resulting resistance of series and parallel resistors can be derived from
Kirchhoff's laws.
22
2. Electric – fluid dynamics analogy
Analogy between electricity and fluid dynamics
Electric quantity Mechanical quantity
Electric charge Fluid coloumn
(C) (L)
Voltage Pressure
(V) (Pa)
Current Fluid flow
(A) (L/s)
Electric resistance Flow resistance
(V/A, ) (Pa.s/l)
https://www.atlearner.com/2020/02/what‐is‐resistor.html Prof. Ferenc Peták, Dept. of Medical Physics and Informatics 23
Electrical circuit elements can also be mapped to mechanical systems using flow /
mechanical analogies.
https://www.slideserve.com/olga‐marsh/ohm‐s‐law‐i‐v‐r
https://science4fun.info/voltage‐current‐and‐resistance/
23
Relevance to medicine
• Resistance
• Hagen-Poiseuille law - Ohm’s law
∆𝑝 8 ∆𝑙 𝑈 𝑙
𝑅 𝑅 𝜌
𝐼 𝜋 𝑟 𝐼 𝐴
Cureus. 2018 Sep; 10(9): e3354.
• Modeling organ perfusion, simulation

• Models for circulation, respiration
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage
law (serial)
• Endotracheal tube and
airway resistance
• Rtotal = Rtube + Raw +Rti
Babik B. et al. Eur Respir J. 2002.

The direct life science implications of the theory of simple circuits may emerge along with
fluidological analogies.
The flow resistance in the circulatory and respiratory systems can be interpreted as discussed in
the section on electrical resistance (see previous semester's lecture on fluid mechanics).
Kirchhoff's loop law, which interprets the series connection of resistors, is essential for example
in recognizing that the resistance of the endotracheal tube is a serial resistance, and it
represents a significant part of the total resistance measured in the ventilated patient. This
should be taken into account when selecting the tube size and interpreting the total resistance
displayed on the ventilator display.
Kirchhoff's node law, which interprets the parallel connection of resistors, is important in the
overview of the distribution of blood supply between organs (systems connected in parallel). It
can also be interpreted within an organ:
For example, an endotracheal tube that is positioned too deeply enters one of the main bronchi,
and thus no airflow enters a branch of the two lungs connected in parallel. As a result, resistance
and peak pressures (voltage) increase in the ventilated (air‐supplied) side. Similarly, pulmonary
thromboembolism acutely increases pulmonary vascular resistance due to disengagement of
parallel branches of resistance.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6257652/
Currently, a standardized protocol for escape venous exclusion does not exist in the literature.
However, interventional management as described can now be applied to treatment across any
escape vein with a baseline venous pressure gradient of at least 5 mmHg. These findings are
attributed to the comprehension of Kirchhoff’s current law, Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
and the simplified circuit model, where venous blood flow is analogous to current, escape veins
are analogous to resistance, and AV pressure gradient is analogous to voltage.
24
Relevance to medicine
• Kirchhoff’s current
law (parallel)
• Systemic, pulmonary circulation
• Organ circulation
• e.g., pulmonary thromboembolism
acutely elevates pulmonary vascular
resistance
• ET-tube position
• too deep intubation – half-lung
ventilation
+ + …
The direct life science implications of the theory of simple circuits may emerge along with
fluidological analogies.
The flow resistance in the circulatory and respiratory systems can be interpreted as discussed in
the section on electrical resistance (see previous semester's lecture on fluid mechanics).
Kirchhoff's loop law, which interprets the series connection of resistors, is essential for example
in recognizing that the resistance of the endotracheal tube is a serial resistance, and it
represents a significant part of the total resistance measured in the ventilated patient. This
should be taken into account when selecting the tube size and interpreting the total resistance
displayed on the ventilator display.
Kirchhoff's node law, which interprets the parallel connection of resistors, is important in the
overview of the distribution of blood supply between organs (systems connected in parallel). It
can also be interpreted within an organ:
For example, an endotracheal tube that is positioned too deeply enters one of the main bronchi,
and thus no airflow enters a branch of the two lungs connected in parallel. As a result, resistance
and peak pressures (voltage) increase in the ventilated (air‐supplied) side. Similarly, pulmonary
thromboembolism acutely increases pulmonary vascular resistance due to disengagement of
parallel branches of resistance.
Currently, a standardized protocol for escape venous exclusion does not exist in the literature.
However, interventional management as described can now be applied to treatment across any
escape vein with a baseline venous pressure gradient of at least 5 mmHg. These findings are
attributed to the comprehension of Kirchhoff’s current law, Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
and the simplified circuit model, where venous blood flow is analogous to current, escape veins
are analogous to resistance, and AV pressure gradient is analogous to voltage.
25
Learning objectives

26
3. Basic magnetic phenomena
• Moving electric charges  magnetic field

• Poles, magnetic flux lines (N  S)
• No magnetic monopole
• Attracting (N-S) and repelling (N-N, S-S) forces
• Types of magnetism
• Ferromagnetic materials
• permanent magnets
• Paramagnetic materials
• External magnetic field magnetize in the same direction
• Diamagnetic materials
• External magnetic field magnetize in the opposite direction
A moving electric charge (electric current) or a change in the electric field creates a magnetic field. Even in the case
of a permanent magnet, the magnetic properties result from the moving charges, only here atomic‐level phenomena
are in the background.
In the case of permanent magnets, the basis of the magnetic properties is given by the fact that the electrons (electric
charges) orbit the atomic nucleus while also spin around their own axis. A current generated by an electron
circulating at a velocity v of this charge generates a magnetic field. Magnetic momentum suggests that the atom
forms a magnetic dipole. The magnetic moment of an atom has two components, the magnetic moment from the spin
and the magnetic moment from the electrons orbiting the nucleus. Thus, the atomic‐sized currents generated by
electrons moving in atoms are responsible for the magnetic properties of materials, and if their effects add up, we can
speak of a magnetized body (e.g., a magnetic rod).
Ferromagnetic materials: becomes a permanent magnet under the influence of an external magnetic field and
retains its magnetism even when the external magnetizing field has been removed from its surroundings. Previously,
any material that showed spontaneous magnetic properties was called a ferromagnet. In the absence of an external
magnetic field, magnetism can only occur in materials with unbalanced, odd‐spin electrons. Such are ferromagnetic
materials. Eg Fe, Co, Ni
Paramagnetic materials: Non‐magnetic without magnetic space, but magnetized in the same direction in an external
magnetic field. The odd‐spin atoms otherwise present in them are arranged under external magnetic space. The
external magnetic field tends to adjust the magnetic moments belonging to the atoms in the direction of the field, so
that the induced magnetization increases the external magnetic field. e.g. Al, Na, K
Diamagnetic materials: Diamagnetic materials are repelled by a magnetic field; an applied magnetic field creates an
induced magnetic field in them in the opposite direction, causing a repulsive force. In contrast, paramagnetic and
ferromagnetic materials are attracted by a magnetic field. Diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs
in all materials; when it is the only contribution to the magnetism, the material is called diamagnetic. In paramagnetic
and ferromagnetic substances, the weak diamagnetic force is overcome by the attractive force of magnetic dipoles in
the material. Diamagnetic elements e.g. copper, gold, lead and sulphur. The most important diamagnetic material in
medicine is water.
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u36QpPvEh2c
27
3. Basic magnetic phenomena
Water as diamagnet
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lTmFjQCPfCg
28
3. Magnetic field - characterization
• Magnetic field lines are looped (N  S)

• Magnetic flux
• net number of normalized magnetic field lines passing
through an A surface: 
  BA
• Unit: Weber (Wb)
• Vector quantity
• B: magnetic flux density (induction)
• number of normalized field lines passing through a
unit surface
• Unit Tesla (Wb/m2, Vs/m²)
Characterization of magnetic field:
The magnetic field is source‐free because the induction lines close to themselves. The field has no
sources like the electrostatic field from which it originates and where the field strength lines
end.
The number of induction lines passing through the surface A perpendicular to the induction
vector is called the magnetic flux. A change in magnetic flux density creates a voltage according
to Faraday’s law of induction. The SI derived unit of magnetic flux density (or magnetic
induction) is tesla (sign T). It was named in honor of Nikola Tesla, a Serbian‐American inventor
and electrical engineer. The physical quantity characteristic of the magnetic field is the magnetic
flux density, the unit of measurement is tesla (Vs/m²).
Lorentz force
The Lorentz Force is the force on a charged particle due to (electric and) magnetic fields. A
charged particle in a magnetic field is moving relative to this field and is not moving parallel to
the field (perpendicular component). A charged particle moving through a magnetic field of
strength B: F=q(vxB).
Direction of Lorentz force: rights hand rule (thumb: velocity, index finger: magnetic filed line,
middle finger: Lorentz force). There is also a left‐hand rule, but the correspondence of fingers is
different.
Vector product: v x B = vBsin, where  is the angle between v és B vectors.
(In the case of electric field, F = EQ, a scalar product, since the electric field strength points in the
direction of the force.)
https://isaacphysics.org/concepts/cp_lorentz_force
Lorentz force in practice:
1. Magnetic induction (next slide)
2. application of magnetic deflection in various technical devices
‐ In cathode ray tubes, such as old TV picture tubes, fast‐moving electrons are diverted by means
of a magnetic field, and the image is drawn as a result.
‐ In the electron microscope, magnetic lenses deflect fast‐moving electrons. This creates the
interference image from which the subject can be inferred.
‐ It is a common practice in mass spectroscopes to separate particles of different masses and
charges using a magnetic field.
29
3. Magnetic field - characterization
Tesla as a SI unit
Approximate
Source magnetic field
stretgh
Magnetic field of Earth 50 T Nicola Tesla
(1856‐1943)
Refrigerator magnet 5 mT
Horseshoe magnet 10 - 20 mT
Junkyard electromagnet 1T
Clinical MRI scanners 0,5 – 3 T (typical)
Research MRI scanners 7 – 10 T
Laboratory NMR spectrometers 6 – 23 T
Largest pulse field in lab (nondestructive) 97 T
Largest pulse field in lab (destroying
730 T
equipment but not the lab)
https://mriquestions.com/how‐strong‐is‐30t.html
Tesla (Vs/m²). Named after Nikola Tesla serbian‐american inventor and electrical engineer.
30
3. Magnetic induction
• Lorentz-force   
• force exerted by a magnetic
field on a moving charge
FB  q v  B  
• Lorentz force  Motional induction
• Straight conductor in magnetic field moves perpendicular to
induction lines (or stationary conductor in variable magnetic field)
• Charges move due to the Lorentz force in the conductor 
voltage/current
• Faraday's law of induction:
dΦ
U
dt
• Lenz-law: current induced in a circuit due to a change in a
magnetic field is directed to oppose the change in flux and to
exert a mechanical force which opposes the motion
• Magnetic field: NS  induced magnetic field: SN
• Induction where d is not from movement
• Mutual induction (two coils next to each other)
• Self induction (within a coil) Prof. Ferenc Peták, Dept. of Medical Physics and Informatics 31
Motion induction
If a straight conductor is moved in a constant homogeneous magnetic field at a constant speed
perpendicular to the induction lines, the galvanometer connected to the two ends of the
conductor will indicating that current is flowing in the circuit. If the conductor is moved in the
opposite direction or the corners of the magnet are swapped, the deflection of the
galvanometer will be opposite to the previous one. If the conductor is moved in the magnetic
field parallel to the induction lines, the galvanometer shows no current in the circuit. In a
constant magnetic field, a voltage is generated between the ends of a conductor that does not
move parallel to the induction lines. The phenomenon is called motion induction, and the
resulting voltage is called induced voltage.
The value of the induced voltage is given by Faraday's law of induction. According to Faraday’s
law of induction, a time‐varying magnetic field induces a voltage. The magnitude of the induced
electromotive voltage is equal to the time derivative (rate of change) of the flux of the magnetic
field. The negative sign refers to Lenz's law (below).
Explanation: As a result of the Lorenz force, the charges in the conductor moving in the magnetic
field are displaced, which, like a direct current source, generates an electromotive force. Thus,
an induced current is generated in the conductive material.
Lenz‐law: Lenz's law states that the current induced in a circuit due to a change in a magnetic
field is directed to oppose the change in flux and to exert a mechanical force which opposes the
motion. Lenz's law is contained in the rigorous treatment of Faraday's law of induction, where it
finds expression by the negative sign:
Mutual induction: However, when the emf is induced into an adjacent coil situated within the
same magnetic field, the emf is said to be induced magnetically, inductively or by Mutual
induction, symbol ( M ). Then when two or more coils are magnetically linked together by a
common magnetic flux they are said to have the property of Mutual Inductance.
Mutual Inductance is the basic operating principal of the transformer, motors, generators and
any other electrical component that interacts with another magnetic field. Then we can define
mutual induction as the current flowing in one coil that induces a voltage in an adjacent coil.
Self induction: A special case of electromagnetic induction is when the varying magnetic field of
a variable current in a conductive loop creates an induced voltage in the conductor itself.
A special type of motional induction is when a metal frame is rotated in a time‐constant
magnetic field. This results in an alternating current.
31
3. Magnetic induction
Alternating current
Movement induction – rotating metal frame

• U(t) = Umsin(t) U(t): actual value
• Mean and effective values Um: maximum
• Mean: : angular frequency, 2f
• 𝑈 𝑈 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐼 𝐼 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Effective: direct current that would do the same amount of
work on the same consumer in the same amount of time
• 𝑈 𝑈 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑈 (sinusodial)
• 𝐼 𝐼 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 , 𝐼 (sinusodial)
• 𝑃 𝑈 ·𝐼 𝑃 /2
• Mains AC
• In EU: f=50 Hz (T=20 ms), Ueff = 230 V (Umax = 325 V)
• Importance
• Easy-production (powerplant)
• Easy-transport (transformator)
A special type of motion induction is if a metal frame is rotated in a time‐constant magnetic
field with a defined angular frequency. The result is alternating current (AC) when the
direction and intensity of the current and voltage change periodically.
Alternating current can be characterized by some average value. This average value is the so‐
called effective value. By effective current of AC is meant the strength of a direct current that
generates the same amount of heat in the same resistive load in the same amount of time as the
AC current. The effective value of the alternating voltage can be interpreted similarly. It can be
shown that the following relationship between the maximum and effective value of the current
and the voltage can be described in the case of a sinusoidally varying current given by a radical
relation. In Hungary, the effective value of the current is 230 V (previously it was 220 V). It
follows that its maximum value is approximately 325 V.
Significance, applications:
Sinusoidal alternating current plays an extremely important role in the generation and
transmission of electricity today. In conventional fossil fuel thermal power plants and nuclear
power plants, electricity is generated by turbine‐powered generators, as well as in hydroelectric
and wind power plants. These generators take advantage of the phenomenon of magnetic
induction and typically generate alternating current. Electricity is also transmitted primarily
through alternating current systems. In addition, transformers can relatively easily produce high
voltages favorable to transport losses. For a significant portion of consumers, alternating current
is either as adequate as direct current or even better (e.g., high‐power electric motors).
Alternating current also occurs in a living organism: in the nervous system, stimuli are
transmitted by electrical signals from one point in the body to another. Nerve cells fire at a
frequency that depends on the intensity of the stimulation, so they perform an intensity‐
frequency conversion. Such periodic voltage signals are measured, for example, on the ECG.
Looking at the recordings of this instrument, it can be seen that the neural signals are by no
means sinusoidal. Such signals are also replaced by the pacemaker, which creates the possibility
for the patient to live longer in the event of a failure to regulate the heart's rhythm.
32
3. Magnetism
Medical relevance
1. MRI (forthcoming lecture)

2. fMRI
• Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent
(BOLD) contrast imaging
• HbO2 smaller magnetic susceptibility
(diamagnet) than Hb (paramagnet)
• Neural activity: HbO2/Hb increase  T2
increase  signal intensity increase
2. Short wave diathermy
• Alternating magnetic field
 eddy currents
• Deep heating
Prof. Peták Ferenc, SZTE Orvosi Fizikai és Orvosi Informatikai Int. 33
Relevance in medicine:
BOLD (Blood Oxygen Level Dependent) signal change
An fMRI method based on the oxygen content of the blood to display active brain areas. During BOLD, the change in signal is caused
by the presence of a lot of oxygenated hemoglobin in the venous circulation of the brain. Oxygenated hemoglobin has lower
magnetic susceptibility (diamagnetic) than deoxygenated (paramagnetic). During neural activity, the oxygenated / deoxygenated
hemoglobin ratio increases, resulting in an increase in T2. As a result, on T2 weighted gradient echo images, the active area will have
a higher signal intensity compared to its surroundings.
http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging
Gastrointestinal Diamagnetic Contrast Agents
Diamagnetism occurs only by a substance in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. Diamagnetic contrast agents are
complexes in which the metal ion (e.g., Zn, Bi and Ca) is diamagnetic.
Potential diamagnetic materials in gastrointestinal MRI: Kaopectate, Barium sulfate.
Review paper:
Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent (BOLD) contrast, was first demonstrated in rats and later in humans, and is the contrast that is
used in virtually all conventional fMRI experiments. BOLD contrast results from the change in magnetic field surrounding the red
blood cells depending on the oxygen state of the hemoglobin. When fully oxygenated, HbO2 is diamagnetic and is magnetically
indistinguishable from brain tissue. However, fully deoxygenated Hb has 4 unpaired electrons and is highly paramagnetic. This
paramagnetism results in local gradients in magnetic field whose strength depends on the [Hb] concentration. These endogenous
gradients in turn modulate the intra‐ and extra‐vascular blood’s T2 and T2* relaxation times through diffusion and intravoxel
dephasing, respectively. Using a gradient refocused echo (GRE) MRI pulse sequence, the acquisition is made sensitive to T2* and T2.
At 1.5T and 3T, the T2* contrast is predominant and is largest in venules61, while at higher field strength the diffusion‐weighted
contrast of T2 relaxation becomes more important and, because signals are generated preferentially in capillaries and tissue with
spin‐echo acquisitions, provides greater spatial specificity57,64. Since most fMRI is currently performed at 3 Tesla or below, BOLD
fMRI utilizes primarily GRE methods because of the increased T2* contrast.
Figure: Block design fMRI experiment. A neural response to the state change from A to B in the stimulus is accompanied by a
hemodynamic response (as shown in Fig. 1) that is detected by the rapid and continuous acquisition of MR images sensitized to
BOLD signal changes. Using single‐ or multi‐variate time series analysis methods, the average signal difference between the two
states is computed for the scan and a contrast map generated. A statistical activation map is finally obtained using a suitable
threshold for the difference; the map depicts the probability that a voxel is activated given the uncertainty due to noise and the
small BOLD signal differences.
33
Learning objectives

34
U and I in phase
4. Alternating current
Passive circuit components
Resistance
𝑈 𝑡 𝑈 · 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝐼 𝑡 𝑈 /𝑅 · 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 U ahead 90 (T/4)
Inductance
𝐼 𝑡 𝑈 · 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝑈 𝑡 𝐿 𝐼 𝜔𝐿 · sin 𝜔𝑡 90°
𝑑𝑡
Capacitance I ahead 90 (T/4)
𝑈 𝑡 𝑈 · 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑈
𝐼 𝑡 𝐶 𝑈 𝜔𝐶 · sin 𝜔𝑡 90°
𝑑𝑡
Sinusoidal alternating current plays an extremely important role in the generation and
transmission of electricity today. In conventional fossil fuel thermal power plants and nuclear
power plants, electricity is generated by turbine‐powered generators, as well as in hydroelectric
and wind power plants. These generators take advantage of the phenomenon of magnetic
induction and typically generate alternating current. Electricity is also transmitted primarily
through alternating current systems. In addition, transformers can relatively easily produce high
voltages favorable to transport losses. For a significant portion of consumers, alternating current
is either as adequate as direct current or even better (e.g., high‐power electric motors).
The current of the resistor will be a time function identical to its voltage with no phase
difference between U and I.
It can be shown that the AC voltage across an inductor leads the current by a quarter of a period
(90°, T/4).
AC current across a capacitance leads the voltage by a quarter of a period (90°, T/4).
35
Concept of impedance
Impedance: generalization of resistance in

AC circuit
𝑍̅ ̅
• Frequency-dependent complex vector quantity
• Impedance of ohmic resistance:
• 𝑍 𝑅
• Impedance of inductance:
• 𝑈 𝑡 𝐿 𝐼 𝜔𝐿 · sin 𝜔𝑡 90°
• 𝑍 ̅
𝒋𝜔𝐿, where „ j ” denotes +90 phase difference
• Impedance of capacitance:
• 𝐼 𝑡 𝐶 𝑈 𝜔𝐶 · sin 𝜔𝑡 90°
• 𝑍 ̅
𝒋 where „ j ” denotes -90 phase difference
In DC networks, the quotient of the voltage and current of a passive element, the current
resistance, is called resistance. In AC networks, this concept needs to be extended because the
relationship between U and I cannot be described by a single scalar numerical value (due to
phase shift, see previous slide). The quotient of the complex voltage and current amplitude of
a passive element is called impedance.
Impedance of an ohmic resistance: The impedance of the resistor is pure real, equal to the DC
resistance. There is no phase shift between voltage and current, accordingly, the phase angle of
the impedance of the resistor is zero.
Impedance of inductance: The impedance of a coil is pure imaginary, its inductive reactance is
directly proportional to its frequency and inductance.
Impedance of capacitance: The capacitive impedance of a capacitor is imaginary, the capacitive
reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency and the value of the capacitance.
https://www.electronics‐tutorials.ws/accircuits/passive‐components.html
36
Relevance in medicine C
R I
• Electrical-mechanical analogies
• Respiratory system
R I
Respirator
C
V’ 𝒋
-P1
P Z  = R + jI −
𝐶
Pressure
Nyomás
0 P R flow resistance
Iaw Inertance
P1 C tissue compliance
-F1 (stiffness)
Áramlás
Airflow
0 V’
U P
F1 Z = =
 I V’
Alternating current also occurs in living organisms:
Firing of Nerve Cells: In the nervous system, stimuli are transmitted by electrical signals from
one point in the body to another. Nerve cells fire at a frequency that depends on the intensity of
the stimulation, so they perform an intensity‐frequency conversion.
ECG: ECG m is a quasi‐periodic voltage signals. Looking at the recordings of this instrument
The theory of alternating current circuits can be applied to any life process in which cyclical
changes occur in a living organism. Typically, these include circulation (electrophysiological and
mechanical consequences of the cardiac cycle) and respiration. During respiration, the pressure
and flow signals alternate cyclically, with different amplitudes (P, V ’) and different phases ().
Taking into account the electromechanical analogies discussed earlier (voltage ‐ pressure,
current ‐ flow), the respiratory system can also be described by circuit elements connected to an
alternating circuit. The ohmic resistance corresponds to the flow resistance of the airways (R),
the inductance to the cyclically accelerated and decelerated inertial factor (I), and the
capacitance to the elastic expansion of the respiratory tissues (C). With these analogies, the
respiratory system can be described and modeled with the physical toolbox used in the theory
of AC circuits.
The same concept can be applied for the arterial Impedance is the analysis of the relationship
between pulsatile flow and pressure waves in the arterial system.
37
Elastic aorta – windkessel model
• Some of the mechanical

(hydraulic) energy of the
systole is stored as potential
energy by tensioning the
elastic wall of the aorta
• Charging the capaitance
• This potential energy is
converted into the kinetic
energy of blood flow during
diastole
• Discharging the capacitance
• Physiologically (!):
Central Upper arm

(aorta) blood
pressure
< blood
pressure
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51665449_Computational_Fluid_Dynamics_in_Cardiovascular
_Disease/figures?lo=1
https://www.tensiomed.com/parameters/central‐systolic‐blood‐pressure/
38
Relevance in medicine
AV: aortic valve
• Electrical-mechanical analogies AO: aorta
• Circulation ABC: anterior-body circulation
(to superior vena cava)
PBC: posterior body circulation
(to inferior vena cava)
IVC: inferior vena cava upstream
of occlusion
VC: vena cava
TC: tricuspid valve
CVC: compliance of superior
vena cava and the compliance of
the inferior vena cava
PV: pulmonic valve

PA: pulmonary artery
PVB: pulmonary vascular bed
PU: pulmonary vein
R: vascular (flow) resistance in arteries/veins/valves MT:mitral valve
C: elastic cavity (compliance)
P: pressure
Tewari SG. Frontiers in Physiology 4, 355, 2013 Prof. Ferenc Peták, Dept. of Medical Physics and Informatics 39
The principles discussed in the previous slide can also be applied to the circulatory system. Blood
pressure is analogous to voltage, and blood flow is analogous to electrical current. The blood
flow (vascular) resistance (R) of the elastic vascular pathway is analogous to the ohmic
resistance, and the elastic dilatation of the vessel walls (or heart cavities) corresponds to the
capacity.
39
Body composition by using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA)
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 6, 303–325, 2017 Prof. Ferenc Peták, Dept. of Medical Physics and Informatics 40
In bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), the impedance is also influenced by the test frequency.

ICW is surrounded by cell membrane that is essentially an insulator; thus, it does not contribute
to the impedance at low frequency, where the electrical current flows essentially within the
ECW. However, at high frequency, the current can penetrate the cell membrane; hence, the
overall impedance is due to both ICW and ECW. Figure 4c presents an equivalent electrical
circuit of the whole human body. The current path through ICW can be modeled as the series of
a capacitance due to cell membrane (Ccell) and a resistance due to ICW electrolytes (RICW), all
in parallel with a resistance due to ECW electrolytes (RECW). At low frequency, the body
impedance is essentially resistive due to ECW, while at higher frequencies the reactive
component due to Ccell is not negligible.
https://sciengsustainability.blogspot.com/2014/06/body‐fat‐estimation‐using‐bioelectrical.html
40
Medical imaging with alternating current: Electrical impedance tomography (EIT)
Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) is a noninvasive type of medical imaging in which the
electrical conductivity, permittivity, and impedance of a part of the body is inferred from surface
electrode measurements and used to form a tomographic image of that part. Electrical
conductivity varies considerably among various biological tissues (absolute EIT) or the
movement of fluids and gases within tissues (difference EIT). The majority of EIT systems apply
small alternating currents at a single frequency, however, some EIT systems use multiple
frequencies to better differentiate between normal and suspected abnormal tissue within the
same organ (multifrequency‐EIT or electrical impedance spectroscopy).
https://www.embs.org/tbme/articles/electrical‐impedance‐tomography‐tissue‐properties‐
image‐measures/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_impedance_tomography
41
Learning objectives

42
5. Electromagnetic waves
Maxwell equations I. – II.
James Clark Maxwell: A Comprehensive theory for the interpretation of

electrical and magnetic Phenomena (1865)
Maxwell Equation I. (Gaussian theorem for a static electric field):

1
𝐸∆𝐴⃗ 𝑄
𝜀
James Clerk Maxwell
The net electric flux (positive-negative) through a closed surface equals
to the enclosed electric charges (times 1/ε0)
Maxwell equation II. (Gaussian theorem for a static magnetic field):
𝐵∆𝐴⃗ 0
The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero.

(There are no magnetic flow sources such as magnetic monopoles
Magnetic flux lines always close upon themselves, forming continuous
loops)
Maxwell equations:
Maxwell equation I.
The net electric flux (positive‐negative) through a closed surface equals to the enclosed electric
charges times 1/ε0, where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity: 8.85 x 10‐12 As/Vm).
The first Maxwell's law can also be called a source law, equivalent to the Coulomb formula for
electrostatic charge. If we draw spheres of different radii around the charge, the magnitude of
the electric field is inversely proportional to the surface of the spheres, in other words, the field
strength decreases with the square of the distance. It follows from the equation that in the
presence of an electric field source, i.e., an electric charge, electric field lines start from the
positive charges and end at the negative charges.
Maxwell equation II. (Gauss magnetic law)
The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero. In other words, there are no magnetic flow
sources such as magnetic monopoles. Magnetic flux lines always close upon themselves, forming
continuous loops.
Permittivity, absolute permittivity, dielectric constant or absolute dielectric constant is a
constant characteristic of material quality.
Vacuum permittivity: 8.85 x 10‐12 As/Vm
Maxwell equations:
https://www.fiberoptics4sale.com/blogs/electromagnetic‐optics/a‐plain‐explanation‐of‐
maxwells‐equations
43
Maxwell equations III. – IV.
Maxwell equation III. (unification of Faraday’s

induction law and Lenz law):
∆Φ
𝐸∆𝐿 B E
Δ𝑡
Changing magnetic field induces an electric current, and
the current flows in a direction to oppose the increase in
flux.
Maxwell equation IV. (Ampére’s law and displacement

current):
∆𝜓
𝐵∆𝐿 𝜇 𝐼 𝜀 𝜇 B E
Δ𝑡
Ampére’s law of induction: a moving charge (electric
current) creates a magnetic field around it.
Displacement Current: changing electric flux through a
surface induce a circulating magnetic field around a
boundary of that surface.
Maxwell equation III. (unification of Faraday’s induction law and Lenz law)
The electric field is not only due to the static effect of the charge (which is stated in Maxwell law
I.), but can also originate from a changing magnetic field. This electric field surrounds the field
lines of the magnetic field.
Maxwell equation IV. (Ampére’s law and displacement current)
According to Ampère’s law discussed earlier, a moving charge (electric current) creates a circular
magnetic field around it. Maxwell’s fourth law is to add a new term to the Ampère’s law, also
called a displacement current, because a change in the electric field has the same effect as
moving charges. This new term describes that a change in the electric field over time induces a
magnetic field around the flux lines where no current is flowing. The changing electric field has
the same effect as the electric current, i.e., if the electric field strength changes somewhere, a
magnetic field is created whose induction lines surround the vector giving the change in field
strength like the induction lines generated by the real electric current. The existence of the
displacement current means that the electric and magnetic fields show a kind of symmetry: a
change in the magnetic field creates an electric field, and a change in the electric field creates a
magnetic field. This symmetry allows an electrical or magnetic disturbance (change in field
strength) to propagate in space and create an electromagnetic wave.
Permittivity, absolute permittivity, dielectric constant, or absolute dielectric constant is a
constant characteristic of material quality.
Vacuum permittivity: 8.85 x 10‐12 As/Vm
Vacuum permeability: μ0 = 4π x 10‐7 Vs/Am
Maxwell equations:
https://www.fiberoptics4sale.com/blogs/electromagnetic‐optics/a‐plain‐explanation‐of‐
maxwells‐equations
44
Generation, propagation
Changing magnetic
• Not only time-varying magnetic field creates electric field, field
but a time-varying electric field also induces magnetic
field
Changing electric
• Electromagnetic field detached from electric charge field
has wave properties
Dipole antenna
The existence of the displacement current means that the electric and magnetic fields show a
kind of symmetry: a change in the magnetic field creates an electric field, and a change in the
electric field creates a magnetic field. This symmetry allows an electrical or magnetic
disturbance (change in force field) to propagate in space and create an electromagnetic wave.
Electromagnetic wave
Just as a variable magnetic field induces an electric field, a variable electric field induces a
magnetic field. This closes the circle, allowing the two spaces to create each other as they
change over time. The periodic exchange of the energy of an electric and a magnetic field in an
oscillating circuit is called a electromagnetic wave. When alternating current is applied to an
antenna, an alternating magnetic field is created around it, which of course also creates an
alternating electric field. If the frequency is high enough (e.g., in the order of megahertz for
radio waves), this electromagnetic field can break away from the environment of the original
circuit and propagate significantly in the form of a wave, in air or even in vacuum.
In 1865, Scottish physicist James Clark Maxwell developed a comprehensive theory for the
interpretation of electrical and magnetic phenomena. He deduced that not only does a time‐
varying magnetic field create an electric field, but a time‐varying electric field also induces a
field. (For the latter, there was no experimental proof at the time.) The two processes together
result in a periodically changing electric field similarly to a changing magnetic field, this again
creates a changing electric field, and so on. According to Maxwell's theory, a spatially
propagating electromagnetic field detached from an electric charge has wave properties. That is
why it was named electromagnetic wave or electromagnetic radiation.
The wave propagation velocity in a vacuum is 3 x 108 m / s (300,000 km / s), so the propagation
velocity of electromagnetic waves is equal to the speed of light. From Maxwell's theory came
the realization that light is also an electromagnetic wave.
45
Physiological effects
Physiological effects depend on

• Wavelength (frequency)
• Nonionizing (lower frequencies)
• Ionizing (UV and higher frequencies)
• Duration of exposure
• Intensity (W/m2)
• Focus
(mobile phone
vs. atmosphere)
As a result of rapid technical development, exposure to electromagnetic waves has become part of our daily lives
(radio, wi‐fi, microwave, mobile phone, etc.). The physiological effect of electromagnetic waves depends on the wave
‐ Wavelength (frequency)
‐ Duration of exposure
‐ radiation intensity (W/m2)
‐ The focus or concentration of the radiation (eg mobile phone concentrates the radiation in the ear area, but the
radio waves in the whole atmosphere)
Frequency dependence:
On the basis of frequency, ionizing and non‐ionizing radiations can be distinguished. This classification is based on the
ability of a single photon with an energy greater than 10 eV to ionize atoms or break chemical bonds. Ultraviolet and
higher frequencies, such as X‐rays or gamma rays, have an ionizing effect and pose particular dangers for living
oragnisms: see Radiation and Dosimetry Lectures later in the semester.
Extremely low frequency waves (ELF <1 MHz): Harmless but not fully elucidated. Around the mains frequency (50
Hz), the radiated power is relatively small, no clear physiological effect has been demonstrated.
Radio Frequency (RF) and Microwave (MH) Radiations (30kHz‐300GHz): Power levels in mobile and wireless
telecommunications are incredibly low, resulting in temperatures of up to a few tenths of a degree in tissues.
Regarding the biological and health effects of 900/1800/2100 MHz (10‐30 cm) electromagnetic radiation emitted by
mobile phones, no evidence was found that the use of mobile phones would have an effect on the development and
growth of brain tumors. However, it is difficult to draw conclusions about the long‐term effects, as mobile phones
have been using for about 20 years. 5G network: Next generation 5G cellular networks, which began deploying in
2019, use higher frequencies in or near the millimetre wave band, 24 to 52 GHz. Millimetre waves are absorbed by
atmospheric gases so 5G networks will use smaller cells than previous cellular networks, about the size of a city block.
Instead of a cell tower, each cell will use an array of multiple small antennas mounted on existing buildings and utility
poles. In general, millimeter waves penetrate less deeply into biological tissue than microwaves and are mainly
absorbed within the first centimeter of the body surface. Thus, instead of the brain, the skin and eyes may become
the organs of health concern (if there is any).
Effect of light, IR and UV therapy: Skin burns. Ultraviolet (UV, 180‐400 nm) light is used as a therapeutic tool mainly
for the treatment of allergic and pigment deficient skin diseases. Due to exposure to UVB (315‐280 nm) radiation,
special attention should be paid to adverse side effects. In addition, UV therapy can be used in newborns because UV
light helps the yellowish‐causing bilirubin to be converted to a water‐soluble form, allowing it to be easily eliminated
from the body. Infrared therapy (IR) can be linked to light therapy, but this wavelength range (700‐1000 nm)
penetrates deeper than visible light (2‐7‐ cm) and thus helps regional blood circulation, healing, and relieves pain.
Ionizing radiation (> 3 x 1015 Hz): Ionizing radiation first causes physical and chemical changes in living tissues and
cells. This may originate from both external radiation sources and radioactive isotopes entering our bodies. The
common effect is the formation of oppositely charged particles (ions), the formation of free radicals, and changes in
molecular structure. Its effects on the living organism will be detailed in a forthcoming lecture.
http://www.specialtyinspections.com/electro.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_device_radiation_and_health#Safety_standards_and_licensing
https://www.nature.com/articles/d42473‐019‐00009‐7
46
Physiological effects
• Effects of mobile phones
• Frequency
• 5G > 4G
• Penetration depth
• 5G < 4G
SAR: specific absorption rate
Prof. Peták Ferenc, SZTE Orvosi Fizikai és Orvosi Informatikai Int. 47
Cut‐plane view illustrating the attenuation of the field of the generic source signal inside
the human head of a phantom. Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin defined by
standardization for SAR evaluations phantomat different representative frequencies
used in Swiss 5G networks. The SAR in each plot is normalized to the psaSAR10g for
each scenario, where the pinna is excluded in the SAR calculation for both SAM and Ella.
For simplicity, only SAM phantom is shown on the slide.
file:///E:/Temp/Modelling%20of%20Total%20Exposure%20in%20Hypothetical%205G
%20Networks%20‐%20Schlussbericht.pdf
47
Medical imaging
DOI: 10.24413/SST.2018.1.2928 Prof. Ferenc Peták, Dept. of Medical Physics and Informatics 48
The entire spectrum of electromagnetic waves can be utilized in medical imaging modalities.
These will be discussed in detail on the forthcoming lectures.
http://www.specialtyinspections.com/electro.html
48
Summary
Subject Physical theory/laws What is it related to? Relevance in medicine
- Basic concept Electric field by - Power source
Electrostatics
- Coulomb’s law stationary charge - ESD controll in health care
- Circuit theory - Power supply in helath care
Stationary flow of
Direct current - Kirchhoff’s laws - Nervous system
charges
- Ohm’s law - Circulation, respiration analogies
- Faraday’s law
- Ampere’s law Magnetic field, source, - Medical imaging (MR)
Magnetism
- Lenz law types, properties - Therapy
- Lorentz-force
- Circulation, respiration
Alternating - Faraday’s law Passive circuit
- Body compositions
current ‐ Impedance concept components in AC
- Imaging
- IT in health care
Electromagnetic Generation, propagation,
- Maxwell equations - Therapy
waves characterization
- Imaging
49

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Medical Physics 2.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Department of Medical Physics and Informatics

1. Almost all medical devices are electrically/electromagnetically operated

Operating theater 1970 Operating theater 2020

Lectures 2-3: Organ and cellular phenomena (Prof. Ferenc Bari)

1. What are the basic concepts of electrostatics

• Basic electrical phenomena

• Voltage is the difference in the electric potential

Electrostatic Discharge Sensitivity (ESD) control

Therapy - (further lecture)

1. What are the basic concepts of electrostatics

• Ordered motion of charged particles driven by an

• A device that stores electic charge

• Continuous transfer of electric charges from

• AC: dynamo (pl. wind turbine, power generator)

Interesting: Ah can be converted to kWh power (Wh = Ah × Volt). A 1.5 volt 3000 mAh type pencil battery

• All healthcare facilities must have a backup

circulation Abulant care general patient complex life support or

• Current through a conductor is directly proportional to

• Modeling organ perfusion, simulation

Babik B. et al. Eur Respir J. 2002.

1. What are the basic concepts of electrostatics

• Moving electric charges  magnetic field

• Magnetic field lines are looped (N  S)

Tesla (Vs/m²). Named after Nikola Tesla serbian‐american inventor and electrical engineer.

Movement induction – rotating metal frame

1. MRI (forthcoming lecture)

1. What are the basic concepts of electrostatics

Impedance: generalization of resistance in

• Some of the mechanical

Central Upper arm

PV: pulmonic valve

J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 6, 303–325, 2017 Prof. Ferenc Peták, Dept. of Medical Physics and Informatics 40

In bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), the impedance is also influenced by the test frequency.

1. What are the basic concepts of electrostatics

James Clark Maxwell: A Comprehensive theory for the interpretation of

Maxwell Equation I. (Gaussian theorem for a static electric field):

Maxwell equation II. (Gaussian theorem for a static magnetic field):

The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero.

Maxwell equation III. (unification of Faraday’s

Maxwell equation IV. (Ampére’s law and displacement

Physiological effects depend on

DOI: 10.24413/SST.2018.1.2928 Prof. Ferenc Peták, Dept. of Medical Physics and Informatics 48

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