BY

ENGR. JORGE P. BAUTISTA

EE,MEP-ECE
 COURSE OUTLINE
1. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY
2. RESISTIVITY, RESISTANCE AND TEMPERATURE
EFFECT
3. RESISTOR COMBINATION AND OHM’S LAW
4. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
5. MESH AND NODAL ANALYSIS
6. THEVENIN AND NORTON’S THEOREM
7. SOURCE TRANSFORMATION AND POWER
TRANSFER
8. TRANSIENTS CIRCUITS
 BOOKS AND REFERENCES
Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology, Bird, John, 5th
ed, Routledge, 2014
Alexander, Charles (2013), fundamentals of electric
circuits, McGraw Hill
Nahvi, mahmood (2011), Schaum’s outline of electric
circuit 5th ed, McGraw Hill
Boylestad, Introductory Circuit Analysis, 10th ed,
2003, Prentice Hall
Hayt, Engineering Circuit Analysis, 6th ed, 2002,
McGraw Hill
 HOUSE RULES
ATTENDANCE:
1. The names of each student will be called twice during
the lecture hours. If the student is present on the
first roll call and absent on the second roll call, the
student will be considered absent.
2. Attendance is included in the computation of grades.
ABSENCES:
1. A student should not have 6 absences to avoid failure
due to absences.
2. An absentee should have a valid reason in writing with
parents or guardian signature the nature of his being
absent.
3. An absentee is not excuse in the attendance, he is only
excuse in the submission of requirements. The
requirements should be submitted immediately on
the very day he come to the class after being absent.
ASSIGNMENTS:
1. Assignments should be submitted on time. Late
assignments are not accepted except if a student is
absent with valid reason.
2. Assignments are written in a short bond paper with
appropriate and complete front page and in
engineering lettering.
QUIZZES AND EXAMS:
1. All quizzes are announce. If a student is absent during
the quiz, he should take the quiz immediately on the
day he come to class. Failure to comply will forfeit the
special quiz or exam. The absentee will receive a
grade of 50 or its equivalent for that particular quiz
or exam
2. There is no advance quiz or exam. Quizzes are
different from the previously given to avoid leakage.
3. All quizzes and exams should be written in an
appropriate front page short bond paper.
LABORATORY:
1. Laboratory activities constitutes a part of the lecture
class in terms of a quiz. Absentees should perform the
activity on their own and should be done immediately
upon coming to class.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT:
1. Take off your hats while inside the classroom.
2. No going out while the lecture is going on
3. No eating or drinking while inside the classroom.
Breaktime will be given at appropriate time.
4. Stop talking during lecture hour.
5. Ask appropriate questions at appropriate time. It will
not be entertained otherwise.
6. Class monitor for the day (projector whiteboard etc)
will be announce.
 LESSON NO. 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to
- know the different types of electrical terms
- understand the principles of electricity
- compute simple electrical problems
- Know how to convert electrical units
Electrical Engineering: An overview
An Electrical Engineering is the profession concerned
with systems that produce, transmit and measure electric
signals. Electrical engineering combines the physicist’s
models of natural phenomena with the mathematician’s
tools for manipulating those models to produce systems
that meet practical needs. Electrical engineers have played
a dominant role in the development of systems that have
changed the way people live and work. Satellite
communication links, telephones, digital computers,
televisions, diagnostic and surgical medical equipment,
assembly-line robots and electrical power tools are
representative components of systems that define a
modern technological society.
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two
fundamental theories upon which all branches of electrical
engineering are built. Many branches of electrical
engineering, such as power, electric machines, control,
electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are
based on electric circuit theory. Therefore, the basic electric
circuit theory course is the most important course for an
electrical engineering student, and always an excellent
starting point for a beginning student in electrical
engineering education. Circuit theory is also valuable to
students specializing in other branches of the physical
sciences because circuits are a good model for the study of
energy systems in general, and because of the applied
mathematics, physics, and topology involved.
Five major classifications of electrical systems:

1. Communication Systems
They are electrical systems that generate,
transmit, and distribute information. Well-known
examples include television equipment, such as
cameras, transmitters, receivers, and VCRs, radio
telescopes, satellite systems and the radar systems.
3. Control System
It uses electric signals to regulate processes.
Examples include the control of temperatures,
pressures, and flow rates in an oil refinery; the fuel air
mixture in a fuel injected automobile engine;
mechanisms such as the motors, doors and lights in
elevators and the lock in Panama Canal.
4. Power Systems
It generates and distributes electric power.
Electric power, which is the foundation of our
technology-based society, usually is generated in large
quantities by nuclear, hydroelectric and thermal
generators
5. Signal Processing System
It acts on electric signals which represent information.
They transform the signals and the information to a more
suitable form. There are many different ways to process the
signals and their information. For example, image-
processing system gather massive quantities of data from
orbiting weather satellite, reduce the amount manageable
level and transform the remaining data into a video image
for the evening news broadcast. A computerized
tomography scan is another example of an image-
processing system
Fundamentals of DC Circuits

Electricity is present in all matter in the form of electrons

and protons. Electrons are the negatively charge particle of an
atom while the proton is the basic positively charge.

Electricity is

a. the flow of electrons from an area high in electron excess to one

of lower electron content.
b. the flow of energy in a wire (similar to the flow of water in a
pipe) that is invisible, that causes the wire to become hot , causes
a magnetic field to develop around the wire and can be put to
work driving pumps, blowers, fans and so forth.
Electricity cannot be generated. It can neither be created
nor destroyed. It can, however, be forced to move and
thus transmit power or produce electrical phenomena.

Two types of electricity:

1. Static electricity – electricity at rest

2. Dynamic electricity – electricity in motion

Electrical Energy – the capacity to do electrical work

Unit: watt-sec, kilowatt-hour, joule

Eq 1.1 W=Pxt
Where: W = energy
P = power
t = time

Conversion factor: 1 joule = 107 ergs

Electric Power – the rate of doing electrical work or it is the rate at which
electrical energy is converted to other forms of energy.
Unit: joule/sec, watt

Eq 1.2 P = work/time = EI = E2/R = I2R

Where E = voltage
I = current
R = resistance

Horsepower – the theoretical unit of electric power.

Conversion factor: 1 Hp = 746 watts
= 550 ft-lbs/sec
= 33,000 ft-lbs/min
= 2,546 BTU/ hr
Efficiency – the ratio of the useful output power to the total
input power express in percent.

Eq 1.3 Pout
η = ------- x 100%
Pin

Where : Pout = power delivered by the machine

Pin = power supplied by the machine
Methods by which electrical energy or power are generated or
produced:

1. electromagnetic induction(generator)

2. chemical reaction(battery)

3. thermal action(thermocouple)

4. heating or vibration of crystals(solar or piezoelectric)

5. contact between unlike substances(friction; static electricity)

The common sources of electrical energy or power.

1. Battery – a single unit capable of producing DC voltage by converting

chemical energy into electrical energy.

2. Dynamo – a machine that converts mechanical energy to electrical

energy and vice versa.

3. Motor – transformation from electrical energy to mechanical energy.

4. Generator – transformation from mechanical energy to electrical
energy.

5. Solar energy – it converts solar energy from the sun through the use of
solar cells.
Electrical components
1. Passive – can control energy, but they can not amplify
or modify
Ex. Resistors, inductors, transformers, etc

2. Active – capable of rectifying, amplifying, changing

energy from one form to another.
Ex. Diodes, transistors, vacuum tubes
Resistor – it limits the flow of current or reduce the voltage in a
circuit(resistance: ohms from Georg Ohm)

Capacitors – a component that is able to hold or store an electric

charge, block DC and passes AC. (capacitance: Farad from
Michael Faraday)

Inductors – whose physical construction is simply a coil of wire,

passes DC and limits AC(inductance: Henry from Joseph Henry)

Transformer – technically defined as an inductor, because it is

constructed by placing two coils in close proximity to one
another. It can step up or step down AC voltage but not DC
voltage.
The Electric Circuit
It is the complete path of the flowing electric current. It
is consist of source, connecting wires and load.
connecting wires

complete
source circuit load
A complicated real circuit is displayed in the next figure,
representing the schematic diagram for a radio receiver.
Although it seems complicated, this circuit can be
analyzed using the techniques we will cover in this
course.
Conductor – the name given to those materials which is
relatively easy to maintain an electric current. Typically
they have one electron in the valence shell.

Common materials used as conductors:

1. gold 6. lead
2. silver 7. nickel
3. copper 8. tungsten
4. aluminum 9. tin
5. zinc 10. nichrome
Insulator – the name given to those materials which is
very difficult to produce an electric current. Typically
have few free electrons in outermost shell of the atom

Common materials used as insulators:

1. glass 6. asbestos
2. porcelain 7. thermoplastic
3. paraffin 8. rubber
4. Mica 9. oil
5. teflon 10. paper
Voltage - (potential Difference) or (electromotive force) –
the force or pressure which makes electrons moves or tends
to move from atom to atom along the wire.

Unit: volt

In general, the potential difference between two

points is determine by

Eq. 1.8 V = W/Q

Where V = the potential difference, volts

W = energy, joules
Q = charge of an electron, coulomb(from
Charles Augustin de Coulomb)(1.602x10-19 C)
Potential – the voltage at a point with respect to another
point in the electrical system. Typically the reference
point is the ground, which is at zero potential.
Potential difference - the algebraic difference in
potential or voltage between two points of a network.
Voltage – when isolated, like the potential, the voltage at
a point with respect to the ground.
Electromotive force EMF – the force that establishes the
flow of charge (current) in a system due to the
application of a potential difference.
Current – the rate of flow of electrons per unit of time.
Unit: ampere
Eq. 1.9 Q
I = ------
t
where Q = charge of an electrons in Coulomb
t = time in seconds
I = ampere (Andre Marie Ampere)

conversion factor: 1 coulomb= 6.242x1018 electrons.

Types of current:
1. Direct Current
2. Alternating Current
DC Supplies
DC voltage sources can be divided into three categories:
1. Batteries (chemical actions) –it is consist of
combination of two or more similar cells, a cell being
the fundamental source of electrical energy developed
through the conversion of chemical or solar energy.
All cells can be divided into the primary or secondary
types. The secondary is rechargeable, whereas the
primary is not. The chemical reaction of the secondary
cell can be reversed to restore its capacity
2. Batteries have a capacity rating given in ampere-hours
(Ah). A battery with an ampere-hour rating of 100 will
provide steady current of 1A for 100 hours, 2A for 50
hrs, 10A for 10 hrs and so on, as determined by the
following equations,
Eq. 1.10 ampere-hour ratings
Life (hrs) = -------------------------------
ampere drawn

Therefore the capacity of a DC battery decreases

with an increase in the current demand and the
capacity of a DC battery decreases at relatively low and
high temperature.
2. Generators – This is quite different in construction
and mode of operation from batteries. When the shaft
of a generator is rotating at the name plate speed due
to the applied torque of some external source of
mechanical power, a voltage of rated value will appear
across the external terminals. The next figure illustrate
a simple DC Generator. The terminal voltage and
power handling capabilities of the DC generator are
typically higher than those of the batteries.
3. Power supplies – the DC supply encountered most
frequently in the laboratory employs the rectification
and filtering processes as its means toward obtaining a
steady DC voltage. The next figure illustrates power
supply used in the laboratory
Conductance – the reciprocal of resistance which allows
the current to pass through the circuit.

unit: mho

Eq 1.9
1
G = -----
R
 EXAMPLE NO. 1
1. Convert 2.5Hp to ft-lbs/min
2. The charge flowing through a certain surface is 0.16 C every
64mSec. Determine the current in amperes.
3. Determine the time required for 4x1016 electrons to pass
through a n imaginary surface if the current is 5mA.
4. Determine the energy expended when moving a charge of
50uC through a potential difference of 5V.
5. Determine the life in minutes with a capacity of 450mAh if
the discharge current is 60mA?
6. Find the charge that requires 96 joules of energy to be
moved through a potential difference of 16V.
7. How much charge is represented by 4700 electrons?
8. The total charge entering a terminal is given by q =
5tsin4πt mC. Calculate the current at t = 0.5s
9. Determine the total charge entering a terminal
between t = 1 sec and t = 2sec if the current passing the
terminal is i = (3t2 – t) A
10. Find the power delivered to an element at t = 3 sec if
the current entering its positive terminal is i = 20cos60πt
A. and the voltage is v = 3i and 3di/dt
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 1
1. Convert 2.5 x 107 ergs to joules

2. Convert 1.8 Hp to ft-lbs/min

3. Convert 6578 BTU/hr to watts

4. Convert 2.5Kw to Hp

5. The charge of 12 Coulomb moves past a given point

every 2 second. How much intensity of charge flow?
6. A lamp operating at 120 volts has a resistance of 240Ω. What is
the wattage of the lamp?

7. An electrical machine has an input power of 12 watts. Determine

the output power if it is 90% efficient?

8. How long in hours would it takes a 2000 watts electric unit

heater to convert 20 Kwhr of electrical energy into heat energy
when connected to 200 volts. The heater is rated 200 volts.

9. An electric flat iron draws 11 amperes at 120 volts. How much

power is used by the iron?

10. A certain circuit has a total resistance of 200Ω and the power it
absorb is 5watts. Find the voltage and current.
11. In a simple circuit, the voltage is 12 volts. If the current is increased by
1.0A and the resistance is decreased by 1.0, the voltage is reduced by
2.0V. Find the values of the original current and resistance.

12. How many 100 watts incandescent lamps can be connected to a 115V
circuit which is protected by a 15A fuses?

13. What is the cost of operating a 2 watts electric wall clock for one year
at PhP0.8 per KwHr?

14. A motor must lift an elevator car weighing 2000lbs at a height of

1200ft in 4 minutes. What is the theoretical size, in horsepower, of the
motor required? At 60% efficiency, what is the size, in horsepower, of
the motor required?

15. What is the resistance of a 2KW, 220V electric stove? What should be
its drawing current?
 LESSON NO. 2
RESISTIVITY, RESISTANCE AND
TEMPERATURE EFFECT
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to
1. understand the factors that affect the resistance of a
conductor
2. compute for the resistance of a conductor using its
cross sectional area
5. understand the effect of temperature in the
resistances
6. to compute for the changes in resistances due to
temperature
FACTORS GOVERNING THE RESISTANCE OF
MATERIALS OR ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS:

The resistance of different materials varies greatly.

Some such as the metals conducts electricity very
readily and hence called conductors. Others, such as
wood or plates, at least when moist, are partial
conductors. Still others, such as glass, porcelain and
paraffin, are called insulators because they are
practically non-conducting.
The resistance of an electric conductor depends upon
the following:

1. Type of conductor material

2. Length of the conductor
3. Cross sectional area of the conductor
4. Temperature
5. Distributing of current
The resistance of electric conductor of any given material is
express as:

L
Eq 2.1 R = ρ ------------
A

Where R = resistance of the conductor, ohms

ρ = resistivity of material, ohm-meter
L = length of the conductor, meter
A = cross sectional area of the conductor, m2
Common resistivity: Ω-m x 10-8
Silver 1.59
Copper 1.68
Aluminum 2.82
Tungsten 5.6
Zinc 5.9
Nickel 6.99
Tin 0.109
Iron 0.1
Stainless steel 0.69
Brass 6 to 9
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF A CONDUCTOR:

CIRCULAR MIL (CM) – is the area of a circle whose diameter

is equal to 1 mil.

MIL – is a unit of length equal to 1/1000 of an inch

Eq 2.2 ACM = d2 in CM

Where d = diameter, mil

Conversion factor: 1 in = 1000 mil

SQUARE MIL (SM) – is the area of a square whose side is equal to 1 mil.

Eq 2.3 ASM = S2 in SM

Where S = side, mil

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CIRCULAR MIL AND SQUARE MIL:

Eq 2.4 A = π / 4 d2

Where A = SM
d2 = CM
VOLUME RESISTIVITY:

Eq 2.5 V = L x A

Where V = volume of a body, m3

L = length, m
A = area, m2
To determine the area of wires with given sizes like AWG
as in Table 2.4 use
An = [5 x 92 (36-n)/39)2 in2
And for multiple zeros use n = 1-m in the above formula
 EXAMPLE NO. 2
1. Determine the resistance of an aluminum conductor with length
1200 centimeters and a conductor radius of 0.15mm at 20oC.

2. A copper wire has a diameter of 0.325 in and a resistance of 0.6Ω

at 20oC. Calculate its length in feet.

3. Convert the following:

a. 0.8 feet to mil
b. 0.05 meters to mil
c. 50 mil to inches
4. A conductor has a diameter of 0.15 inch. Determine its area in
circular and in square mil.
5. A conductor has a radius of 0.245 cm. Determine its area in
circular mil.
4. A conductor has a diameter of 0.15 inch. Determine its
area in circular and in square mil.

5. A conductor has a radius of 0.245 cm. Determine its

area in circular mil.
6. The resistance of a circular brass conductor, with diameter
0.5 cm and 3 m long is 0.0108Ω. Determine the resistance
of a circular conductor of the same material at the same
temperature with diameter 0.25 cm and a length of 10 m.
7. A copper wire of unknown length has a diameter of 0.25
in. and a resistance of 0.30Ω. By several successive passes
through drawing dyes the diameter of the wire is reduced
to 0.05 in. Assuming that the resistivity of the copper
remains unchanged in the drawing process, calculate the
resistance of the reduced size wire.
8. A copper wire has a length of 120 meters with a
diameter of 0.35 cm, what is its volume and resistance
at 20oC?
9. A hallow copper wire has an outer diameter of 0.25
inch and an inner diameter of 0.15 inch has a length of
120 meters. What is its resistance at 20oC?
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 2
1. A square shape copper conductor has sides 0.2 inch
has a resistance of 0.7Ω. If the same material is used
and its area is reduced to half of its original. What
will be its resistance?
2. The total resistance of two conductor, copper and
brass, is 1.78Ω. The area of the copper, which is 60
meters long, is twice that of the brass which is 30
meters long. Find the area and resistance of each.
3. A circular copper conductor has an area of
90000circular mils. Find its resistance at a length of
100 meters. Find its resistance if it is converted to a
square conductor

4. The total length of the two conductor is 2842 meters.

The resistivity of the first conductor is 3.8x10-8 with
area of 0.0004m2 while the second has a resistivity of
7.6x10-8 with area of 0.0009m2. if the resistance of the
first conductor is 0.1Ω more than the second. Find the
length of each.
5. What should be the length of a copper wire with
resistance 1.05Ω at a diameter of 0.10 inch? If the wire
is scrapped and its diameter is reduced to 0.06 inch,
what would be its length so that its resistance will not
change?
It was previously stated that the resistance of an electric
conductor depends, among other things, have effect
on the temperature; this characteristic is the reason,
therefore, for the 20oC notation in the foregoing
discussions of resistance. Experiments have
demonstrated that the resistance of all wires generally
used in practice in electrical systems increases as the
temperature is raised.
In case of copper wire, for example, the resistance
changes by 42.7 % for any 100oC temperature change;
that is, the indicated per cent change takes place
whether the temperature rises from 0 to 100oC or from
-20 to 80oC, or drops from 120oC to 20oC. This means
that a graph of resistance vs. temperature will be a
straight line with a positive slope as represented by
Figure 3.1.
 R, ohms

R1

Ro 0

0
T T1 T, temp
To
From the graph by similar triangle,
R0 R1
Eq 3.1 Tan θ = ---------- = ------------
t0 – T t1 - T

and rearranging with R1, we get

t1 - T
Eq 3.2 R1 = R0 ------------
t0 - T
Where:R1 = resistance at temperature t1
R0 = resistance at temperature t0
t0 = reference temperature, usually 20oC but
sometimes 0oC
t1 = final temperature
T = temperature at which resistance appears zero
From Eq 3.2, arrange and add the term t0 – t0, it will
result to
1
Eq 3.3 R1 = R0 [1 + ----------- (t1 – t0)]
t0 - T
1
Where: αto = --------- , per 0C
t0 - T
= temperature coefficient of resistance at t0
 Therefore,

 Eq 3.4 R1 = R0 [ 1 + αto (t1 - t0)] in ohms, Ω
Common T for some conductors
Silver -243
Copper -234.5
Aluminum -236
Nickel -147
Tungsten -202
Platinum -241.84
 EXAMPLE NO. 3
1. The resistance of a winding of a motor with copper
conductors is 120Ω at 350C. After working for 6 hours,
the resistance increases to 150Ω. Calculate the
temperature rise of the winding. Take the temperature
coefficient of the winding material as 0.00445/0C at
00C.
2. The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at
00C is 0.00427/0C. The resistance of a coil of copper
wire is 8.85Ω at 24.20C. Determine the resistance at
00C and 45.80C.
3. The resistance of a copper wire at 0oC is 30Ω. Find the
resistance of the nickel wire at 00C if its resistance at
400C is equal to the resistance of copper at the same
temperature.
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 3
1. Calculate the temperature coefficient of resistance of
aluminum at 20C and find its resistance at 620C if its
resistance at 20C is 8Ω

2. The resistivity of a copper rod 50 ft long and 0.25 inch in

diameter is 1.76x10-8Ω-m at 200C. What is the resistance at -
200C?

3. A certain copper winding has a resistance of 0.30Ω at a

temperature of 18.20C. Calculate the temperature rise in
the winding when after a period of operation, the
resistance increases to 0.38Ω?
4. The sum of the resistances of two wires at 300C is 11Ω.
Their coefficient of temperature at 00C is 0.00223/0C
and 0.00185/oC respectively. If the resistance of the first
wire is 1.5Ω higher than the second wire. Find the
resistances at 00C and at 300C
 LESSON NO. 3
RESISTANCE COMBINATION AND
OHM’S LAW
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to
1. Differentiate series and parallel resistor combination
2. Compute for the total resistance of a complex circuit
3. Simplify complex circuits using delta to wye and vice
versa connection
4. Apply ohm’s law in a simple circuit.
Series resistors:
In a series circuit, the following conditions are applied:
1. The current in each resistor are equal.
2. The voltage in each resistor are different.
3. The total current in a series resistors are equal.
4. The total voltage in a series resistors are the sum of
the individual voltages.
5. The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the
individual resistances.
6. The powers are additive.
Parallel circuits:
In a parallel circuit, the following conditions are applied:
1. The current in each resistors are different.
2. The voltage in each resistor are equal.
3. The total current of the circuit is the sum of individual
current of each resistances.
4. The total voltage of the circuit is equal to the individual
voltages of the resistors.
5. the total reciprocal resistance of the circuit is equal to the
sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistances
connected in parallel.
6. The powers are additive.
 EXAMPLE NO. 4
1.Three resistors R1 = 50Ω, R2 = 100Ω and R3 = 150Ω are
connected in series. Find the total resistance of the
connection.
2. If the resistors in problem 1 is connected in parallel.
Find the total resistance of the connection
3. Find the total resistance of the circuits shown.
4. In the previous slide if a wire is connected between X
and Y, what will be the total resistance?
5. In the previous slide if a wire is connected between A
and B, what will be the total resistance?
6. Determine the value of R3 in the given circuit is the
total resistance between A and B is equal to R3.
7. For the circuit shown, determine the total resistance
as specified in the given table
8. Find the total resistance at points A-B. C-D, E-F, A-D
and A-C
9. Find the total resistance at point A-B
Resistors are sometimes interconnected to form rather
complex networks; they may, in fact, be so complex that
the common rules applicable to simple series and parallel
circuits cannot be used for the calculations of equivalent
resistances, branch currents and voltage drops. Under
such conditions, it is necessary to transform all or parts of
the complex circuits into electrically equivalent circuits
that lend themselves to simple and straightforward
solutions. Two elemental arrangements of resistors, within
and parts of larger networks, that are frequently
responsible for the difficulties indicated are Δ-connected
resistors and the Y-connected resistors; they are shown in
the next slide
To convert the delta connected resistors given in Figure
to wye connected resistors the following equations will
be used:
Eq. 4.9 R1 = RbRc / Ra + Rb + Rc
R2 = RaRc / Ra + Rb + Rc
R3 = RaRb / Ra + Rb + Rc
To convert the wye connected resistors given in the
Figure to delta connected resistors the following
equations will be used:
Eq. 4.10 Ra = R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 / R1
Rb = R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 / R2
Rc = R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 / R3
 EXAMPLE NO. 5
1. Referring to the Figure , the three resistances in a delta
connected group of resistors are Rx = 35Ω, Ry = 20Ω
and Rz = 50Ω. Calculate the equivalent star
resistances.

2. Referring to the Figure , the three resistances in star

connected group of resistors are Ra = 10Ω, Rb = 20Ω
and Rc = 15Ω. Calculate the equivalent delta
resistances.
3. The wiring diagram shown in the figure below is
known as Wheatstone bridge circuit. find the total
resistance at point A-B. all resistors are in ohms.
4. Find the equivalent wye connection for the given delta
connected circuit
 OHM’S LAW
The mathematical relationship between the current,
voltage and resistance in an electronic circuit was
discovered in 1826 by Georg Simon Ohm. The
relationship, known as Ohm’s Law, is the basic
foundation for all circuit analysis.
 EXAMPLE NO. 6
1. Three resistances are connected in series with R1 =
50Ω, R2 = 100Ω and R3 = 150Ω are connected in series.
A 25V DC source is connected to their terminals. Find
a. The total current
b. The total voltage
c. The current in each resistors
d. The voltage in each resistors
e. The power in each resistors
f. The total power
2. If the three resistor are connected in parallel
3. For the given circuit, determine
a. Total resistance and current of the circuit
b. The current in each resistor
c. The voltage in each resistor
d. The power in each resistor
e. The total power of the circuit.
4. Three resistances 10Ω, 25Ω and 13Ω are connected in
parallel if a current source of 20A is impressed at the
input. Find the current in each resistor using current
divider rule
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 4
1. Find the equivalent resistance of the given circuit at
point A-B and C-D
2. Find the total resistance at point A-B and C-D
3. Find the equivalent resistance at point A-B
4. Find the total resistance at point A-B
5. Find the total resistance at point A-B
Voltage Division
It

+ R1
V1
-

VT
+
V2
- R2
 Current Division

I1 I2

R1 R2
Vt
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 5
Calculate the current, voltage and power in each element
of the given circuit
 L
LESSON NO. 4
KIRCHOFF’S LAW
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1.State Kirchoff’s current and voltage law.
2. Solve for the current and voltage of a given circuit
using KVL and KCL
3. Differentiate voltage division with current division
principles
A circuit is said to be solved when the voltage across and
the current in every element have been determined.
Ohm’s law is an important equation for deriving such
solutions. However, Ohm’s law may not be enough to
provide a complete solution. We need to use two more
important algebraic relationships, known as
Kirchhoff’s Laws, to solve most circuits.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

At any junction point in an electric circuit, the

algebraic sum of the currents entering the point must
be equal to the algebraic sum of the current leaving the
point. Also, the summation of the currents at any
junction in an electric circuit or network is equal to
zero.

Eq. 5.1 I’s = 0

Law of Sign:

The sign of the current is positive if it is

approaching or entering the junction, while if it is
leaving the junction the sign will be negative.
Find i1 ,i2 and i3
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

In any complete electric circuit or closed loop, the

algebraic sum of the emf’s must be equal to the
algebraic sum of the voltage drops. Also, the
summation of the voltages in any closed loop network
is equal to zero.

Eq. 5.2 V’s = 0

Law of Sign:

The sign of the emf is positive if tracing inside the

source from negative to positive, while the sign of the
emf is negative if tracing inside the source from
positive to negative.
The sign of the voltage drop is positive if the direction of
the current is against the direction of the tracing,
while its sign is negative if the direction of the current
is the same as the direction of the tracing.
To properly understand the meaning and use of these laws it
is important to recognize that the term algebraic refers to
arbitrary assumed signs given to indicate current
directions, emfs and resistances voltages. Note particularly
that there are three kinds of quantities, namely, currents
represented by +I or –I, voltages +E or –E and voltage drops
+IR or –IR. We may assume that an algebraic plus is
denoted by a current to a junction or a potential rise in
passing through a source of emf or a resistor and that an
algebraic minus is denoted by a current away from a
junction or a potential drop in passing through a source of
emf or a resistor.
Notation: if the loop is of the same direction with the
current flow the term is negative, opposite direction
positive.
The voltage will carry the sign where the loop leaves the
voltage source
Find the voltages V1 to V4
 Circuit elements
Independent voltage and current sources:
Dependent voltage and current source
 EXAMPLE NO. 7
1. Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each
element in the given circuit.
2. Write systems of equations to determine the branch
current
3. Write the systems of equation involving current and
voltage equations then solve for the branch current
and voltage in each resistor.

R1 R2 R3

6Ω 8Ω 3Ω

R4 R5
2Ω 4Ω V2
V1 12 V
24 V
4. Find the current flowing in each resistor
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 6
Determine the current, power and voltage across the 6Ω
and 10Ω resistor
 LESSON NO. 5
MESH AND NODAL ANALYSIS
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to
1. State the procedure in solving electric circuits using
mesh and nodal analysis.
2. Solve for the mesh current and nodal voltages of a
given circuit.
An electric network is an interconnection of active and
passive elements. If at least one closed path is formed,
we can regard the network as an electric circuit. These
elements are connected in such a manner which would
enable it to perform a specific function. The elements
of an electric circuit are usually representations of real
devices. We can use resistors and batteries to represent
loads and voltage sources, respectively. Lamps, heating
coil and motors are considered as loads, while
batteries, power supplies, generators and solar cells
represents the sources.
 MESH ANALYSIS
A mesh is a closed path or loop which will enclosed an
open space. Instead of branch current as used in the
KCL and KVL, a mesh current will be assumed for each
mesh. A mesh current is applicable around the entire
mesh.
Mesh analysis is applicable only to planar circuits which
means that when the circuit can be possible drawn on
a plane surface in such a way that no branch passes
over or under any other branch. This method is based
on current.
 EXAMPLE NO. 9
Find the current in each branch using mesh analysis
 R1 R2 R3

6Ω 8Ω 3Ω

R4 R5
2Ω 4Ω V2
V1 12 V
24 V
 NODAL ANALYSIS
This method is based on voltage. A reference node
should be selected. It deals primarily on the voltage
between the pair of nodes. A three node circuit should
have two unknown voltages and two equations.
Therefore for an N node circuit there will be N-1
equations.
 EXAMPLE NO. 10
Find the node voltages of the circuits in example no. 10
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 7
Find the MESH CURRENT and NODE VOLTAGES for
assignment no. 6
 LESSON NO. 6
THEVENIN, NORTON AND SOURCE
TRANSFORMATIONS
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to
1. State Thevenin’s and Norton’s Law
2. Apply Thevenin and Norton in a given electric circuit
3. Demonstrate the use of source transformation in a
given circuit.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear network
terminating on any two nodes and containing any
number of sources can be replaced by a single ideal
voltage source in series with an internal resistance.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit provides an equivalence
at the terminals only-the internal construction and
characteristics of the original network and thevenin
equivalent circuit are usually quite different. It was
formulated by Leon Charles Thevenin, French
telegraph engineer.it is similar to the study of
Hermann von Helmholtz which was applied to animal
physiology and not to communication or generator
systems.
 EXAMPLE NO. 11
From the given sets of circuits, if a 5Ω resistor is
connected across points a-b. find its voltage, current
and power using thevenin equivalent circuit
2. Find the current and voltage across the 3Ω resistor
 NORTON THEOREM
Norton Theorem states that any two terminal linear
bilateral DC network can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source and a parallel
resistor as shown. It was formulated by Edward L.
Norton of bell Lab.
 EXAMPLE NO. 12
Same as example no. 11 except use Norton Theorem
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
Source transformation is another tool for simplifying
circuits. Basic to these tools is the concept of
equivalence. We recall that an equivalent circuit is one
whose v-i characteristics are identical with the original
circuit.
A source transformation is the process of replacing a
voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a current
source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
 EXAMPLE NO. 13
Using source transformation, calculate the voltage and
current in the 8Ω resistor
find the voltage Vs, if Is = 0.25A