Concept of Validity and Reliability, Methods of Data Collection:

Kinds and Sources

4TH SEMESTER (Knowledge Based) P-406 Unit-III

DR. JITENDRA SAHOO, PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF GOUR BANGA, MALDA

Introduction

Social Science research is based upon various types of information. It is not possible without different
kinds of information. Just as a building requires bricks and steel rods etc. for its construction, similarly
social research requires concerned information. These information give knowledge concerning social
phenomena. Now, in order to carry on social research successfully, information should be gathered from
proper sources. The more valid is the source of information, the more reliable will be the information
received which, in its turn will lead to correct and reliable conclusions. Therefore, research presupposes
require different types of information. This requires a wide knowledge of kinds and sources of
information.

A. Kinds of Data
Different kinds of information are required in social research. This can be classified into the following
two types:

1. Primary Data
2. Secondary Data

1. Primary Data

Primary data are the actual information which are received by the researcher for social study form the
actual field of research. These data are obtained by means of questionnaires and schedules. In some fields
primary data are collected through interview and observation methods. The observation method for
collecting primary data, may be both participant and non-participant. Such data are known as primary
because they are attained by the researcher from the field of research directly and for the first time.

Primary data are generally attained through two sources; (i) The primary source of primary data are the
facts of the living persons’ lives & (ii) The other source is the connected events known through
observation such as the life of the group, traditions and customs and different aspects of daily life.

2. Secondary Data:

Secondary data are the information which is attained indirectly. The researcher does not attain them
himself or directly. Such data are attained generally from published and unpublished material. Secondary
data are gathered from information collected from the individuals and institutions through personal
diaries, letters and survey documents etc.

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The secondary data again, are gathered through two types of sources; (i) The first source is the personal
documents such as diaries, letters, photographs etc. and (ii) the other source is the public documents such
as books, manuscripts, records, census reports, reports of surveys by private institutions and various
information published in newspaper and magazines.

According to Lundberg, the information achieved from inscriptions on stones and objects of excavations
may also be included in secondary data.

B. SOURCES OF DATA
The sources of information are generally classified as Primary and secondary. Different scholars have
classified the sources of information differently. Of these some of the more important views are as
follows:

1. According to P.V.Young, the sources of information can be classified into two groups- documentary
source and field source. While the first includes books, manuscripts, diaries and letters, the second
includes the information given by individuals.

2. According to W.A. Bagley, the sources of information can be classified into – primary sources and
secondary sources. Primary include the actual information received from the individuals directly
concerned with the problems of study. The secondary includes all types f published and unpublished,
public or private documents and other such types of information.

3. According to G.A. Lundberg, the sources of information may be classified as historical sources and
field sources. The historical sources include sources representing the past incidents. For example, some
inscriptions on stones, of ages of Ashoka the great, can be authentic sources of information about his
time. Historical sources give information about the conditions and incidents which cannot be known
through observation or any other means of information. Thus historical sources include documents,
papers and stone inscriptions concerning past as well as the articles discovered through excavations. The
field sources include information received from concerned persons and also through the observation of
their behaviour.

The sources of information are generally classified as Primary and Secondary.

Primary or Field Sources:

On the basis of above mentioned views the sources of information may be classified as primary or field
sources and secondary or documentary sources. These sources may now be discussed in some more
details.

Primary sources are those from which information is gathered for the first time. This information is
gathered by the researcher himself. The sources of such information are the individuals and the incidents
around them. Generally, primary sources of information are gathered through: 1. Direct Observation,
2.Questionnaire, 3.Schedule and 4. Interview methods.

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1.Direct observation: The chief primary source of information concerning social phenomena is direct
observation. This method requires that the social researcher should personally and directly observe the
conditions and incidents of his field of study. Direct observation is the most reliable method for gathering
information concerning the life, status, conduct, behaviour, language, festivals, customs and traditions etc.
In this observation, the observer should be absolutely detached and objective in gathering facts.

Direct observation, again, has been classified into -1. Participant observation and 2. Non-participant
observation.

In participant observation, the observer lives in the groups or community as a member of it and
participates in their life.

On the contrary, in non-participant observation, the researcher does not participate in the group life but
only observe as an external spectator.

2. Questionnaire: Questionnaire includes questions concerning different aspects of the subject of study.
It is used in such cases where the subject of study is very wide and direct observation is not possible. It is
also used about such things which cannot be known through direct observation such as the ideas,
intentions and motives of the persons concerned.

Sometimes, the questionnaires are delivered by hand and at other times they are delivered through post.

Questionnaires may be sources of information only when the informers are well educated and prepared to
cooperate with the research worker.

3.Schedule: Schedules are a particular type of questionnaire. The main distinction between questionnaire
and schedule is that whereas in the former the informers themselves reply to the question, in schedules
this is done by the researcher himself. He questions the informers and records the replies in the proper
places specified in the schedule. The main advantage of the schedule is that it may be used even in the
case of uneducated informer.

4.Interview: In an interview, the researcher meets people and discusses his social problems with them.
Suring the course of this discussion, he gathers facts. An interview is different from a schedule. A
schedule includes some predetermined questions asked by the researcher in a definite order without
change. But the interview has no such definite form or order of questions. The researcher may ask
questions on the basis of his insight into the problem.

Secondary or Documentary sources:

The sources of information through documents concerning individuals and institutions are known as
secondary or documentary sources. The secondary sources have been classified into –

1. Personal Documents: Personal documents include all the published and unpublished information
documented by the individuals for different purposes. Personal documents are not written in
scientific style nor they have an objective basis. They generally represent some ideas, ideals, values
and feelings etc. The personal documents of notable persons are very useful sources of information

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 concerning their social attitude. The causes of writing personal documents are generally as
follows:
(i) In order to prove the validity of some activity.
(ii) In order to accept one’s mistake.
(iii) To achieve the satisfaction of ordered description.
(iv) To achieve the pleasure of literary presentation.
(v) For research in personal documents.
(vi) To get relief from mental tension.
(vii) To attain riches, money or fame etc.
(viii) To fulfill some assigned job.
(ix) To provide clinical information and description.+
(x) To exhibit and express one’s abilities and capacities.
(xi) To support some theory or ism.
(xii) Due to motivation for social service and social welfare.
(xiii) To attain immortality.
 Personal Documents: classified into four categories-
(a) Biographies, (b)Diaries, (c) Letters, (d) Memories
(a) Biographies: Biographies are generally autobiographies. Some great political leaders, social
reformers and eminent persons write their autobiographies. These autobiographies are not mere
collection of the incidents of their time but also important source of information about social
conditions. Some autobiographies unravel some things which could not be known from any
other source of information.
(b) Diaries: Diaries are written with different intentions. Some persons write diaries to remember
important incidents of their life. Some other persons write diaries to note things which they cannot
tell anyone. Most of the diary writers have no intention to publish them. Therefore, generally, it is
expected that information recorded in diary will be reliable. Hence, diary forms an important
source of valid information in social research as a personal document.
(c) Letters: Letters are often used by researchers as evidences. Most of the educated persons write a
number of letters during their course of letters. Letters are the medium of expression of the feelings,
likes and dislikes, plans, attitudes, desires, emotions, ambitions and also important incidents of life
which are reliable and help the researcher very much to find out the interrelationships, such as
friendship, love, material affairs, family tensions and divorces etc.
Limitations of Letters:
 It is difficult to collect private letters.
 In first instance, many people do not preserve their letters for a long time.
 No one can surpass his personal or confidential letters to any other persons or researcher
easily.
(d) Memoires: Some persons are interested in writing down memories of their travels, participation in
wars, hunting expeditions, excavations, explorations and mountaineering assaults, etc. Such memories
provide useful information in social research. Some historical memoires have given very useful
description of the contemporary time and circumstances. Such were the memoires of Megasthenes,
FaHien and Ibn Battuta, etc. in India. They have been acclaimed as very reliable historical documents
concerning contemporary social, political and cultural conditions. However, memoires have certain

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limitations. They are seldom scientific. They are full subjective ideas and feelings. They are full of
exaggerations particularly concerning author’s own achievements. This is particularly evident in the
memoires of eminent army generals and political leaders. Therefore, memoires should not be considered
as absolutely reliable.
Limitations of Personal documents:
1. Difficulty in collection
2. Reliability of data or information
3. Difficulty to reach definite conclusions
Suggestions:
(a) The investigators should seek the cooperation of a representative cross-section of the population.
(b) Most of the documents should be purchased at reasonable prices.
(c) Anonymity of personal document should be guaranteed to the informant by the investigator.
(d) Large samples should be gathered to achieve more reliability.

2. Public or Official documents: An important secondary source for collecting data or information. A
public document is the information gathered from some government or non-government
institutions.
Types of Public documents: Public documents are of two types:
1. Published documents and
2. Unpublished documents (like- Reports of big companies, confidential records of government
departments and non-government institutions.
Important Public documents are: Records, (b) Published data, (c) journals and Magazines (d)
Newspapers (e) Other documents.
Records: Records occupy the most important place among the public documents. Most of the
governmental and non-governmental departments preserve so many types of records consisting of
important information. It is however, difficult to collect records, particularly those which are never
published.
Published data: Public documents include data published by government and non-government
institutions from time to time. Such institutions conduct periodical survey concerning population, rate of
mortality, birth rate, annual production, average annual income, foreign trade, marriages and divorces etc.
All these help the researcher very much.
Journals and Magazines: These are important public documents including a wide variety of
information which can be usefully utilized in social research. Most of this information are very much
reliable. Letters to the editors published in various magazines and journals are an important source of
information.
Newspapers: Newspapers publish news, discussions on contemporary issues, reports of meetings
and conferences, essays and articles on living controversies and the letters of the readers to the editors.
All this is an important source of information for different kinds of social research. The reliability of such
information is very high at least in case of renowned newspapers.
Other documents: Besides the above the other documents include film, television, radio and
public speeches etc are other important sources of information. They supply useful information about
contemporary issues.

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3.The Census Report and The Statistics: A very important source of data collection for social science
research is the census report, the annual digest of statistics and statistical reports of various state
departments and national bodies. These reports are prepared by experts and therefore data are
highly reliable. The data collected in these departments are arranged according to the
administrative aim. For example: The Health department collects statistics concerning birth and death
rate etc. Public and private economic organisations collect and publish data on wages, hours of work,
productivity, absenteeism, strikes and lockouts etc. Education departments collect statistics concerning
various aspects and issues of education. Similar in the case about all other departments of the government.

The use of available statistics should be guided by the principle that the investigator should keep himself
flexible in respect of the form in which research questions are asked, for example, Durkheim’s study on
suicide provides a classic example of how the superior flexibility of a genius resulted in the testing of a
social theory by available statistics. He started with the hypothesis that the causes of suicide are to be
found n the social conditions. To test this theory he studied statistics of suicide in certain European
countries. He relied entirely on the analysis of data collected for purpose other than those of particular
study. In other studies such data are used in conjunction with other procedures. Thus, in Hawthorne
Electrical Studies by Roethlisberger and Dickson, it was found that changes in such conditions as
illumination, rest periods and hours of work could not account for a consistently rising rate of
productivity in experimental group over a period of time. It was concluded that changes in social
organization of work groups and their relationship to management were responsible for a rise in
productivity.
Precaution in the Use of Social Statistics:
In order to use statistical data usefully, the investigator must observe the following precautions:
1.The definition of categories used in available statistical data frequently do not coincide with those used
in social research. Therefore, the investigator should ascertain the precise on which the statistics are
based.
2.It is not enough to know merely what the original collector of data aimed at. It is also necessary to
enquire into his methods. The investigator should, therefore, ascertain about the time as well as the
authenticity of the method of data collected.
3. The degree of inaccuracy in statistical data may e negligible from the point of view of the social
scientists, and yet there may be grave methodological errors. Therefore, the investigator should
scrupulously check the method of collection of data.
To sum up in the words of A.L. Bowley, “it is never safe to take published statistics at their face value,
without knowing their meaning and limitations, and it is always necessary to criticize arguments that are
based on them, unless one is able to trust implicitly the knowledge and good faith of the persons bringing
them forward. It is extremely easy to falsify lessons which numerical statements should teach. The actual
use and appreciation of statistics are ultimately a matter of intelligence, special knowledge and common-
sense”.

 Social Statistics in India: In Indian constitution, special provision has been made for collection
of statistical data. Such sources were not available in pre-independence time. Another important reason
for the absence of sufficient statistical data is the lack of finance. Sometimes collection of data is
considered a sheer wastage of money and energy.

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However, as has been already pointed out, after independence, Indian constitution made provisions for
collection of data. According Article 246 of the Indian constitution, it is the responsibility of the
central government to collect and preserve data concerning railways, defence, banking, currency,
population and foreign trade etc. The state governments collect data regarding agriculture, animal
husbandry, forests and education. Thus, in public sector the collection of data in India has been
considerable widened.
A. Govt. Source: In every developed country, it is necessary to collect statistical data
concerning economic and social development. In India, attention has been paid in this direction in recent
years. The chief govt. sources of collection of data are-
(i) Census of India: Census in India is undertaken once in every decade. Census data collection is
supervised by the Home Ministry. Data are gathered from all over the country. It includes data concerning
population traits such as age, sex, profession, income and religion etc. On the basis of these data
conclusions are deduced indifferent finds of life.
(ii) Directorate of Economics and Statistics: The department is an important source of statistical data. It
is under Central Agricultural and Food Ministry. Data are collected in the whole country. The publication
of these data is done through the following important magazines- Agricultural Statistics in India
(Monthly), Abstract of Agricultural Statistics (Annual), Agricultural Wages in India (Annual).
(iii) Reserve Bank of India: This institution works under the Finance Ministry. It preserves data
concerning credit and finance etc. through publication in the following magazines- Statistical Supplement
(Weekly); Statistical Statement Relating to Cooperative movement in India (Annual).
(iv) Ministry of Commerce and Industry: This department collects and preserves data concerning trade
and commerce. These data are published in Indian Trade Journal.
(v) Ministry of Labour: This department collects statistics concerning average income, average working
hours, employment and unemployment of skilled and unskilled labour in the country. All these data are
published in Indian Labour Gazette, in monthly journal.
(vi) Ministry of Railways: Ministry of Railways collects data concerning annual income and
expenditure, accidents thefts and travel without ticket in railways etc. all these data are published in
Monthly Railway Statistics.
(vii) Transport Department: Transport department collects data o All India Level and publishes in
Traffic Survey.
(viii) Ministry of Education: The department collects Statistical data about different aspects of education
and publishes in the Annual Journal of Education in India.
(ix) Ministry of Information and Communication: This department has been collecting data
concerning a wide variety of social life in India, since 1953. These data are annually published in India- A
Reference Annual. This book includes data concerning India land and people, national Symbols, social
patterns, government, defence, educational, cultural activities, scientific research, health and hygiene,
social welfare, communication, economic development, agriculture, irrigation and hydroelectricity, trade
and commerce, transport, labour, housing etc.
(x) Directorate of National Sample Survey: This was established in 1950. Its main aim is to help
planning commission in the formulation of five year plans. It collects data concerning five year plans
throughout the country. Such data include information concerning families, form of expenditure,
condition of housing, trends of unemployment and the status of agricultural labourers etc.

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(xi) Central Statistical Bureau: This department performs the important function of systematizing and
coordinating the statistical data collected by various government departments. It also publishes them
through different journals, magazines, booklets, etc.
(xii) Ministries of State Governments: The responsibilities of collecting statistical data within state fall
upon Ministries of State Government. Thus, they collect data concerning health, education,
unemployment, condition of labourers, housing, social security, crime etc. The function of
systematization and coordination of the data gathered and published by different ministries has been
entrusted to State Statistical Bureau.
B. Non-Government Source: The Non- Government sources of collection and preservation of
statistical Data in India are-
(i) University Institutes: Today in India almost every big university has established some centres or
institutes for collecting and preserving various types of statistical data published from time to time. Some
notable university institutes are Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Indian Institute of
Community development, Statistical Institute of Community Development, Statistical Institute of
Calcutta, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Agra Institute of Social Sciences, Delhi School of Social
Work.
(ii) Trade Chambers: Different trades have their independent chambers which collect data
concerning their particular trade. Besides such limited trade chambers, All India Chamber of Commerce
and Industry also collects and publishers various types of Statistical Data.
(iii) Special Annual Numbers: So many magazines and journals and Weekly Papers publish Annual
or Periodical Special numbers including data concerning different aspects of some particular problem.
Such special numbers are very important sources of statistical data.
(iv) Newspapers, Magazines and Journals: Newspapers, Magazines and Journals regularly publish reliable
information and statistical data concerning their particular areas, or about the country as a whole.
C. Personal Sources: Some eminent scholars have also published reports of their
researches including important statistical data in different fields. Among the most important such personal
sources of statistical data may be mentioned Attitude Towards Family Planning in India by S. N.
Agarwal, Nutrition in India by C. G. Pandit and Studies in Indian Public Finance by M.H. Gopal etc.
Defects of Indian Statistics:
1. Inadequacy: In India the social and economic data collected from various sources are still far
from sufficient. They do not represent their particular field of information. Besides, no data are available
about so many aspects of life. The reasons for the inadequacy of data are- lack of sufficient finance and
other means, lack of interest, lack of scientific attitudes etc.
2. Obsolete Information: Most of the publications in India include obsolete information. This is
particularly due to the fact that the speed of survey and data collection is very slow. Therefore, by the
stage of publication the information becomes one or two years old. Therefore, no latest information is
available. For example, the statistics concerning census are available some years after actual census
survey.
3. Unreliability: The reliability of Indian Statistics gathered from government and non-
government agencies is very much doubtful. On many occasion, the government agencies deliberately
change and modify statistical data to present a rosy picture of the state of affairs or to gain popularity.
Besides, information are suppressed and modified in the name of public interest such as the data

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concerning communal riots, crimes, defence, foreign trade and economic development etc. in these fields
the data published by government agencies are not very reliable.
4. Lack of Order: In actual circumstances data re collected in villages, districts, states etc. in
order to have a wider picture on state level or national level, the data collected by smaller units have to be
properly ordered. This is, however, not done with sufficient care in this country. Therefore, no overall
picture is available.
5. Inadequacy of sufficient magazines and journals: There is a great dearth of journals and
magazines in different areas in India to publish data concerning various aspects of social life. Therefore,
even if data are collected by some private agency, they are seldom published in time. For example, the
data collected by field researchers by the research scholars in different universities in India, mostly
remain unpublished or when they are published they are already obsolete. As a general rule, few field
researches get an opportunity to be published anywhere in India. Thus, a lot of labour in data collection is
unnecessarily wasted.
Suggestions for improvement
It is clear from the above discussion that Indian statistics suffer from many disadvantages. All these
defects may not be removed but much improvement is possible by following the suggestions given below:
1. Increase in Efficiency: Most of the defects of Indian statistics are due to inefficiency of the workers of
the concerned departments. Most of the workers do not complete a job in time and go on postponing it
indefinitely, with the result that the publication of data becomes very late. Besides, in the absence of
proper control, the salaried workers do not perform their functions sincerely. All this requires suitable
control over concerned workers in different government departments.
2. Encouragement to research: Statistical data very much depend upon private and organisational
research activities. In order to obtain reliable and latest data, research should be encouraged. It is only in a
stimulating environment that new data may be obtained by continued research work. Encouragement to
the research students of social sciences in the universities will prove to be very much beneficial.
3. Establishment of coordinating agencies: Lack of order and coordination is a grace defect of Indian
statistics. Generally, the collected data are not coordinated with the result that definite conclusions are not
arrived at. In order to remove this defect it is necessary that agencies may be organised on All India level
which may coordinate the data obtained and collected in different fields.
4. Establishment of Laboratories: Reliable data are generally obtained from the laboratories. Such
laboratories should be established everywhere in the country with the government aid. Besides conducting
research and providing training in research, these laboratories should collect data, analyse and coordinate
it.
5. Reforms in the means of survey: In order to make statistical data reliable, the means of social survey
and research should be reformed. As the means become more scientific the conclusions become more
reliable. By the use of more and more mechanical devices in the collection of data their objectivity may
be increased. For example, the use of tape recorder, photo camera and movie camera etc. is very
advantageous.
6. Arrangement of early publication: Social statistics are constantly changing. Therefore, if they are not
published in time, their importance becomes obsolete. Hence, in order to use social statistics properly, in
time and by a wider circle of persons social statistics should be published at the earliest opportunity.
Arrangements may be made by the government for earliest opportunity. Arrangements may be made by
the government for early publication of social statistics.

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7. Verification of reliability: Generally, social statistics suffer from the defect of unreliability. In order to
remove this defect the data may be verified before publication. Standardized methods may based for
verification of the reliability of social statistics.
Importance of Census Data
In India today there is no proper arrangement for collection and publication of statistical data. Therefore,
decennial census survey is very much important. It is a cheap source of collection of data on All India
Level. The data supplied by census survey are multiple and valuable. These include population statistics,
size and types of families, religious communities, languages, professions, education, birth and death rate
etc. They show many social problems in their details. For the purpose of study, the importance of census
statistics in India may be classified as follows:
1. Political importance: Census survey is very much important from the administrative and
political viewpoint. It provides population statistics about the whole country. This information helps the
government in formulating various plans and policies. It shows the increase or decrease and trends of
population. It is on its basis that the government may formulate policies concerning different aspect of
population. For example, it is on the basis of census survey that the present governments have made it a
policy to propagate the objective of small and limited family. Social statistics concerning education may
be the most suitable basis for educational reforms, educational expansion and establishment of various
types of educational institutions. Data concerning different languages are also the basis of so many
policies. Census reports also provide help in the development of backward groups, scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes.
2. Economic Importance: Economic planning of the country is based upon population statistics.
Census survey provides data concerning income and expenditure of individuals in different areas. It is on
the basis of these data that attempts are made to reform economic conditions. Besides, help is given to
different classes for economic development. The census survey discloses the average income, the
minimum income and the maximum income in the country. It is on the basis of these data that additional
taxes are imposed on some classes and taxes are reduced on other classes in order to maintain a socio-
economic balance in the country.
3. Sociological Importance: Census survey is particularly valuable from the sociological view-
point. It shows social conditions, social evils, customs and traditions etc. It is on the basis of social
statistics that plans for social research and social survey are formulated. For example, the census reports
point out the incidence and areas of child marriages. On the basis of this information the social evil of
child marriage may be reformed and eradicated. Besides, the census provides information concerning
social events on the basis of which attempts may be made for social amelioration and social change.
4. Commercial Importance: it is necessary to formulate plans and polices before running a
commercial enterprise efficiently. The formulation of such policies and plans requires different types of
information and statistical data. This is very much supplied by census report. For example, it shows the
quantity and quality of these statistical data that experts arrive at in the estimate concerning demand and
supply of different commodities. Not only trade and commerce within the country but the international
trade are formulated on the basis of census surveys of different countries.
The above description and analysis shows the importance of census survey in India. This
importance, however, very much depends upon the reliability and validity of the data collected by census
survey. The validity and reliability of the census data, in its turn, depends upon the active interest and

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honesty of the concerned workers and officers. In the ultimate analysis, much has to be done in this
direction in India in future.

References:
1. Chawla Deepak & Sondhi Neena(2016), Research Methodology: Concepts and Cases,
VIKAS Pubishing House Pvt. Ltd., Noida, U.P. , pp.95-104.
2. Chauhan Rajeev(2012), Research Methodology: An Introduction, Kunal Books, New
Delhi, pp.27-30
3. Cauvery R., Naya U.K. Sudha, Girija M, Meenakshi R. (2016), Research Methodology,
S.Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi pp.83-95.
4. Sharma R.N., Methods & Techniques of Social Survey and Research, Rajhans Agencies,
Meerut (U.P.), pp. 37-57.
5. Upagade Viay & Shende Arvind(2019), Research Methodology, S.Chand & Company
Ltd. New Delhi, pp.51-79.

Sample Questions:

1. What is the need for data collection? Classify kinds of data and point out various sources of
information.
2. Explain important sources of data. Distinguish between the sources of primary and secondary
data.
3. Write short notes on – Distinction between primary and Secondary Data.
4. Write Short Note on- The Census Reports and Statistics.
5. Write short notes on Social Statistics in India.
6. Discuss the importance of Census Data in India.

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