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Menominee Forestry Methodology:

A Modern Need for Ancient Knowledge

Katherine A. Evans

Northern Arizona University

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Abstract

Traditional Indigenous environmental knowledge is often disenfranchised by dominant

western society because it does not meet the standards of western theories of knowledge. This

alone does not negate the validity, usefulness, or gathering of these traditional forms of

knowledge. Because Indigenous people around the world have been practicing sustainable,

practical and reliable stewardship on their respective ancestral homelands for time immemorial,

these methodologies can be applied to larger societies to reduce negative environmental impacts

while also providing a dependable source of economic income. In this paper, I examine the

indigenous research methodologies in the Menominee Nation forestry plan, through exploring

the role of traditional Menominee cultural values and practices and their effects on the

Menominee Forestry industry.

Keywords:​ Menominee, Menominee Forestry, indigenous knowledge, indigenous

environmental knowledge, methodology, sustainability

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Academic Imperialism: Why Indigenous Knowledge is Disenfranchised

Overview​ To accurately explain the importance of Indigenous knowledge and the

struggle for credibility one must examine the larger social and cultural systems at play since

initial contact with the Western world. From the moment of first contact, Indigenous people have

been fighting to protect their ways of life, knowledge and traditions. These ways of life have

been systematically attacked throughout history in hopes of “modernizing” the savage,

colonizing the new world, and assimilating indigenous people into Western society. While some

indigenous knowledge has been lost through violent means, many indigenous nations today stay

resilient by holding onto knowledge gained by their ancestors. This knowledge is highly

protected, as the effects of colonization have been aimed at destroying traditional knowledge and

ways of life. These have often times been misconstrued in a harmful way.

Because indigenous environmental knowledge is not obtained, validated, and published

f=through Western academic ideals, it is hard for the general public to access it. This does not

take away from the validity or practicality of the knowledge itself, but rather puts it in a unique

category of its own.

Cultural Values ​The vast differences in cultural values between Western dominant

society and Indigenous societies have been the source for most, if not all negative outcomes

between these two groups. Tabel 1 (located in Appendix A) gives a brief overview of these

cultural values, but certainly does not reflect the values of all Indigenous or Western people and

societies. These conflicting cultural values have lead to different standards for what reality

consists of, what success looks like, and how knowledge should be approached and obtained.

While methodologies vary from native nation to native nation and within the nations themselves,
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there are overarching themes primarily focusing on relationality, reciprocity, responsibility and

accountability. (Wilson 2008) This contrasts greatly to a general Western concentration on

individuality, accumulation of materials and rights. These cultural values can be applied and seen

in aspects to Indigenous and Western life, be it knowledge or kinship, although they can be hard

to see at a surface level.

Spirituality​ Often, Indigenous knowledge is discredited by Western institutions due to

it’s spiritual aspect. Spirituality can be defined in many of ways. In general, the indigenous

definition of spirituality is understanding and acknowledging relationships in the natural world

through activities such as ceremony, prayer, offerings and dance. Unlike Western

epistemologies, the boundary between spirituality and science never existed for indigenous

people. There is a reason for this. Stoffle et al.’s (2003) study on human-nature adaptations

essentially states that with every passing generation’s inhabitation in a particular area, what the

people do for survival and their spirituality become increasingly intertwined. Subsequently, the

adaptation between humans and the land results in nature becoming a core pillar to the group’s

culture ​(Stoffel, Chmara-Huff, Von Vlack & Toupal, n.d.).​ A visual example of the Diachronic

Model of Human-Nature Adaptations model can be found in Appendix B. This relationship to

the land and all its inhabitants creates a increased kinship network, and eventually provides

kinship models identifying the connections between humans, landforms, animals, and the

surrounding environment.

Indigenous environmental knowledge has been obtained through countless generations

worth of observation and trial and error, passed down to the following generations in the forms

of storytelling, ceremony, talking circles and more. Because Western society has inhabited the
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majority of the world for an insignificant amount of time compared to indigenous people, we can

safely assume that indigenous people hold more environmental knowledge of their respective

homelands. This knowledge, in part, is criticized for the way it has been obtained through

generations rather than celebrated for its continued and proven sustainability for indigenous

groups.

A Brief History of the Menominee Nation

In their own language, the Menominee people refer to themselves as ​Mamāceqtāwak,

roughly translates into “The Ancient Ones” or “Movers”. Today, it is more common to hear the

Menominee People refer to themselves as Omaeqnomenewak or “People of the Wild Rice”.

(Caldwell 2019)​ The Menominee people have inhabited their ancestral homeland since time

immemorial, having creation stories tying them back to this area compared to colonial stories of

migration.

“Menominee history began with the Menominee creation story more than 10,000 years

ago. While variations of the creation story exist today, each version tells how the

Menominee are indigenous to the area now known as Wisconsin… The Menominee

creation story took place near the mouth of the Menominee River, where the creator

transformed the five main clans from animal into human form.” (Menominee Tribal

Enterprises 2012 p. 102)

Their traditional homeland encompasses an approximate 10 million acres in the

northeastern portion of Wisconsin. Unfortunately, that is not the reality today. Through a series

of forced land cessions and treaty agreements with the United States government, the
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Menominee reservation was established in 1852. (The Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin,

2008 p.3) The reservation today is approximately 235,000 acres, 95% of which is heavily

forested land. ​(Menominee Tribal Enterprises 2019)

A Short History of Menominee Forestry

For countless generations the Menominee people have survived off of and respected the

forest. With the introduction of Western systems such as capitalism they soon found out that the

forest, and their stewardship, could be used for economic gain. The first recorded effort of the

Menominee tribe in forestry was in 1871 with the Kenesha Falls Sawmill and in 1890

Congressional Act (26. Stat 146) introduced the Western concept of sustainable yield forestry

management to federal lands, Menominee timber production was acted under this plan from

1890 to 1907. During this time, the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 was implemented,

establishing a trust relationship between the Menominee Nation and the United States

Government. While the act restored management of assets to the Menominee people, the forestry

practice was under the rule of the Secretary of the Interior. (Menominee Tribal Enterprises 2019)

In 1954 the tribe was stripped of their federal recognition status but was soon reinstated

in 1973. With the reinstatement of federal recognition the Menominee Restoration Act was

implemented, granting maximum self determination to the tribe and handing the responsibility of

forestry management over to The Menominee Tribal Enterprises. (Menominee Tribal Enterprises

2019) To ensure this understanding between the United States Government and the Menominee

Tribe, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed in 2009. Although not legally binding, the

document legitimizes the Menominee forestry methodology, and offers a collaborative

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agreement between Menominee and the United States Department of Agriculture and Forest

Service.

Menominee Forestry Success

Since Menominee has had management over their land and forestry industry, business

has boomed. According to a 2000 census, 2% of all people employed by the Menominee Nation

fall under the forestry category. While this may be a small amount, the income from the forestry

industry has provided a small monthly per capita ranging between $75 to $1,700 for Menominee

tribal members. ​(The Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin, 2008 p.3, 31, 67)

According to Menominee Tribal Enterprises (2019) in the last 160 years, ​over 2.25

billion board feet of timber have been harvested. Despite the unusually large harvest,​ ​there is

more timber volume now than there was in 1854. By this point in time, the entire forest should

have been harvested twice over, however; due to sustainable management, the Menominee

nation is seeing more forest volume than ever before. The approach to forestry has won many

awards such as a Presidential Award from the Council on Sustainable Development and United

Nations also recognized the Menominee in 1995 for sustainability and preserving their forests for

future generations. ​(Johnson & Johnson, 2012)​ The Menominee Forestry plan is not only

economically profitable, but also environmentally sustainable. Because of this massive success,

tribal leaders established a Sustainable Development Institute within the College of the

Menominee Nation in the hopes of defusing the knowledge gained through the forestry

experience. (Caldwell 2019)

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Traditional Knowledge Application in the Menominee Forestry Plan

Traditional knowledge is protected due to the effects of colonization. For this reason,

access to traditional indigenous knowledge is often held within the tribe and not presented to

outsiders, and certainly not presented in a Western Academic setting. This protection of

knowledge should be respected, as many indigenous ecological methodologies have spiritual and

sacred properties. Although we cannot clearly see how traditional Menominee knowledge has

been applied to the forestry plan, this does not deny that it is incorporated. Many other forestry

plans around the world have implemented sustainable yield management without the same

results of the Menominee Forestry plan. What makes this example so much more effective?

The Menominee way of life directly translates to Menominee and indigenous cultural

values and can be seen in every aspect of their life. While I was unable to find western published

information on Menominee values, we can safely assume that the core values are based off of

Figure 1, located in Appendix C. The main pillar of resilience can easily be interchanged with

the concept of sustainability within the forestry plan.

Because the Menominee people have inhabited the north eastern portion for 10,000 years,

if not more, approximately 500 generations have lived in this area. ​(Menominee Tribal

Enterprises 2012 p. 102) With every generation, more environmental knowledge is obtained,

implemented and passed down. This knowledge has undeniably been perfected over time, which

is why the Menominee forestry plan is so successful. According to Marshal Pecore, Menominee

Tribal Enterprises Forestry Manager,

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“It is said of the Menominee that the sacredness of the land is their very body, the values

of the culture are their very soul.... It is obvious...that the forest and its living creatures

can be viewed as food for their existence.” (Menominee Tribal Enterprises 2019)

This quotation can offer proof to the depth of importance of this traditional environmental

knowledge to the Menominee people and shows that the forestry knowledge is deeply ingrained

within Menominee culture.

Over the course of history, the Menominee culture has adapted to the changing times in

order to make sustainability more efficient. Menominee Tribal College’s Sustainable

Development Institute developed the Menominee Theoretical Model of Sustainability (MTMS)

(Figure 2, Located in Appendix C) to better understand the Menominee story of sustainability

from pre-contact to the present and implement this knowledge on a larger scale (Caldwell 2019).

The MTMS include six major dimensions of sustainability including land and sovereignty; the

natural environment, including human beings; institutions; technology; economics; and human

perception, activity, and behavior. By using this model the Menominee people have implemented

a multi-generational, flexible and interdisciplinary approach to sustainability focused on

balancing the six dimensions at all times. The effects of MTMS can be seen in the Menominee

forestry plan by how the forestry department is seperate from the sawmill. Rather than being

completely focused on economic profit, like most forestry plans, the goal of the Menominee

forestry plan is to sustain the health of the forest for as long as possible. (Jocks 2019)

Some traditional knowledge is included in the forestry plan without reference to the

spiritual aspect. For example, the forestry plan includes information on how pre-contact

Menominee people used fire to control the forest. The document then goes on to acknowledge
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that while they know how fire was used, it may not be fully applicable in modern times as

settling patterns and the ecosystem has changed. However, through the mixing of traditional

Menominee and western fire management methodologies, the Menominee forestry plan has

implemented the most effective and sustainable way to use fire as a tool. (Menominee Tribal

Enterprises 2019)

Conclusion

The Menominee forestry plan is a unique example of Native Nations and the United

States Government working together to benefit both parties. By allowing the Menominee people

to practice maximum self determination, they were able to create both an economically profitable

and environmentally sustainable forestry plan. When indigenous people are given the

opportunity to develop their own institutions without being forced to include Western ideologies

and methodologies, the outcome is astonishing. Given that indigenous people exist around the

world and all hold a unique, highly tested environmental knowledge, it is possible that this

knowledge can be applied, as the Menominee forestry plan was, to lessen or even reverse

negative environmental impacts in a way that is still economically profitable.

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References

Caldwell, C. (2019). Indigenous Sustainability at College of Menominee Nation: Lessons from

the Past, Learning for the Future. ​Tribal College: Journal Of American Indian Higher

Education​, ​30​(3 - Spring 2019).

Duran, B. (2002). American Indian Belief Systems and Traditional Practices. Retrieved from

http://www.wellnesscourts.org/files/Duran%20-%20American%20Indian%20Belief%20

Systems.pdf

Jocks, C (2019, April 26). Personal interview.

Johnson, C., & Johnson, B. (2012). Menominee Forest Keepers - American Forests. Retrieved

from https://www.americanforests.org/magazine/article/menominee-forest-keepers/

Menominee Tribal Enterprises (2012). ​Forest Management Plan (Revised 1973) 2012- 2027.​

The Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin. (2008). ​Facts and Figures Reference Book​ (p. 3, 31,

67). The Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin - Department of Administration.

Stoffel, Richard et al. "Landscape, Nature And Culture: A Diachronic Model Of Human-Nature

Adaptations". ​Kluwer Academic Publishers,​ 2003, pp. 97-114.,

http://www.u.arizona.edu/~mzedeno/files/Stoffleetal2003NatureAcrossCultures.pdf.

Stoffel, R., Chmara-Huff, F., Von Vlack, K., & Toupal, R. ​Puha Flows from It: The Spring

Mountains Cultural Landscape Study.​ Presentation.

Sustainable Lumber Suppliers | Menominee Tribe Forest Management | Menominee Tribal

Enterprises Neopit, Wisconsin. (2019). Retrieved from http://www.mtewood.com/

Trosper, R. (2007). Indigenous influence on forest management on the Menominee Indian

Reservation. ​Forest Ecology and Management​, ​249​(1-2), 134-139.

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.04.037

Unknown. “Mendoramdum of Understanding between United States Department of Interior,

Forest Service and College of Menominee Nation”. October 30, 2009,

https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5313668.pdf

Who We Are and How We Started. (2019). Retrieved from

https://menominee-nsn.gov/CommunityPages/FosteringFutures/FosteringFuturesMain.as

px

Wilson, S. (2008). ​Research is ceremony​ (pp. 69-122). Black Point, N.S.: Fernwood Pub.
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Appendix A

Tabel 1

This table was adapted from Duran, B. (2002) American Indian Belief Systems and Traditional

Practices, to better suit the examination of environmental knowledge.

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Appendix B

A Diachronic Model of Human-Nature Adaptations

This particular example was taken from​ Stoffel, Chmara-Huff, Von Vlack & Toupal, n.d.​ study

of the Southern Paiute, specifically focusing on their traditional lands. While the general model

is applicable to most people groups, the specifics of the nature portion of this diagram particular,

are not.
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Appendix C

Figure 1

Retrieved from Who We are and How we Started (2019)

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Appendix D

Figure 2