Resistor Construction

Fig 2.0.1 Resistor Symbols

Resistors are components used to resist the flow of electric current

and have a stated value of RESISTANCE. Many types of resistors are
used having different uses and construction. The most common types
have a fixed value of resistance so are often called fixed resistors.
They are shown on circuit schematic diagrams (theoretical diagrams
that show how the circuit components are connected electrically, rather
than what a circuit looks like physically) using one of the symbols
shown in Fig 2.0.1.

Various types of fixed resistors are used in circuits, they are the most
numerous of all electronic components and their most common job is
to reduce voltages and currents around a circuit so that ‘active
components’, transistors and integrated circuits for example, that carry
out tasks such as producing or amplifying signals within the circuit are
supplied with the correct voltages and currents to work properly.

Resistors are also used in conjunction with other components such as

inductors and capacitors to process signals in many ways.

Because resistors are ‘passive components’ they cannot amplify or

increase voltages currents or signals, they can only reduce them.
Nevertheless they are a most essential part of any electronic circuit.
 Fig 2.0.2 Fixed Resistor Types

SMT (Surface Mount Technology)

Many modern circuits use SMT resistors. Their manufacture involves
depositing a film of resistive material such as tin oxide on a tiny
ceramic chip. The edges of the resistor are then accurately ground, or
cut with a laser to give a precise resistance (which depends on the
width of the resistor film), across the ends of the device. Tolerances
may be as low as ±0.02%. Contacts at each end are soldered directly
onto the conductive print on the circuit board, usually by automatic
assembly methods. SMT resistors normally have a very low power
dissipation. Their main advantage is that very high component density
can be achieved.
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Carbon Film Resistors

Similar construction to Metal film resistors but generally with wider
tolerance (typically +/- 5%), shown in Fig. 2.0.2 mounted on paper
strips for machine insertion into printed circuit boards. Small resistors
are extremely inexpensive components and are also often sold in
batches of 10s or 100s in this form for easier handling.

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Carbon Composition Resistor

Carbon composition is the oldest design and usually the cheapest of

the resistors. Carbon granules are mixed with a filler material and
inserted into a tubular casing. In earlier types vulcanised rubber was
used but in modern designs the carbon is mixed with a ceramic filler.
The value of resistance is determined by the amount of carbon added
to the filler mixture. Carbon composition resistors do not have the
close tolerances of either carbon or metal film types. Typical
tolerances are +/-10% or 20%. One advantage however is that they
are better suited to applications involving large voltage pulses than the
more modern types.

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1Watt resistor
Carbon composition, carbon and metal film resistors are available in a
range of power ratings, from 0.125W to 5W. In a resistor, the power
that the resistor must dissipate (get rid of as heat) depends on the
voltage difference (V) across the resistor, and the current (I) flowing
through it. These are multiplied together to obtain the amount of power
(P) that must be dissipated using the formula P = IV. For any particular
type or value of resistor, the greater the power rating, the larger the
physical size of the resistor.

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Wire-wound resistors

Wirewound resistors are very variable in construction and physical

appearance. Their resistive elements are commonly lengths of wire,
usually an alloy such as Nichrome (Nickel/Chromium) or Manganin
(Copper/Nickel/Manganese) wrapped around a ceramic or glass fibre
rod or tube and coated in an insulating flameproof cement film. They
are normally available in quite low values of resistance (single ohms to
a few Kilohms) but can dissipate large amounts of power. In use they
may get very hot.

For this reason high power wirewound resistors may be housed in a

finned metal case that can be bolted to a metal chassis to dissipate the
heat generated as effectively as possible. With all types of wirewound
resistor, fire protection is important and flame proof cases or coatings
are vital. Lead-out wires are normally welded rather than soldered to
the resistor.

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 Metal film resistors.

These resistors are made from small rods of ceramic coated with metal
such as a nickel alloy or a metal oxide such as tin oxide. The value of
resistance is controlled firstly by the thickness of the coating layer; the
thicker the layer, the lower the value of resistance. Also by a fine spiral
groove cut along the rod using a laser or diamond cutter to cut the
carbon or metal coating effectively into a long spiral strip, which forms
the resistor. Metal film resistors can be obtained in a wide range of
resistance values from a few Ohms to tens of millions of Ohms with a
very small TOLERANCE. For example a typical value might be 100KΩ
±1% or less i.e. for a stated value of 100KΩ the actual value will be
between 99KΩ and 101KΩ. Note that although the body colour (the
colour of the laquer coating) on metal film resistors is often grey, this is
not a reliable guide. Small carbon, metal and oxide resistors may be
made in various body colours such as dark red, brown, blue, green,
grey, cream or white.

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5 Watt Wirewound Resistor

A wirewound resistor can have a smaller physical size for a given
power rating than carbon composition or film resistors, compare this
5W resistor with the 1W resistor (labelled 3 in Fig.2.0.2). Wirewound
resistors however, do not not have the close tolerance of composition
or film types. This 4R7 resistor has a tolerance of ±10%.

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PCB Mounting Wirewound Resistor

 Wirewound resistors usually have a resistance range from around 1Ω
to about 50KΩ. Because they use a coil of wire as their resistive
element they tend to act as inductors to some degree. This limits their
use to low frequency circuits up to around a few tens of kiloHertz
(kHz). This example, available in power ratings up to 25W, is for
mounting on a printed circuit board and to prevent heat damage to the
board, the specially shaped legs ensure an air gap between the
resistor and the board. The whole resistor is enclosed in a flameproof
ceramic layer.

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High Power Metal Film

Metal film resistors are also available in high power types with power
ratings less than wirewound types (typically less than 5W) but having
closer tolerances.

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Fusible Wirewound Resistor

In this fusible resistor, the current flowing through the resistor first
flows through a spring loaded connection that is positioned close to the
body of the resistor. The heat generated by the wirewound resistor
under normal conditions would not be sufficient to melt the blob of
solder holding a spring wire in place. If too much current flows through
the resistor it overheats, the solder melts and the wire springs up,
opening the connection and stopping the current. This then requires a
service technician to find the cause of the over-current before re-
soldering the spring connection to restore normal operation. It is
important to use the correct type of solder (usually stated in the service
manual for the equipment) when re-soldering, since this will affect the
temperature at which the spring opens.
Four   Band   Resistors  
Resistors are electronic components
that oppose the flow of electricity and
the resistance is measured in ohms.
For larger values, kilohms(1,000
ohms) and megohms (1,000,000
ohms) are used. For example 3,300
ohms equals 3.3 kilohms or just 3.3 k
and 1,500,000 ohms equals 1.5
megohms or 1.5 meg.

Color "bands" are used to indicate the

resistance value with each color
signifying a number and these color
bands are grouped closer to one end
of the resistor than the other.
      

As can be seen in the above 4 Band Resistor Color Codes chart, the first

two color bands have values of brown = 1, red = 2, orange = 3 and so on.

The third color band is the multiplier of the first 2 bands. Here, black is 1,

brown is 10, red is 100 and so on. Putting this in other words, the value of the
third band (the multiplier) is the number 10 raised to the power of the color
code. For example, red in the third band is 10² or 100.
This third band also has 2 new colors where gold = .1 and silver = .01.

The 4th band is the resistor's tolerance and shows how precisely the resistor
was manufactured. Gold = 5%, silver = 10% and no band whatsoever = 20%.

Now that we know the values of each color, let's try calculating a few
examples of resistance values.

Looking at resistor #1, we see the colors red red green gold.

The Color Codes chart "translates" this into 2 2 and 100,000
which equals 2 2 ×100,000 or 2,200,000 ohms and don't forget the gold
4th band which indicates a 5% tolerance.

Resistor #2 has the colors orange orange yellow silver which "translates"

into 3 3 ×10,000 or 330,000 ohms and a tolerance of 10%.

Resistor #3 has the colors yellow violet silver meaning 4 7 ×.01 or .47 ohms

and no fourth band indicates a 20% tolerance.

Five Band Resistors

Use the 5 Band Chart to solve these next problems.

For resistor 4, we see the first 3 bands are violet, green and red which
"translate" into 7, 5 and 2. Looking at the fourth band (the multiplier), we
see it is brown and has a value of 10.
So, the resistance value is 7 5 2 × 10 which equals 7,520 ohms or 7.52 K
ohms.
Band 5 is red which indicates a 2 per cent tolerance and a brown sixth band
means that the temperature coefficient is 100 parts per million (ppm).

Examining resistor 5, the first 3 bands are brown, black and blue and the
fourth band (the multiplier) is green. So, these colors convert into 1 0 6 ×
100,000 which calculates to 10,600,000 ohms or 10.6 Meg ohms.
The brown 5th band and the red 6th band mean that the resistor has a 1%
tolerance and a 50 ppm temperature coefficient.

What difference between MCB,MCCB,RCCB,ELCB please explain briefly with its rating.
MCB means Miniature Circuit Breaker -- it is used for upto
100Amps in the motor feeders.

MCCB menas Moulded case Circuit Breaker -- it is used for 

25oAmps to 800Amps in the motor feeders.

ELCB means Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker -- it is used to

trip the Circuit breaker if any leakage fault occured means.

RCCB means Residual Current Circuit Breaker -- A residual

current device (RCD), or residual current 
circuit breaker (RCCB), is an electrical wiring device that 
disconnects a circuit whenever it detects that the electric 
current is not balanced between the phase ("hot") conductor 
and the neutral conductor. Such an imbalance is sometimes 
caused by current leakage through the body of a person who 
is grounded and accidentally touching the energized part of 
the circuit. 
MCB IS FOR SHORT CIRCUIT PROTECTION
MCCB IS FOR BOTH OVER LOAD ,UNDER VOLTAGE ,CIRCUIT 
PROTECTION
RCCB ITS WORKING DEPEND ON CURRENT 
ELCB ITS WORKING DEPEND ON VOLTAGE