The Japanese Occupation

1. Japanese Martial Law

By early 1942, the Philippines, Burma, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, French Indochina, and other
territories in southeastern Asia and the Pacific were placed under the Japanese rule. After conquering the
lands, Japan claimed that it was creating an Asia for Asians.

On January 3, 1942, a day after Manila become an occupy city, General Masaharu Homma,
commander-in-chief of the Japanese Imperial Forces issued a proclamation announcing the end of the
American occupation and the imposition of martial law in the country. One of his first orders was the
surrender of firearms. Those who were still caught with weapons were detained at the dungeons of Fort
Santiago and in other detention posts.

Detention camps became places of torture. Water cure, pulling of fingernails and toenails, pouring
and burning of extremities with gasoline, and severe beatings were some of the abuses committed to
prisoners.

General Homma allowed the laws then enforce the Commonwealth to stay for the moment. He
ordered all public officials to continue to discharge their duties.

Jorge B. Vargas, who was then the mayor of greater Manila before Japanese occupation of the city,
had been instructed by President Quezon and General MacArthur to cooperate with the enemy hoping that
with the cooperation of Filipinos, the occupation might be less severe. This was to avert further anguish
on the Filipino people.

Three weeks later, on January 23, 1942, Vargas received an order from General Homma to assume
the position of the Executive Commissioner of the Central Administrative Organization to Occupied
Philippines. He had to coordinate the activities of all existing central administrative departments in the
Philippines and was to see to it that all commands of the Japanese commander-in-chief were carried out.

Arbitrary arrests and executions were done by the kempeitai (military police) any time of the day. The
people were not assured of their safety in their houses nor in the streets. The most dreaded Japanese word
was kura, which meant two things depending on the movement of the hand. When the word was
mentioned with an inward wave of the hand it meant, “Come here!”. The movement kura was uttered
with an outward wave of the hand it meant, “Scram!” or “Dismiss!”. For the slightest offense, soldiers
would slap the face of the civilians.

During the initial period of the Japanese occupation, no one could travel without a pass from its army.
This prohibition in travel was lifted a month and a half after the fall of Corregidor. In Manila, the streetcar
was still operational. Many people rode bicycles and dokars (wartime carriages polled by horses). The
casco, a large banca, pulled by motorboats transported goods and foodstuffs from Manila to Guagua,
Pampanga. Most of the passenger coaches and freight cars of the Manila Railroad Company were
destroyed at the onset of the Japanese invasion.
 Taliba, La Vanguardia, tribune and Liwayway were allowed to continue publication but under rigid
censorship by the government. Some old Hollywood films were shown in movie houses. Many theaters
switched from movies to stage shows.

Knowing that the Church had played an important role in shaping Filipino minds for centuries, the
Japanese did not wish to incur open hostility with the church. As early as January 14, 1942, Colonel
Murosawa, head of the Religious Section of the Japanese Army, issued a Declaration to Christians in the
Philippines in which he expressed the view of the Japanese army to assure freedom of religion. By 1943,
parish priests were being required to use their pulpits to convince the people that it was useless to resist
Japanese rule.

Japanese Prenier Hideki Tojo said on January 21, 1942 before the Japanese Diet, Japan’s legislature,
that the Philippines would be granted independence provided it recognizes Japan’s program of
establishing “ The Philippines for the Filipinos” as a member of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere. He visited Manila on May 6, 1942. He noted that the Filipinos desired to cooperate with the
Japanese government.

2. Life During the Wartime Years

Neighborhood and district associations were organized based in an executive order issued by Vargas
on August 8,1942, “for the purpose of providing means for protection under joint responsibility.” They
were supposed to cooperate with the Japanese Army to keep the residents within the area of jurisdiction
from anti-Japanese activities.

Each neighborhood association was to be composed of at least 10 families, their leader of which was
to be appointed by their respective town or city mayor. The they, in turn grouped into district
associations. The president of the district association was pointed by the mayor with the approval of the
directors of the local branch of the military administration.

The Sendenbu, the propaganda section of the Japanese army, and later the Hodobu, Department
of Information did its best to convince the people to collaborate with them. They sought to promote the
cultural ideas of the New Order and the policy of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.

Violation of the Japanese orders and laws was considered a hostile act, which meant death
penalty. Also punishable with death was the injuring of a Japanese soldier. If the assailant could not be
seen, some Filipinos were held hostage by the Japanese military.

In different parts of the country, the Japanese refloated inter-island ships, which they themselves
sunk for revival transport service. Trucks and automobiles were shipped to Japan in huge volumes. Oil
companies were forced to sell their stocks to the army. This led the Filipinos to use their improvised
charcoal-fed transportation facilities. The assumed direct management of railroad, electrical, telephone,
and other facilities from different companies.

The schools were again made open to the public. Books used before the war were again utilized,
except the ones with pictures and stories about the Americans. To get the Filipinos to the Japanese side,
the United States and England were projected as bent on world power. Japanese language and culture
were taught and disseminated. Various contests with attractive cash prizes were held to encourage further
the study of language.

Tight restrictions on the movement of commodities by the Japanese had made the supply of rice,
sugar and other crops scarcer. Prices of commodities had increased to the point when most people could
no longer afford to buy. As months passed by, very few families could afford to enjoy three meals in one
day.

The worsening food crisis reached a point where the populace started eating plan lugaw (rice
porridge). At times they subsisted on binatog or boiled grains of dried corn with grated coconut and
pinches of salt. Toasted rice was brewed as coffee but even those lowly meals could hardly be available
regularly.

The Japanese soldiers confiscated palay stocks stored in the kamalig (warehouse) of the farmers.
They ransacked private backyard loading their rucks with chicken and hogs. These frequent food forays
virtually stopped land production causing imminent food scarcity and escalating prices of prime
commodities. A cavan of rice sold clandestinely in Japanese money costs thousands of pesos.

The new peso bills looked like a play money. They lacked serial numbers. They were not backed
by silver or gold reserves. Filipinos were doubtful to accept them. The Japanese, however, threatened
punishment to anyone who refused the war notes. The threats convinced the Filipinos to use them but
they haughtily called it Mickey Mouse money. Others called it gurami, a small fish so plentiful and cheap
apa, the sweet wafer for ice cream cones, implying flimsiness. Prewar bills and coins immediately
disappeared as chose to keep them for future use.

Severe inflation set in as supplies ran low. Fuel shortage, confiscation, and deteriorating peace
and other hampered food production. In March 1942, in order to meet the rice shortage, the Japanese
Military Administration introduced a fast-maturing grain from Taiwan called horai rice. Experimental
farms directly under the Japanese army control were developed to test the new grain. The controlled
media proclaimed that this would make the Philippines self-sufficient after a year. However, due to the
heavy rains in1942, many of this experimental crops were destroyed. Pests hit other crops.

The exorbitant price of meat resulted to the slaughtering of cows and carabaos in large numbers.
Farms were running out of work animals. The administration had to restrict the number of animals to be
killed. Only those certified to be no longer useful in the fields were to be butchered. To save on matches,
some families lightened dry “cakes” of carabao manure, which burn out slowly and serve as light at night.

Although factories and stores for prime commodities were soon reopened, they were not as free
to operate. In order to assure steady supply and affordable prices, a Japanese-controlled economy put into
effect. This involved price control measures, registration and issuance of permit, and a ration system for
basic commodities like rice, sugar, matches, laundry, soap, and cloth.

Hoarding and profiteering were banned. Retailers and suppliers were ordered to fallow price
lists issued by the government. Price tags ad to be displayed prominently. Rents were also fixed.
 Many families were forced to sell their furniture and other personal belongings. Pushcarts loaded
with furniture traveling along the highway, was a common sight. Cascos (local boats) were also used in
transporting these items.

The railroad train become a common vehicle of smuggling rice to the city at the Tutuban station,
where the Japanese sentries lay in wait for the viajeros (passengers). Among these viajeros were children
as young as 12 years old. They fought for every available space on the train, even on the rooftops.

To evade arrest, those carrying half a cavan or more would jump off somewhere at soils, Tondo
after their merchandise had been pushed off the freight passenger’s cars by their companions. They
usually did this at night. However, train jumpers begun to be plunged by nocturnal hijackers waiting for
viajeros to drop their goods. They would then run off the speeding train.

Another trade that prospered during the era was the making of fakes and forgeries. Some doctors
made adulterated medicines, while some lawyers made fake documents. Fake Lucky strike, Camel and
Chesterfield cigarettes became part of consumers’ goods. Clever counterfeiters produced fake passes, IDs,
ration tickets, and even Mickey Mouse money.

Due to scarcity of food, medicine and basic services, thousands died of malaria, malnutrition,
tuberculosis and other diseases. Sulfathiazole, the wonder drug of the period, was sold at a very high
price. Many died on the sidewalks. Such desolate condition brought about the increase of crime rate,
which included burglary and hold-up. Others even tried to kill in order to survive in a highly competitive
and hostile environment.

4.The Second Republic of the Philippines

On October 14,1943, Manila was in a holiday mood, despite the traces of war. Five hundred to
eight hundred thousand people gathered in front of the Legislative Building that morning to witness the
proclamation of the Philippine Independence and the inauguration of the Republic of the Philippines. In
the afternoon, a Pact of Alliance between the Philippines and Japan was signed by the Philippine Minister
of Foreign Affairs, Claro M. Recto, and the Japanese Ambassador, Shozo Murata.

Then October 18, Laurel announced the appointment of his cabinet: Claro M. Recto, Minister of
foreign affairs; Antonio de las Alas, minister of finance; Teofilo Sison, minister of justice; Quintin
Paredes, minister of agriculture and commerce; Jose Yulo, chief justice of the Supreme Court, and Jose
Villa, acting executive secretary.

Judicial power was vested in a Supreme Court, composed of a chief justice and six associate
justices who were appointed by the President with the advice of the Cabinet. The President with the
advice of the Supreme Court appointed judges in the lower court.

A governor ran the provincial civil government. The governors and the city mayors, in an ex-
officio capacity became members of the 108-man National Assembly. Civil Administration was operating
under the supervision of a Japanese garrison commander headquartered at the provincial capitol.

With the inauguration of the Second Philippine Republic, President Laurel created the National
Education Board to study curriculum changes and to develop a more suitable educational program for the
country. The board advocated enhancement of the Filipino identity by giving emphasis to the study of the
national language and history. It also recommended the teaching of Asian history and culture.

To direct the educational thrust more thoroughly, the government was given more powers to
supervise all schools, both public and private. President Laurel saw schools as complementary to the
family and church in shaping morals and character.

The government also sent selected young men to Japan as pensionados to study at Japanese
schools. Members of the Japanese constabulary taught them Japanese method of discipline. These
pensionados had to be cleansed of anything anti-Japanese to operate in the new environment.

Simultaneously with the restructuring of the educational system, control over media and culture
was also emphasized by the Hodobu. Movies, stage shows, radio programs, and even letters at the post
office were checked.

In publications, the flag was highlighted. The Philippine National Anthem was translated into
Tagalog. It replaced the Japanese national anthem and Awit sa Paglikha ng Bagong Pilipinas. Even
cigarette boxes were used for the propaganda. One box bore the slogan, “A Free Philippines in United
Asia.” Another had “freedom Implies Responsibility” written on the box. The brand was called
Independencia cigarettes.

President Laurel went his way to Filipinize the Catholic Church. He wrote the Pope explaining
that Filipinos would understand the Church better if they ran the parishes and religious schools. He met
with religious leaders to explain his views. The government tried to keep the Church under some degree
of control.

The Board of Information, which replaced the Bureau of Information and the Public Security of
the Executive Commission, was created. This prevented the printing of reports that was not in keeping
with the republic’s ideals.

Following the government’s pro-Filipino line, the Kabataang Pangarap ni Rizal (the Youth of
Rizal’s dream) and Revtrufilnism (Revive True Filipinism) were organized according to some historians.
Both civic organizations aimed at developing nationalism consciousness. This cultural campaign was
launched somehow to make the Filipinos aware of Japanese and Filipino native traditions. Somehow,
prolonged exposure to Asian spirit could win Filipino cooperation and sympathy.

The Japanese discouraged the Filipinos from writing in English. In a way, these Asian colonizers
contributed to the promotion of Tagalog language. They bolstered the enthusiasm of local writers to
rediscover the richness of the country’s mother tongue. Liwayway, the only Tagalog weekly magazine,
was allowed to continue publication.

A number of writers began to create short stories and verses similar to the Japanese haiku. Two
magazines that became popular during those days were the Philippine Review and Pillars. However,
freedom of expression was suppressed during the occupation period. The writers who were limited to
their subject matter had the rural scene as the popular theme. Moreover, the writers were not well
compensated. Their income was good enough to buy them a kilo of coffee-corn.
 In 1943, the Dramatic Philippines, Inc. was formed to stage popular plays in English, adapted in
Tagalog. These plays were performed at the old Metropolitan Theater. Under the management of group of
college actors, the organization presented highly acclaimed plays translated in Tagalog such as Passion
Play, Julius Caesar, Golden Boy, and Applesauce. Sa Pula, Sa Puti an adaption of Julian Cruz
Balmaseda’s Isang Kuwaltang Abaka,became a crowd favorite. Musical Philippines, Inc., a sister
organization of Dramatic Philippines, Inc., enabled classical musicians to present their performances at
the theater.

At the forefront of Japanese attempt to establish the New Order was the kempeitai. Being a
separate army organization, it reported directly to the Japanese commander-in-chief in the Philippines,
and from there on to the kempeitai headquarters in Tokyo. It had established branches throughout the
Philippines. Anywhere in the country, they struck terror and fear.

For want of doing something, some men, both young and old learned to indulge in many form of
vices. Smoking, cockfighting, dice games, mahjong, jueteng, monte, and other card games became
common pastimes. However, there were also other forms of recreation like stage shows (mostly of the
hometown variety) and fist bouts.

People kept leaving and returning, depending upon the situation. Those who could not stand the
condition any longer had to evacuate to other barrios. Some opted to live with relatives in far provinces.
With the enemy occupation, the old social elite, the wealthy land-owning families, no longer held the
monopoly of the social circle. The rushing in of the new rich led to the rise of new bourgeoisie.

Everywhere in the land, people lived in fear. Men did fear the spies (like the Ganaps and
Makapilis) as well as dreaded kempeitai and their zona system, whereby the local males were herded in
one place, usually a public one, to pluck out the guerillas.

5. Resistance and Restoration

What strongly nullified the Japanese policy of attraction was the series of atrocities ranging from
confiscation of personal goods to wanton killing of people. There was the imposition of severe penalties
for slight violations of the law. Persons caught violating the curfew were punished with water cure.
Afterwards, nothing would be heard about them. Pedestrians who refused to bow to the Japanese military
were slapped on their faces or hit with closed fists. The Filipinos looked at this gesture as a grave
personal assault.

Health and living conditions deteriorated throughout the Japanese occupation. Tuberculosis,
malaria, and nutrition ailments become common illnesses. Many people died of starvation.

If the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor and the immediate retreat of General MacArthur to
Australia marked the end of American assistance to the country, these events were only perceived as
temporary. Moved by their sense of nationalism, others felt that it was glorious to fight for the country’s
freedom. They had realized that it was their duty to their fellow Filipinos to defend the country from
foreign aggression. Guerrilla fighters all over the country kept their faith in democracy. Many waited for
the return of the Americans.
 The United States Army Forces in the Philippines (USAFIP, North Luzon, was one the earliest
guerrilla units to be organized after the fall of Bataan and Corregidor. The USAFFE soldiers of the North
Luzon who had been unable to join the American and Filipino Forces in Bataan bonded together under
two Filipino captains, Guillermo Nakar and Manuel P. Enriquez. This was recognized as the first
Guerrilla Regiment by USAFFE headquarters.

Walter Cushing, an American mine operator in the Mountain Province, led the first ambush
against the Japanese. Cushing organized some 200 Filipino guerrillas shortly after the enemy invasion.
(Unfortunately, on September 19, 1942, Cushing and two of his men were killed instantaneously by
Japanese soldiers at Jones, Isabela while on a mission to contact a large guerrilla outfit).

American soldiers in Northern Luzon who did not surrender with General Jonathan M.
Manwright placed themselves under the command of Captain Nakar and Captain George Barnett, an
American engineer.

Other American officers who managed to escape from Bataan like Major Russell Volckmann (a
West Point Graduate) organized their own guerrilla units. Volckmann set up secret training camps for his
guerrillas. The North Luzon guerrillas were consolidated under his overall command. Among the
prominent guerrilla leaders under his direction were Governor Roque Ablan of Ilocos Bado Dangwa in
Baguio. He also established a communication and intelligence network, which reported the movements of
the enemy. Reports from this network were transmitted to MacArthur’s headquarters of Australia.

Volcksmann in Northern Luzon guerrilla army was responsible for driving General Tomoyuki
Yamashita’s troops from Mountain Province in the last day of the war in the Philippines.

Marcos V. Agustin, a bus driver before the war, formed a guerrilla unit centered in Antipolo. This
eventually became one of the largest in Luzon owning to its membership from different sectors. In its
ranks were soldiers, teachers, lawyers, writers, laborers, drivers, young inmates of reformatory school,
and a new reformed convicts. Some Chinese and Americans joined Agustin’s group.

The Hunters ROTC (Reserve Officer’s Training Crops) guerrilla group, headed by two young
cadets of the Philippine Military Academy, Eleuterio Adevoso (better known as Terry Magtanggol,
during the war), and Miguel Ver, was formed at Ver’s house in San Juan, Manila. After the surrender of
Bataan, the group moved to Antipolo.

During the latter stages of the war, the Hunters ROTC guerrillas cut Japanese communication
lines, blew up roads and bridges, and destroyed convoys passing through their territory. Their newspaper,
Thunderclap, which came out in 1943, oftentimes changed its place of publication to confuse the enemy
forces.

Other guerrilla units were established in Central Luzon. In Bulacan, Captain Alejo S. Santos, “C”
Company, 31stInfantry of the USAFFE, who escaped the Death March from Bataan at Batis, Pampanga,
organized the Philippine Legion at his hometown Bustos. Captain Santos and his comrades wanted to
continue the battle against the enemy forces. No longer did they want to suffer silently in pain.

In August 1943, Captain Bernard L. Anderson, a U.S. Airforce officer, took command of the
USAFFE Luzon Guerrilla Army Forces and appointed Captain Santos as his personal representative in
the area. On October 12, 1943, Captain Anderson issued a directive confirming Captain Santos command
over Bulacan Military Area (BMA).

BMA had four regiments at the start. By the middle of 1944, it had a force over 18,000. The
BMA was regrouped into !0 regiments as follow: Valenzuela Regiment (Meycauayan, Marilao, Bocaue,
Polo, and Obando); Republic Regiment (Malolos and Paombong); Del Pilar Regiment (Hagonoy and
Calumpit); Kakarong Regiment (Plaridel, Guinguinto, and Bigaa); M. Ponce Regiment (Baliuag, Pulilan
And Bustos); Buenavista Regiment (San Ildenfonso and San Rafael); Natividad regiment (Northern San
Miguel); Biak-na-Bato Regiment (Southern San Miguel); Mountain Regiment (Angat and Norzaragay)
and the Batute Regiment (San Jose and Sta. Maria). These regiments were named after famous
personages and places in the province of Bulacan.

Daring assaults were mounted by the BMA fighters against the Japanese garrison in Malolos and
in the other towns in Bulacan. Military intelligence reports continuously needed by General Headquarters
Southwest Pacific Area (GHQ-SWPA) were supplied by the BMA.

In August 1944, the submarine Nawarhal landed arms and ammunition, signal equipment, and
other supplies at the Kalayaan Headquarters of Major Anderson in Infanta, Tayabas. Salanga Point, just
off the mouth of Masanga River became the surface point of the Nawarhal submarine. Some officers and
men of the BMA, together with some loyal Dumagats of the mountains journeyed across the Sierra Madre
Mountains to bring the military supplies to Bulacan.

Together with the group of Americans was Captain Bartolome Cabangbang. He manned the
Philippine Islands Detachment of the Allied Intelligence Bureau. A graduate of Philippine Military
Academy, Capt. Cabangbang fought in Bataan and Corregidor. He was released from Capas
Concentration Camp ti be trained at the Philippine Constabulary School. He has able to escape in October
1942 and later joined Capt. Villamor in Negros Occidental. He boarded submarine Gabriela to Australia
and thereon was trained in communications jungle warfare.

Airstrips were also constructed by the BMA guerrillas for the emergency landing of American
airmen like the ones found at Akle in San Ildefonso, at Atlag, Malolos and Bustos. Each of these airstrips
had a runway of about 600 yards right for L-5s, which required 200 yards to get airborne.

These airstrips did facilitate the transport of supplies and men from the army posts in Lengayen
and Dagupan to Bulacan guerrilla headquarters and vice versa. All units of the BMA were alerted for any
ill-fated plane that would need help. They were set to rescue these pilots before they could fall into the
hands of the Japanese. Their other concern was retrieving whatever equipment remained intact in the
damaged planes.

On November 16,1944, three men from Admiral William Hasley’s Third Fleet belonging to the
carrier USS Essex were rescued by the Republic Regiment. (Hasley’s fleet had undertaken air strikes in
the Visayas prior to General MacArthur’s landing in Leyte). They were later on escorted to BMA
headquarters. Among those ferried from Akle (home base of BMA) to San Jose, Mindoro were Colonel
Gwen G. Atkinson, Lt. Floyd Fulkerson, Yates Hicky, Russel Reed, and Landry.

On January 4,1945 at Camp Jerusalem, the first air drops in Luzon were done by giant B-25s of
the US Air Force. Crated TNT (trinitrotoluene), arms and ammunitions, medicines, rations and radios for
the BMA were dropped. On the evening of January 9,1945, the Sixth Army, under Gen. Walter Krueger,
landed 68,000 combat troops. Some army units rolled eastward to Nueva Ecija and turned to Pozorrubio-
Rosario-Aringay Line. Others penetrated the Pampanga and Pangasinan areas- all of them, including the
37th Division entered through Bulacan Towns.

In Southern Luzon, the PQOG (President Quezon’s Own Guerrillas) engaged in guerrilla warfare
against the Japanese in Cavite, Laguna, Batangas and Quezon Province. In the Bicol region, former
Assemblyman and Governor Wenceslao Vinzons, headed the guerrilla activities in the area.

The guerrilla movement in Samar and Leyte was led by Colonel Ruperto Kangleon; while
Colonel Macario Peralta of Tarlac headed in Panay Island with Governor Tomas Confessor as the civilian
leader. In Mindanao, Tomas Cabili, Salipada Pendatun and Wendell Fertig organized the guerrillas in the
region.

Another guerrilla unit that confronted the Japanese forces was the communist-led Hukbo ng
Bayan Laban sa Hapon known as the Hukbalahap. The organization was founded on March 29, 1942 in a
forest near the boundaries of Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and Tarlac. Luis Taruc was chosen chairman of the
committee. Casto Alejandrino (GY), became second in command.

Other Huk leaders were Bernardo Poblete (Banal) from Minalin, Eusebio Aquino from
Magalang, and Felipa Calula (Dayang-Dayang) from Candaba. Other Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas
(PKP) members who became leaders of Hukbalahap aside from Taruc and Alejandrino were Lope de la
Rosa and Mariano Franco. “Anti-Japanese Above All” became battlecry of this underground movement,
mostly consisting of peasants and workers.

The guiding principles of the Huks were found in this document, The Fundamental Spirit. The
duties and privileges of a Huk soldier were discussed in another document, The Iron Discipline. The kind
of discipline imposed on its members was quite tough. Members found deviating from the rules of the
organization were reportedly liquidated in the name of the unity. For instance, Dayang-Dayang was
executed by her own men.

Katubusan ng Bayan (Redemption of the People) was the principal Huk publication, which
started in mid-1942. It was issued weekly with between 3,000 to 5,000 copies mimeographed. Its editors
included peasant leaders, trade unionists from Manila and university people. They chronicled the Huk
victories against the Japanese.

There were some Filipinos who chose to cooperate with the Japanese and aided them in
apprehending the guerrillas and their supporters. These fanatical pro-Japanese included the Ganaps, the
Pulahanes, the Palaaks, the United Nippon, the Pampars and the MAKAPILIs.

The Ganaps were the former pro-Japanese Sakdalistas who served as spies for the Japanese
military authorities while the Pulahanes (from Samar, pula means red) acted as a guides for the Japanese
in their efforts to arrest the people who supported the guerrilla cause.

The Palaaks, armed with bamboo spears, worked as guards for the Japanese army while the
United Nippon (U.N.), armed with rifles, wore army uniforms as part of the Japanese military. The
members were recruited from the Ganap Party.
 The Pampars (Pambansang Pag-asa ng mga Anak ni Rizal) were also armed with rifles. The
Japanese military authorities in Pililla, Rizal Province organized the group in 1943. The group members
wore blue denim uniforms with short pants.

The most dreadful one, the MAKAPILI (Makabayan: Katipunan ng mga Pilipino) was headed by
General Artemio Ricarte, Benigno Ramos, and Pio Duran. This group was organized after the American
liberation forces had already entered the Philippine territory. MAKAPILI was formally launched in
Manila on December 8, 1944, amidst a gala ceremony attended by General Yamashita, President Laurel,
Ricarte, Ramos, Duran, and other high officials.

In June 1944, the Battle of the Philippines Sea began. The air raid strikes started in Guam to
neutralize Japanese offensive. In desperation, Japanese suicide pilots known as kamikaze (meaning,
divine wind in Japan) engaged in dog-fight air battles against American warplanes. By August 9, the
American fighter planes began their devastating raids on Japanese military installations in Mindanao,
Visayas, and Manila. Casualties ran high in the Pacific because of the Japanese feeling that surrender
meant dishonor (Perry, et. Al., 1989:711).

On September 21, 1944, President Laurel proclaimed Martial Law in the country by virtue of
Proclamation No. 29. News about General MacArthur’s Pacific Forces nearing the Philippines through
the newspaper, The Tribune, and short wave radiobroadcasts made the Japanese fiercer and more
distrustful. Japanese raiding forces swooped into barrios and assembled all men in the barrio chapels to be
warned against subversive acts. More zonas were conducted. The male residents were detained for days.

On October 20, 1944, the Leyte beaches were severely bombarded by American bombers and fighter
planes. The new P-38 fighter planes had proven its prowess in air battles. With faster velocity to go up at
a higher altitude, the planes pounded the Japanese planes bellow with bullets from 30/50 caliber
machine guns. The path to Leyte Gulf, the greatest naval battle in history was fought from October 24 to
26. Simultaneously with this naval warfare were the following battles: the Battle of Surigao Strait, the
Battle of Samar, and the Battle of Cape Engaño.

On December 21, 1944, President Laurel and his Cabinet moved to Baguio. The Japanese forces
retreated to the “Yamashita Line,” a battlefront stretching along the jungle of Sierra Madre from
Antipolo to Aparri. While retreating, the Japanese took some provisions from the Filipino civilians,
massacred innocent people, and burned town and villages.

Despite kamizake attack, landings were made at Lingayen Gulf on January 9, 1945. Other
American troops landed in Zambales, Tagaytay, and Batangas. The U.S. Sixth Army, with its headquarters
in Dagupan City, had issued on February 2, a letter of instruction calling for coordination of all guerrilla
units in Central Luzon in combat operations against enemy forces. The units of the Sixth Army were seen
riding in a new type of vehicle, which was later learned to be jeeps. (The army jeeps left by the
Americans after the World War II inspired the making of the Philippine jeepney, resized and remodeled
to accommodate commuting passengers numbering from 20 to 30, making it a smaller version of a bus).
Others boarded armored cars and half trucks.
 On February 3, an American cavalry division entered Grace Park in the Northern outskirts of
Manila. With Filipino guerrillas as guides, they rescued the suffering prisoners at the Santo Tomas
Internment Camp.

By March 3, 1945 the Americans had won the war in Manila. Baguio was captured from the
Japanese on April 26. By July 4, the Americans had officially completed liberating Luzon.

The Japanese made their last stand in Northern Luzon. The US 6 th infantry entered Kiangan,
Ifugao Province and engaged in series of close fighting. The so-called “Million Dollar Hill” sheltered 14 th
Area Army under the overall command of General Tomoyuki Yamashita known as the “Tiger of Malaya”
and his elite officers.

There were three infantry divisions to entrap the enemies – the USAFIP NL, the 6 th Division, the
32nd Division. The Buenavista boys, detailed with the 6 th Division and 32nd Division, were the first ones to
come near the mouth of the hill. The major obstacle in blasting the place was the Japanese woodpecker
machine gun.

After four months in its Northern Luzon drive, the Buenavista Regiment’s task finally ended.
Japan formally announced through radio broadcast its final surrender on August 14 after the bombing of
Hiroshima and later Nagasaki on August 6 and August 9, respectively. Two days later, front line units of
the USAFIP NL received Volckmann’s order to cease firing.

Negotiations for the surrender of General Yamashita and his troops began after a Filipino Officer
2 Lt. Macario A. Abarillo, leading a patrol of the 15 th Infantry Combat Company had penetrated into
nd

enemy lines northwest of Kiangan.

The Kiangan campaign ended on September 2,1945. General Yamashita finally ordered his men
to lay down their arms. The surrender was administered by 1 st Battalion of the 14th Infantry, supported
by other units of the US 6th Division. It was also on that day that Japan formally accepted defeat upon
signing a treaty on board USS Missouri at Tokyo Bay. Ten days after the formal surrender, Laurel was
arrested by the U.S. Army. He was confined in Sugamo Prison for almost a year and returned to Manila
in July 1946.

From Kiangan, the Japanese officers and their respective staff were brought down by trucks to
Bagabag, Nueva Viscaya and flown to Luna, La Union and finally brought up in jeeps to the American
High Commissioner’s Residence at Camp John Hay, Baguio City for the formal surrender.

From Baguio, Yamashita and his staff were brought to the National Bilibid Prison in MumtinLupa.
Yamashita went in trial in October 1945 before U.S War crimes Commission was convicted of war
atrocities on December 7.

President Osmena, who succeeded the late President Quezon, tackled the task of rehabilitating
the land, which had been cruelly damaged by war. Quezon died on August 1, 1994 while in exile in
Saranac Lake, New York. Three after the Leyte landing, Osmena was already given the power to govern
all territories liberated by the U.S forces. This took place at a public ceremony headed by General
McArthur.

On March 7,1945, President Osmena sign an Executive Order providing for the restoration of the
executive departments of the government as they existed prior to Japanese occupation. The order,
dated February 27, also created the department of information as part of the Department of Public
Instruction.

On March8, the President sworn into office the new members of the Cabinet. He also outlined
the principles of his government. These included the adherence of the principles of freedom and
democracy and the establishment of the social and political system where in the government officials
and employees are servant of the people. The government reaffirmed the principle of Filipino-American
collaboration.

The Philippines at that time was practically without funds. Production at the onset was very slow
owing to lack of capital to finance the rehabilitation of destroyed machinery and other equipment. In
the early months of reoccupation, the United States attended to the needs of the local populace. The
Philippine Civil Affairs Unit of the United States Army (PCAU) became the principal agency for relief
distribution in Manila and the provinces. It also proceeded to remove municipal officials elected by Huks
and replace them with USAFEE guerrillas (ideologically different from the Hucks).

General McArthur known to be a man of action, at that time made important decisions for the
President. He advised President Osmena to immediately convoke the Congress, for it was part of the
policy of the American government to restore constitutional government in the Philippines as soon as
law and order had been established.

Osmena was reluctant at first, believing that the government might fall into the hands of
collaborators whom the American government suspected of treason. Nevertheless on June 9, 1945, the
first congress of the Philippines convened for the first time since the election of its members on
November 11, 1941 with Senator Manuel A. Roxas chosen as President of the Senate. By July 4, 1945,
the Commonwealth was reestablished in Manila. President Osmena offered Roxas beforehand to go to
Washington as Philippine resident commissioner but the later refused. Roxas at that time was having in
mine his candidacy for presidency. Two days later, on May 26, 1945 he instructed his men to launch his
bid for the position. The worsening relations between Osmena and Roxas reached its climax when Roxas
left the Nacionalista Party and organized his own party, the Liberal Party. He took many Nacionaliatas
with him.

The election of April 23, 1946 resulted in the victory of the Liberal Party with Roxas and Quirino
as the elected President and Vice-President, respectively. Their party won nine out of 16 contested
senatorial seats .

On May 6, 1946, Roxas was inaugurated as the last President of the Philippine Commonwealth.
The inaugural ceremonies were held on the grounds of the Legislative Building. In his inaugural address
as the last President of the Commonwealth, he cited the groundwork of his administration – to rebuiled
the economy from the ruins of war. He also advocated the establishment of political and economic ties
with America, to help in the rehabilitation of the islands.