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Introduction To Smooth Manifolds PDF
Introduction To Smooth Manifolds PDF
Smooth Manifolds
Theorem 1. [Exercise 1.18] Let M be a topological manifold. Then any two smooth
atlases for M determine the same smooth structure if and only if their union is a smooth
atlas.
Proof. Suppose A1 and A2 are two smooth atlases for M that determine the same
smooth structure A. Then A1 , A2 ⊆ A, so A1 ∪ A2 must be a smooth atlas since every
chart in A1 is compatible with every chart in A2 . Conversely, if A1 ∪ A2 is a smooth
atlas then the smooth structures determined by A1 and A2 both contain A1 ∪ A2 . But
there is exactly one smooth structure containing A1 ∪ A2 , so A1 and A2 determine the
same smooth structure.
Theorem 2. [Exercise 1.44] Let M be a smooth n-manifold with boundary and let U
be an open subset of M .
(1) U is a topological n-manifold with boundary, and the atlas consisting of all
smooth charts (V, ϕ) for M such that V ⊆ U defines a smooth structure on
U . With this topology and smooth structure, U is called an open submanifold
with boundary.
(2) If U ⊆ Int M , then U is actually a smooth manifold (without boundary); in this
case we call it an open submanifold of M .
(3) Int M is an open submanifold of M (without boundary).
Proof. Parts (1) and (2) are obvious. Part (3) follows from (2) and the fact that Int M
is an open subset of M .
Theorem 3. [Problem 1-6] Let M be a nonempty topological manifold of dimension
n ≥ 1. If M has a smooth structure, then it has uncountably many distinct ones.
Proof. We use the fact that for any s > 0, Fs (x) = |x|s−1 x defines a homeomorphism
from Bn to itself, which is a diffeomorphism if and only if s = 1. Let A be a smooth
structure for M and choose some coordinate map ϕ : U → Bn centered at some p ∈ U .
Let A0 be the smooth atlas obtained by replacing every coordinate map ψ : V → R in
A with ψ 0 : V ∩ (M \ {p}) → R, except when ψ = ϕ. For any s > 0, let As be the
smooth atlas obtained from A0 by replacing ϕ with Fs ◦ ϕ. Since Fs is a diffeomorphism
if and only if s = 1, the smooth structures determined by As and At are the same if and
only if s = t. This shows that there are uncountably many distinct smooth structures
on M .
Theorem 4. [Problem 1-8] An angle function on a subset U ⊆ S1 is a continuous
function θ : U → R such that eiθ(z) = z for all z ∈ U . There exists an angle function θ
on an open subset U ⊆ S1 if and only if U 6= S1 . For any such angle function, (U, θ) is
a smooth coordinate chart for S1 with its standard smooth structure.
1
2
Proof. The first part follows from the lifting criterion (Proposition A.78). By rotating
R2 appropriately, we may assume that N = (0, 1) ∈ / U . Let σ : S1 \ {N } → R be the
stereographic projection given by σ(x , x ) = x /(1 − x2 ). We can compute
1 2 1
cos α
(σ ◦ θ−1 )(α) = ,
1 − sin α
which is a diffeomorphism on θ(U ).
Theorem 5. [Problem 1-10] Let k and n be integers satisfying 0 < k < n, and let
P, Q ⊆ Rn be the linear subspaces spanned by (e1 , . . . , ek ) and (ek+1 , . . . , en ), respec-
tively, where ei is the ith standard basis vector for Rn . For any k-dimensional subspace
S ⊆ Rn that has trivial intersection with Q, the coordinate representation ϕ(S) con-
structed in Example 1.36 istheunique (n − k) × k matrix B such that S is spanned by
Ik
the columns of the matrix , where Ik denotes the k × k identity matrix.
B
Proof. Let B = {e1 , . . . , ek }. The matrix of ϕ(S) represents the linear map (πQ |S ) ◦
(πP |S )−1 . Since πP |S is an isomorphism, the vectors (πP |S )−1 (B) form a basis for S.
But then
(IdRn |S ◦ (πP |S )−1 )(B) = ((πP |S + πQ |S ) ◦ (πP |S )−1 )(B)
= (IdP +πQ |S ◦ (πP |S )−1 )(B)
is a basis for S. This is precisely the result desired.
Theorem 6. [Problem 1-12] Suppose M1 , . . . , Mk are smooth manifolds and N is a
smooth manifold with boundary. Then M1 × · · · × Mk × N is a smooth manifold with
boundary, and ∂(M1 × · · · × Mk × N ) = M1 × · · · × Mk × ∂N .
Proof. If p ∈ U then there is a smooth chart (V, ψ) for M such that f ◦ ψ −1 is smooth
and p ∈ V . But on ϕ(U ∩ V ) we have
f ◦ ϕ−1 = f ◦ ψ −1 ◦ ψ ◦ ϕ−1 ,
which is smooth since ψ ◦ ϕ−1 is smooth. This shows that f ◦ ϕ−1 is smooth in a
neighborhood of every point in ϕ(U ), so f ◦ ϕ−1 is smooth.
Theorem 10. [Exercise 2.7(1)] Suppose M and N are smooth manifolds with or without
boundary, and F : M → N is a map. Then F is smooth if and only if either of the
following conditions is satisfied:
(1) For every p ∈ M , there exist smooth charts (U, ϕ) containing p and (V, ψ)
containing F (p) such that U ∩ F −1 (V ) is open in M and the composite map
ψ ◦ F ◦ ϕ−1 is smooth from ϕ (U ∩ F −1 (V )) to ψ(V ).
(2) F is continuous and there exist smooth atlases {(Uα , ϕα )} and {(Vβ , ψβ )} for M
and N , respectively, such that for each α and β, ψβ ◦ F ◦ ϕ−1
α is a smooth map
−1
from ϕα (Uα ∩ F (Vβ )) to ψβ (Vβ ).
Proof. (1) is obvious, as is (2) ⇒ (1). If (1) holds then F is continuous by Proposition
2.4, and we can choose the smooth atlases to be the smooth structures for M and N .
For every α and β the map ψβ ◦ F ◦ ϕ−1 α is smooth since for all p ∈ M we can find
smooth coordinate maps ϕ containing p and ψ containing F (p) such that
ψβ ◦ F ◦ ϕ−1
α = ψβ ◦ ψ
−1
◦ ψ ◦ F ◦ ϕ ◦ ϕ−1 ◦ ϕ−1
α
on a small neighborhood around ϕα (p); this map is smooth since the above charts are
all smoothly compatible.
Theorem 11. [Exercise 2.7(2)] Let M and N be smooth manifolds with or without
boundary, and let F : M → N be a map.
(1) If every point p ∈ M has a neighborhood U such that the restriction F |U is
smooth, then F is smooth.
(2) Conversely, if F is smooth, then its restriction to every open subset is smooth.
4
Proof. (1) is obvious. For (2), let E be an open subset of M . Let p ∈ E and choose
smooth charts (U, ϕ) containing p and (V, ψ) containing F (p) such that F (U ) ⊆ V and
ψ ◦ F ◦ ϕ−1 is smooth. By restricting ϕ to U ∩ E, we find that F |E is also smooth.
Theorem 12. [Exercise 2.9] Suppose F : M → N is a smooth map between smooth
manifolds with or without boundary. Then the coordinate representation of F with
respect to every pair of smooth charts for M and N is smooth.
Proof. If M 6= ∅ then let y be the constant value that c assumes and let (V, ψ) be a
smooth chart containing y. If x ∈ M and (U, ϕ) is any smooth chart containing x then
ψ ◦ c ◦ ϕ−1 is constant and therefore smooth. This proves (1). Part (2) follows from the
fact that any two coordinate maps for M are smoothly compatible. For (3), if p ∈ U
and (E, ϕ) is any smooth chart in U containing p then ϕ ◦ ϕ−1 = Idϕ(E) is smooth.
Theorem 14. [Exercise 2.16]
(1) Every composition of diffeomorphisms is a diffeomorphism.
(2) Every finite product of diffeomorphisms between smooth manifolds is a diffeo-
morphism.
(3) Every diffeomorphism is a homeomorphism and an open map.
(4) The restriction of a diffeomorphism to an open submanifold with or without
boundary is a diffeomorphism onto its image.
(5) “Diffeomorphic” is an equivalence relation on the class of all smooth manifolds
with or without boundary.
Proof. It suffices to show that F (∂M ) ⊆ ∂N , for then F (Int M ) = Int N by Theorem
1.46 and F |Int M is a diffeomorphism by Theorem 14. Let x ∈ ∂M and choose smooth
charts (U, ϕ) containing x and (V, ψ) containing F (x) such that ϕ(x) ∈ ∂Hn , F (U ) = V
and ψ ◦ F ◦ ϕ−1 is a diffeomorphism. Then ϕ ◦ F −1 is a smooth coordinate map sending
F (x) to ϕ(x) ∈ ∂Hn , so F (x) ∈ ∂N by definition.
Example 16. [Exercise 2.27] Give a counterexample to show that the conclusion of
the extension lemma can be false if A is not closed.
Take f (x) = 1/x defined on R \ {0}.
Example 17. [Problem 2-1] Define f : R → R by
(
1, x ≥ 0,
f (x) =
0, x < 0.
Show that for every x ∈ R, there are smooth coordinate charts (U, ϕ) containing x and
(V, ψ) containing f (x) such that ψ ◦ f ◦ ϕ−1 is smooth as a map from ϕ (U ∩ f −1 (V ))
to ψ(V ), but f is not smooth as defined in this chapter.
f is clearly smooth on R\{0}. If x = 0 then ϕ = Id(−1,1) is a coordinate map containing
x and ψ = Id(1/2,3/2) is a coordinate map containing f (x) = 1 such that ψ ◦ f ◦ ϕ−1 is
smooth on ϕ ((−1, 1) ∩ f −1 ((1/2, 3/2))) = ϕ ([0, 1)) = [0, 1). However, f is clearly not
smooth since it is not continuous at 0.
Theorem 18. Let M1 , . . . , Mk−1 be smooth manifolds without boundary and let Mk be
a smooth manifold with boundary. Then each projection map πi : M1 × · · · × Mk → Mi
is smooth.
Proof. For simplicity we assume that Mk is a smooth manifold with boundary. From
Proposition 2.10(d) it is clear that every Fi is smooth if F is smooth. Suppose that
each Fi is smooth and let x ∈ N . For each i, choose smooth charts (Ui , ϕi ) containing x
and (Vi , ψi ) containing Fi (x) such that ψi ◦ Fi ◦ ϕ−1 −1
i = ψi ◦ πi ◦ F ◦ ϕi . Replace U1 with
6
Proof. It is clear that f is smooth on Int Bn = Bn . For points on ∂Bn , the map provided
by Problem 3-4 in [[1]] is a suitable coordinate map.
Theorem 21. [Problem 2-7] Let M be a nonempty smooth n-manifold with or without
boundary, and suppose n ≥ 1. Then the vector space C ∞ (M ) is infinite-dimensional.
Proof. We first show that any collection {fα } from C ∞ (M ) with nonempty disjoint
supports is linearly independent. Suppose there exist r1 , . . . , rk ∈ R such that
r1 fα1 + · · · + rk fαk = 0
where α1 , . . . , αk are distinct. For each i, choose some xi ∈ supp fαi such that fαi (xi ) 6=
0. Then
ri fαi (xi ) = (r1 fα1 + · · · + rk fαk )(xi ) = 0,
so ri = 0 since fαi (xi ) 6= 0.
Choose some coordinate cube U ⊆ M and a homeomorphism ϕ : U → (0, 1)n . For each
i = 1, 2, . . . , let Bi = (0, 1)n−1 × (1/(i + 1), 1/i) and let Ai be any nonempty closed
subset of Bi . By Proposition 2.25, there is a smooth bump function fi for ϕ−1 (Ai )
supported in ϕ−1 (Bi ). Furthermore, since the sets {ϕ−1 (Bi )} are disjoint, the functions
{fi } are linearly independent. This shows that C ∞ (M ) is infinite-dimensional.
Theorem 22. [Problem 2-8] Define F : Rn → RPn by F (x1 , . . . , xn ) = [x1 , . . . , xn , 1].
Then F is a diffeomorphism onto a dense open subset of RPn . A similar statement
holds for G : Cn → CPn defined by G(z 1 , . . . , z n ) = [z 1 , . . . , z n , 1].
G
C CP1
p pe
C CP1
G
Proof. We can assume that p is not constant, for otherwise the result is clear. For any
z = [z1 , z2 ] ∈ CP1 , define
(
[p(z1 /z2 ), 1], z2 6= 0,
pe(z) =
[1, 0], z2 = 0.
The map pe clearly satisfies the given diagram and is smooth on the image of G, so it
remains to show that pe is smooth in a neighborhood of [1, 0]. Define a diffeomorphism
H : C → CP1 by
H(z) = [1, z];
by definition, (H(C), H −1 ) is a smooth chart for CP1 . We can compute
(H −1 ◦ pe ◦ H)(z) = (H −1 ◦ pe)[1, z]
(
H −1 [p(1/z), 1], z =6 0,
= −1
H [1, 0], z = 0,
(
1/p(1/z), z 6= 0,
=
0, z = 0,
and it is easy to check that this map is smooth in a neighborhood of 0 whenever
p is non-constant (since 1/p(1/z) is a rational function in z). This shows that pe is
smooth.
Theorem 24. [Problem 2-10] For any topological space M , let C(M ) denote the algebra
of continuous functions f : M → R. Given a continuous map F : M → N , define
F ∗ : C(N ) → C(M ) by F ∗ (f ) = f ◦ F .
Proof. Obvious.
Theorem 26. [Problem 2-14] Suppose A and B are disjoint closed subsets of a smooth
manifold M . There exists f ∈ C ∞ (M ) such that 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1 for all x ∈ M ,
f −1 (0) = A, and f −1 (1) = B.
Proof. By Theorem 2.29, there are functions fA , fB : M → R such that fA−1 ({0}) = A
and fB−1 ({0}) = B; the function defined by
fA (x)
f (x) =
fA (x) + fB (x)
satisfies the required properties.
Theorem 27. [Exercise 3.7] Let M , N and P be smooth manifolds with or without
boundary, let F : M → N and G : N → P be smooth maps, and let p ∈ M .
Example 28. [Exercise 3.17] Let (x, y) denote the standard coordinates on R2 . Verify
x, ye) are global smooth coordinates on R2 , where
that (e
x
e = x, ye = y + x3 .
Let p be the point (1, 0) ∈ R2 (in standard coordinates), and show that
∂ ∂
6= ,
∂x p ∂e
x p
even though the coordinate functions x and x
e are identically equal.
Since an inverse to (x, y) 7→ (x, y + x3 ) is given by (e
x, ye) 7→ (e e3 ), the coordinates
x, ye − x
are smooth and global. Now
∂ ∂ ∂
= +3 ,
∂x p ∂ex p ∂e
y p
∂ ∂
= ,
∂y p ∂ey p
so ∂/∂x|p 6= ∂/∂e
x|p .
Theorem 29. Let X be a connected topological space and let ∼ be an equivalence
relation on X. If every x ∈ X has a neighborhood U such that p ∼ q for every p, q ∈ U ,
then p ∼ q for every p, q ∈ X.
10
n o
n
Proof. Since Bj = ∂/∂x1j p
,..., is a basis for Tpj Mj , the set α−1 (B1 ∪
∂/∂xj j p
j j
· · · ∪ Bk ) = β(B1 ∪ · · · ∪ Bk ) is a basis for Tp (M1 × · · · × Mk ). But
! !
∂ ∂
β (f ) = d(ej )pj (f )
∂xij p ∂xij p
j j
!
∂
= d(ej ◦ ϕ−1
j )ϕj (pj ) (f )
∂xij ϕ (p )
j j
∂(f ◦ ej ◦ ϕ−1
j )
= (ϕj (pj ))
∂xij
∂(f ◦ ϕ−1 )
= (ϕ(p))
∂exij
12
!
∂
= d(ϕ−1 )ϕ(p) (f )
xij ϕ(p)
∂e
∂
= (f ),
xij p
∂e
which proves (1). For (2), we compute the jth component of α(v) as
! !
sr ∂ ∂
X X
sr
d(πj )p v (f ) = v d(πj )p (f )
r,s
xrs p
∂e r,s
xrs p
∂e
X ∂(f ◦ πj ◦ ϕ−1 )
= v jr (ϕ(p))
r
xrj
∂e
X ∂(f ◦ ϕ−1
jr j )
= v r
(ϕj (pj ))
r
∂xj
!
X ∂
= v ji i
(f ).
i
∂x j p j
Theorem 34. [Problem 3-3] If M and N are smooth manifolds, then T (M × N ) is
diffeomorphic to T M × T N .
Proof. Let m and n denote the dimensions of M and N respectively. For each (p, q) ∈
M × N , there is an isomorphism α(p,q) : T(p,q) (M × N ) → Tp M ⊕ Tq N as in Theorem
32. Define a bijection F : T (M × N ) → T M × T N by sending each tangent vector
v ∈ T(p,q) (M × N ) to α(p,q) (v). For any (p, q) ∈ M × N , choose smooth charts (U, ϕ)
containing p and (V, ψ) containing q. Let π : T (M × N ) → M × N be the natural
projection map. Then ρ = ϕ × ψ is a smooth coordinate map for M × N , ρe : π −1 (U ×
V ) → R2(m+n) is a smooth coordinate map for T (M ×N ), and ϕ×e ψe : π −1 (U )×π −1 (V ) →
2(m+n)
R is a smooth coordinate map for T M × T N . By Theorem 33 the coordinate
representation of F is
F (x1 , . . . , xm , y 1 , . . . , y n , v 1 , . . . , v m+n )
= (x1 , . . . , xm , v 1 , . . . , v m , y 1 , . . . , y n , v m+1 , . . . , v m+n )
which is clearly smooth. Similarly, F −1 is also smooth.
Theorem 35. [Problem 3-4] T S1 is diffeomorphic to S1 × R.
Proof. We begin by showing that for each z ∈ S1 we can choose an associated tangent
vector vz ∈ Tz S1 . Let θ : U → R be any angle function defined on a neighborhood of
13
Proof. If γ1 , γ2 ∈ [γ] then γ10 (0)(f ) = (f ◦ γ1 )0 (0) = (f ◦ γ2 )0 (0) = γ20 (0)(f ), which
shows that ψ is well-defined. The same argument shows that ψ is injective. Finally,
Proposition 3.23 shows that ψ is surjective.
Proof. Let F : M → N and G : N → P be smooth maps; parts (1) and (2) follow from
the fact that d(G ◦ F )x = dGF (x) ◦ dFx . For (3), define F : R → R2 and G : R2 → R by
F (x) = (1, x), G(x, y) = x + y 2
so that
0
DF (x) = , DG(x, y) = 1 2y , D(G ◦ F )(x) = 2x.
1
Theorem 40. [Exercise 4.7]
(1) Every composition of local diffeomorphisms is a local diffeomorphism.
(2) Every finite product of local diffeomorphisms between smooth manifolds is a local
diffeomorphism.
(3) Every local diffeomorphism is a local homeomorphism and an open map.
(4) The restriction of a local diffeomorphism to an open submanifold with or without
boundary is a local diffeomorphism.
(5) Every diffeomorphism is a local diffeomorphism.
(6) Every bijective local diffeomorphism is a diffeomorphism.
(7) A map between smooth manifolds with or without boundary is a local diffeomor-
phism if and only if in a neighborhood of each point of its domain, it has a
coordinate representation that is a local diffeomorphism.
Theorem 41. [Exercise 4.10] Suppose M , N , P are smooth manifolds with or without
boundary, and F : M → N is a local diffeomorphism.
(1) If G : P → M is continuous, then G is smooth if and only if F ◦ G is smooth.
(2) If in addition F is surjective and G : N → P is any map, then G is smooth if
and only if G ◦ F is smooth.
Proof. For (1), if F ◦ G is smooth and x ∈ P then there are neighborhoods U of G(x)
and V of (F ◦ G)(x) such that F |U : U → V is a diffeomorphism, so G|G−1 (U ) =
(F |U )−1 ◦ (F ◦ G)|G−1 (U ) is smooth. By Theorem 11, G is smooth. For (2), if G ◦ F
is smooth and x ∈ N then there is a point p ∈ M such that x = F (p), and there are
neighborhoods U of p and V of x such that F |U : U → V is a diffeomorphism. Then
G|V = G ◦ F ◦ (F |U )−1 is smooth, so G is smooth by Theorem 11.
Example 42. [Exercise 4.24] Give an example of a smooth embedding that is neither
an open nor a closed map.
Let X = [0, 1) and Y = [−1, 1], and let f : X → Y be the identity map on X. Then
f is a smooth embedding, X is both open and closed, but f (X) is neither open nor
closed.
Example 43. [Exercise 4.27] Give an example of a smooth map that is a topological
submersion but not a smooth submersion.
Consider f (x) = x3 at x = 0.
Theorem 44. [Exercise 4.32] Suppose that M , N1 , and N2 are smooth manifolds, and
π1 : M → N1 and π2 : M → N2 are surjective submersions that are constant on
each other’s fibers. Then there exists a unique diffeomorphism F : N1 → N2 such that
F ◦ π1 = π2 .
Proof. Theorem 4.30 shows that there are unique smooth maps π e1 : N2 → N1 and
e2 : N1 → N2 such that π1 = π
π e1 ◦ π2 and π2 = π
e2 ◦ π1 . Then π
e2 ◦ π
e1 ◦ π2 = πe2 ◦ π1 = π2 ,
e2 ◦ π
so π e1 = IdN2 by the uniqueness part of Theorem 4.30. Similarly, π e1 ◦ π
e2 = IdN1 .
Theorem 45. [Exercise 4.33]
(1) Every smooth covering map is a local diffeomorphism, a smooth submersion, an
open map, and a quotient map.
(2) An injective smooth covering map is a diffeomorphism.
(3) A topological covering map is a smooth covering map if and only if it is a local
diffeomorphism.
Proof. This is true for topological covering maps. But any finite product of local dif-
feomorphisms is a local diffeomorphism, so the result follows from Theorem 45.
Theorem 48. Suppose π : E → M is a smooth covering map. If U ⊆ M is evenly cov-
ered in the topological sense, then π maps each component of π −1 (U ) diffeomorphically
onto U .
Proof. Let n be the dimension of M , which is the same as the dimension of N . Suppose
F (p) ∈ ∂N . Choose smooth charts (U, ϕ) centered at p and (V, ψ) centered at F (p)
such that ψ(V ) ⊆ Hn , F (U ) ⊆ V and ψ(F (p)) = 0. Let Fe = ψ ◦ F ◦ ϕ−1 . Then dFe0
is invertible, so the inverse function theorem shows that there are neighborhoods Ue0 of
0 and Ve0 of 0 open in Rn such that Fe|Ue0 : Ue0 → Ve0 is a diffeomorphism. But Ve0 is a
neighborhood of 0 open in R and contained in Hn , which is impossible.
n
Example 53. [Problem 4-4] Let γ : R → T2 be the curve of Example 4.20. The image
set γ(R) is dense in T2 .
Let (z1 , z2 ) ∈ T2 and choose s1 , s2 ∈ R so that e2πis1 = z1 and e2πis2 = z2 . Then
γ(s1 + n) = (e2πis1 , e2πiαs1 e2πiαn ), so it remains to show that
S = e2πiαn : n ∈ Z
is dense in S1 whenever α is irrational. Let ε > 0. By Lemma 4.21, there exist integers
n, m such that |nα − m| < ε. Let θ = nα − m so that
e2πiθ = e2πiαn ∈ S
and θ 6= 0 since α is irrational. Any integer power of e2πiθ is also a member of S, and
since ε was arbitrary, we can approximate any point on S1 by taking powers of e2πiθ .
18
Example 54. We identify S3 with the set (z, w) ∈ C2 : |z|2 + |w|2 = 1 . Let p : C →
Proof. Let (z1 , . . . , zn+1 ) ∈ Cn+1 \{0} and assume without loss of generality that zn+1 6=
0. We have a coordinate map ϕ given by
w1 wn
[w1 , . . . , wn , wn+1 ] 7→ ,..., .
wn+1 wn+1
Then −1 −2
wn+1 0 ··· 0 −w1 wn+1
−1 −2
0
0 wn+1 ··· 0 −w2 wn+1
(ϕ ◦ π) (w1 , . . . , wn+1 ) = .. .. .. .. .. ,
. . . . .
−1 −2
0 0 · · · wn+1 −wn wn+1
which clearly has full rank when wk = zk for k = 1, . . . , n + 1 (since the first n columns
form an invertible matrix). This proves (1). The map π : C2 \ {0} → CP1 is a surjective
smooth submersion. Define a map ψ : C2 \ {0} → S2 by
(z1 , z2 )
ψ(z1 , z2 ) = (p ◦ q) ,
|(z1 , z2 )|
where p ◦ q is the map in 54. By Theorem 4.30, ψ descends to a unique smooth map
ψe : CP1 → S2 satisfying ψe ◦ π = ψ. This map is a diffeomorphism.
Theorem 56. [Problem 4-6] Let M be a nonempty smooth compact manifold. There
is no smooth submersion F : M → Rk for any k > 0.
19
Proof. Write ιN for the identity map from N e to N , and ι e for the identity map from
N
N to Ne . Then ιN is smooth if and only if ιN ◦ π = π is smooth and ι e is smooth if and
N
only if ιNe ◦ π = π is smooth. Both of these conditions hold, and since ιN and ιNe are
inverses, IdN = ιN = ιNe is a diffeomorphism.
Theorem 58. [Problem 4-8] Let π : R2 → R be defined by π(x, y) = xy. Then π is
surjective and smooth, and for each smooth manifold P , a map F : R → P is smooth
if and only if F ◦ π is smooth; but π is not a smooth submersion (cf. Theorem 4.29).
Proof. Let M be the smooth structure constructed in Proposition 4.40. Suppose there
is another smooth structure M0 for which π is a smooth covering map. Let p ∈ E and let
e be a smooth chart in M0 containing p. Let V be an evenly covered neighborhood
(U, ϕ)
of ϕ(p)
e and let Ve be the component of π −1 (V ) containing p so that π|Ve : Ve → V is
a diffeomorphism (with respect to M0 ). By shrinking V and Ve if necessary, we may
assume that there is a smooth chart (V, ψ) containing ϕ(p). Then ψ ◦ π|Ve is a smooth
coordinate map in M, and
e ◦ (ψ ◦ π|Ve )−1 = ϕ
ϕ e ◦ (π|Ve )−1 ◦ ψ −1
e and ψ ◦ π|Ve are smoothly compatible, and since p was
is smooth. This shows that ϕ
0
arbitrary, M = M .
20
Example 60. [Problem 4-10] Show that the map q : Sn → RPn defined in Example
2.13(f) is a smooth covering map.
Since Sn is compact, it is clear that q is proper. For each i = 1, . . . , n + 1, let
Si+ = {(x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) ∈ Sn : xi > 0} ,
Si− = {(x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) ∈ Sn : xi < 0} .
Then q|Si+ and q|Si− are diffeomorphisms for i = 1, . . . , n + 1, which shows that q is a
local diffeomorphism. By Proposition 4.46, q is a smooth covering map.
Example 61. [Problem 4-13] Define a map F : S2 → R4 by F (x, y, z) = (x2 −
y 2 , xy, xz, yz). Using the smooth covering map of Example 2.13(f) and Problem 4-10,
show that F descends to a smooth embedding of RP2 into R4 .
Let q : S2 → RP2 be the map of Example 60. Since F (−x, −y, −z) = F (x, y, z), the
map F descends to a unique smooth map Fe : RP2 → R4 . It is easy to check that Fe−1
is smooth and given by
r r r
−1 uv uw vw
F (t, u, v, w) = q
e , , .
w v u
Note that we take uv/w = 0 if w = 0, since w = yz = 0 implies that either u = 0 or
v = 0. This is true for the other coordinates. Therefore Fe is a homeomorphism onto
its image. It remains to show that F is a smooth immersion. Let
ϕ : RP2 \ [x, y, z] ∈ RP2 : z 6= 0 → R2
x y
[x, y, z] 7→ ,
z z
be coordinate map. Then
Chapter 5. Submanifolds
Example 62. [Exercise 5.10] Show that spherical coordinates (Example C.38) form a
slice chart for S2 in R3 on any open subset where they are defined.
Spherical coordinates are given by
(ρ, ϕ, θ) 7→ (ρ sin ϕ cos θ, ρ sin ϕ sin θ, ρ cos ϕ).
For the image to be a subset of S2 , we must have ρ = 1.
Theorem 63. [Exercise 5.24] Suppose M is a smooth manifold with or without bound-
ary, S ⊆ M is an immersed k-submanifold, ι : S ,→ M is the inclusion map, and U
is an open subset of Rk . A map X : U → M is a smooth local parametrization of S
if and only if there is a smooth coordinate chart (V, ϕ) for S such that X = ι ◦ ϕ−1 .
Therefore, every point of S is in the image of some local parametrization.
Proof. Let x ∈ ∂M and choose a smooth boundary chart (U, ϕ) containing x. Then
ϕ(∂M ∩ U ) = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ ϕ(U ) : xn = 0 ,
which shows that ∂M satisfies the local (n − 1)-slice condition. The result follows from
Theorem 5.8 and Proposition 5.5.
Theorem 70. [Problem 5-3] Suppose M is a smooth manifold with or without boundary,
and S ⊆ M is an immersed submanifold. If any of the following holds, then S is
embedded.
Proof. If (1) holds then Theorem 4.5 shows that the inclusion map ι : S ,→ M is an
open map. The result follows from Proposition 4.22.
Example 71. [Problem 5-4] Show that the image of the curve β : (−π, π) → R2 of
Example 4.19 given by
β(t) = (sin 2t, sin t)
is not an embedded submanifold of R2 .
It is well-known that the image of β with the subset topology is not a topological
manifold at all. (This can be seen by considering the point (0, 0), around which there
is no coordinate map into R.)
Example 72. [Problem 5-5] Let γ : R → T2 be the curve of Example 4.20. Show that
γ(R) is not an embedded submanifold of the torus.
Again, γ(R) with the subset topology is not a topological manifold because it is not
locally Euclidean.
Theorem 73. [Problem 5-6] Suppose M ⊆ Rn is an embedded m-dimensional subman-
ifold, and let U M ⊆ T Rn be the set of all unit tangent vectors to M :
U M = {(x, v) ∈ T Rn : x ∈ M, v ∈ Tx M, |v| = 1} .
It is called the unit tangent bundle of M . Prove that U M is an embedded (2m − 1)-
dimensional submanifold of T Rn ≈ Rn × Rn .
Proof. Let Bn = B1 (0) be the closed unit ball in Rn , let N = (0, . . . , 0, 1) be the “north
pole”, and let T = {0}n−1 × [0, 1] be the vertical line connecting 0 and N . Define
σ : Bn \ T → Hn given by
x1 xn−1 −1
σ(x1 , . . . , xn ) = ,..., , kxk − 1 ,
kxk − xn kxk − xn
with its inverse given by
1
σ −1 (u1 , . . . , un ) = 2 uk2 − 1)
(2u1 , . . . , 2un−1 , ke
(un + 1)(keuk + 1)
where ue = (u1 , . . . , un−1 ). Since both maps are continuous, this proves that Bn \ T is
homeomorphic to Hn . Furthermore, we can repeat the same argument by taking the
vertical line T = {0}n−1 × [−1, 0] instead, giving us Euclidean neighborhoods of every
point in Bn except for 0. But the identity map on the open unit ball Bn is a suitable
coordinate chart around 0, so this proves that Bn is an n-manifold with boundary.
Theorem 76. [Problem 5-8] Suppose M is a smooth n-manifold and B ⊆ M is a regular
coordinate ball. Then M \ B is a smooth manifold with boundary, whose boundary is
diffeomorphic to Sn−1 .
Proof. We have coordinate balls around every point of M \B, so it remains to show that
we have coordinate half-balls around each point of ∂B. Since B is a regular coordinate
ball, this reduces to showing that Br (0) \ Bs (0) is a smooth manifold with boundary
whenever s < r. But this follows easily from the stereographic projection described in
Theorem 75.
Theorem 77. [Problem 5-9] Let S ⊆ R2 be the boundary of the square of side 2 centered
at the origin (see Theorem 36). Then S does not have a topology and smooth structure
in which it is an immersed submanifold of R2 .
Proof. Suppose S has a topology and smooth structure for which the inclusion map
ι : S ,→ R2 is a smooth immersion. By Theorem 4.25, there is a neighborhood U
of (1, 1) such that ι|U is a smooth embedding. We can then apply the argument of
Theorem 36 to derive a contradiction.
Example 78. [Problem 5-10] For each a ∈ R, let Ma be the subset of R2 defined by
Ma = (x, y) : y 2 = x(x − 1)(x − a) .
Proof. Let ι : S ,→ M be the inclusion map, which is a smooth immersion. Let S 0 denote
S with some other smooth structure such that ι0 : S 0 ,→ M is a smooth immersion.
Since S and S 0 have the same topology, the maps ι : S → S 0 and ι0 : S 0 → S are
both continuous, and Theorem 5.29 shows that the maps are inverses of each other.
Therefore S is diffeomorphic to S 0 .
27
Proof. First suppose that S is embedded. Let p ∈ S and choose a smooth slice chart
(Up , ϕp ) for S in M containing p. Then S ∩ Up is closed in Up , so Proposition 2.25 shows
that there is smooth function fp : Up → R such that fp |S∩Up = f |S∩Up . Let {ψp }p∈S be
a partition of unity subordinate to {Up }p∈S ; then
X
fe(x) = ψp (x)fp (x)
p∈S
S
is a smooth function defined on U = p∈S Up such that fe|S = f , taking fp to be zero
on U \ supp fp . For (2), Proposition 5.5 shows that S is closed in M . Therefore we have
a partition of unity {ψp } ∪ {ψ0 } for M subordinate to {Up } ∪ {M \ S}, allowing fe to
be defined on all of M .
Theorem 83. [Problem 5-19] Suppose S ⊆ M is an embedded submanifold and γ : J →
M is a smooth curve whose image happens to lie in S. Then γ 0 (t) is in the subspace
Tγ(t) S of Tγ(t) M for all t ∈ J. This need not be true if S is not embedded.
Proof. Corollary 5.30 shows that γ is smooth as a map into S. Denote this map by
γ0 : J → S and let ι : S ,→ M . Then γ = ι ◦ γ0 , so γ 0 (t) = dιγ(t) (γ00 (t)) by Proposition
3.24 and therefore γ 0 (t) ∈ Tγ(t) S ⊆ Tγ(t) M . This need not hold if S is merely an
immersed submanifold. For example, consider a curve γ that crosses the point of self-
intersection in the figure-eight curve β of Example 4.19, such that γ is not continuous
as a map into the image of β.
Theorem 84. [Problem 5-21] Suppose M is a smooth manifold and f ∈ C ∞ (M ).
(1) For each regular value b of f , the sublevel set f −1 ((−∞, b]) is a regular domain
in M .
(2) If a and b are two regular values of f with a < b, then f −1 ([a, b]) is a regular
domain in M .
28
Proof. Let m be the dimension of M . It is clear that f −1 ((−∞, b)) satisfies the local
m-slice condition. Furthermore, there is a boundary slice chart around each point
of f −1 ({b}). We can see this by applying the argument in Corollary 5.14, with the
following modification to Theorem 5.12: for each p ∈ f −1 ({b}), the rank theorem shows
that there are smooth charts (U, ϕ) centered at p and (V, ψ) containing b for which the
coordinate representation fb of f has the form
fb(x1 , . . . , xm ) = x1 .
By modifying fb and ψ appropriately, U becomes a boundary slice chart for f −1 ((−∞, b])
in M . Theorem 5.51 then shows that f −1 ((−∞, b]) is an embedded submanifold with
boundary in M , and it is properly embedded since it is closed in M . Part (2) is
similar.
Theorem 85. [Problem 5-22] If M is a smooth manifold and D ⊆ M is a regular
domain, then there exists a defining function for D. If D is compact, then f can be
taken to be a smooth exhaustion function for M .
Proof. Let U = {(Up , ϕp )}p∈D be a collection of interior or boundary slice charts for D
in M . Then U ∪ {M \ D} covers M , and we can repeat the argument of Proposition
5.43 by constructing functions {fp }p∈D ∪ {f0 } as follows: set fp = −1 when p ∈ Int D,
set fp (x1 , . . . , xn ) = −xn when p ∈ ∂D, and set f0 = 1 for f0 : M \ D → R. If D is
compact then we can modify f by using the argument of Proposition 2.28, taking a
countable open cover of M \ D by precompact open subsets.
Theorem 86. [Exercise 6.7] Let M be a smooth manifold with or without boundary.
Any countable union of sets of measure zero in M has measure zero.
Proof. Let A = ∞
S
n=1 An where each An has measure zero. Let (U, ϕ) be a smooth
chart; we want to show that
[∞
A∩U = An ∩ U
n=1
has measure zero. But this follows from the fact that
∞
! ∞
[ [
ϕ An ∩ U = ϕ(An ∩ U )
n=1 n=1
n
has measure zero (in R ) since each ϕ(An ∩ U ) has measure zero.
29
Theorem 87. [Problem 6-1] Suppose M and N are smooth manifolds with or without
boundary, and F : M → N is a smooth map. If dim M < dim N , then F (M ) has
measure zero in N .
which has measure zero in Rn by Proposition 6.5. Therefore Fe(U ) has measure zero.
But Fe(M × Rk ) can be written as a union of countably many sets of this form, so
Fe(M × Rk ) = F (M ) has measure zero in N .
Theorem 88. [Problem 6-2] Every smooth n-manifold (without boundary) admits a
smooth immersion into R2n .
Example 90. [Problem 6-7] By considering the map F : R → H2 given by F (t) = (t, |t|)
and the subset A = [0, ∞) ⊆ R, show that the conclusions of Theorem 6.26 and
Corollary 6.27 can be false when M has nonempty boundary.
F is smooth on the closed subset [0, ∞), but there is no smooth map G : R → H2 such
that G|A = F |A .
Theorem 91. [Problem 6-8] Every proper continuous map between smooth manifolds
is homotopic to a proper smooth map.
The corresponding point in S√2 (0) is v(x) = (cos x, sin x, 1), so the tangent space con-
sists of all vectors orthogonal to v(x). But v(x) is orthogonal to the columns of DF (x, 0),
so dF(x,y) + Tv(x) S√2 (0) is a proper subset of Tv(x) R3 .
Theorem 93. [Problem 6-15] Suppose M and N are smooth manifolds and S ⊆ M ×N
is an immersed submanifold. Let πM and πN denote the projections from M × N onto
M and N , respectively. The following are equivalent:
(1) S is the graph of a smooth map f : M → N .
(2) πM |S is a diffeomorphism from S onto M .
(3) For each p ∈ M , the submanifolds S and {p} × N intersect transversely in
exactly one point.
If these conditions hold, then S is the graph of the map f : M → N defined by f =
πN ◦ (πM |S )−1 .
Proof. Let m = dim M and n = dim N . Suppose S = {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ M } for some
smooth map f : M → N . Then S is the image of the map g : M → S given by
x 7→ (x, f (x)), so πM |S is smooth with inverse g. Conversely, if πM |S is a diffeomorphism
then we can take f = πN ◦ (πM |S )−1 in (1). This proves that (1) ⇔ (2). If (1) holds
then d(πM )g(p) ◦ dgp is always nonzero, so Tp S + Tp ({p} × N ) = Tp (M × N ). It is also
clear that S ∩ ({p} × N ) consists of exactly one point. If (3) holds then πM |S is a
bijection. For every p ∈ M , the submanifolds S and {p} × N intersect transversely.
Since dim({p} × N ) = n < dim(M × N ), we must have dim d(πM |S )p (Tp S) ≥ m.
Therefore d(πM |S )p is invertible for every p ∈ M , and πM |S is a diffeomorphism. This
proves that (1) ⇔ (3).
Theorem 94. [Exercise 7.2] If G is a smooth manifold with a group structure such
that the map t : G × G → G given by (g, h) 7→ gh−1 is smooth, then G is a Lie group.
Proof. The inversion map i(g) = t(e, g) is smooth, and so is the multiplication map
m(g, h) = t(g, i(h)) = t(g, t(e, h)).
Theorem 95. [Problem 7-1] For any Lie group G, the multiplication map m : G×G →
G is a smooth submersion.
Proof. We have
dm(e,e) (X, Y ) = dm(e,e) (X, 0) + dm(e,e) (0, Y )
= d(m(1) )e (X) + d(m(2) )e (Y ),
where m(1) : G → G is given by x 7→ m(x, e) and m(2) : G → G is given by y 7→ m(e, y).
But m(1) = m(2) = IdG , so dm(e,e) (X, Y ) = X + Y . This proves (1). Let n = m ◦ p ◦ s
where s : G → G × G is given by x 7→ (x, x) and p : G × G → G × G is given by
(x, y) 7→ (x, i(y)); then n is constant, so
0 = dne (X)
= dm(e,e) (dp(e,e) (dse (X)))
= dm(e,e) (dp(e,e) (X, X))
= dm(e,e) (X, die (X))
= X + die (X).
Therefore die (X) = −X.
Theorem 97. [Problem 7-3] If G is a smooth manifold with a group structure such
that the multiplication map m : G × G → G is smooth, then G is a Lie group.
Proof. Let A ∈ M(n, R) write Ai,j for the (i, j) entry of A. Then
d d
det(In + tA) = (1 + tr(A)t + · · · )
dt t=0 dt t=0
= tr(A).
If X ∈ GL(n, R) and B ∈ TX GL(n, R) we have
det(X + tB) = det(X) det(In + tX −1 B),
so
d
d(det)X (B) = det(X + tB)
dt t=0
d
= det(X) det(In + tX −1 B)
dt t=0
= det(X) tr(X −1 B).
Theorem 99. [Problem 7-5] For any connected Lie group G, the universal covering
group is unique in the following sense: if G e0 are simply connected Lie groups
e and G
that admit smooth covering maps π : G e → G and π 0 : G
e0 → G that are also Lie group
homomorphisms, then there exists a Lie group isomorphism Φ : G e → G e0 such that
0
π ◦ Φ = π.
Proof. Let e be the identity in G e and let e0 be the identity in Ge0 . By Theorem 50 there
is a diffeomorphism Φ : G e→G e0 such that π 0 ◦ Φ = π, so it remains to show that Φ is a
group homomorphism. By replacing Φ with Φ(e)−1 Φ = LΦ(e)−1 ◦ Φ, we can assume that
Φ(e) = e0 . (Since π 0 (Φ(e)−1 Φ(g)) = π 0 (Φ(e))−1 π(g) = π(g), we still have π 0 ◦ Φ = π.) If
g, h ∈ Ge then
π 0 (Φ(gh)) = π(g)π(h) = π 0 (Φ(g)Φ(h)),
so (g, h) 7→ Φ(gh) and (g, h) 7→ Φ(g)Φ(h) are both lifts of (g, h) 7→ π(gh). Since the
maps all agree at the point (e, e), we have Φ(gh) = Φ(g)Φ(h).
Theorem 100. [Problem 7-6] Suppose G is a Lie group and U is any neighborhood
of the identity. There exists a neighborhood V of the identity such that V ⊆ U and
gh−1 ∈ U whenever g, h ∈ V .
Proof. Define f (g, h) = gh−1 and let W = f −1 (U ). Since (e, e) ∈ W , there are neigh-
borhoods W1 , W2 of e such that (e, e) ∈ W1 × W2 ⊆ W . Then V = W1 ∩ W2 is the
desired neighborhood of the identity.
34
Theorem 101. [Problem 7-7] Let G be a Lie group and let G0 be its identity component.
Then G0 is a normal subgroup of G, and is the only connected open subgroup. Every
connected component of G is diffeomorphic to G0 .
Proof. Let θ : G × K → K be the group action. For any x ∈ K the set θ(G × {x}) is
connected and therefore consists of one point. But θ(e, x) = x, so θ(g, x) = x for every
g ∈ G.
Theorem 103. [Problem 7-9,7-10] The formula
A · [x] = [Ax]
defines a smooth, transitive left action of GL(n + 1, R) on RPn . The same formula
defines a smooth, transitive left action of GL(n + 1, C) on CPn .
Proof. The smooth map θe : GL(n + 1, R) × Rn+1 \ {0} → RPn given by (A, x) 7→ [Ax]
is constant on each line in Rn+1 since A is linear, so it descends to a smooth map
θ : GL(n + 1, R) × RPn → RPn given by (A, [x]) 7→ [Ax]. It is easy to see that θ is a
group action. Furthermore, for any two points v, w ∈ Rn+1 there is an invertible linear
map that takes v to w, so θ is transitive.
Example 104. [Problem 7-11] Considering S2n+1 as the unit sphere in Cn+1 , define an
action of S1 on S2n+1 , called the Hopf action, by
z · (w1 , . . . , wn+1 ) = (zw1 , . . . , zwn+1 ).
This action is smooth and its orbits are disjoint unit circles in Cn+1 whose union is
S2n+1 .
Theorem 105. [Problem 7-12] Every Lie group homomorphism has constant rank.
Proof. We can use the argument in Example 7.27, replacing the transpose operator
with the conjugate transpose operator.
Theorem 107. [Problem 7-15] SO(2), U(1), and S1 are all isomorphic as Lie groups.
Proof. Identifying S3 with the subspace (z, w) ∈ C2 : |z|2 + |w|2 = 1 , we have a dif-
feomorphism
z −w̄
(z, w) 7→ .
w z̄
Example 109. [Problem 7-17] Determine which of the following Lie groups are com-
pact:
GL(n, R), SL(n, R), GL(n, C), SL(n, C), U(n), SU(n).
Clearly GL(n, R) and GL(n, C) are not compact. SL(n, R) and SL(n, C) are not com-
pact, since the operator norm of
r
r−1 ∈ SL(n, R)
I
is unbounded as r → ∞. However, U(n) is compact since every unitary matrix has
operator norm 1, and SU(n) is compact because it is a properly embedded subgroup of
U(n).
Theorem 110. [Problem 7-18] Suppose G is a Lie group, and N, H ⊆ G are Lie
subgroups such that N is normal, N ∩ H = {e}, and N H = G. Then the map (n, h) 7→
nh is a Lie group isomorphism between N oθ H and G, where θ : H × N → N is the
action by conjugation: θh (n) = hnh−1 . Furthermore, N and H are closed in G.
36
and |pq| = |p| |q|. Therefore ker |·| = S is a properly embedded Lie subgroup of H∗ .
Furthermore, we have a Lie group isomorphism
a −b̄
(a, b) 7→
b ā
into SU(2).
Proof. We compute
[f X, gY ]h = f X(gY h) − gY (f Xh)
= gf XY h + Y hf Xg − f gY Xh − XhgY f
= f g[X, Y ]h + (f Xg)Y h − (gY f )Xh.
Theorem 115. [Exercise 8.34] Let A : g → h be a Lie algebra homomorphism. Then
ker A and im A are Lie subalgebras.
Proof. It suffices to show that ker A and im A are closed under brackets. If X, Y ∈ ker A
then A[X, Y ] = [AX, AY ] = 0, so [X, Y ] ∈ ker A. Similarly, if X, Y ∈ im A then
X = AX 0 and Y = AY 0 for some X 0 , Y 0 ∈ g, so A[X 0 , Y 0 ] = [AX 0 , AY 0 ] = [X, Y ] and
[X, Y ] ∈ im A.
Theorem 116. [Exercise 8.35] Suppose g and h are finite-dimensional Lie algebras
and A : g → h is a linear map. Then A is a Lie algebra homomorphism if and only if
A[Ei , Ej ] = [AEi , AEj ] for some basis (E1 , . . . , En ) of g.
= [AX, AY ].
Theorem 117. [Exercise 8.43] If V is any finite-dimensional real vector space, the
composition of canonical isomorphisms
Lie(GL(V )) → TId GL(V ) → gl(V )
yields a Lie algebra isomorphism between Lie(GL(V )) and gl(V ).
Proof. Choose a basis B for V and let ϕ : GL(V ) → GL(n, R) be the associated Lie
group isomorphism. It is also a Lie algebra isomorphism gl(V ) → gl(n, R) since it
is linear. By Corollary 8.31 there is a Lie algebra isomorphism ρ : Lie(GL(V )) →
Lie(GL(n, R)) induced by the diffeomorphism ϕ, and by Proposition 8.41 there is a Lie
algebra isomorphism ψ : Lie(GL(n, R)) → gl(n, R). Then ϕ−1 ◦ ψ ◦ ρ is the desired Lie
algebra isomorphism.
Theorem 118. [Problem 8-1] Let M be a smooth manifold with or without boundary,
and let A ⊆ M be a closed subset. Suppose X is a smooth vector field along A. Given
any open subset U containing A, there exists a smooth global vector field X
e on M such
that X|A = X and supp X ⊆ U .
e e
For each p ∈ A, the product ψp X ep is smooth on Wp by Proposition 8.8, and has a smooth
extension to all of M if we interpret it to be zero on M \supp ψp . (The extended function
is smooth because the two definitions agree on the open subset Wp \ supp ψp where they
overlap.) Thus we can define X e : M → T M by
X
Xex = ep |x .
ψp (x)X
p∈A
Because the collection of supports {supp ψp } is locally finite, this sum actually has only
a finite number of nonzero terms in a neighborhood of any point of M , and therefore
39
defines a smooth function. If x ∈ A, then ψ0 (x) = 0 and Xep |x = Xx for each p such
that ψp (x) 6= 0, so
!
X X
X
ex = ψp (x)Xx = ψ0 (x) + ψp (x) Xx = Xx ,
p∈A p∈A
so X
e is indeed an extension of X. It follows from Lemma 1.13(b) that
[ [
supp Xe= supp ψp = supp ψp ⊆ U.
p∈A p∈A
Theorem 119. [Problem 8-2] Let c be a real number, and let f : Rn \ {0} → R
be a smooth function that is positively homogeneous of degree c, meaning that
f (λx) = λc f (x) for all λ > 0 and x ∈ Rn \ {0}. Then V f = cf , where V is the Euler
vector field defined in Example 8.3.
Theorem 120. [Problem 8-3] Let M be a nonempty positive-dimensional smooth man-
ifold with or without boundary. Then X(M ) is infinite-dimensional.
40
Proof. Let n = dim M . If n ≥ 2 then the result is clear from Proposition 8.7 since
there are infinitely many lines in R2 , i.e. RP1 is infinite. Suppose n = 1 and choose
any diffeomorphism ϕ : (−ε, 1 + ε) → U where ε > 0 and U is open in M . For each
m = 1, 2, . . . , define a vector field Xm along {1/k : k = 1, . . . , m} by setting
(
0, k < m,
Xm |1/k = d
dt 1/k
, k = m.
{ϕ∗ X
em : m = 1, 2, . . . } is a set of linearly independent vector fields defined on U . We
can extend these vector fields to M by restricting each ϕ∗ X em to the closed set ϕ([0, 1])
and applying Lemma 8.6. This proves that X(M ) is infinite-dimensional.
Theorem 121. [Problem 8-4] Let M be a smooth manifold with boundary. There
exists a global smooth vector field on M whose restriction to ∂M is everywhere inward-
pointing, and one whose restriction to ∂M is everywhere outward-pointing.
Proof. Let n = dim M . Let {(Uα , ϕα )} be a collection of smooth boundary charts whose
domains cover ∂M . For each α,Slet Xα be the nth coordinate vector field.P Let {ψα }
be a partition of unity of U = α Uα subordinate to {Uα }; then X = α ψα Xα is a
smooth vector field defined on U . For any boundary defining function f : M → [0, ∞)
we have X
Xp f = ψα Xα |p f > 0
α
since each Xα |p is inward-pointing, so Xp is always inward-pointing. By restricting X to
∂M and applying Lemma 8.6, we have a global smooth vector field X e whose restriction
to ∂M is everywhere inward-pointing. Also, the restriction of −X e to ∂M is everywhere
outward-pointing.
Theorem 122. [Problem 8-5] Let M be a smooth n-manifold with or without boundary.
(1) If (X1 , . . . , Xk ) is a linearly independent k-tuple of smooth vector fields on an
open subset U ⊆ M , with 1 ≤ k < n, then for each p ∈ U there exist smooth
41
Proof. S is a level set of the norm squared |·|2 : H∗ → (0, ∞), which is given by
|(a + bi, c + di)|2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2
and has derivative
2a 2b 2c 2d .
If q = (a, b, c, d) then by Theorem 65, Tq S is the kernel of this matrix. If p ∈ H is
imaginary then p has the form (ei, f + gi), so
qp = (−be − cf − dg + (ae + cg − df )i, af − bg + de + (ag + bf − ce)i)
and
a(−be − cf − dg) + b(ae + cg − df ) + c(af − bg + de) + d(ag + bf − ce) = 0.
42
Therefore qp ∈ Tq S. This proves (1). For (2), let g = (a, b, c, d) and g 0 = (e + f i, g + hi).
We compute
a −b −c −d
b a −d c
DLg (g 0 ) = .
c d a −b
d −c b a
Then
a −b −c −d −f −(be + af − dg + ch)
b a −d c e ae − bf − cg − dh
= ,
c d a −b h de − cf + bg + ah
d −c b a −g −(ce + df + ag − bh)
which shows that d(Lg )g0 (X1 |g0 ) = X1 |gg0 , i.e. X1 is left-invariant. Similar calculations
show that X2 and X3 are left-invariant.
Example 124. [Problem 8-9] Show by finding a counterexample that Proposition 8.19
is false if we replace the assumption that F is a diffeomorphism by the weaker assump-
tion that it is smooth and bijective.
Consider the smooth bijection ω : [0, 1) → S1 given by s 7→ e2πis and consider the
smooth vector field X given by x 7→ (1 − 2x) d/dt|x . There is no way of defining an
F -related smooth vector field Y on S1 , since the sign of Y1 is ambiguous.
Example 125. [Problem 8-10] Let M be the open submanifold of R2 where both x
and y are positive, and let F : M → M be the map F (x, y) = (xy, y/x). Show that F
is a diffeomorphism, and compute F∗ X and F∗ Y , where
∂ ∂ ∂
X=x +y , Y =y .
∂x ∂y ∂x
The inverse
u √
r
−1
F (u, v) = , uv
v
is smooth, so F is a diffeomorphism. We compute
y x
DF (x, y) =
−y/x2 1/x
so that √ p
−1 uv u/v
DF (F (u, v)) = p p .
−v v/u v/u
Therefore the coordinates of F∗ X are given by
√ p p
uv u/v u/v 2u
p p √ = ,
−v v/u v/u uv 0
43
Then p p
x/ x2 + y 2 y/ x2 + y 2
DF (x, y) = ,
−y/(x2 + y 2 ) x/(x2 + y 2 )
so
−1 cos θ sin θ
DF (F (r, θ)) = .
−r−1 sin θ r−1 cos θ
We have
cos θ sin θ r cos θ r cos θ r2 r r cos 2θ r2 cos θ
−1 −1 = .
−r sin θ r cos θ r sin θ −r sin θ 0 0 − sin 2θ −r sin θ
Therefore
∂
X=r ,
∂r
∂ ∂
Y = r cos 2θ − sin 2θ ,
∂r ∂θ
∂ ∂
Z = r2 cos θ − r sin θ .
∂r ∂θ
Example 127. [Problem 8-12] Let F : R2 → RP2 be the smooth map F (x, y) = [x, y, 1],
and let X ∈ X(R2 ) be defined by X = x∂/∂y − y∂/∂x. Prove that there is a vector
field Y ∈ X(RP2 ) that is F -related to X, and compute its coordinate representation in
44
terms of each of the charts defined in Example 1.5. Let π : R3 \ {0} → RP2 be the
quotient map and define Xe : R3 \ {0} → T RP2 by
!
∂ ∂
X
e(x,y,z) = dπ x −y .
∂y (x,y,z) ∂x (x,y,z)
Proof. Let N = (0, 0, 1) be the north pole and let σ : S2 \{N } → R2 be the stereographic
projection given by
σ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 , x2 )/(1 − x3 ),
σ −1 (u1 , u2 ) = (2u1 , 2u2 , |u|2 − 1)/(|u|2 + 1).
45
Let X be the 1st coordinate vector field on R2 and define a vector field Y on S2 by
(
0, p = N,
Y (p) = −1
((σ )∗ X)p p 6= N.
This vector field vanishes at exactly one point. Let S = (0, 0, −1) be the south pole
and let τ : S2 \ {S} → R2 be the stereographic projection given by
τ (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 , x2 )/(1 + x3 ),
τ −1 (u1 , u2 ) = (2u1 , 2u2 , 1 − |u|2 )/(|u|2 + 1).
Then
(σ ◦ τ −1 )(u1 , u2 ) = (2u1 , 2u2 )/(2 |u|2 ),
and the coordinate representation of Y for (u1 , u2 ) 6= (0, 0) with respect to τ is given
by
Y (u1 , u2 ) = d(σ −1 )(σ◦τ −1 )(u1 ,u2 ) X(σ◦τ −1 )(u1 ,u2 )
!
d
= d(σ −1 )(σ◦τ −1 )(u1 ,u2 )
dx (σ◦τ −1 )(u1 ,u2 )
1 2 2 2
4u1 u2 4u1
−1 1 2 2(1 − (u ) + (u ) )
= τ (u , u ), ,− ,− ,
(1 + |u|2 )2 (1 + |u|2 )2 (1 + |u|2 )2
which shows that Y is smooth on S2 .
Theorem 129. [Problem 8-14] Let M be a smooth manifold with or without boundary,
let N be a smooth manifold, and let f : M → N be a smooth map. Define F : M →
M × N by F (x) = (x, f (x)). For every X ∈ X(M ), there is a smooth vector field on
M × N that is F -related to X.
Proof. Let m = dim M and n = dim N . By Lemma 8.6, it suffices to show that there is a
smooth vector field along F (M ) that is F -related to X. By Proposition 5.4, F (M ) is an
embedded m-submanifold of M ×N . Let p ∈ F (M ), let (U, ϕ) be a slice chart for F (M )
containing p, let pe = ϕ(p), and let U e = ϕ(U ) ⊆ Rm+n . By shrinking U , we may assume
that Ue is an open cube containing pe, and that ϕ(F (M ) ∩ U ) = {(a, b) ∈ Rm+n : b = 0}.
We identify TpeU e with Ue × Rm+n . Define a vector field Y on U e by assigning Y(a,b) the
coefficients of dϕ(Xπ(ϕ−1 (a,0)) ), where π : M ×N → M is the canonical projection. Then
Y is smooth, and (ϕ−1 )∗ Y is a smooth vector field defined on U that agrees with X on
F (M ) ∩ U .
Theorem 130. [Problem 8-15] Suppose M is a smooth manifold and S ⊆ M is an
embedded submanifold with or without boundary. Given X ∈ X(S), there is a smooth
vector field Y on a neighborhood of S in M such that X = Y |S . Every such vector field
extends to all of M if S is properly embedded.
46
= (X1 |p X2 fq , Y1 |q Y2 fp ) − (X2 |p X1 fq , Y2 |q Y1 fp )
= ([X1 , X2 ]fq , [Y1 , Y2 ]fp )
= ([X1 , X2 ] ⊕ [Y1 , Y2 ])f,
where fq ∈ C ∞ (M ) is the map p 7→ f (p, q) and fp ∈ C ∞ (N ) is the map q 7→ f (p, q).
Theorem 133. [Problem 8-18] Suppose F : M → N is a smooth submersion, where M
and N are positive-dimensional smooth manifolds. Given X ∈ X(M ) and Y ∈ X(N ),
we say that X is a lift of Y if X and Y are F -related. A vector field V ∈ X(M ) is
said to be vertical if V is everywhere tangent to the fibers of F (or, equivalently, if V
is F -related to the zero vector field on N ).
(1) If dim M = dim N , then every smooth vector field on N has a unique lift.
(2) If dim M 6= dim N , then every smooth vector field on N has a lift, but it is not
unique.
(3) Assume in addition that F is surjective. Given X ∈ X(M ), X is a lift of a
smooth vector field on N if and only if dFp (Xp ) = dFq (Xq ) whenever F (p) =
F (q). If this is the case, then X is a lift of a unique smooth vector field.
Proof. Any 1-dimensional Lie algebra is abelian, and is isomorphic to the subalgebra
{rI2 : r ∈ R} of gl(2, R). Let A be a 2-dimensional Lie algebra and let {x, y} be a basis
for A. If A is abelian then it is isomorphic to the subalgebra
r1 0
, r1 , r2 ∈ R
0 r2
49
of gl(2, R). Otherwise, we have [x, y] = ax + by for some a, b ∈ R, not both zero.
Assume without loss of generality that b 6= 0. (If b = 0, then we can swap x and y.)
Define an homomorphism ϕ : A → gl(2, R) by setting
−ab−1
1 0 0
ϕx = , ϕy =
0 1+b 1 −ab−1 (1 + b)
and extending linearly. Then ϕ is an isomorphism onto its image, and it is easy to
verify that ϕ[x, y] = [ϕx, ϕy].
Theorem 136. [Problem 8-22] Let A be any algebra over R. A derivation of A is a
linear map D : A → A satisfying D(xy) = (Dx)y + x(Dy) for all x, y ∈ A. If D1 and
D2 are derivations of A, then [D1 , D2 ] = D1 ◦ D2 − D2 ◦ D1 is also a derivation. The
set of derivations of A is a Lie algebra with this bracket operation.
Proof. Part (1) follows from Corollary 8.31. If X ∈ g then for all g, g 0 ∈ G we have
d(Rg )g0 ((i∗ X)g0 ) = (d(Rg )g0 ◦ dii−1 (g0 ) )(Xi−1 (g0 ) )
= d(Rg ◦ i)(g0 )−1 (X(g0 )−1 )
= d(i ◦ Lg−1 )(g0 )−1 (X(g0 )−1 )
= di(g0 g)−1 (d(Lg−1 )(g0 )−1 X(g0 )−1 )
= di(g0 g)−1 (X(g0 g)−1 )
= (i∗ X)g0 g .
Therefore i∗ (g) ⊆ ḡ. A similar calculation shows that i∗ (ḡ) ⊆ g, so (i∗ )−1 = i∗ and i∗ is
an isomorphism. Corollary 8.31 shows that i∗ is a Lie algebra isomorphism.
Theorem 139. [Problem 8-25] If G is an abelian Lie group, then Lie(G) is abelian.
Proof. Consider ι∗ X for some X ∈ ker F , where ι : ker F ,→ G is the inclusion map.
Then F∗ ι∗ X = (F ◦ ι)∗ X = 0 since F ◦ ι = 0. This shows that ι∗ (Lie(ker F )) ⊆ ker F∗ .
Conversely, suppose F∗ Y = 0 for some Y ∈ Lie(G). By definition we have dFe (Ye ) = 0,
so Ye ∈ ker(dFe ) = Te (ker F ) by Theorem 65. By Theorem 8.46, this shows that
ker F∗ ⊆ ι∗ (Lie(ker F )).
51
Theorem 141. [Problem 8-27] Let G and H be Lie groups, and suppose F : G →
H is a Lie group homomorphism that is also a local diffeomorphism. The induced
homomorphism F∗ : Lie(G) → Lie(H) is an isomorphism of Lie algebras.
Example 144. [Problem 8-30] Show by giving an explicit isomorphism that su(2) and
o(3) are isomorphic Lie algebras, and that both are isomorphic to R3 with the cross
product.
We have an isomorphism from R3 to o(3) given by
a 0 c −b
b 7→ −c 0 a .
c b −a 0
We also have an isomorphism from R3 to su(2) given by
a
1
b 7→ √ ai b + ci
.
2 −b + ci −ai
c
Theorem 145. [Problem 8-31] Let g be a Lie algebra. A linear subspace h ⊆ g is called
an ideal in g if [X, Y ] ∈ h whenever X ∈ h and Y ∈ g.
(1) If h is an ideal in g, then the quotient space g/h has a unique Lie algebra
structure such that the projection π : g → g/h is a Lie algebra homomorphism.
(2) A subspace h ⊆ g is an ideal if and only if it is the kernel of a Lie algebra
homomorphism.
Proof. If γ is constant then (b) and (c) cannot hold, so we assume that γ is nonconstant.
If γ is not injective then γ(t0 ) = γ(t1 ) for some points t0 < t1 , and γ is defined on at
least (t0 − ε, t1 + ε) for some ε > 0. Let T = t1 − t0 . Then γ and t 7→ γ(t1 + t) are both
integral curves of X starting at γ(t0 ), so Theorem 9.12 shows that γ must be defined
on at least (t0 − ε, t1 + T + ε). By induction, t0 + kT is in the domain of γ for all k ∈ Z,
so γ is defined on R and has period T . This proves (1). For (2), let A be the set of all
T > 0 such that γ(t + T ) = γ(t) for all t ∈ R, which is nonempty since γ is periodic.
If we can show that A is closed, then T0 = inf A ∈ A is the period of γ. But if T ∈ /A
then γ(t + T ) 6= γ(t) for some t ∈ R, so
γ −1 (M \ {γ(t)}) − t = {s − t : γ(s) 6= γ(t)}
is a neighborhood of T contained in R\A. For (3), if γ is constant then the image of γ is
diffeomorphic to R0 . Otherwise, Proposition 9.21 shows that γ is a smooth immersion.
If γ is injective then Proposition 5.18 shows that the image of γ is diffeomorphic to
R, and if γ is periodic then it descends to a smooth injective immersion from S1 to M
(using a suitable smooth covering of S1 by R), which is a diffeomorphism onto its image
by Proposition 5.18.
54
Proof. Let θ be the flow of V . Let {bn } be an increasing sequence contained in [t0 , b)
and converging to b. Since γ ([t0 , b)) is contained in a compact set E ⊆ M , there is a
subsequence {γ(bnk )} of {γ(bn )} that converges to a point p in E. Choose some ε > 0
and a neighborhood U of p such that θ is defined on (−2ε, 2ε) × U , and choose an
integer m such that bm ∈ (b − ε, b) and γ(bm ) ∈ U . Define γ1 : [t0 , b + ε) → M by
(
γ(t), t0 ≤ t < b,
γ1 (t) = (γ(bm ))
θ (t − bm ) b ≤ t < b + ε.
For all t ∈ (bm , b) we have
θ(γ(bm )) (t − bm ) = θt−bm (γ(bm )) = γ(t),
56
Proof. Using Theorem 9.20, we have that Φ|Oδ is a diffeomorphism onto an open sub-
manifold of M . So it remains to show that Oδ = {(t, p) ∈ O : |t| < δ(p)} is diffeomor-
phic to (−1, 1) × S. Let ϕ : (−1, 1) × S → Oδ be given by (t, p) 7→ (tδ(p), p); then ϕ is
smooth, and its inverse ϕ−1 (t, p) = (t/δ(p), p) is also smooth.
Example 156. [Problem 9-10] For each vector field in Example 149, find smooth
coordinates in a neighborhood of (1, 0) for which the given vector field is a coordinate
vector field.
We only consider the first vector field. We have V(1,0) = ∂/∂y, so we can take S to be
the x-axis, parametrized by X(s) = (s, 0). Therefore
1 2
Ψ(t, s) = θt (s, 0) = s + t , t ,
2
57
and
−1 1 2
Ψ (x, y) = x − y , y ;
2
−1 1 −y
DΨ (x, y) = .
0 1
In these coordinates, we have
∂ ∂
V =y +
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂ ∂
= s + −s +
∂s ∂s ∂t
∂
= .
∂t
Theorem 157. [Exercise 10.1] Suppose E is a smooth vector bundle over M . The
projection map π : E → M is a surjective smooth submersion.
Because the collection of supports {supp ψp } is locally finite, this sum actually has only
a finite number of nonzero terms in a neighborhood of any point of M , and therefore
defines a smooth function. If x ∈ A, then ψ0 (x) = 0 and σ ep (x) = σ(x) for each p such
that ψp (x) 6= 0, so
!
X X
σ
e(x) = ψp (x)σ(x) = ψ0 (x) + ψp (x) σ(x) = σ(x),
p∈A p∈A
so σ
e is indeed an extension of σ. It follows from Lemma 1.13(b) that
[ [
supp σ
e= supp ψp = supp ψp ⊆ U.
p∈A p∈A
Theorem 161. [Exercise 10.14] Let π : E → M be a smooth vector bundle. Every
element of E is in the image of a smooth global section.
Proof. Let v ∈ E and let p = π(v). The assignment p 7→ v is a section of E|{p} , which
is easily seen to be smooth in the sense of Theorem 160.
Theorem 162. [Exercise 10.16] Suppose π : E → M is a smooth vector bundle of rank
k.
59
Theorem 166. [Problem 10-2] Let E be a vector bundle over a topological space M .
The projection map π : E → M is a homotopy equivalence.
= (Φα ◦ Φ−1 −1
β ◦ Φβ ◦ Φγ )(p, v)
= (p, ταβ (p)τβγ (p)v).
Theorem 170. [Problem 10-6] Let M be a smooth manifold with or without boundary,
and let {Uα }α∈A be an open cover of M . Suppose for each α, β ∈ A we are given a
smooth map ταβ : Uα ∩ Uβ → GL(k, R) such that
ταβ (p)τβγ (p) = ταγ (p), p ∈ Uα ∩ Uβ ∩ Uγ
61
Proof. Note that ταα = IdRk for all α ∈ A. Let F = α∈A Uα ×Rk and let iα : Uα ×Rk →
`
F be the canonical injection for each α ∈ A. Define an equivalence relation ∼ on F by
declaring that (p, v)α ∼ (p0 , v 0 )β if and only if p = p0 and ταβ (p)v 0 = v. This relation is
symmetric because
ταβ (p)τβα (p) = ταα (p) = IdRk ,
so ταβ (p)v = v implies that v 0 = τβα (p)v. Similarly, the relation is transitive because
0
Proof. Let k be the rank of E and let k 0 be the rank of E 0 ; let π : E → M and
π 0 : E 0 → M be the projections. We want to show that F −1 is smooth. Let v ∈ E
and let Φ : π −1 (U ) → U × Rk be a smooth local trivialization of E satisfying π(v) ∈ U
0
and πU ◦ Φ = π. Let Φ0 : (π 0 )−1 (U 0 ) → U 0 × Rk be a smooth local trivialization of E 0
satisfying π 0 (F (v)) ∈ U 0 and πU 0 ◦ Φ0 = π 0 . Consider the smooth map f = Φ0 ◦ F ◦ Φ−1
with its inverse f −1 = Φ ◦ F −1 ◦ (Φ0 )−1 defined on a sufficiently small neighborhood
e 0 × Rk0 of Φ0 (F (v)). For each x ∈ U the map f |{x}×Rk is an isomorphism whose inverse
U
is f −1 |{y(x)}×Rk0 , where y(x) = π 0 (F (ζ(x))) and ζ : M → E is the zero section. Since
63
e 0 ×Rk0 . Therefore F −1
operator inversion is smooth and y is smooth, f −1 is smooth on U
is smooth on a neighborhood of F (v), and since v was arbitrary, F −1 is smooth.
Theorem 175. [Problem 10-12] Let π : E → M and π e:Ee → M be two smooth rank-k
vector bundles over a smooth manifold M with or without boundary. Suppose {Uα }α∈A
is an open cover of M such that both E and E e admit smooth local trivializations over
each Uα . Let {ταβ } and {e ταβ } denote the transition functions determined by the given
local trivializations of E and E,e respectively. Then E and E e are smoothly isomorphic
over M if and only if for each α ∈ A there exists a smooth map σα : Uα → GL(k, R)
such that
(*) τeαβ (p) = σα (p)ταβ (p)σβ (p)−1 , p ∈ Uα ∩ Uβ .
for some smooth linear map σα : Uα → GL(k, R). Now let α, β ∈ A. We have
e −1 )(p, v)
eα ◦ Φ
(p, τeαβ (p)v) = (Φ β
e α ◦ F ◦ Φ−1 −1 −1 e −1 )(p, v)
= (Φ α ◦ Φα ◦ Φβ ◦ Φβ ◦ F ◦Φ β
=Φe −1 ◦ ϕα ◦ Φα
α
= Fα
on π −1 (Uα ) ∩ π −1 (Uβ ) by (*), so the gluing lemma shows that there is a smooth map
F :E→E e such that F |π−1 (U ) = Fα for all α ∈ A. The restriction of F to each fiber
α
is clearly linear. On any π −1 (Uα ) we have
e◦F =π
π e◦Φ e −1 ◦ ϕα ◦ Φα
α
= πUα ◦ ϕα ◦ Φα
= πUα ◦ Φα
64
= π,
e ◦ F = π on E. By Theorem 174, F is a smooth bundle isomorphism.
so π
Theorem 176. [Problem 10-14] Suppose M is a smooth manifold with or without
boundary, and S ⊆ M is an immersed submanifold with or without boundary. Iden-
tifying Tp S as a subspace of Tp M for each p ∈ S in the usual way, T S is a smooth
subbundle of T M |S .
Proof.SLet ι : S ,→ M be the inclusion map. For each p ∈ S, let Dp = dιp (Tp S). Let
D = p∈S Dp = T S ⊆ T M |S . Let p ∈ S, let V be a neighborhood of p in S that is an
embedded submanifold of M , and let (U, ϕ) be a slice chart for V containing p. Write
ϕ = (x1 , . . . , xn ) and let k be the dimension of S. Then V ∩ U is neighborhood of p in
S, and the maps σi : V ∩ U → T M |S given by σi (q) = dϕq (∂/∂xi |q ) for i = 1, . . . , k
satisfy the condition in Lemma 10.32.
Theorem 177. [Problem 10-17] Suppose M ⊆ Rn is an immersed submanifold. The
ambient tangent bundle T Rn |M is isomorphic to the Whitney sum T M ⊕ N M , where
N M → M is the normal bundle.
Proof. Obvious.
Theorem 178. [Problem 10-19] Suppose π : E → M is a fiber bundle with fiber F .
Proof. Since
∗ ∗
ταβ (p)τβγ (p) = (ταβ (p)−1 )T (τβγ (p)−1 )T
= ((ταβ (p)τβγ (p))−1 )T
∗
= ταγ (p),
we can apply Theorem 170.
Theorem 180. [Exercise 11.12] Let M be a smooth manifold with or without boundary,
and let ω : M → T ∗ M be a rough covector field.
(1) ω is smooth.
(2) In every smooth coordinate chart, the component functions of ω are smooth.
(3) Each point of M is contained in some coordinate chart in which ω has smooth
component functions.
(4) For every smooth vector field X ∈ X(M ), the function ω(X) is smooth on M .
(5) For every open subset U ⊆ M and every smooth vector field X on U , the function
ω(X) : U → R is smooth on U .
Proof. (1) ⇒ (2) ⇒ (3) is clear. If (3) holds for a coordinate chart (U, (xi )) and the
natural coordinates (xi , ξi ) on π −1 (U ) ⊆ T ∗ M then the coordinate representation of ω
on U is
b (x) = (x1 , . . . , xn , ω1 (x), . . . , ωn (x)),
ω
which is smooth if ω1 , . . . , ωn are smooth. This proves (3) ⇒ (1). This also implies
(3) ⇒ (4). Suppose that (4) holds, U ⊆ M is open and X is a smooth vector field on U .
66
Proof. Obvious.
Theorem 185. [Exercise 11.35] Let M be a smooth manifold with or without boundary.
Suppose γ : [a, b] → M is a piecewise smooth curve segment, and ω, ω1 , ω2 ∈ X∗ (M ).
(1) For any c1 , c2 ∈ R,
ˆ ˆ ˆ
(c1 ω1 + c2 ω2 ) = c1 ω1 + c2 ω2 .
γ γ γ
´
(2) If γ is a constant map, then γ ω = 0.
(3) If γ1 = γ|[a,c] and γ2 = γ|[c,b] with a < c < b, then
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ω= ω+ ω.
γ γ1 γ2
Proof. We can assume that γ is smooth rather than piecewise smooth. For (1),
ˆ ˆ
(c1 ω1 + c2 ω2 ) = γ ∗ (c1 ω1 + c2 ω2 )
γ [a,b]
ˆ ˆ
∗
= c1 γ ω1 + c2 γ ∗ ω2
[a,b] [a,b]
ˆ ˆ
= c1 ω1 + c2 ω2
γ γ
For (4), ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
F η= γ F η= (F ◦ γ) η = η.
γ [a,b] [a,b] F ◦γ
Theorem 186. [Exercise 11.41] A smooth covector field ω´ is conservative
´ if and only
if its line integrals are path-independent, in the sense that γ ω = γe ω whenever γ and
γ
e are piecewise smooth curve segments with the same starting and ending points.
A
V W
ξV ξW
V ∗∗ W ∗∗
(A∗ )∗
βV βW
V∗ ∗ W∗
A
functions that vanish at p, and let Jp2 be the subspace of Jp spanned by functions of the
form f g for some f, g ∈ Jp .
(1) f ∈ Jp2 if and only if in any smooth local coordinates, its first-order Taylor
polynomial at p is zero.
(2) Define a map Φ : Jp → Tp∗ M by setting Φ(f ) = dfp . The restriction of Φ to Jp2
is zero, and Φ descends to a vector space isomorphism from Jp /Jp2 to Tp∗ M .
which is an element of Jp2 since xi − pi and xj − pj times the integral are elements of
Jp . Therefore f = ki=1 αi gi hi for some αi ∈ R and gi , hi ∈ Jp in a neighborhood U
P
Proof. If T M is trivial then it admits a smooth global frame; Lemma 11.14 shows that
its dual coframe is a smooth global coframe for M , so T ∗ M is trivial. The converse is
similar.
Theorem 191. [Problem 11-6] Suppose M is a smooth n-manifold, p ∈ M , and
y 1 , . . . , y k are smooth real-valued functions defined on a neighborhood of p in M .
(1) If k = n and (dy 1 |p , . . . , dy n |p ) is a basis for Tp∗ M then (y 1 , . . . , y n ) are smooth
coordinates for M in some neighborhood of p.
(2) If (dy 1 |p , . . . , dy k |p ) is a linearly independent k-tuple of covectors and k < n,
then there are smooth functions y k+1 , . . . , y n such that (y 1 , . . . , y n ) are smooth
coordinates for M in a neighborhood of p.
71
Proof. Part (1) follows from the inverse function theorem. For (2), complete (dy 1 |p , . . . , dy k |p )
to a basis (dy 1 |p , . . . , dy k |p , ω k+1 , . . . , ω n ), choose smooth functions y i such that dy i |p =
ω i for i = k + 1, . . . , n, and apply (1). For (3), choose indices i1 , . . . , in such that
dy i1 |p , . . . , dy in |p is a basis for Tp∗ M and apply (1).
Example 192. [Problem 11-7] In the following problems, M and N are smooth mani-
folds, F : M → N is a smooth map, and ω ∈ X∗ (N ). Compute F ∗ ω in each case.
For (1),
dx = t ds + s dt, dy = et dt,
so
ω = st(et dt) − et (t ds + s dt) = −tet ds + set (t − 1) dt.
For (2),
dx = −(cos ϕ + 2) sin θ dθ − sin ϕ cos θ dϕ,
so
ω = sin2 ϕ(−(cos ϕ + 2) sin θ dθ − sin ϕ cos θ dϕ).
For (3),
dx = ds,
dy = dt,
−s −t
dz = √ ds + √ dt,
2
1−s −t2 1 − s2 − t2
so
√ √
ω = −s 1 − s2 − t2 ds − t 1 − s2 − t2 dt.
Theorem 193. [Problem 11-8]
(2) Let Diff 1 be the category whose objects are smooth manifolds, but whose only
morphisms are diffeomorphisms; and let VB be the category whose objects are
smooth vector bundles and whose morphisms are smooth bundle homomorphisms.
The assignment M 7→ T ∗ M , F 7→ dF ∗ defines a contravariant functor from Diff 1
to VB, called the cotangent functor.
we have d(F ◦ G)∗ = dG∗ ◦ dF ∗ . Also, d(IdM )∗ = IdT ∗ M . This shows that M 7→ T ∗ M ,
F 7→ dF ∗ defines a contravariant functor.
Example 194. [Problem 11-9] Let f : R3 → R be the function f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
and let F : R2 → R3 be the following map (the inverse of the stereographic projection):
u2 + v 2 − 1
2u 2v
F (u, v) = , , .
u2 + v 2 + 1 u2 + v 2 + 1 u2 + v 2 + 1
Compute F ∗ df and d(f ◦ F ) separately, and verify that they are equal.
We have
df = 2x dx + 2y dy + 2z dz
and
2(u2 + v 2 + 1) − 4u2 −4uv
dx = du + dv,
(u2 + v 2 + 1)2 (u2 + v 2 + 1)2
−4uv 2(u2 + v 2 + 1) − 4v 2
dy = 2 du + dv,
(u + v 2 + 1)2 (u2 + v 2 + 1)2
4u 4v
dz = 2 2 2
du + 2 dv,
(u + v + 1) (u + v 2 + 1)2
so
df = 0.
Alternatively we have f ◦ F = 1, so d(f ◦ F ) = 0.
Example 195. [Problem 11-10] In each of the cases below, M is a smooth manifold
and f : M → R is a smooth function. Compute the coordinate representation for df ,
and determine the set of all points p ∈ M at which dfp = 0.
(1) M = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x > 0}; f (x, y) = x/(x2 + y 2 ). Use standard coordinates
(x, y).
(2) M and f are as in (1); this time use polar coordinates (r, θ).
(3) M = S2 ⊆ R3 ; f (p) = z(p) (the z-coordinate of p as a point in R3 ). Use north
and south stereographic coordinates.
(4) M = Rn ; f (x) = |x|2 . Use standard coordinates.
73
For (1),
−x2 + y 2 −2xy
df = 2 2 2
dx + 2 dy,
(x + y ) (x + y 2 )2
which is zero when x2 = y 2 and xy = 0, i.e. never on M . For (2) we have
cos θ
f (r, θ) = ,
r
so
cos θ sin θ
df = −
2
dr − dθ,
r r
which is zero when cos θ = sin θ = 0, i.e. never on M . For (3) we have
u2 + v 2 − 1
f (u, v) = 2
u + v2 + 1
on S2 \ N using the north stereographic projection, so
4u 4v
df = du + 2 dv,
(u2 2
+ v + 1) 2 (u + v 2 + 1)2
which is zero when u = v = 0, i.e. when p is the south pole (0, 0, −1). A similar
calculation using the south stereographic projection shows that dfp = 0 when p is the
north pole (0, 0, 1). For (4) we have
df = 2x1 dx1 + · · · + 2xn dxn ,
which is zero when p = 0.
Theorem 196. [Problem 11-11] Let M be a smooth manifold, and C ⊆ M be an
embedded submanifold. Let f ∈ C ∞ (M ), and suppose p ∈ C is a point at which f
attains a local maximum or minimum value among points in C. Given a smooth local
defining function Φ : U → Rk for C on a neighborhood U of p in M , there are real
numbers λ1 , . . . , λk (called Lagrange multipliers) such that
dfp = λ1 dΦ1 |p + · · · + λk dΦk |p .
Proof. Let −γ denote the curve t 7→ γ(b − t + a). Then L(−γ) = L(γ), but
ˆ ˆ
ω = − ω = −L(γ).
−γ γ
Example 199. [Problem 11-14] Consider the following two covector fields on R3 :
4z dx 2y dy 2x dz
ω=− 2 2
+ 2 + 2 ,
(x + 1) y +1 x +1
4xz dx 2y dy 2 dz
η=− 2 2
+ 2 + 2 .
(x + 1) y +1 x +1
(1) Set up and evaluate the line integral of each covector field along the straight
line segment from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1).
(2) Determine whether either of these covector fields is exact.
75
(3) For each one that is exact, find a potential function and use it to recompute the
line integral.
Let γ : [0, 1] → R3 be given by t 7→ (t, t, t). Then
ˆ ˆ 1
4t 2t 2t
ω= − 2 + + dt
γ 0 (t + 1)2 t2 + 1 t2 + 1
ˆ 1
4t3
= 2 2
dt
0 (1 + t )
= 2 log 2 − 1,
and
ˆ ˆ 1
4t2
2t 2
η= − 2 2
+ 2 + 2 dt
γ 0 (t + 1) t +1 t +1
ˆ 1
2(t3 − t2 + t + 1)
= dt
0 (1 + t2 )2
= log 2 + 1.
It is easy to check that
∂ ∂
ω1 6= ω3 ,
∂z ∂x
so ω is not closed and not exact. It is similarly easy to check that η is closed, so
Theorem 11.49 shows that η is exact. Suppose f is a potential for η; it must satisfy
∂f 4xz ∂f 2y ∂f 2
=− 2 , = , = .
∂x (x + 1)2 ∂y y2 + 1 ∂z x2 + 1
Integrating the first equation, we have
2z
f (x, y, z) = + C1 (y, z).
x2 + 1
Then
∂C1 2y
= 2 ,
∂y y +1
so
C1 (y, z) = log(y 2 + 1) + C2 (z).
Finally we have
2 ∂C2 2
+ = 2 ,
+1x2 ∂z x +1
so C2 is constant. It is now easy to check that for any C ∈ R,
2z
f (x, y, z) = 2 + log(y 2 + 1) + C
x +1
76
Proof. For any X ∈ X(U ), define a smooth covector field ω by ωx (v) = Xx · v; then
ˆ ˆ b ˆ
0
X · ds = ωγ(t) (γ (t)) dt = ω.
γ a γ
Part (1) follows immediately from Theorem 11.42, and part (2) follows from Proposition
11.44. Part (3) follows from Theorem 11.49.
Theorem 201. [Problem 11-16] Let M be a compact manifold of positive dimension.
Every exact covector field on M vanishes at least at two points in each component of
M.
= (εn )∗ ω
ˆα ˆ
n ∗
= (ε ) ω + · · · + (εn )∗ ω,
ˆα1 ˆ αn
= ω + ··· + ω
εn ◦α1 εn ◦αn
=0
Theorem 203. [Problem 11-18] Suppose C and D are categories, and F, G are (covari-
ant or contravariant) functors from C to D. A natural transformation λ from F to
G is a rule that assigns to each object X ∈ Ob(C) a morphism λX ∈ HomD (F(X), G(X))
in such a way that for every pair of objects X, Y ∈ Ob(C) and every morphism f ∈
HomC (X, Y ), the following diagram commutes:
F(f )
F(X) F(Y )
λX λY
G(X) G(Y ).
G(f )
78
Proof. Theorem 187 proves (1) and (2). If there is a natural transformation from T to
T ∗ , then taking the one-point space {∗} produces a natural transformation from the
identity functor of VecR to D, contradicting (2). This proves (3). Corollary 8.31 proves
(4).
Proof. Let n = dim M . Let (U, ϕ) be a smooth chart for M with coordinate functions
(xi ). Define Φ : π −1 (U ) → U × Rn(k+l) by
!
∂ ∂
Φ aij11,...,i
k
,...,jl i
⊗ ··· ⊗ i
⊗ dxj1 p ⊗ · · · ⊗ dxjl p
∂x p1 ∂x pk
Suppose (Ue , ϕ)
e is another smooth chart with coordinate functions (e xi ), and let Φ
e :
π −1 (U e × Rn be defined analogously. It follows from (11.6) and (11.7) that
e) → U
∂xi xj
∂ ∂ j ∂e
= (p) , dex |p = (p) dxi |p ,
xj
∂e ∂exj
p ∂xi ∂xi
p
79
where x
e=ϕ e ◦ ϕ−1 and x = ϕ ◦ ϕe−1 = xe−1 , and p denotes either a point in M or its
coordinate representation as appropriate. Therefore on π −1 (U ∩ U
e ) we have
which is continuous, and is smooth if B is smooth. Part (5) follows from the fact that
d(G ◦ F )∗p (α)(v1 , . . . , vk ) = α(dGF (p) (dFp (v1 )), . . . , dGF (p) (dFp (vk )))
= dG∗F (p) (α)(dFp (v1 ), . . . , dFp (vk ))
= dFp∗ (dG∗F (p) (α))(v1 , . . . , vk ).
Part (6) is obvious.
Example 206. [Problem 12-1] Give an example of finite-dimensional vector spaces V
and W and a specific element α ∈ V ⊗ W that cannot be expressed as v ⊗ w for v ∈ V
and w ∈ W .
Take V = W = R2 , let e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1), and let α = e1 ⊗ e1 + e2 ⊗ e2 . Suppose
α = v ⊗ w for v, w ∈ R2 , and write v = v i ei and w = wj ej . Then α = v i wj ei ⊗ ej , so
v 1 w1 = 1, v 1 w2 = 0, v 2 w1 = 0, v 2 w2 = 1.
This implies that w1 6= 0, so v 2 = 0, contradicting v 2 w2 = 1.
Theorem 207. [Problem 12-2] For any finite-dimensional real vector space V , there
are canonical isomorphisms R ⊗ V ∼
=V ∼
= V ⊗ R.
B
V ×W Y.
π
e
B
e
Z
π = Ψ◦π e. We have Φ ◦ Ψ ◦ π
e = Φ◦π = π e, so Φ ◦ Ψ = IdZ by uniqueness. Similarly,
Ψ◦Φ◦π = Ψ◦π e = π implies that Ψ ◦ Φ = IdV ⊗W by uniqueness. Therefore Φ is an
isomorphism.
Theorem 209. [Problem 12-4] Let V1 , . . . , Vk and W be finite-dimensional real vector
spaces. There is a canonical isomorphism
V ∗ ⊗ ··· ⊗ V ∗ ⊗ W ∼
1 = L(V1 , . . . , Vk ; W ).
k
is a basis for Σk (V ∗ ), from which the result follows immediately. It is clear that B is
linearly independent. Let α ∈ Σk (V ∗ ) and write
α = ai1 ,...,ik εi1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ εik .
We have
α = Sym α = ai1 ,...,ik Sym εi1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ εik
= ai1 ,...,ik εi1 · · · εik ,
which is in the span of B after reordering the indices i1 , . . . , ik in each term εi1 · · · εik
to be in ascending order. This shows that B is a basis for Σk (V ∗ ).
Theorem 211. [Problem 12-6]
82
which is a contradiction.
Theorem 213. [Exercise 13.21] Let (M, g) be a Riemannian n-manifold with or with-
out boundary. For any immersed k-dimensional submanifold S ⊆ M with or without
boundary, the normal bundle N S is a smooth rank-(n − k) subbundle of T M |S . For
each p ∈ S, there is a smooth frame for N S on a neighborhood of p that is orthonormal
with respect to g.
Proof. Let p ∈ M be arbitrary, and let (X1 , . . . , Xk ) be a smooth local frame for T S
over some neighborhood V of p in M . Because immersed submanifolds are locally
embedded, by shrinking V if necessary, we may assume that it is a single slice in some
coordinate ball or half-ball U ⊆ Rn . Since V is closed in U , Theorem 122(c) shows
that we can complete (X1 , . . . , Xk ) to a smooth local frame (X en ) for T M |S over
e1 , . . . , X
U , and then Proposition 13.6 yields a smooth orthonormal frame (Ej ) over U such
that span(E1 |p , . . . , Ek |p ) = span(X1 |p , . . . , Xk |p ) = Tp S for each p ∈ U . It follows
that (Ek+1 , . . . , En ) restricts to a smooth orthonormal frame for N S over V . Thus N S
satisfies the local frame criterion in Lemma 10.32, and is therefore a smooth subbundle
of T M |S .
Theorem 214. [Exercise 13.24] Suppose (M, g) and (M f, ge) are Riemannian manifolds
with or without boundary, and F : M → Mf is a local isometry. Then Lge(F ◦ γ) = Lg (γ)
for every piecewise smooth curve segment γ in M .
Proof. We have
ˆ b
Lge(F ◦ γ) = |(F ◦ γ)0 (t)|ge dt
a
ˆ b
dFγ(t) (γ 0 (t)) dt
= g
e
a
ˆ bq
= ge(F ◦γ)(t) (dFγ(t) (γ 0 (t)), dFγ(t) (γ 0 (t))) dt
a
ˆ bp
= (F ∗ ge)(γ 0 (t), γ 0 (t)) dt
a
ˆ bp
= g(γ 0 (t), γ 0 (t)) dt
a
= Lg (γ).
84
Because the collection of supports {supp ψp } is locally finite, this sum actually has only
a finite number of nonzero terms in a neighborhood
P of any point of M , and therefore
defines a smooth function. The fact that p∈M ψp = 1 implies that τ (x) is a convex
combination of vectors in Ex for every x ∈ M , so the image of τ does indeed lie in V .
For (2), let τ : M → V be a smooth global section of V . If V contains the imaage of
the zero section of E, then let U be some neighborhood of A and replace τ with the
zero section of E. For each p ∈ A, choose a neighborhood Wp of p and a local section
ep : Wp → V of V that agrees with σ on Wp ∩ A. If U was chosen, then replacing Wp by
σ
Wp ∩ U we may assume that Wp ⊆ U . The family of sets {Wp : p ∈ A} ∪ {M \ A} is an
open cover of M . Let {ψp : p ∈ A} ∪ {ψ0 } be a smooth partition of unity subordinate
to this cover, with supp ψp ⊆ Wp and supp ψ0 ⊆ M \ A.
For each p ∈ A, the product ψp σ ep is smooth on Wp and has a smooth extension to all
of M if we interpret it to be zero on M \ supp ψp . Thus we can define σ
e : M → V by
X
σ
e(x) = ψ0 (x)τ (x) + ψp (x)e
σp (x).
p∈A
If x ∈ A, then ψ0 (x) = 0 and σep (x) = σ(x) for each p such that ψp (x) 6= 0, so
!
X X
σ
e(x) = ψp (x)σ(x) = ψ0 (x) + ψp (x) σ(x) = σ(x),
p∈A p∈A
P
so σ
e is indeed an extension of σ. The fact that ψ0 + p∈A ψp = 1 implies that σ e(x) is
a convex combination of vectors in Ex for every x ∈ M , so the image of σ
e does indeed
86
Theorem 218. Suppose (M, g) is a Riemannian manifold, and X is a vector field on
M . Given any positive continuous function δ : M → R, there exists a smooth vector
e ∈ X(M ) that is δ-close to X. If X is smooth on a closed subset A ⊆ M ,
field X
then X can be chosen to be equal to X on A. (Two vector fields X, X are δ-close if
e e
X x − X ex < δ(x) for all x ∈ M .
g
Proof. If X is smooth on the closed subset A, then by Lemma 8.6, there is a smooth
vector field X0 ∈ X(M ) that agrees with X on A. Let
U0 = {y ∈ M : |X0 |y − Xy |g < δ(y)}.
Then U0 is an open subset containing A. (If there is no such set A, we just take
U0 = A = ∅ and F0 = 0.)
We will show that there are countably many points {xi }∞ i=1 in M \ A and smooth
∞
coordinate balls Ui of xi in M \ A such that {Ui }i=1 is an open cover of M \ A and
(*) |Xy − Xi |y |g < δ(y)
for all y ∈ Ui , where Xi ∈ X(Ui ) is a constant coefficient vector field such that Xi |xi =
Xxi . To see this, for any x ∈ M \ A, let Ux be a smooth coordinate ball around x
contained in M \ A and small enough that
1 1
δ(y) > δ(x) and Xy − X (x) |y g < δ(x)
2 2
for all y ∈ Ux , where X (x) ∈ X(Ux ) is a constant coefficient vector field such that
X (x) |x = Xx . (Such a neighborhood exists by continuity of δ and X.) Then if y ∈ Ux ,
we have
Xy − X (x) |y < 1 δ(x) < δ(y).
g 2
The collection {Ux : x ∈ M \ A} is an open cover of M \ A. Choosing a countable
subcover {Uxi }∞ i=1 and setting Ui = Uxi and Xi = X
(xi )
, we have (*).
Let {ϕ0 , ϕi } be a smooth partition of unity subordinate to the cover {U0 , Ui } of M , and
e ∈ X(M ) by
define X
X
Xey = ϕ0 (y)X0 |y + ϕi (y)Xi |y .
i≥1
87
Lemma 219. Let V be a real inner product space and let k·k be the norm on V . Let
{u1 , . . . , uk } be an orthonormal set of vectors in V with kui k = 1 for i = 1, . . . , k. Let
v ∈ V with kvk = 1.
(1) We have
hu1 , vi2 + · · · + huk , vi2 ≤ 1,
and equality holds if and only if the set {v, u1 , . . . , uk } is linearly dependent.
(2) If w ∈ V and
kv − wk2 < 1 − hu1 , vi2 − · · · − huk , vi2 ,
then {w, u1 , . . . , uk } are linearly independent.
k
X
= (a2i − 2ai hui , vi + hui , vi2 )
i=1
k
X
= (ai − hui , vi)2 ,
i=1
which is a contradiction.
Theorem 220. [Problem 13-3] Let M be a smooth manifold.
(1) If there exists a global nonvanishing vector field on M , then there exists a global
smooth nonvanishing vector field.
(2) If there exists a linearly independent k-tuple of vector fields on M , then there
exists such a k-tuple of smooth vector fields.
for all x ∈ M . Then Lemma 219 shows that (X1 , . . . , X ej , . . . , Xk ) is linearly inde-
pendent. Apply the Gram-Schmidt process to (X1 , . . . , X ej ) to obtain an orthonormal
k-tuple of vector fields such that the first j vector fields are smooth. Repeating this
procedure k times produces an orthonormal k-tuple of smooth vector fields.
◦
Example 221. [Problem 13-4] Let g denote the round metric on Sn . Compute the
◦
coordinate representation of g in stereographic coordinates.
We have
(2u1 , . . . , 2un , |u|2 − 1)
(x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) = ,
|u|2 + 1
89
so
2(|u|2 − 2uj + 1) j X 4ui uj
dxj = du − dui
(|u|2 + 1)2 i6=j
(|u|2
+ 1) 2
e : [a, b] → Rn then
Proof. First note that if γ
ˆ b ˆ b
0 0
|e
γ (t)| dt ≥ e (t)dt = |e
γ γ (b) − γ
e(a)| .
a a
We have
Lg (αr ) = 1 − r + 4r + 1 − r = 2 + 2r
→2
as r → 0. Therefore dg (p, q) ≤ 2. But Theorem 226 shows that dg (p, q) ≥ 2, so
dg (p, q) = 2. There is no piecewise smooth curve segment γ from p to q such that
Lg (γ) = 2, due to Theorem 226.
Theorem 228. [Problem 13-12] Consider Rn as a Riemannian manifold with the Eu-
clidean metric g.
(1) Suppose U, V ⊆ Rn are connected open sets, ϕ, ψ : U → V are Riemannian
isometries, and for some p ∈ U they satisfy ϕ(p) = ψ(p) and dϕp = dψp . Then
ϕ = ψ.
(2) The set of maps from Rn to itself given by the action of E(n) on Rn described
in Example 7.32 is the full group of Riemannian isometries of (Rn , g).
92
complete. Conversely, suppose that both integrals in (*) diverge and let {xn } be a
Cauchy sequence. Then {xn } is contained in a set K ⊆ R that is bounded with respect
to the metric induced by g. Since the integrals in (*) diverge, K must also be bounded
with respect to the Euclidean metric. By replacing K with a closed and bounded
interval containing K, we may assume that K is compact. There are positive constants
c, C such that
p p p
c ≤ f (t) ≤ C and f (t)/C ≤ 1 ≤ f (t)/c
for all t ∈ K. Let ε > 0. Since {xn } is Cauchy, there exists an integer N such that
ˆ xn p
−cε < f (t) dt < cε
xm
Example 232. [Problem 13-19] The following example shows that the converse of
Theorem 231(b) does not hold. Define F : R → R2 by F (t) = ((et +1) cos t, (et +1) sin t).
Show that F is an embedding that is not proper, yet R is complete in the metric induced
from the Euclidean metric on R2 .
We have
et (cos t − sin t) − sin t
DF (t) = t ,
e (cos t + sin t) + cos t
which is never zero. Since F is an open map, it is a smooth embedding. But F −1 B 2 (0)
is not compact, where B 2 (0) is the closed ball of radius 2 around (0, 0). The metric on
R induced from the Euclidean metric on R2 is given by
f ∗ g = d((et + 1) cos t)2 + d((et + 1) sin t)2
= (2e2t + 2et + 1)dt2 .
But ˆ ˆ
∞ √ 0 √
2e2t + 2et + 1 dt and 2e2t + 2et + 1 dt
0 −∞
diverge, so Theorem 230 shows that f ∗ g is complete.
Theorem 233. [Problem 13-21] Let (M, g) be a Riemannian manifold, let f ∈ C ∞ (M ),
and let p ∈ M be a regular point of f .
(1) Among all unit vectors v ∈ Tp M , the directional derivative vf is greatest when
v points in the same direction as grad f |p , and the length of grad f |p is equal to
the value of the directional derivative in that direction.
(2) grad f |p is normal to the level set of f through p.
Example 235. [Problem 13-23] Is there a smooth covector field on S2 that vanishes at
exactly one point?
Yes, due to Theorem 128 and Theorem 234.
Proof. If τ ∈ Sk then
1 X
(Alt α)(vτ (1) , . . . , vτ (k) ) = (sgn σ)α(v(σ◦τ )(1) , . . . , v(σ◦τ )(k) )
k! σ∈S
k
1 X
= sgn(τ ) sgn(σ ◦ τ )α(v(σ◦τ )(1) , . . . , v(σ◦τ )(k) )
k! σ∈S
k
1 X
= sgn(τ ) (sgn σ)α(vσ(1) , . . . , vσ(k) )
k! σ∈S
k
1 X
= (sgn σ)2 α(v1 , . . . , vk )
k! σ∈S
k
= α(v1 , . . . , vk ).
Conversely, if Alt α = α then α is alternating since Alt α is alternating. This proves
(2).
Theorem 237. [Exercise 14.12] The wedge product is the unique associative, bilinear,
and anticommutative map Λk (V ∗ ) × Λl (V ∗ ) → Λk+l (V ∗ ) satisfying
εi 1 ∧ · · · ∧ εi k = εI
for any basis (εi ) for V ∗ and any multi-index I = (i1 , . . . , ik ).
96
Id [ β ∗
Therefore curl ◦ grad = 0 and div ◦ curl = 0 on R3 . The analogues of the left-hand and
right-hand square commute when R3 is replaced by Rn for any n.
97
Proof. In Rn , we have
n
! n
X ∂f ∂ X ∂f i
([ ◦ grad)(f ) = [ = dx = df
i=1
∂xi ∂xi i=1
∂x i
and
(d ◦ β)(X) = d(Xy(dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxn ))
n
!
X
=d (−1)i−1 dxi (X)dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dx
ci ∧ · · · ∧ dxn
i=1
n
!
X
=d (−1)i−1 X i dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dx
ci ∧ · · · ∧ dxn
i=1
n n
X
i−1
X ∂X i
= (−1) dxj ∧ dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dx
ci ∧ · · · ∧ dxn
i=1 j=1
∂xj
n
X∂X i 1
= i
dx ∧ · · · ∧ dxn
i=1
∂x
n
!
X ∂X i
=∗
i=1
∂xi
= (∗ ◦ div)(X).
In R3 we have
∂X 3 ∂X 2 ∂X 1 ∂X 3
∂ ∂
(β ◦ curl)(X) = β 2
− 3 1
+ 3
− 1
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x2
∂X 2 ∂X 1
∂
+ −
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂X 2 ∂X 1 ∂X 3 ∂X 1
1 2
= − dx ∧ dx + − dx1 ∧ dx3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x3
∂X 3 ∂X 2
+ − dx2 ∧ dx3
∂x2 ∂x3
= d X 1 dx1 + X 2 dx2 + X 3 dx3
= (d ◦ [)(X).
Theorem 240. [Problem 14-1] Covectors ω 1 , . . . , ω k ∈ V ∗ are linearly dependent if and
only if ω 1 ∧ · · · ∧ ω k = 0.
98
Proof. Let n = dim V . Suppose that ω 1 , . . . , ω k are linearly dependent and assume
without loss of generality that a1 ω 1 + · · · + ak ω k = 0 with a1 6= 0. Then ω 1 =
−a−1 2 k
1 (a2 ω + · · · + ak ω ), so
ω 1 ∧ · · · ∧ ω k = −a−1 2 k 2 k
1 (a2 ω + · · · + ak ω ) ∧ ω ∧ · · · ∧ ω = 0.
Conversely, suppose that ω 1 , . . . , ω k are linearly independent. We can extend ω 1 , . . . , ω k
to a basis {ω 1 , . . . , ω n } of Λn (V ∗ ). Then
ω 1 ∧ · · · ∧ ω n = (ω 1 ∧ · · · ∧ ω k ) ∧ (ω k+1 ∧ · · · ∧ ω n ) 6= 0,
so ω 1 ∧ · · · ∧ ω k 6= 0.
Theorem 241. [Problem 14-5] Let M be a smooth n-manifold with or without bound-
ary, and let (ω 1 , . . . , ω k ) be an ordered k-tuple of smooth 1-forms on an open subset
U ⊆ M such that (ω 1 |p , . . . , ω k |p ) is linearly independent for each p ∈ U . Given smooth
1-forms α1 , . . . , αk on U such that
k
X
αi ∧ ω i = 0,
i=1
We have
dx = sin ϕ cos θ dρ + ρ cos ϕ cos θ dϕ − ρ sin ϕ sin θ dθ,
dy = sin ϕ sin θ dρ + ρ cos ϕ sin θ dϕ + ρ sin ϕ cos θ dθ,
dz = cos ϕ dρ − ρ sin ϕ dϕ,
so
ω = ρ3 sin ϕ dϕ ∧ dθ.
Also,
dω = 3dx ∧ dy ∧ dz
and
dω = 3ρ2 sin ϕ dρ ∧ dϕ ∧ dθ.
The pullback of ω to S2 is given by
ι∗S2 ω = sin ϕ dϕ ∧ dθ,
which is defined for (ϕ, θ) ∈ (0, π)×(0, 2π). This expression is never zero since sin ϕ > 0
for ϕ ∈ (0, π).
Proof. Let (Ei ) be a local frame with a connected domain U . Let D be the points of
U at which (Ei ) is positively oriented. Let p ∈ D and let (Eei ) be an oriented local
frame defined on a neighborhood V ⊆ U of p. Writing Ei = Bij E ej for continuous
component functions Bij : V → R, we have det(Bij (p)) > 0. Since det is continuous,
there is a neighborhood of p on which Ei is oriented. This shows that D is open. A
similar argument shows that U \ D is open, so D is either empty or equal to U by the
connectedness of U .
Theorem 244. [Exercise 15.8] Suppose M1 , . . . , Mk are orientable smooth manifolds.
There is a unique orientation on M1 × · · · × Mk , called the product orientation,
with the following property: if for each i = 1, . . . , k, ωi is an orientation form for the
given orientation on Mi , then π1∗ ω1 ∧ · · · ∧ πk∗ ωk is an orientation form for the product
orientation.
100
Proof. If dim M = 0 then M consists of a single point, so the result is clear. Suppose
O, O0 are two orientations of M that agree at a single point p. Let D = {x ∈ M : Ox = Ox0 };
this set is nonempty since p ∈ D. Let x ∈ D and let (Ei ) be a local frame defined in
a connected neighborhood of x that is positively oriented with respect to O0 . Apply-
ing Theorem 243 to (M, O) shows that (Ei ) is positively oriented with respect to O.
Therefore D is open. A similar argument shows that M \ D is open, so D = M by the
connectedness of M .
Since M is orientable, there is an orientation O for M . Let ω be an orientation form
for O; then −ω determines an orientation O0 for M with Op 6= Op0 for all p ∈ M . If
O00 is any orientation and p is any point in M then either Op00 = Op or Op00 = Op0 , so
O00 = O or O00 = O0 .
Theorem 246. [Exercise 15.12] Suppose M is an oriented smooth manifold with or
without boundary, and D ⊆ M is a smooth codimension-0 submanifold with or without
boundary. The orientation of M restricts to an orientation of D. If ω is an orientation
form for M , then ι∗D ω is an orientation form for D.
Proof. It suffices to check that ι∗D ω is nonvanishing. But this is clear since d(ιD )p is an
isomorphism for every p ∈ M .
Theorem 247. [Exercise 15.13] Suppose M and N are oriented positive-dimensional
smooth manifolds with or without boundary, and F : M → N is a local diffeomorphism.
The following are equivalent:
(1) F is orientation-preserving.
(2) With respect to any oriented smooth charts for M and N , the Jacobian matrix
of F has positive determinant.
(3) For any positively oriented orientation form ω for N , the form F ∗ ω is positively
oriented for M .
101
Proof. If (U, (xi )) and (V, (y i )) are oriented smooth charts for M and N respectively,
then dFp takes the oriented basis (∂/∂xi |p ) to an oriented basis
!
∂F j ∂
(p) j .
∂xi ∂y p
Since (∂/∂y i |p ) is also an oriented basis, we have det(∂F j /∂xi (p)) > 0. This proves
(1) ⇒ (2). Suppose that (2) holds. By shrinking U and V , we can assume that they
are connected sets and that F |U : U → V is a diffeomorphism. Then
ω = f dy 1 ∧ · · · ∧ dy n
on V for some positive continuous function f , so by Proposition 14.20 we have
F ∗ ω = (f ◦ F )(det DF )dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxn .
Since det DF > 0 by (2), F ∗ ω is positively oriented on U . This proves (2) ⇒ (3).
Finally, suppose that (3) holds and let (Ei ) be an oriented basis of Tp M . If ω is a
positively oriented orientation form for N then
(F ∗ ω)p (E1 , . . . , En ) > 0 ⇒ ωF (p) (dFp (E1 ), . . . , dFp (En )) > 0,
so (dFp (Ei )) is an oriented basis of TF (p) N . This proves (3) ⇒ (1).
Theorem 248. [Exercise 15.14] A composition of orientation-preserving maps is orientation-
preserving.
Proof. This is clear from the fact that (G ◦ F )∗ ω = F ∗ G∗ ω for any orientation form
ω.
Theorem 250. [Exercise 15.20] Every Lie group has precisely two left-invariant ori-
entations, corresponding to the two orientations of its Lie algebra.
Proof. Let G be a Lie group. Corollary 8.39 shows that there are at least two left-
invariant orientations. If O is a left-invariant orientation on G then it is completely
determined by Oe , so there are exactly two left-invariant orientations.
Theorem 251. [Exercise 15.30] Suppose (M, g) and (M f, ge) are positive-dimensional
Riemannian manifolds with or without boundary, and F : M → M f is a local isometry.
∗
Then F ωge = ωg .
102
Proof. Denote the two open submanifolds by N and P . We can assume that there is
some p ∈ N ∩ P , for otherwise the result is trivial. Choose an orientation O for N , and
choose an orientation O0 for P such that Op = Op0 . By Theorem 245, O and O0 agree
on N ∩ P , and it is easy to check that the orientation given by
(
Ox , x ∈ N,
Ox00 =
Ox0 , x ∈ P
is well-defined and continuous.
Theorem 253. [Problem 15-2] Suppose M and N are oriented smooth manifolds with
or without boundary, and F : M → N is a local diffeomorphism. If M is connected,
then F is either orientation-preserving or orientation-reversing.
Proof. If M and N are 0-manifolds, then M and N both consist of a single point and
the result is trivial. Let D be the set of points x for which dFx takes oriented bases of
Tx M to oriented bases of TF (x) N . Let ω be a positively oriented orientation form for
N . Let x ∈ D and let (Ei ) be an oriented local frame defined on a neighborhood U of
x. Then (F ∗ ω)x (E1 |x , . . . , En |x ) > 0, so by continuity there is a neighborhood V ⊆ U
of x on which (F ∗ ω)(E1 , . . . , En ) > 0. Therefore V ⊆ D by Theorem 247, and D is
open. A similar argument shows that M \ D is open, so D = ∅ or D = M since M is
connected.
Theorem 254. [Problem 15-3] Suppose n ≥ 1, and let α : Sn → Sn be the antipodal
map: α(x) = −x. Then α is orientation-preserving if and only if n is odd.
Proof. The outward unit normal vector field along Sn is N = xi ∂/∂xi , and Corollary
15.34 shows that the Riemannian volume form ωge of Sn is
n+1
!
X
ωge = ι∗n (N y(dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxn+1 )) = ι∗n
S S (−1)i−1 xi dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dx
ci ∧ · · · ∧ dxn+1 .
i=1
103
We have
n+1
!
X
∗
α ωge = ι∗Sn (−1)i−1 (−xi ) (−dx1 ) ∧ · · · ∧ (−dx
\i ) ∧ · · · ∧ (−dxn+1 )
i=1
n+1
= (−1) ωge,
so F is orientation-preserving if and only if n is odd.
Theorem 255. [Problem 15-5] Let M be a smooth manifold with or without boundary.
The total spaces of T M and T ∗ M are orientable.
Proof. Let π : T M → M be the projection. Let (U, ϕ) and (V, ψ) be smooth charts
for M , and let (π −1 (U ), ϕ)
e and (π −1 (V ), ψ) e be the corresponding charts for T M . The
transition map is given by
x1 xn
−1 1 n 1 n 1 n ∂e j ∂e j
(ψ ◦ ϕ
e e )(x , . . . , x , v , . . . , v ) = x e (x), j (x)v , . . . , j (x)v .
e (x), . . . , x
∂x ∂x
The Jacobian matrix of this map at (x1 , . . . , xn , v 1 , . . . , v n ) is
∂exi
∂x j (x) 0
∂exi ,
∗ ∂xj
(x)
which clearly has positive determinant. The result follows from Proposition 15.6. A
similar computation holds for T ∗ M .
Theorem 256. [Problem 15-7] Suppose M is an oriented Riemannian manifold with
or without boundary, and S ⊆ M is an oriented smooth hypersurface with or without
boundary. There is a unique smooth unit normal vector field along S that determines
the given orientation of S.
Proof. Let n = dim M , let ω be an orientation form for M , and let O be the orientation
on S. Let N S be the normal bundle of S (see Theorem 213), which is of rank 1. Let Z
be the set of all zero vectors in N S. Define a map f : N S \ Z → {−1, +1} as follows:
if v ∈ Np S then choose an oriented (with respect to O) basis (Ei ) for Tp S and define
ω(v, E1 , . . . , En−1 )
f (v) = .
|ω(v, E1 , . . . , En−1 )|
This map is well-defined because (Ei ) is oriented, and is continuous because there is
an oriented local frame defined on a neighborhood of every p. Let P = f −1 ({+1}). It
is easy to see that P is convex and open in N S, so Theorem 217 shows that there is
a smooth global section X : S → P . Then X e = X/ |X| is the desired smooth unit
g
normal vector field along S.
104
Proof. If S has trivial normal bundle then there is a global frame for N S, and Proposi-
tion 15.21 shows that S is orientable. If S is an orientable hypersurface, then Theorem
256 gives a global frame for N S (since N S is of rank 1).
Theorem 258. [Problem 15-9] Let S be an oriented, embedded, 2-dimensional subman-
ifold with boundary in R3 , and let C = ∂S with the induced orientation. By Theorem
256, there is a unique smooth unit normal vector field N on S that determines the ori-
entation. Let T be the oriented unit tangent vector field on C, and let V be the unique
unit vector field tangent to S along C that is orthogonal to T and inward-pointing. Then
(Tp , Vp , Np ) is an oriented orthonormal basis for R3 at each p ∈ C.
Proof. Define Fb(x) = (F (x), OF (x) ), where OF (x) is the orientation of TF (x) M deter-
mined by F and the orientation of X. It is clear that π b ◦ Fb = F . Let UbO be an element
−1 b
of the basis defined in Proposition 15.40. If U is connected, then F (UO ) is either U or
b
empty. Therefore Fb−1 (U bO ) is open for any open set U , and Fb is continuous. By Theo-
rem 41, Fb is smooth, and it is easy to check that it is orientation-preserving and a local
diffeomorphism. Uniqueness follows from the fact that Fb is orientation-preserving.
Theorem 260. [Problem 15-11] Let M be a nonorientable connected smooth manifold
with or without boundary, and let π
b : Mc → M be its orientation covering. If M f
is an oriented smooth manifold with or without boundary that admits a two-sheeted
smooth covering map π f → M , then there exists a unique orientation-preserving
e : M
f→M
diffeomorphism ϕ : M b◦ϕ=π
c such that π e.
105
Proof. Let f : R → R be such a diffeomorphism; then f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ R. Let
g(x) = f (x) − x; then g 0 (x) = f 0 (x) − 1 < −1 for all x ∈ R. If g(0) = 0, then we are
done. If g(0) > 0 then by the mean value theorem, there exists a point t ∈ (0, g(0))
such that
g(g(0)) − g(0)
= g 0 (t) < −1,
g(0)
i.e. g(g(0)) < 0, and the intermediate value theorem shows that g(x) = 0 for some
x ∈ (0, g(0)). Similarly, if g(0) < 0 then there exists a point t ∈ (g(0), 0) such that
g(g(0)) − g(0)
= g 0 (t) < −1,
g(0)
i.e. g(g(0)) > 0, and the intermediate value theorem shows that g(x) = 0 for some
x ∈ (g(0), 0).
Proof. If f is supported in the domain of a single oriented smooth chart (U, ϕ), then
ˆ ˆ q
1 n
f dV g
=
f (x) det(gij ) dx · · · dx
M ϕ(U )
ˆ q
≤ |f (x)| det(gij ) dx1 · · · dxn
ϕ(U )
ˆ
= |f | dVg .
M
106
For the general case, cover supp f by finitely many domains of positively or negatively
oriented smooth charts {Ui } and choose a subordinate smooth partition of unity {ψi }.
Then
ˆ ˆ
X
f dVg = ψi f dVg
M M
X
i
ˆ
≤ ψi |f | dVg
M
ˆi
= |f | dVg .
M
Example 263. [Problem 16-2] Let T2 = S1 ×S1 ⊆ R4 denote the 2-torus, defined as the
set of points (w, x, y, z) such that w2 + x2 = y 2 + z 2 = 1,´ with the product orientation
determined by the standard orientation on S1 . Compute T2 ω, where ω is the following
2-form on R4 :
ω = xyz dw ∧ dy.
Proof. Let {Ui } be a finite open cover of supp ω by evenly covered sets, and let {ψi } be a
(1) (k)
subordinate smoothn partition
o of unity. For each i, let Ui , . . . , Ui be the components
(j)
of π −1 (Ui ). Let ψbi be a smooth partition of unity subordinate to the open cover
n o
(j)
Ui of supp π ∗ ω. Applying Proposition 16.6(d), we have
ˆ k ˆ
XX
k ω= ψi ω
M i j=1 Ui
k ˆ
XX
= (ψi ◦ π|U (j) )π ∗ ω
(j) i
i j=1 Ui
k ˆ
XX
= (ψi ◦ π|U (j) )π ∗ ω
(j) i
i j=1 Ui
k ˆ k
(j 0 )
XX XX
= ψbi0 (ψi ◦ π|U (j) )π ∗ ω
(j) i
i j=1 Ui i0 j 0 =1
ˆ XX
k k
(j 0 )
XX
= ψbi0 (ψi ◦ π|U (j) )π ∗ ω
i
E i0 j 0 =1 i j=1
ˆ XX
k
(j 0 )
= ψbi0 π ∗ ω
E i0 j 0 =1
ˆ
= π ∗ ω.
E
But ˆ ˆ ˆ
∗ ∗
H ω= F ω− G∗ ω,
∂(M ×I) M M
so ˆ ˆ
∗
F ω= G∗ ω.
M M
The result follows from Proposition 16.6(d).
Theorem 267. [Problem 16-6] The following are equivalent:
(1) There exists a nowhere-vanishing vector field on Sn .
(2) There exists a continuous map V : Sn → Sn satisfying V (x) ⊥ x (with respect
to the Euclidean dot product on Rn+1 ) for all x ∈ Sn .
(3) The antipodal map α : Sn → Sn is homotopic to IdSn .
(4) The antipodal map α : Sn → Sn is orientation-preserving.
(5) n is odd.
Therefore, there exists a nowhere-vanishing vector field on Sn if and only if n is odd.
where the denominator is nonzero since (1 − t)(−x) + tV (x) = 0 contradicts the fact
that V (x) ⊥ x. Similarly, we can define a homotopy H2 from V to IdSn by
(1 − t)V (x) + tx
H2 (x, t) = .
|(1 − t)V (x) + tx|
This proves (2) ⇒ (3). Theorem 266 proves (3) ⇒ (4), and Theorem 254 proves
(4) ⇒ (5). Finally, Theorem 150 proves (5) ⇒ (1).
Theorem 268. [Problem 16-9] Let ω be the (n − 1)-form on Rn \ {0} defined by
n
X
−n
ω = |x| (−1)i−1 xi dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dx
ci ∧ · · · ∧ dxn .
i=1
(1) ι∗Sn−1 ω is the Riemannian volume form of Sn−1 with respect to the round metric
and the standard orientation.
(2) ω is closed but not exact on Rn \ {0}.
Proof. The unit normal vector field for Sn−1 with the standard orientation is given by
x 7→ x, so (1) follows from the formula in Lemma 14.13. For (2), we have
n i
X
i−1 x
dω = (−1) d n dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dx
ci ∧ · · · ∧ dxn
i=1
|x|
n
!
X |x|n − n(xi )2 |x|n−2
= 2n dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxn
i=1
|x|
n
n(xi )2
X 1
= n − n+2 dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxn
i=1
|x| |x|
= 0.
If ω is exact then ˆ
ω=0
Sn−1
by Corollary 16.13, which is a contradiction.
Example 269. [Problem 16-10] Let D denote the torus of revolution in R3 obtained
by revolving the circle (r − 2)2 + z 2 = 1 around the z-axis, with its induced Riemannian
metric and with the orientation determined by the outward unit normal.
Let ι : D ,→ R3 be the inclusion map. Let U = (0, 2π) × (0, 2π) and define an
orientation-preserving diffeomorphism F : U → D by
F (θ, ϕ) = ((2 + cos θ) cos ϕ, (2 + cos θ) sin ϕ, sin θ).
We have
dx = − sin θ cos ϕ dθ − (2 + cos θ) sin ϕ dϕ,
dy = − sin θ sin ϕ dθ + (2 + cos θ) cos ϕ dϕ,
dz = cos θ dθ
and
F ∗ g = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2
= sin2 θ cos2 ϕ dθ2 + (2 + cos θ)2 sin2 ϕ dϕ2
+ 2 sin θ sin ϕ cos ϕ(2 + cos θ) dθ dϕ
+ sin2 θ sin2 ϕ dθ2 + (2 + cos θ)2 cos2 ϕ dϕ2
− 2 sin θ sin ϕ cos ϕ(2 + cos θ) dθ dϕ
+ cos2 θ dθ2
= dθ2 + (2 + cos θ)2 dϕ2 .
For (1), we have
ˆ ˆ p
ωι∗ g = (2 + cos θ)2
D (θ,ϕ)∈U
ˆ 2π
= 2π (2 + cos θ) dθ
0
= 8π 2 .
For (2), we have
ˆ ˆ p
f ωι∗ g = (sin2 θ + 1) (2 + cos θ)2
D (θ,ϕ)∈U
ˆ 2π
= 2π (sin2 θ + 1)(2 + cos θ) dθ
0
2
= 12π .
For (3), we have
dx ∧ dy = (− sin θ cos ϕ dθ − (2 + cos θ) sin ϕ dϕ)
∧ (− sin θ sin ϕ dθ + (2 + cos θ) cos ϕ dϕ)
= −(2 + cos θ) sin θ dθ ∧ dϕ
111
so that
ˆ ˆ
z dx ∧ dy = − (2 + cos θ) sin2 θ dθ ∧ dϕ
D D
ˆ 2π
= −2π (2 + cos θ) sin2 θ dθ
0
2
= −4π .
Theorem 270. [Problem 16-11] Let (M, g) be a Riemannian n-manifold with or without
boundary. In any smooth local coordinates (xi ) we have
i ∂ 1 ∂ ip
div X = √ X det g ,
∂xi det g ∂xi
where det g = det(gkl ) is the determinant of the component matrix of g in these coordi-
nates.
Proof. We have
p
ωg = det gdx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxn
by Proposition 15.31, so
X n
i ∂ i−1 i
p
β X i
= (−1) X det g dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dx
ci ∧ · · · ∧ dxn .
∂x i=1
Then
i ∂ ∂ ip
d β X = X det g dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxn
∂xi ∂xi
and
∂
i −1 i ∂
div X =∗ d β X
∂xi ∂xi
1 ∂ ip
=√ X det g .
det g ∂xi
Theorem 271. [Problem 16-12] Let (M, g) be a compact Riemannian manifold with
boundary, let ge denote the induced Riemannian metric on ∂M , and let N be the outward
unit normal vector field along ∂M .
(1) The divergence operator satisfies the following product rule for f ∈ C ∞ (M ),
X ∈ X(M ):
div(f X) = f div X + hgrad f, Xig .
112
by Theorem 16.32.
Theorem 272. [Problem 16-13] Let (M, g) be a Riemannian n-manifold with or without
boundary. The linear operator 4 : C ∞ (M ) → C ∞ (M ) defined by 4u = − div(grad u)
is called the (geometric) Laplacian. The Laplacian is given in any smooth local
coordinates by
1 ∂ ij
p ∂u
4u = − √ g det g j .
det g ∂xi ∂x
n
On R with the Euclidean metric and standard coordinates,
n
X ∂ 2u
4u = − .
i=1
(∂xi )2
Proof. (1) follows by putting f = u and X = grad v in Theorem 271. For (2), if u is
harmonic then ˆ ˆ
2
|grad u|g dVg = u4u dVg = 0
M M
by part (1). Therefore grad u = 0, and u is constant since M is connected. For (3), we
have ˆ ˆ
2
|grad(u − v)|g dVg = (u − v)N (u − v) dVge = 0
M ∂M
by part (1). Therefore grad(u − v) = 0, and u − v is constant since M is connected.
Since u and v agree on ∂M , we have u = v.
Theorem 274. [Problem 16-15] Let (M, g) be a compact connected Riemannian man-
ifold without boundary, and let 4 be its geometric Laplacian. A real number λ is called
an eigenvalue of 4 if there exists a smooth real-valued function u on M , not identically
zero, such that 4u = λu. In this case, u is called an eigenfunction corresponding to
λ.
(1) 0 is an eigenvalue of 4, and all other eigenvalues are strictly positive. ´
(2) If u and v are eigenfunctions corresponding to distinct eigenvalues, then M uv dVg =
0.
+ε 2
|grad f |2g dVg .
M
Applying Theorem 271, we have
ˆ ˆ ˆ
2 2
|grad(u + εf )|g dVg = |grad u|g dVg + 2ε (f 4u) dVg
M M
ˆ M
+ε 2
|grad f |2g dVg .
M
If u is harmonic then
ˆ ˆ ˆ
2 2
|grad(u + f )|g dVg = |grad u|g dVg + |grad f |2g dVg ,
M M M
´
and it is clear that u minimizes |grad u|2g
dVg among all smooth functions with the
M ´
same boundary values. Conversely, suppose that u minimizes M |grad u|2g dVg . Then
ˆ
|grad(u + εf )|2g dVg
M
i1 j1
g · · · g i1 jk
for all increasing multi-indices I and J, whenever (εi ) is the coframe dual to a local
orthonormal frame (Ei ). (Here (g ij ) is the inverse of gij (p), which is the matrix of g
in these coordinates.) This proves that the inner product is uniquely determined. To
prove existence, we will define h·, ·ig by (*) and extend bilinearly. To check that the
116
εi ) be another coframe
definition is independent of the choice of orthonormal frame, let (e
dual to a local orthonormal frame (E ei ). Then
0
X 0
X
I L J
εe = αL ε and εe = βM εM
L M
Since Ei = Aji E
ej for some orthonormal matrix (Aj ), we have
i
0 X
X X
I J
Apl11 · · · Aplkk δPI Aql11 · · · Aqlkk δQ
J
εe , εe g
=
L P Q
0 X
i i j j
X X
= (sgn σ)Al1σ(1) · · · Alkσ(k) (sgn τ )Al1τ (1) · · · Alkτ (k)
L σ∈Sk τ ∈Sk
=???????????????
For (2), if ω is any positively oriented n-form then ωp = c(dVg )p for some c > 0, and
hωp , ωp ig = c2 hdVg , dVg ig
= c2 ε1 ∧ · · · ∧ εn , ε1 ∧ · · · ∧ εn g
= c2
whenever (εi ) is the coframe dual to a local orthonormal frame, by Proposition 15.29.
If ω has unit norm then it is clear that c = 1.
Example 278. [Problem 16-19] Consider Rn as a Riemannian manifold with the Eu-
clidean metric and the standard orientation.
(1) Calculate ∗dxi for i = 1, . . . , n.
(2) Calculate ∗(dxi ∧ dxj ) in the case n = 4.
117
TODO
Theorem 279. [Problem 16-20] Let M be an oriented Riemannian 4-manifold. A
2-form ω on M is said to be self-dual if ∗ω = ω, and anti-self-dual if ∗ω = −ω.
(1) Every 2-form ω on M can be written uniquely as a sum of a self-dual form and
an anti-self-dual form.
(2) On M = R4 with the Euclidean metric, the self-dual and anti-self-dual forms in
standard coordinates are given by:
??????????
Proof. TODO
Theorem 280. [Problem 16-21] Let (M, g) be an oriented Riemannian manifold and
X ∈ X(M ). Then
XydVg = ∗X [ ,
div X = ∗d ∗ X [ ,
and, when dim M = 3,
curl X = (∗dX [ )] .
Proof. TODO
Theorem 281. [Problem 16-22] Let (M, g) be a compact, oriented Riemannian n-
manifold. For 1 ≤ k ≤ n, define a map d∗ : Ωk (M ) → Ωk−1 (M ) by d∗ ω = (−1)n(k+1)+1 ∗
d ∗ ω, where ∗ is the Hodge star operator defined in Theorem 277. Extend this definition
to 0-forms by defining d∗ ω = 0 for ω ∈ Ω0 (M ).
(1) d∗ ◦ d∗ = 0.
(2) The formula
ˆ
(ω, η) = hω, ηig dVg
M
defines an inner product on Ωk (M ) for each k, where h·, ·ig is the pointwise inner
product on forms defined in Theorem 277.
(3) (d∗ ω, η) = (ω, dη) for all ω ∈ Ωk (M ) and η ∈ Ωk−1 (M ).
Proof. TODO
118
Theorem 282. [Exercise 17.37] Suppose M , N , and P are compact, connected, ori-
ented, smooth n-manifolds.
(1) If F : M → N and G : N → P are both smooth maps, then deg(G ◦ F ) =
(deg G)(deg F ).
(2) If F : M → N is a diffeomorphism, then deg F = +1 if F is orientation-
preserving and −1 if it is orientation-reversing.
(3) If two smooth maps F0 , F1 : M → N are homotopic, then they have the same
degree.
Proof. TODO
References
[1] John M. Lee. Introduction to Topological Manifolds. Springer, 2nd edition, 2011.