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Tema 19:
Tiempo real y
tiempo verbal.
Aspecto y modo
Madhatter
11/06/2007

Tema 19:
Tiempo real y tiempo verba
al. Aspecto y mo
odo.
2
Ta
able of contents
1. Tense in English.
E ______________
____________________
_________________________ 3
1.1. Time, tense and thee Verb __________________________ ___________________________ 3
1.2. The preesent tense as
a “nonpast””. ___________________ ___________________________ 4
1.3. Meaninngs of the sim
mple presennt tense with
h reference to
t present tim
me. ____________ 5
1.3.1. State event. _____
__________________________________________________________________ 5
1.3.2. Habbitual present __________________________________ ______________________________ 5
1.3.3. Instaantaneous preesent _______________________________
______________________________ 6
1.4. Special nonpresentt usages of th
he present tense
t ______
___________________________ 7
1.4.1 Simpple present refferring to the past.
p ___________________
______________________________ 7
1.4.2. Sim
mple present reeferring to the future. _________________
______________________________ 7
1.4.3. Sim
mple present inn fictional narrrative ___________________
______________________________ 8
1.5. Meanin
ngs of the paast tense witth reference to past timee. _________________________ 8
1.5.1. Anaaphoric and caataphoric use ofo the past tennse _________
______________________________ 8
1.5.2. Evennt, state and habit
h in the past. ___________________________________________________ 9
1.6. Meanin
ngs of the paast tense witth reference to present and
a future time.
t ___________ 10
1.6.1. Backkshifting. ____
____________________________________
_____________________________ 10
1.6.2. Attittudinal past.____________
__ ________________________
_____________________________ 10
1.6.3. Hyppothetical pastt. __________________________________
_____________________________ 11
2. Aspect in English.
E _____________
____________________
________________________ 11
2.1. The perrfective aspeect _____________________________
__________________________ 11
2.1.1. The present perfeect _________________________________ _____________________________ 13
2.1.1.1.. Variants of thhe indefinite meaning.
m _____________________________________________ 14
2.1.1.2.. The use of addverbials withh the simple past and presen
nt perfect. ____________________ 15
2.1.2. Pastt perfect _____
____________________________________ _____________________________ 15
2.2. Progresssive aspect _______________________________
__________________________ 16
2.2.1. State, event and habit
h with the progressive. ____________
_ _____________________________ 17
2.2.2. Situuation types. ____________
__ _____________________________________________________ 18
2.2.2.1.. Stative type A & B: Qualitties and states. ___________
_____________________________ 20
2.2.22.1.1. Private states. ___________________________________________________________ 20
2.2.22.1.2. Vs of peerception ___________________________ _____________________________ 21
2.2.2.2.. Type C: Stannce ________________________________ _____________________________ 21
2.2.2.3.. Dynamic typpes D-K _____________________________ _____________________________ 22
2.2.22.3.1. Durative Situation typpes. ____________________
_____________________________ 22
2.2.22.3.2. Punctuaal situation typpes. ____________________
_____________________________ 23
2.2.3. Otheer uses of the progressive aspect.
a __________________
_____________________________ 23
2.3. Perfect progressivee. ______________________________
__________________________ 24
3. Mood in En
nglish. ______________
____________________
________________________ 25
3.1. Directivves (Imperaative mood) _____________________
__________________________ 26
3.1.1. Direectives withouut subject. ________________________________________________________ 26
3.1.2. Direectives with suubject ______________________________ _____________________________ 26
3.1.3. Direectives with leet. _________________________________ _____________________________ 27
3.1.4. Summmary of form ms of imperativves. _________________________________________________ 27
3.1.5. Neggative imperatiives _______________________________ _____________________________ 28
3.1.6. Illoccutionary forcce of imperativves. ____________________
_____________________________ 28
3.2. Subjun
nctive mood.. _______________________________
__________________________ 29
3.2.1. Uses of the Subjuunctive: The mandative
m subjjunctive. ____
_____________________________ 29
3.2.2. The formulaic subbjunctive. ___________________________ _____________________________ 30
3.2.3. The were-subjuncctive. _______________________________ _____________________________ 30
3.3. The ind
dicative Moood______________________________
__________________________ 30
Biibliography __________
_ __________
____________________
________________________ 31
Brrief summarry __________________
____________________
________________________ 32
Iván Matella
anes’ Notes
Tema 19:
Tiempo real y tiempo verbal. Aspecto y modo.
3
1. Tense in English. TENSE
1.1. Time, tense and the Verb

Time vs. Tense
Time, as opposed to tense, is a universal concept with three clear
Time: universal concept.
divisions: PRESENT, PAST and FUTURE. Thus, time is an extra-linguistic Extra-linguistic entity.
reality or entity. The relation btw the concept of time and the time of
Tense: grammatical
the verbal form is called tense. So, it is a grammatical category that category that expresses
time.
expresses time realized by V forms.
In abstraction from any given Lg, time can be thought of as a line Referential level:
(theoretically of indefinite length) on which is located, as a continuous Time: line on which is

located the present
moving point, the present moment. Anything ahead of the present moment moment, ahead the
future and behind the
is in the future, and anything behind is in the past. past.
THE PRESENT MOMENT

PAST FUTURE
Now
This is an interpretation of past present and future on a REFERENTIAL LEVEL.
But in relating this view of time to Lg and, more precisely, to the meaning of Vs, Semantic level:
Something is defined
it is useful to reformulate this distinction: Something is defined as “present” if as “present” if it has
existence at the
it has existence at the present moment, allowing for the possibility present moment,
extending into the
that its existence may also extend into the past and into the future. past & future.
Hence, Paris stands on the river Seine may be correctly said to describe a
“present” state of affairs, even though this state of affairs has also obtained for
numerous centuries in the past, and may well exist for an indefinite period in
the future.
Now
[Preceding now] [Following now]
[Including now]
On this second, or SEMANTIC LEVEL of interpretation, the present is the most

general and unmarked category.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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1.2. The present tense as “nonpast”. Grammatical level:

“present” and “past” are also, apart from the referential and semantic
- Morphologically English
level, interpreted on a grammatical level, in reference to tense. Here, however, has no future forms of
the verb in addition to
the opposition is reduced to two, since morphologically English has no present & past forms.
future forms of the verb in addition to present and past forms. SOME
GRAMMARIANS have argued for a third “future tense” maintaining that English
realizes this tense by the use of an auxiliary verb construction (will +
Infinitive), but I prefer to follow those grammarians who have treated
tense strictly as a category realized by V inflection.
Tense:
Some grammarians have gone further, avoiding the term “present” in
reference to tense, and preferring “nonpast”. The terms present tense and
- Present & past tense.
past tense have THIS justification: that the tenses they name typically have
reference to present and past time respectively. However, there is also
MORPHOLOGICAL justification for treating the present as the unmarked - Past & nonpast tense.
Morphologic justification.
tense, since it is often realized by the base or uninflected form of the V.
Realized by the base
There is also SEMANTIC justification, to extend that the present tense may or uninflected form.
Semantic justification.
be used to express not only present but future.
present tense
*Yesterday is Sunday Tomorrow is Tuesday may be used to
Today is Monday express future.
Notice that we can use the present tense in questioning someone about a - Questioning about a
future activity.
future activity as well as about a present one.

*What are you doing yesterday? What are you doing tomorrow?
What are you doing today?
And we can use the present form of the modal with future meaning, but - Modals with future
meaning.
not with past meaning.
*I can help you yesterday I can help you tomorrow
I can help you today
We have good reasons for arguing that the SEMANTIC TRIO of past, present &
future is unequally separate into past and nonpast categories for the
purposes of tense. Tradition favors the retention of the label “present” in
place of “nonpast”.

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1.3. Meanings of the simple present tense with reference to S.Pres → Present time
present time.
1.3.1. State event.
State present [Noncount Ns]
With stative V senses, the present is used without reference to
General timeless
specific time, that is, there is no limitation on the extension of the state statements, also called
“eternal truths”
into the past & future (unless indicated otherwise). The STATE PRESENT as I
will call this category, includes general timeless statements, also called
“eternal truths”
Honesty is the best policy. Two & three make five. Scientific & mathematical
Water consist of hydrogen & oxygen. The earth moves around the sun. statements
Whereas proverbial, scientific or mathematical statements like these Geographical statements.
represent the extreme of temporal universality, geographical statements are

equally likely to be examples of the STATE PRESENT.
The Nile is the longest river in Africa Peru shares a border with Chile.
It can also be included as STATE PRESENT examples situations where our Our knowledge of the
world tells us that the
knowledge of the world tells us that the time span of the state is time span of the state is
restricted.
restricted:
Margaret is tall. We live near Toronto
Everyone likes Maurice She knows several Lgs.
1.3.2. Habitual present Habitual present [Plural Ns]

Dynamic V meanings, when used with the simple present, usually imply
V refers to a whole
an inherent unrestricted time span. In this case, the V refers to a whole sequence of events
repeated over a period.
sequence of events repeated over the period in question:
[1] We go to Brussels every year. [3] Bill drinks heavily. Dynamic V-sense
[2] Water boils at 100ºC.
As [2] shows, the HABITUAL PRESENT also resembles the STATE PRESENT in being Resembles state
present in the usage of
used for “timeless” statements. It is a sign of the habitual present that one can “timeless” statement.
easily add a frequency advbl to specify the frequency of the repetition (Bill drinks Can easily add an advbl
to specify the frequency
heavily every night). Some habitual presents, such as We go to Brussels, are of the repetition..
contextually incomplete unless such an advbl is added.

Vs of stative meaning may sometimes be used in a habitual sense Stative meaning Vs may
smtimes be used in a
when accompanied by a frequency advbl. habitual sense when
accompanied by a
She is seldom alone. frequency advbl.

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1.3.3. Instantaneous present Instantaneous pres [Sing Ns]
While the HABITUAL PRESENT is the most common meaning with the simple
present with a dynamic V sense, a second possibility, the INSTANTANEOUS Where the V refers to a
single action begun &
PRESENT, occurs where the V refers to a single action begun and completed approximately
at the moment of speech.
completed approximately at the moment of speech. We must thus add
to the STATE and HABITUAL PRESENT, which respectively correspond to noncount &
plural Ns, a third meaning corresponding to that of sing count Ns.
The INSTANTANEOUS PRESENT does not occur outside some rather Situations where it occurs:
restricted situations because it implies that the event has little or no

duration. Such situations are:
- Commentaries.
COMMENTARIES:
Black passes the ball to Fernandez … Fernandez shoots!
- Demonstrations & other
DEMONSTRATIONS AND OTHER SELF/COMMENTARIES: self/commentaries.
I pick up the fruit with a spear, bathe it into the water & lower it into the hot fat.
I enclose a form of application. - Special exclamatory
SPECIAL EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES (within initial advbls): sentences.
Here comes the winter!
PERFORMATIVES1: - Performatives.
I advise you to withdraw.
I apologize.
In Older English, the simple present was used more widely with reference to a
present event which would now be described by used of the present
progressive. Some relics of this archaic usage are found in one or two fixed
expressions such as How do you do? And How goes it?.
Figure 1 illustrates the three central uses of the simple present
with reference to present time:
NOW.
+ STATE PRESENT
Degree of usage
HABITUAL PRESENT
INSTANTANEOUS PRESENT
-
Figure 1
1
The V in performatives is often a verb of speaking (request, advise, predict) describing the
speech act of which it is a part.

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S.Pres → non present

1.4. Special nonpresent usages of the present tense
1.4.1 Simple present referring to the past. S.present → PAST
The so-called Historic present is characteristic of popular narrative Historic present:

characteristic of popular
style. It describes the past as if it is happening now. narrative style.
I couldn’t believe! Just as we arrived, up comes Ben and slaps me on the back as if
we’re life-long friends. “come on, old pal”, he says, “let me buy you a drink” …
A very different use of the present tense in reference to the past is that
Vs Communication.
found with Vs of communication:
The ten o’clock news says that there is going to be a bad storm.
Martin tells me the Smiths are moving from No.20
Such Vs include also Vs like understand, hear, learn, which refer to the
receptive end of the communication process.
I hear that poor Mr Simpson has gone into hospital.
These sentences are also acceptable with the S.past or the Pres.Perf., but the The author/speaker
can still communicate
with us through
implications of the S.Pres seems to be that the past communication’s result his/her performances.
is still operative. Thus:

The book of Genesis speaks of terrible fate of Sodom and Gomorrah.
suggests that although the book of genesis was written in the past, it still
“speaks” to us at the present time.
The S.Present is usually used in newspaper headlines to report recent events.
Trade unions back merge “No sell-ou” says P.M.
The notion that the past can remain alive in the present explains Past remain alive in the
present.
the optional use of the present tense in sentences referring to writers, artists,
composers, … and their existing works:
Like Rubens, Watteau is/was able to convey a impression of warm …
Again, it is something more than a figure of speech to suggest that the author
is still able to speak to us through his works
1.4.2. Simple present referring to the future. S.present → FUTURE

In main clauses, this typically occurs with time-position advbls to
Main clause: Timetables.
suggest that the event unalterably fixed in advance, such as timetables:
The plane leaves for Ankara at 8.00 tonight.
In dependent clauses, the future use of the S.Present is much more common, Dependent clause:
Conditional & temporal
particularly in conditional or temporal clauses: clauses.
He’ll do it if you pay him.

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1.4.3. Simple present in fictional narrative S.present → FICTION

There is a close connection btw the HISTORIC PRESENT of 1.4.1. above, Connected to the HISTORIC
PRESENT.
and the simple present as used in fictional narratives. The only
difference is that whereas the events narrated by means of the historic Only diff: real or
imaginary events.
present are real, those by the fictional ‘historic present’ are imaginary.
S.Past → Past time

1.5. Meanings of the past tense with reference to past time.
S.past combines two
As commonly used, the past tense combines two features of meaning: features of meaning
(a) The event/state must have taken place in the past, with a gap Event/state must have
taken place in the past.
btw its completion & the present moment. It is clearly exemplified by a
sentence like I stayed in Africa for several months, where the usual
implication is that I no longer stay in Africa.
(b) The speaker/writer must have in mind a definite time at which Speaker must have in
mind a definite time.
the event/state took place. It is explicitly shown in co-occurrence
relations btw the past tense and past time-position adverbials
such as last week, in 1955, several weeks ago, yesterday … Time position advbls.
Freda started school [last year / in 1950 ]

With such adverbials, the simple present or present perfective would be
virtually ungrammatical
*Freda [starts / has started ] school [ last year / in 1950 ]
It is not necessary, however, for the past tense to be accompanied by
an overt indicator of time. All that is required is that the speaker should
be able to count on the hearer’s assumption that he has a specific time
in mind. This can be easily acquired with the usage of a definite article
in the NP.
1.5.1. Anaphoric and cataphoric use of the past tense Anaphoric/cataphoric use
of the past time:
We may call the use of the past tense “anaphoric” where the time in
The time in the past to
the past to which the reference is made is already indicated by a which the reference is
made is already indicated
previous use of the past time. by a previous use of the
past time
Then we entered the city ... the square was deserted.
Simple past.
S.Past Anaphoric use of
the past time.

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In other cases, a preceding use of the present perfect in the indefinite Present perfect.
sense provides a hook on which to hang a subsequent occurrence of

the past time.
They have decided to close down the factory. It took us completely by surprise.
Pres.Perf. Anaphoric use of
the past time.
In other cases, anaphoric reference is to an adverbial of time in the same Advbl of time.
clause.
Last Saturday, We went to the theater.
Advbl of time Anaphoric use of
the past time. Anaphoric.
When the Adverbial follows the past tense, this may be called cataphoric
use of the definite past.
We went to the theater last Sunday.
Cataphoric use of
Cataphoric.
the past time.
The above examples show that, for a VP to be “definite”, the relevant - A VP to be “definite”
matters only that the time
time needed not be specified: it matters only that the time should in should in be specifiable.
principle be specifiable. This means that even very unspecific time advs
such as once or when suffice to make the past appropriate.
1.5.2. Event, state and habit in the past. Event, state & habit:
Having mentioned the pragmatic conditions for definiteness which
are common to must examples of the past tense, we now have to
- Same as present time.
distinguish three meanings of the past tense which match the three meanings I
have just explained with reference to the present time (section 1.3.). For the past
tense, however, it is better to place the three meanings in a different order.
- EVENT PAST: refers
First I illustrate, as the most common one, the EVENT PAST, which refers to a to a single definite
event.
single definite event in the past:
[1] The eruption of Vesuviuous destroyed Pompeii
In [1], the dynamic V sense destroyed identifies a single event. But in [2], the V - STATE PAST: refers to a
state.
was refers to a state, and is therefore an example of STATE PAST.
[2] Archery was a popular sport for the Victorians
In [3], the HABITUAL PAST refers to a sequence of four-yearly events - HABITUAL PAST: refers to
a sequence of events.
[3] In Ancient times, the Olympic games were held at Olympia in Southern Greek.

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THEN NOW
+ EVENT PAST
Degree of usage
STATE PAST
HABITUAL PAST
-
T2 T1
Figure 2
In Figure 2, the three meanings are located by reference to a Three meanings are located
by reference to a definite
definite time in the past (A SECONDARY TIME-ORIENTATION or T2) and only time in the past (T2) & only
indirectly by reference to the
indirectly by reference to the present moment (The PRIMARY TIME-
present moment (T1).
ORIENTATION or T1). The diagram shows T2 as a point of time having no

T2 can sometimes refer to an
duration; but it should be noted that T2 can sometimes refer to an extended time period.
extended time period.

Present &
S.Past →
1.6. Meanings of the past tense with reference to present and future time
future time.
Just as the simple present does not always refer to present time, so the
past tense is not always confined to past time reference. There are again three
special meanings to mention.
1.6.1. Backshifting. 1. Backshifting.

In Indirect speech the past tense in the reporting V tends to In Indirect speech the past
tense in the reporting V
make the V of the subordinate clause past tense as well. This tends to make the V of the
subordinate clause past
phenomenon is known as BACKSHIFT and is normally optional. tense as well.
How did you know that I was Max Wilson?
1.6.2. Attitudinal past. 2. Attitudinal past.
The ATTITUDINAL PAST, used with Vs expressing will or mental state, Vs expressing will or
mental state, reflects the
reflects the tentative attitude of the speaker, rather than past time. In tentative attitude of the
speaker, rather than past
the following pair, both the present and past tenses refer to a present state of time.
mind, but the past is somewhat more polite.

Do / did you want to see me now?
I wonder / wondered if you could help us.

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1.6.3. Hypothetical past. 3. Hypothetical past.

The HYPOTHETICAL PAST is used in certain subordinate clauses, especially Expresses what is
contrary to the belief or
if-clauses, and expresses what is contrary to the belief or expectation expectation of the
speaker.
of the speaker.
[1] If you really worked hard, you would soon get promoted.
[2] It is time we all took a rest.
The hypothetical past implies the nonoccurrence of some state or event in Implies the nonoccurrence
of some state or event.
the present or future. The implication of [1], for instance, is that the hearer
does not work hard.
2. Aspect in English. ASPECT
The term ASPECT refers to a grammatical category which reflects Aspect:

Grammatical category
the way in which the V action is experienced with respect to time. which reflects the way
in which the V action
Unlike tense, aspect is not deictic, in the sense that it is not related to the is experienced
w/respect to time.
moment of the utterance. It makes reference to the internal structure of the
Not deictic.
situation, already located in time by tense.
The two aspect constructions of English, the perfect and the Realize a basic contrast:
Action viewed as
progressive, can be seen as realizing a basic contrast: The action incomplete or complete.
viewed as complete (perfect) and the action viewed as incomplete, that

is in progress (progressive). But this is an oversimplified view, as we could
see that these two aspects can be combined within a single VP (I have been
Distinction in English
reading). In fact, aspect is so closely connected in meaning with tense, that the btw tense & aspect is
little more than a
terminological
distinction in English grammar btw tense and aspect is little more convenience to
separate different kinds
than a terminological convenience which help us to separate in our minds of realization:
two different kinds of realization: The morphological realization of tense Morphological realization of
tense & Syntactic realization
and the syntactic realization of aspect. of aspect.
PERFECTIVE
2.1. The perfective aspect
The overlap of meaning btw tense and aspect is most problematic in
English in the choice that has to be made btw simple past and present
perfect:
SIMPLE PAST: John lived in Paris for 10 years
PRESENT PERFECT: John has lived in Paris for ten years.

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Here both sentences indicate a state of affairs before the present moment, but S.Past vs. Pres.Perfect:
the simple past indicates that the period of residence has come to an end, Present perfect means
past time “with current
whereas the present perfect indicates that the residence has continued up to relevance”.
the present time (and may even continue into the future). This kind of
difference is often summarized in the statement that the present perfect
means past time “with current relevance”.
In order to appreciate why “current relevance” is a common implication
of present perfect, it is better to begin with the most general definition of the
Perfect aspect:
perfective aspect. In its broadest interpretation, the perfective indicates
In its broadest
anterior time, that is, time preceding whatever time orientation signaled by interpretation, the
perfective indicates
anterior time.
tense or any other element.
[1] I have already met your sister.
[2] The flight was cancelled after we had paid for the tickets.
[3] I may have left the key at ht office.
The common factor of meaning is:

T?
Anterior time Zone

T = Time of orientation.
As the above picture shows, the perfective merely defines an anterior

Perfective merely defines
time zone within which the action of the V takes place. The time of an anterior time zone
within which the action of
orientation (T?) is not fixed: with the Present perfect [1], T? is the V takes place.
associated with T1, while with Past perfect, T? is associated with T2,
Time of orientation
illustrated in [2] above. is not fixed.
The overlap in the time-indicating functions of the past tense

and the present perfect is clearly seen in the choice of paraphrasing [3]
T1 NOW
either by the past tense [3a] or by the present perfect [3b]
[3a] It is possible that I left the keys at the office (last night) Left the keys at the office
[3b] It is possible that I have left the keys at the office. Have left the keys at the office
On the other hand, this example also shows that the present perfect is to
some extend limited by the fact that it shares the same time “territory”
as the simple past. If a time-position adverbial like last night is added to
[3], then the finite V has to be past, so that something like [5c] is
unacceptable, though occasionally used:
It is possible that I have left the keys at the office last night.

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13
2.1.1. The present perfect Present perfect:

The preceding examples have given evidence that the “past with “Past with current
relevance” is not an
current relevance” is not an adequate description of the meaning of adequate description of
the meaning of the
the perfective aspect. Yet, when we concentrate on the present perfect, perfective aspect.
there is indeed reason for such a description: The present perfect differs
Yet, present perfect
from the simple past in relating a past event/state to a present time differs from the simple
past in relating a past
event/state to a present
orientation. Thus, in situations where either the present perfect & the time orientation.
simple past can be used, it is generally felt that the present perfect
relates the action more directly to the present time.
[1] Where did you put my purse?
[2] Where have you put my purse? ()
The purpose of both questions may be to find the purse; but in [1] the
speaker seems to ask the addressee to remember a past action; while
in [2] the speaker apparently concentrates on the purse’s present
whereabouts.
Meanings of the
I will focus now on the differences btw the two constructions, contrasting Pres.perf.
the meanings of the simple past (already explained in 1.5 & 1.6) with the following
meanings of the present perfect.
(a) STATE LEADING UP TO THE PRESENT: State past,
But continues up
(a) State leading up
to the present
to the present
That house has been empty for ages.
Have you known my sister for long?
(b) INDEFINITE EVENT(S) IN A PERIOD LEADING UP TO THE PRESENT: Event past, (b) Indefinite event(s)
Past time is in a period leading up
Have you (ever) been to Florence? indefinite to the present.
All our children have had rubeola.
(c) HABIT (THAT IS, RECURRENT EVENT) IN A PERIOD LEADING UP TO THE PRESENT: (c) Habit in a
period leading up
Mr Terry has sung in their choir ever since he was a boy. Habitual past: to the present.
But continues up
The province has suffered from disastrous floods throughout its history. to the present
Of these meanings, (a) corresponds to the “state past” use of the simple
past, but differs from it in specifying that the state continues at least up to
the present (The house was empty for ages, but now it’s been sold). (b)
corresponds to the event past, but differs from it in that the past time in
Qs is indefinite rather than definite. (c) corresponds to the habitual
past, but the period identified must continue up to the present.
It is normal for meanings (a) & (c) to be indicated by duration Advbls (in
fact, it is virtually obligatory). Frequency advbls may also occur with (c).

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T1
+ STATE MEANING
Degree of usage
EVENT MEANING
HABITUAL MEANING
- Figure 3:
Meanings of the present perfect
2.1.1.1. Variants of the indefinite meaning. Variants of the indefinite

meaning.
In reference to a single event in the past (event meaning above),
2
the present perfect, especially in BrE , is associated with three
implications or connotations. These implications are (i) that the relevant (i) The relevant time zone
leads up to the present.
time zone leads up to the present; (ii) that the event is recent; and (iii) (ii) The event is recent.
that the result of the action still obtains at the present time. (iii) the result of the action
still obtains at the present
The point to be made here is that the choice btw the present perfect and time.
the simple past is often determined by whether the speaker has in mind an (i) Choice btw the
pres.perf. & the s.past is
implicit time zone which has not yet finished. often determined by an
implicit time zone which
Have you seen the Javanese Art Exhibition? [yet] has not yet finished.
Did you see the Javanese Art Exhibition? [when it was here]
The first of these implies that the exhibition is still open; the second that the
exhibition has finished. From this concern with a period still existing at the
present time, it is only a short step to the second implication often
associated with the present perfect, that the event is recent. The (ii) The event is recent.
simple present is often used to report a piece of news.

Have you heard the news? The president has resigned!
The third condition applies to dynamic conclusive Vs, that is, Vs whose (iii) Applies to dynamic
conclusive Vs.
meaning implies the accomplishment of a change of state:
[1] The apples have all been eaten. --- [there are no apples left]
[2] My mother has recovered from her illness. --- [My mother is now better]
The resultative & recently connotations are closely connected.
2
In AmE, the simple past is often preferred to the present perfect for the variants of the
indefinite past just to discuss.

Tema 19:
15
2.1.1.2. The use of adverbials with the simple past and present perfect. Use of advbls:
The choice btw the simple past and the present perfect is associated
with time orientation, and therefore with the choice and interpretation of time
Adverbials
(a) ADVERBIALS ASSOCIATED WITH SIMPLE PAST: (a) Position advbls
which indicate a
I saw her … specific point or
… yesterday / a week ago / earlier this morning / last Monday / the other day / at period in the past.
four o’clock / in the morning / on Tuesday
(b) ADVERBIALS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PRESENT PERFECT: (b) Advbls which
designate a period
I haven’t seen her … leading up to the
… up to now / Since Monday / since I met you / so far / hitherto [formal] present moment.
(c) ADVERBIALS ASSOCIATED WITH BOTH: (c) Mixed group

of advbls.
I [saw / have seen] her …
… today / this month / this year / recently / before / this June / once / already
2.1.2. Past perfect Past perfect:

The past perfect usually has the meaning of “past-in-the-past”, and Past-in-the-past meaning.
can be regarded as an anterior version either of the present perfect or of

the simple past. This can be diagrammed in Figure 4:
THEN NOW
T1
T2 Figure 4:
Meaning or the past perfect
More technically, the past perfective may be said to denote any event or state Denote any event or state
anterior to a time of
anterior to a time of orientation in the past. The three meanings of “state”, orientation in the past.
“event” and “habit” can all occur.

Miss Matthews’ French was excellent. She had lived in Paris since childhood. [state] State meaning
The goalkeeper had injured his leg, and couldn’t play. [Event meaning] Event meaning
It was foolish to fire him: In two seasons, he had scored more goals than any other Habit meaning.
players. [Habit meaning]
When transported into the “past in the past” by means of the past perfect, the Contrast btw the simple
past and the present
contrast btw the simple past and the present perfect is neutralized: perfect is neutralized.

Tema 19:
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The past perfect does not have to refer to a more remote time than that Past perfect does not have
to refer to a more remote
referred to by the simple past. In some cases, particularly in a clause time than that referred to
by the simple past.
introduced by after, the two constructions can be more or less After
interchangeable:
[1] I ate my lunch after Sandra had come back from her shopping. T3 T2
Sandra came ate my
T2 T3 from shopping lunch
[2] I ate my lunch after Sandra came back from her shopping.
After places the eating (T2) after Sandra’s return (which we may call T3), so the
past perfect, which place T3 before T2, is redundant. What difference it

does make is a matter of the “standpoint” of the speaker. In [1] the “past in
past” time T3 is identified as being earlier than T2 by the past
perfective; but in [2] it is left to the conjunction after to signal this temporary
relation.
BEFORE THEN THEN NOW
T3 T2 T1 Figure 4.a:
Past perfect
ADVERBIALS OF TIME POSITION, when used with past perfect, can identify
either T2 & T3. Placed initially, they often identify T2: Advbl initially - refer to T2.
[3] When the police arrived, the thieves had run away.
But in final position, the interpretation whereby the adverbial refers to T3 is Advbl final - refer to T3.
more likely:
[4] The thieves had run away, when they police arrived.
Hence in [3], when is likely to be equivalent to By the time that …, but in [4]
the when clause is likely to be an answer to the Qs: “When had the thieves run
away?”
PROGRESSIVE
2.2. Progressive aspect
As its name suggest, the PROGRESSIVE ASPECT (also sometimes called Progressive aspect:
durative or continuous aspect) indicates a happening in progress at a Indicates an action in

progress at a given time.
given time. Compare:
[1] Simple present: John sings well S.pres & pres.cont:
[2] Present progressive: John is singing well
These two sentences have the same tense, but different aspects. Notice in S.pres: Habit,
characteristics
the difference in meaning. John sings well refers to John’s competence as a Pres.Cont: Action in
progress

Tema 19:
17
singer (that he has a good voice …); John is singing well refers to her
performance in particular occasion. The same contrast could be made with
the past tense: S.past & past.cont:
[3] Simple past: John sang well

[4] Past progressive: John was singing well
S.past: event as a whole
But in this case, the semantic contrast is different: The simple past makes us
Pres.Cont: Activity in process
see the event as a whole, while the past progressive makes us see it as an
activity in process.
The meaning of the progressive can be separated into three
components, not all of which need to be present in a given instance: Meaning of the progressive:
(a) Duration – distinctive for
(a) The happening has DURATION. single events.
TEMPORARINESS.
(b) The happening has a LIMITATION of duration. (b) Limitation of duration –
distinctive for states & habits.
(c) The happening is NOT NECESSARILY COMPLETE. (c) Not necessarily
complete – distinctive for
Thus in [2], the progressive signals that John’s singing is a temporary dynamic conclusive Vs.
rather than a permanent phenomenon; in [4], on the other hand, the

progressive makes us see the event as enduring over a period. This
different arises bc component (a) is distinctive for single events; whereas
(b) is distinctive for states and habits. (c) is distinctive chiefly in the
case of certain types of dynamic V meaning called conclusive (see section
2.2.2.3.)
2.2.1. State, event and habit with the progressive.

The three V senses of state, event and habit are differently interpreted
with the progressive:
a. STATE PROGRESSIVE: In many cases, the progressive is unacceptable State Progressive:
with stative Vs:

We own a house in the country. Some stative Vs are
*We are owning a house in the country. reluctant to the idea of a
state in progress.
This can be explained, in part, by the observation that stative V
meanings are hostile to the idea that some phenomenon is “in It is used to imply
temporariness rather
than permanence.
progress”. When the progressive does occur, it is felt to imply
temporariness rather than permanence.
We are living in the country.
We live in the country

Tema 19:
18
b. EVENT PROGRESSIVE: with event meanings the progressive conveys the Event Progressive:
idea that an event has duration, and has not yet come to an end. Event has duration, and
has not yet come to an
Contrast: end.
[1] The referee blows his whistle. [Suggest a brief blast on the whistle]
[2] The referee is blowing his whistle. [Suggest a continuous blowing on the whistle]
[3] The train was approaching.
Both [1] & [2] could be part of a radio commentary on a football match. Present progressive is a
more common way of
The present progressive is a more common way of referring to a referring to a present
event than simple present.
present event than simple present.
c. HABITUAL PROGRESSIVE: Combined with habitual meaning, the Habitual Progressive:
progressive implies that the repetition takes place over a limited The repetition takes place
over a limited period.
period.
The professor types his own letters. [Habit is permanent]
The professor is typing his own letters while his secretary is ill. [Habit is temporary]
At that time she was having regular singing lessons.
Less frequently, the progressive combines with habitual meaning to Suggest that every event
in a sequence of events
suggest that every event in a sequence of events has duration / has duration/incompletion.
incompletion. To have this interpretation, the clause must contain an

With an advbl of time
advbl of time position or frequency: position or frequency.
Whenever I see her, she is working in the garden.
2.2.2. Situation types. Situation types
To explain the constraints on the use of the progressive, as well as for

other purposes, it is useful to reconsider the stative/dynamic distinction
and subdivide V meanings into a large number of categories. One such
division is given in Fig.5, where 11 categories are recognized. It is important to
note that V meanings can be separed only artificially from their
complementations. For example, the verb write occurring “in vacuo” cannot
be classified, for we may observe an important difference btw Jill is writing,
which designates an ongoing activity, and Jill is writing a novel, which
designates an activity for which a goal is implied. More details will be
given next:

Tema 19:
19
A. Intellectual State.
Quality. Permanent properties of a subject. [2.2.2.1.]
Be tall, have two legs, be a mammal State of emotion.
STATIVE
B. State of bodily
State. Less permanent properties of a subject. [2.2.2.1. – 2.2.2.2.] PRIVATE STATE: states sensation.
Be angry, be ill, love (t), resemble (t), think (that),own (t) which can only be
subjectively verified.
Perception Vs:
C. STATIVE DYNAMIC
Stance. Ability to use both, (a) the nonprogressive PERCEIVER AT PERCEPT AT NONAGENTIVE AGENTIVE
SUBJ POSITION SUBJ POSITION
to express permanent state and (b) progressive to Look Can see See Look (at)
express temporary state. Sound Can hear Hear Listen (to)
Live, stand, lie, sit Feel Can feel Feel Feel
Nonagentive D.
“doer” of the action.

the subject refers to
Agentive implies that
Goings-on. Activities carried
out by inanimate forces
Rain, snow, boil, shine, glow
Nonconclusive
Situation types which result
in a change of state and
Agentive E.
those which do not.
Activities. Activities carried out

by inanimate forces. [– TRANSITIVE]
Drink, sew, write, hunt, play (t), talk.
DURATIVE
Nonagentive F.
PROGRESSIVE INDICATES
Process. Denote a change of state taking
INCOMPLETENESS OF
place over a period.
Separates happenings which are capable of
Ripen, grow up, improve, separate, turn red.
THE TASK.
Conclusive
having duration from those which are not.
Agentive G.
Accomplishments. Denote an action which
takes place over a period of time & has a goal.
[+ TRANSITIVE]
Write (t), eat (t), drink (t), fill up (t), discover (t).
DYNAMIC
THAT SM REPETITION OF THE

PROGRESSIVE INDICATES
EVENT/ACT TOOK PLACE.
Nonagentive H.
Momentary events. Event w/out duration
Sneeze, explode, blink, flash, bounce.
Nonconclusive
Situation types which result
Agentive I.
in a change of state and
Momentary Acts. Act w/out duration

those which do not.
Tap (t), nod (t), fire (a gun), kick (t).
PUNCTUAL
THE PROGRESSIVE REFERS
TO THE CHANGE OF STATE.
TO A PERIOD LEADING UP
Nonagentive J.
Transitional events.Have little or no duration
Drop, receive (t), catch (t), take off, arrive, die.
Conclusive
Agentive K.
Transitional Acts. Have little or no duration
Sit down, catch (a ball), shoot (t), begin (t), stop (t).
KEY Fig.5:
(t) → Transitive
(that) → following a that clause
Underlined → Can occur with the progressive

Tema 19:
20
2.2.2.1. Stative type A & B: Qualities and states. A. Qualities & B. States
Among stative situations types, a rough distinction may be drawn btw

Qualities: permanent
QUALITIES and STATES. Qualities are relatively permanent and inalienable properties of a subject.
properties of the subject referent. The primary Vs be and have are

preeminently quality-introducing Vs, but they can also introduce the less State: less permanent
properties of a subject.
permanent situation types called STATES.
Qualities States
[1] Mary is Canadian [3] Mary is tired
[2] Mary has blue eyes [4] Mary has a bad cold
Normally, such stative situation type do not usually occur with the Qualities & States do not
usually occur with the
progressive (especially with qualities) progressive.
[1a] *Mary is being a Canadian [1b]*? Mary is being tired
If sentences such as [1a, 2a] do occur with the progressive, it is a sign that
they have been in some sense reinterpreted as containing a dynamic
predication. For example, Peter is being awkward signifies that “awkwardness”
However, they are not
is a form of behavior or activity, not a permanent trait. So, Qualities & States incompatible with the
progressive.
are not completely incompatible with the progressive, some change of

interpretation. This change of interpretation is explained as a transfer of the V
as dynamic.
The neighbors are friendly. [State]
The neighbors are being friendly. [Suggests that “friendliness” is a form of behavior
–perhaps insincere]
I hope you will come. [State]
I am hoping you will come. [Makes the speaker’s attitude more tentative and polite]
2.2.2.1.1. Private states.

B.1.Private State: states
Many stative Vs denote “private” states which can only be which can only be
subjectively verified.
subjectively verified, that is, states of mind, attitude … We may distinguish:
A. Intellectual states (Know, believe, think …) Intellectual state.
B. States of emotion or attitude (wish, want, like, disagree …). State of emotion/attitude.
Such Vs can occur with the progressive when temporariness or

tentativeness is being emphasized.
C. States of bodily sensation (hurt, ache, itch …). State of bodily sensation.
D. States of perception (see, hear, feel, smell …). State of perception.

Tema 19:
21
2.2.2.1.2. Vs of perception
State of perception.
In the sphere of perception, stative meaning can be expressed in
two ways: We can either place the perceiver in subject position, or we can
place the precept (or “thing perceived”) in subject position.
(i) Percept at subject position. Percept at Subject
position.
The house looks empty.
(ii) Perceiver at Subject position. Perceiver at Subject
position.
I can see the house.
To express state of perception at subject position the modal can/could must
follow the V, otherwise it would express dynamic meaning.
I heard the bell ringing. [event seen as a whole] With modals.
I could hear the bell ringing. [perception continuing over a period]
Vs of perception cannot normally occur with the progressive
aspect, even though they are likely to refer to temporary rather than
permanent states. This may be contrasted with sentences containing the
perception Vs look (at) and listed (to), which, being agentive3 and dynamic,
occur quite commonly with the progressive.
*I am seeing these photographs
I am looking at these photographs
*I am hearing a new record.
I am listening to a new record.
2.2.2.2. Type C: Stance C. Stance
In addition to the stative Vs noted above, there is a small but important

class of Vs which express the situation type we will call STANCE, and which are
intermediate btw the stative and dynamic categories. The main Stance
Vs are live, stand, sit and lie and they are characterized by their ability to use Ability to use both:
(a) nonprogressive to
both (a) with the nonprogressive to express a permanent state, and (b) express permanent state.
(b) progressive to express
with the progressive to express a temporary state. temporary state.
John lives in Manchester. [permanent residence]

John is living in Manchester. [temporary residence]
3
The semantic role of the animate entity that causes the happening denoted by the V

Tema 19:
22
2.2.2.3. Dynamic types D-K D. to K. Dynamic types.

Among dynamic situation types in Figure 5, I have distinguish 8 types
according to three binary oppositions:
- The DURATIVE/PUNCTUAL distinction separates happenings which are Durative/Punctual:
Separates happenings
capable of having duration from those which are not. Since which are capable of
having duration from those
durative situation types take place over a (normally limited) which are not.
period of time, they characteristically combine with the progressive.

Punctual situation types are theoretically incompatible with the
progressive aspect.
- The CONCLUSIVE/NONCONCLUSIVE contrast draws a line btw those Conclusive/nonconclus:
Situation types which
situation types which result in a change of state and those result in a change of state
and those which do not.
which do not. For example, it is essential to the meaning of She
opened the door that the door ended up in a state of “being open”,
Notions of completion &
which is different from the state in which it started. The notions of incompletion apply only
to conclusive situations.
completion and incompletion apply to the conclusive situation

types, but not to the nonconclusive ones.
- The AGENTIVE/NONAGENTIVE contrast is illustrated by John was thinking Agentive/Nonagentive:
Agentive implies that the
and the sun was shinning. The 1st is agentive, in contrast to the 2nd, subject refers to an agent
or “doer” of the action.
because it implies that the subject refers to an agent or “doer” of
the action. The “doer” is typically human & is the initiator of the action.
All dynamic situation types can be combined with the progressive, but
they have various implications for the interpretation of the progressive.
2.2.2.3.1. Durative Situation types. D. GOING-ON.

Type D → GOING-ON: Activities carried out by inanimate forces: Activities carried out by
inanimate forces.
It is raining. The wind is blowing. - Agentive.
E. ACTIVITIES.
Type E → ACTIVITIES: Activities carried out by inanimate forces typically
Activities carried out by
expressed by intransitive Vs with animated subjects: inanimate forces.
- Transitive Vs.
Jill was writing / singing / dancing / eating / swimming …
- Agentive

Tema 19:
23
Type F → PROCESS: Denote a change of state taking place over a period. F. PROCESS.
The weather is getting warmer. Denote a change of state

taking place over a period.
As with type G (accomplishment), the progressive indicates incompleteness of Progressive indicates
incompleteness of the
the task. change.
Type G → ACCOMPLISHMENTS: Denote an action or activity which takes G. ACCOMPLISHMENTS.
Denote an action or
place over a period of time and has a goal or end-point. Intransitive Vs activity which takes place
over a period of time and
placed under Type E “activities” generally become accomplishment when has a goal.
a Direct object or an advbl of destination is added. Intransitive E type Vs

become “activities” with a
The boys were swimming across the statuary. direct object.
2.2.2.3.2. Punctual situation types.

Types H & I→ MOMENTARY EVENTS and ACTS: The only difference btw these H. & I. MOMENTARY EVENTS
& ACTS.
two is that H is nonagentive. They both are events or acts without duration Events or acts without
duration.
and when used with the progressive, we cannot make sense of them
When used with the
except by supposing that some repetition of the event or act took place. progressive, they imply
that some repetition of the
The branches were knocking against the side of the house. [Momentary event] event or act took place.
John was nodding his head. [Momentary Act]
Types J & K→ TRANSITIONAL EVENTS and ACTS: They differ from Process J. & K. TRANSITIONAL
EVENTS & ACTS.
and accomplishment (types F & G) in that they have little or no
Differ from types F & G in
duration, and from momentary events and acts (types H & I) in that they that they have little or no
duration.
involve a consequent change of state. Differ from types H & I in
that they involve a
The train is arriving at platform 4. [Transitional event → Nonagentive] change of state.
I am stopping the car at this garage. [Transitional Act → Agentive]
Again, since the meaning excludes duration, the progressive requires a special The progressive refers to
a period leading up to
interpretation. In this case, the interpretation is likely to be anticipatory, that is, the change of state.
the progressive refers to a period leading up to the change of state.
2.2.3. Other uses of the progressive aspect. Other uses:

In additionto its major function of indicating temporariness, the progressive also
has the following special uses:
(a) It may be used to refer to the future or to the future in the past: (a) Refer to the future.
Are you going to the meeting? [tomorrow]
They are getting married the following spring.

Tema 19:
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(b) It may be used with attitudinal past tense or the present tense, to refer (b) Refer tentatively to a
present wish or attitude.
tentatively to a present wish or attitude:
I’m hopping to borrow some money.
I was wondering if you could help me.
Compare these sentences with the less tentative and less polite use of
the simple present.
I hope to borrow some money
I wonder if you can help me.
(c) It may be used especially following the auxiliary will (or shall) with (c) + Aux will. The action
will take place “as a matter
the special implication that the action will take place “as a matter of course” in the future.
of course” in the future.

I’ll be seeing you next week.
2.3. Perfect progressive. Perfect progressive:
When the perfect and the progressive aspects are combined in the same
VP (has been working), the features of meaning associated with each of them
are also combined.
Of the three features associated with the main meaning of progressive
(see section 2.2.) Duration, limitation of duration and possible The meanings of
“Duration” and
incompleteness, the first two give the perfect progressive a sense of “limitation of duration”
give the prefect
“temporariness”, seen in these examples: progressive a sense of
temporariness.
I have been writing a letter to my nephew.
It has been snowing again.
These sentences contain durative Vs which typically go with the progressive
aspect, and the meaning is roughly that of temporary situation leading up
the present, comparable to the state-up-to-the-present use of the simple
perfect. With Vs such as live, stand, lie … the limitation of duration is very weak.
We have lived in Europe all our lives.
We have been living in Europe all our lives.
The element of “limited duration” makes it difficult to use the perfect The element of “limited
progressive with punctual Vs: duration” makes it
difficult to use the
perfect progressive
He has been starting his car
with punctual Vs.
?*He has been starting his book. [Nonsensical: assigns duration to a punctual V]

Tema 19:
25
The feature of “possible incompleteness” becomes evident when the Feature of “possible
incompleteness”
perfective progressive is combined with ACCOMPLISHMENT & PROCESS becomes evident when
the perfective
predications. progressive is combined
with ACCOMPLISHMENT &
I have cleaned the windows. [It has a resultative meaning → the windows are clean] PROCESS predications.
I have been cleaning the windows. [It can be used even if the job is not finished]
*I have written a novel, but I haven’t finished it.
I have been writing a novel, but I haven’t finished it.
As an additional possibility, the present perfect progressive may be used Temporary habit up to
the present.
in the iterative sense of temporary habit up to the present.
Martin has been scoring plenty of goals (this season)
So, it is implied that the repetition of the activity described may continue into
the future.
We may summarize the main use of the perfect progressive as follows:

1. Has (limited) duration.
2. Continues up to the present or recent past.
3. Need not to be completed.
4. May have effects which are still apparent.
5. Sense of temporary habit up to the present
3. Mood in English. MOOD
Mood is a grammatical category expressed in the VP by means of

inflectional morphology. The moods in English are Indicative, Subjunctive &
Imperative. Some other Lgs also have Quotative Mood (reporting what
somebody else has said)
According to Jespersen, Mood expresses certain attitudes of mind of
the speaker towards the content of the sentence. Mood is often
determined by syntax.

Tema 19:
26
3.1. Directives (Imperative mood) DIRECTIVES (IMPERATIVE)
3.1.1. Directives without subject. (i) Directives w/out subject

Directives typically take the form of an imperative sentence, which
differs from a declarative sentence in that:
Generally has no subj.
(a) It generally has no subject
Main V / Aux in the base
(b) It has either a main V in the base form (imperative form) or an form.
auxiliary in the base form followed by a main V (less common)
The imperative V lacks tense distinction and does not allow Lacks tense distinction.
modal auxiliaries. The progressive form is rare, and the perfective even Progressive & perfective
are rare.
rarer.
Be listening to this station the same time tomorrow night
Start the book and have finished it before you go to bed.
Imperatives are restricted to predications that allow a dynamic Restricted to predications

that allow dynamic
interpretation (*need a car, *be old). Many predications that are stative (with interpretation.
respect to disallowing the progressive –See section 2.2.2.1.-) are easily

available with a dynamic interpretation for imperatives:
Forgive us, Love your enemies, be early …
Imperatives refer to a situation in the immediate or more Incompatible with past

time advbls.
remote future and are therefore incompatible with past time advbls.
*Come yesterday *Usually drive your car
3.1.2. Directives with subject Directives with subject

It is intuitively clear that the meaning of a directive implies that the Omitted subject is the 2
nd
pers pron you.

omitted subject is the 2nd pers pron you. The implication can be
demonstrated by the occurrence of you as subject of a following tag Qs (Be quiet, You as subj of a tag Qs.
will you? / would you? / could you? / … ), by the occurrence of only yourself as the Yourself as the reflexive.
reflexive (Behave yourself; *Behave myself), and by the occurrence of the emphatic Emphatic poss Your own.
possessive your own (Use your own comb; *Use her own comb).

Tema 19:
27
There is, however, a type of directive in which the stressed subject (ii) Sometimes
you can be added
you is added: to the clause.
You be quiet! You take the book

They frequently express strong irritation or merely insistence. You may Express strong
irritation or
also be contrastive in the sense of addressee-distinguishing, singling one contrastiveness.
person out of the others.

You take this car, and I will take that one.
3rd person subjects are also possible: (iii) 3rd pers subjects
are also possible.
Somebody open the door. Nobody move.
Directives such these can take either 2nd or 3rd pers prons in the tag Qs
(Somebody open this door, will you? / will they?).
Directives with Let.

3.1.3. Directives with let.
1st pers imperatives can be formed by preposing the V let (iv) 1st pers imperatives:
let + subj(objective form) +
followed by a subject in the objective clause:
Let us all work. Let me see now.
The same applies to 3rd person subjects: (v) Also with 3rd pers subjs
Let no one think that a teacher’s life is easy.

Except for the let me type, these are generally rather archaic and elevated in Archaic tone except for
let me and let’s
tone. A colloquial alternative to let us, however, is the common abbreviated
form let’s:
Let’s have a party. Let’s enjoy.
In very colloquial English, let’s is sometimes used for a 1st person sing Very colloquial English: let’s
st
for 1 pers sing..
imperative as well (Let’s give you a hand).
3.1.4. Summary of forms of imperatives.

1st pers 2nd pers 3rd pers
(i) Open the door 4
WITHOUT SUBJECT -
don’t open the door
-
(ii) You open the door

Without (iii) Someone opened the door
- [don’t you / You don’t]
let [Don’t anyone / No one] open the door
open the door
WITH
(iv) Let me open the door.
SUBJECT
Let me not open the door (v) Let someone open the door
With let (iv) Let’s open the door - Let not anyone open the door. (formal)
[Let’s don’t / Don’t let’s] say Don’t let anyone open the door.(informal)
anything about it. (informal)
4
By far, it is the most common type used.

Tema 19:
28
3.1.5. Negative imperatives

Negative imperatives.
To negate the first three classes of imperatives, one simply adds an
(i), (ii) & (iiI) simply adds
initial don’t or do not, an initial don’t.
(i) OPEN THE DOOR → don’t open the door.

(ii) YOU OPEN THE DOOR → don’t you open the door or You don’t open the door5
(iii) SOMEONE OPEN THE DOOR → Don’t anyone open the door or No one open the door.
1st pers imperatives (iv) are generally negated by the insertion of not (iv) generally negated by
the insertion of not after
after the pronoun following let: the pron.
(iv) LET US SAY ANYTHING ABOUT IT → Let us not say anything about it.
Informally, however, the negation with don’t is frequently heard: (iv) Informally, don’t is
usually heard.
(iv) Let’s don’t say anything about it. [esp AmE]
(iv) Don’t let’s say anything about it. [esp BrE]
3rd person imperatives with let are negated by not after let or, more informally, (v) negated by not after let
(formal) or by an initial
by an initial don’t. don’t (informal).
(v) Let not anyone open the door. [formal & rare]
(v) Don’t let anyone open the door. [informal]
3.1.6. Illocutionary force of imperatives.

Imperative sentences are used for a wide range of illocutionary
acts. Here are some examples of sentences that may be used for different
illocutionary acts.
ORDER, COMMAND: WARNING:
Fire! Look out!
Make your bed at once Be careful!
Mind your head!
PROHIBITION:
Don’t touch INSTRUCTION:
Take the first street on the left.
REQUEST:
Shut the door, please. INVITATION:
Come in and sit down.
PETITION:
Help! OFFER:
Have a cigarette
ADVICE:
Take an aspirin for you headache. GRANTING PERMISSION:
Help yourself.
SUGGESTION:
Let’s have a party. GOOD WISHES:
Enjoy your meal.
5
Less common

Tema 19:
29
3.2. Subjunctive mood. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

The subjunctive in modern English is generally an optional and
stylistically somewhat marked variant of other constructions, but it is not so
unimportant as sometimes suggested. There are two forms of the
subjunctive, traditionally called the present and the past subjunctive,
although the use of these forms relates more to mood than to tense.
Terms for the two major categories of the present subjunctive are Present Subjunctive.
MANDATIVE and the FORMULAIC subjunctive. These are realized, like the Mandative Subj.
imperative, by the base form. Consequently, where the clause has a plural Formulaic Subj.
subject, there is normally no difference btw indicative and subjunctive forms.

Except with be, where the subjunctive forms are distinct from the indicative
ones. The subjunctive is distinctive only in the third person singular.
I insist that we reconsider the council’s decision. [Indicative or subjunctive form]
I insist that the council reconsider its decision. [Subjunctive form]
I insist that the council’s decision(s) be reconsidered. [Subjunctive form]
Past subjunctive.
The past subjunctive is conveniently called the WERE-SUBJUNCTIVE, since it
Were-Subj.
survives as a distinguishable form only in the past tense of the V be6.
With all Vs except be, the VP is made negative by placing not before the
subjunctive form. In the case of be, not can be placed either before or
after the V, whereas with were it follows it:
It is essential that this mission not fail.
The senate has decreed that such students [be not / not be] exempted from …
If I were not your best friend, you would regret that remark.
3.2.1. Uses of the Subjunctive: The mandative subjunctive. Mandative subjunctive.

This, the most common use of the subjunctive, occurs in the subordinate Occurs the subordinate
that-clause.
that-clause, and consists of the base form of the verb only. Thus, the
Base of the Verb form.
present and past variants are formally indistinguishable:
The committee [proposes / proposed] (that) Mr. Day be elected.
The mandative subjunctive is productive in that it can be used with any It is still productive.
V, whenever the that-clause is introduced by an expression of demand,

recommendation, proposal, resolution, intention …
[They recommend / It is appropriate / we are faced with the demand] that
this tax be abolished.
6
The were-subjunctive of the V be is always were, no matter the person (1st, 2nd or 3rd).

Tema 19:
Tiempo real y tiempo verba
al. Aspecto y mo
odo.
30
Th
he following are amo
ong other expressio
e ons which
h common
nly introd
duce a
th
hat-clause
e containiing a man
ndative su
ubjunctive.
BS: decide, in
VERB nsist, move, order,
o prefer,
r, request …
CTIVES: advis
ADJEC isable, desiraable, imperattive …
NOUNNS: decision, decree, orde
der, requiremement, resolutio
ion …
It is more
m charracteristic E (where putative sh
c of AmE than BrE hould is
ussed –see to
opic 20 3.2
2.5.(b)-), where
w it is formal
f and
d rather leg
galistic in sstyle.
3.2.2. The formulaic

f c subjunc
ctive. Formulaic
F sub
bjunctive.
Like the mandattive subjun
nctive, the formulaic subjunctivve consistss of the
ase form of
ba o the verb
b. It is us
sed in ce
ertain sett express
sions chie
efly in Base for of the
t V only.
independen
nt clauses
s:
Com
me what may, y, we will go ahead
a with our
o plan.
God save
s the Quueen! [“May God
G save the e Queen”]
Suffi
fice it to say that we wonn [“let it suffice …” “baste decir que …”]
Th
he force which the su
ubjunctive conveys here,
h that of an EXPR F WILL,
RESSION OF Expresses will.
w
ma
ay also be d by let or
e conveyed o may. Th
he formula
aic subjuncctive tendss to be
fo
ormal and rather old
d-fashione
ed in style
e. Too formal and
a old-
fashioned.
3.2.3. The were-sub

w bjunctive. Formulaic
F sub
bjunctive.
The were
w -subju
unctive (or past subjunctive) iss hypothe
etical or u
unreal It is hypothetical or
unreal in meeaning.
in meanin
ng, being used in
n adverbiial clauses introd
duced by
y such Introduced by
b conjs: if, as
if, as though
h, though
onjunctionss as if, as
co s if, as tho
ough, tho
ough and in nominall clauses after Vs
Introduced by
b Vs: wish
ke wish an
lik nd suppos
ose. This su
ubjunctive is limited to e-form werre. The
t the one and supposee.
Was is less formal.
dicative forrm was is substitute
ind ed in less fo
ormal style
e:
If I were
w / was rich, I would
d buy you a boat.
b
I wissh the journeey were / was
w over.
Just suppose
s eve
veryone were e / was to give
g up smokking and drin
nking.
he were-su
Th ubjunctive may be re
egarded as something
g of a fosssil, but it iss still in It is still prod
ductive.
co
ommon use
e, particula
arly with cla oduced by as if and as
auses intro a though
h.
3.3. The in
ndicative
e Mood
INDICATIVE
N MOO
OD.
This iss the mood of the most
m neutra
al characte
er, as it is the mostt used.
It is used when
w the
e speakerr only wa
ants to sttate a fac
ct withou
ut any
sp
pecial attiitude in mind.
m It is used in alll ordinary statements
s s and quesstions.
Iván Matella
anes’ Notes
Tema 19:
31
Bibliography
Cen Edu
Mad Editorial
CEDE
Quirk, R. et al A comprehensive grammar of the English Lg.
http://puska.index.hu/upload/Grammar2_2000-May-%207-13:37:05.doc

Topic 19: Brief summary
32
Brief summary. Tiempo real y tiempo verbal. Aspecto y modo.
- TENSE IN ENGLISH: - TIME, as opposed to tense, is a universal concept with - The relation btw the concept of time and the time of
three clear divisions: PRESENT, PAST and FUTURE. Thus, the verbal form is called TENSE. So, it is a grammatical
time is an extra-linguistic reality or entity. category that expresses time realized by V forms.
- Referential level: time can be thought of as a line on which the present moment is located –---→ ahead: future, behind: past.
- Semantic level: Something is defined as “present” if it has existence at the present moment, allowing for the possibility that its
existence may also extend into the past and into the future. Present is the most general and unmarked category.
- Grammatical level: “present” and “past” are also, apart from the referential and semantic level, interpreted on a grammatical level, in
reference to tense. Here, however, the opposition is reduced to two, since morphologically English has no future forms of the verb.
♦ I prefer to follow those grammarians who have treated tense strictly as a category realized by V inflection.
- Meanings of the simple present:
Reference to Present time Reference to nonpresent time
♦ State Present: No reference to specific time (no limitation on Past Future
the extension of the state into the past & future) --- ETERNAL ♦ Historic present is characteristic of popular ♦ Timetable: time-
TRUTHS → Two & three make five (Static V sense) narrative style. It describes the past as if it is position advbls suggest
→ Jan is tall (the time span of the state is restricted.) happening now. that the event is
♦ Habitual present: the V refers to a whole sequence of ♦ Vs of communication: refer to the unalterably fixed in
events repeated over the period in question (timeless events): communication process’ receptive end.→ The advance: → The plane
→ Bill drinks heavily (Dynamic V sense) 10.00 news says that there is going to rain. leaves for Ankara at 8.00
→ She is seldom alone (stative Vs may be used in a habitual tonight.
→ Trade unions back merge (Newspapers
sense when accompanied by a frequency advbl) headlines recent events) ♦ In dependent clauses,
the future use of the
♦ Instantaneous present: the V refers to a single action begun ♦ Notion that the past can remain alive in S.Present is much more
and completed approximately at the moment of speech. the present explains the optional use of the pr common, particularly in
→ I pick up the fruit with a spear (little or no duration) tense in sentences referring to writers, artists, conditional or temporal
composers, … and their existing works: clauses: → He’ll do it if
→ Rubens is/was able to convey a impression you pay him.
of warm …
- Meanings of the simple past:

Reference to present and Future Reference to past time
♦ Backshifting: In Indirect speech the past tense in the reporting V ♦ The event/state must have been taken in the past.
tends to make the V of the subordinate clause past tense as well. ♦ The speaker must have in mind a definite time at which the event
→ How did you know that I was Max Wilson? took place.
♦ Attitudinal past: Vs expressing will or mental state, reflects the ♦ Event past refers to a single definite event in the past.
tentative attitude of the speaker, rather than past time. → The eruption of Vesuviuous destroyed Pompeii.
→ Do / did you want to see me now? ♦ State past refers to a state in the past
♦ Hypothetical past: used in certain subordinate clauses (if-clauses), → Archery was a popular sport for the Victorians
and expresses what is contrary to the belief or expectation of the
speaker. → If you really worked hard, you would soon get promoted. ♦ Habitual past refers to a sequence of events.
(implies the nonoccurrence of some state or event in the pr or future.) → In Ancient times, the Olympic games were held at Olympia.
- ASPECT IN ENGLISH: Grammatical category which reflects the way in which the V action is experienced w/respect to time.
- Unlike tense, aspect is not deictic, in the sense that it is not related to the moment of the utterance. It makes reference to the internal
structure of the situation, already located in time by tense.
- There are two aspect constructions of English realizing a basic contrast: (oversimplified view)
♦ Perfect: ♦ Progressive:
action viewed as action viewed as Distinction in English btw tense & aspect is little more than a terminological convenience to separate
completed incomplete different kinds of realization: Morphological realization of tense & Syntactic realization of aspect.
♦ The overlap of meaning btw tense and aspect is most problematic in English in the choice that has to be made btw simple past and present
perfect: → John lived in Paris for 10 years (simple past indicates that the period of residence has come to a end)
→ John has lived in Paris for ten years (present perfect indicates that the residence has continued up to the present time & even into the future)
___ In its broadest interpretation, the perfective indicates anterior time, that is, time preceding whatever time orientation signaled by tense
or any other element (such as an advbl).
- The choice btw the simple past and the present perfect is associated with time orientation, and therefore with the choice and
interpretation of time Adverbials.
♦ (a) Adverbials associated with SIMPLE PAST: Position advbls which indicate a specific point or period in the past → … yesterday / a week
ago / earlier this morning / last Monday / the other day / at four o’clock / in the morning / on Tuesday …
♦ (b) Adverbials associated with the PRESENT PERFECT: Advbls which designate a period leading up to the present moment → … up to
now / Since Monday / since I met you / so far / hitherto [formal] …
♦ (c) Adverbials associated with BOTH: Mixed group of advbls → … today / this month / this year / recently / before / once / already …

Topic 19: Brief summary
33
- Present perfect:
♦ Meaning:
___ State meaning: it’s a State leading up to the present → That house has been empty for ages.
___ Habitual meaning: Habit in a period leading up to the present → Mr Terry has sung in their choir since he was a boy.
___ Event meaning: Indefinite event(s) in a period leading up to the present → Have you (ever) been to Florence?
___ State and habitual meaning indicated by duration Advbls (in fact, it is virtually obligatory)
♦ In reference to a single event in the past, the present perfect, especially in BrE , is associated with three implications or connotations:
1
___ (i) The relevant time zone leads up to the present: Choice btw the pres.perf. & the s.past is often determined by an implicit time zone
which has not yet finished → Have you seen the Irish Art Exhibition? [yet] vs. Did you see the Irish Art Exhibition? [when it was here]
___ (ii) the event is recent → Have you heard the news? The president has resigned!
___ (iii) the result of the action still obtains at the present time → The apples have all been eaten [there are no apples left]
- Past perfect: usually has the meaning of “past-in-the-past”. More technically, the past perfective may be said to denote any event or state
anterior to a time of orientation in the past.
♦ The three meanings of state, event and habit can all occur:
___ State Meaning → Miss Matthews’ French was excellent. She had lived in Paris since childhood.
___ Event meaning → The goalkeeper had injured his leg, and couldn’t play.
___ Habitual meaning → It was foolish to fire him: In two seasons, he had scored more goals than any other players.
♦ Adverbials of time position, when used with past perfect, can identify either T2 & T3. Initially, they often
identify T2 (→When the cops arrived, the thieves had run away), but in final position, the interpretation
whereby the adverbial refers to T3 is more likely (The thieves had run away, when the cops arrived)
- Progressive aspect: Indicates a happening in progress at a given time → I sing well [=habit] vs. I am singing well [=action in progress]
♦ The meaning of the progressive can be separated into three components, not all of which need to be present in a given instance:
___ (a) Duration (temporariness) – Single events. (b) Limitation of duration (temporariness) – States & habits.
___ (c) Not necessarily complete – Dynamic conclusive Vs.
♦ The 3 V senses of state, event and habit are differently interpreted with the progressive:
___ State Progressive: In many cases, the progressive is unacceptable with stative Vs → *We are owning a house in the country. When the
progressive does occur, it is felt to imply temporariness → We are living in the country (temporary) vs. I live in the country [habitually]
___ Event Progressive: with event meanings the progressive conveys the idea that an event has duration, and has not yet come to an
end → The train was approaching (pr progressive is a more common way of referring to a present event than simple present).
___ Habitual Progressive: Combined with habitual meaning, the progressive implies that the repetition takes place over a limited period.
→ The professor is typing his own letters while his secretary is ill. [temporary Habit]
♦ OTHER USES: Refer to the future Refer to a present wish/attitude Action will take place in the future
→ Are you going to the meeting? → I’m hopping to borrow some + Aux will : action will take place in a natural way
[tomorrow] money. in the future. → I’ll be seeing you next week.
- Perfect Progressive: When the perfect and the progressive aspects are combined in the same VP (has been working), the features of
meaning associated with each of them are also combined.
♦ Has LIMITED DURATION → It has been snowing again. Difficult to use the perf progressive w/punctual Vs → ?*He has been starting his book
♦ Durative Vs typically go with the progressive aspect, and the meaning is roughly that CONTINUES UP TO THE PRESENT OR RECENT PAST
→ I have been writing a letter to my nephew.
♦ NEED NOT TO BE COMPLETED → I have cleaned the windows. [It has a resultative meaning → the windows are clean] vs. I have been cleaning
the windows. [It can be used even if the job is not finished]
♦ As an additional possibility, the present perfect progressive may be used in the iterative sense of TEMPORARY HABIT UP TO THE PRESENT
→ Martin has been scoring plenty of goals (this season)
- THE MOOD: is a grammatical category expressed in the VP by means of inflectional morphology. English has Indicative, Subjunctive &
Imperative. According to Jespersen, mood expresses certain attitudes of mind of the speaker towards the content of the sentence.
- Directives (=imperative Mood)
♦ Characteristics diff from Subj: (a) Generally has no subj; (b) lacks tense distinction; (c) Aspect is rare; (d) restricted to predications that allow
a dynamic interpretation; (e) refer to the immediate or remote future and are incompatible with past time advbls → Open the door!
♦ Directive types: (a) Mostly are wITHOUT SUBJ: The omitted subject is the 2 pers pron you, bc: (a1) you can occur as a tag Qs (→ Be quiet,
nd
will you?); (a2) occurrence of yourself (→ Behave yourself! Vs. *Behave myself!)
st rd
___(b) WITH SUBJ: (b1) 1 pers imp can be formed by preposing the V (b2) stressed subject you is (b3) 3 pers subjs are also
let followed by a subject in the objective clause, though except for let added (→You be quiet possible (→Somebody open
me, they are rather formal. A colloquial alternative is abbreviated form let’s [express strong irritation]). the door).
♦ Negative formation: Let-directives are generally negated by the insertion of not after the pron following let → Let us not say anything.
Informally, however, the negation with don’t is frequently heard → Don’t let’s say anything about it. 3 person imperatives are negated by
rd
not after let or, more informally, by an initial don’t → Let not anyone open the door or Don’t let anyone open the door. Elsewhere, one simply
adds an initial don’t or do not → don’t open the door!
♦ Imperative sentences are used for a wide range of illocutionary acts: Order (Make your bed!), prohibition, request (Shut the door, pls!),
petition (Help!), advise (Take an aspirin for your headache!), suggestion (Let’s have a party!) warning (Look out!), instruction, invitation, offer
- Subjunctive in modern English is generally an optional and stylistically somewhat marked variant of other constructions
Present Subjunctive Past subjunctive
Mandative subjunctive (most common) Formulaic subjunctive Were-Subjunctive
♦ Occurs in the subordinate that-clause. ♦ Used in certain set expressions chiefly in ♦ It’s hypothetical or unreal in meaning.
♦ Still productive → They recommend that indepdnt clauses → God save the Queen! ♦ It’s used in advbl clauses introduced by conj
this tax be abolished. ♦ Conveys an expression of will. as if, as if, as though, though and in nominal
V: decide, insist, order, prefer, request … ♦ It’s formal & rather old-fashioned in style. clauses after Vs like wish and suppose → If I
Adj: advisable, desirable, imperative … were rich, I would buy you a boat; → I wish
Ns: decision, decree, order, resolution … the journey were over.
♦ realized by the base form (pl subject clause there is no diff btw Ind & subjunctive forms). ♦ survives as a distinguishable form (were)
♦ Consists of the base form of the verb only. only in the past tense of the VMatellanes’
Iván to be Notes

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1. Tense in English. TENSE

1.1. Time, tense and the Verb

(theoretically of indefinite length) on which is located, as a continuous Time: line on which is

THE PRESENT MOMENT

[Preceding now] [Following now]

On this second, or SEMANTIC LEVEL of interpretation, the present is the most

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

1.2. The present tense as “nonpast”. Grammatical level:

future activity as well as about a present one.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

Whereas proverbial, scientific or mathematical statements like these Geographical statements.

represent the extreme of temporal universality, geographical statements are

1.3.2. Habitual present Habitual present [Plural Ns]

contextually incomplete unless such an advbl is added.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

1.3.3. Instantaneous present Instantaneous pres [Sing Ns]

restricted situations because it implies that the event has little or no

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

S.Pres → non present

The so-called Historic present is characteristic of popular narrative Historic present:

is still operative. Thus:

1.4.2. Simple present referring to the future. S.present → FUTURE

He’ll do it if you pay him.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

1.4.3. Simple present in fictional narrative S.present → FICTION

S.Past → Past time

Freda started school [last year / in 1950 ]

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

sense provides a hook on which to hang a subsequent occurrence of

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

ORIENTATION or T1). The diagram shows T2 as a point of time having no

extended time period.

1.6.1. Backshifting. 1. Backshifting.

How did you know that I was Max Wilson?

1.6.2. Attitudinal past. 2. Attitudinal past.

mind, but the past is somewhat more polite.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

1.6.3. Hypothetical past. 3. Hypothetical past.

2. Aspect in English. ASPECT

The term ASPECT refers to a grammatical category which reflects Aspect:

viewed as complete (perfect) and the action viewed as incomplete, that

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

The common factor of meaning is:

Anterior time Zone

As the above picture shows, the perfective merely defines an anterior

The overlap in the time-indicating functions of the past tense

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

2.1.1. The present perfect Present perfect:

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

2.1.1.1. Variants of the indefinite meaning. Variants of the indefinite

simple present is often used to report a piece of news.

The resultative & recently connotations are closely connected.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

(c) ADVERBIALS ASSOCIATED WITH BOTH: (c) Mixed group

2.1.2. Past perfect Past perfect:

can be regarded as an anterior version either of the present perfect or of

“event” and “habit” can all occur.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

past perfect, which place T3 before T2, is redundant. What difference it

BEFORE THEN THEN NOW

durative or continuous aspect) indicates a happening in progress at a Indicates an action in

Iván Matellanes’ Notes