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Tema 14: 
Expresión de la 
cualidad: Grado y 
comparación.  

Madhatter 
21/06/2007 
 
 Tema 14:
Expressión de la cualidad. Expresión de
d grado y comp
paración.
2

Ta
able of contents
1. The expresssion of quaality: Adjecttives. _______________
_________________________ 3
1.1. Characcteristics of Adjs.
A ___________________________
___________________________ 3
1.1.1. Fourr criteria for adjectives.
a ___________________________
______________________________ 4
1.1.2. Cenntral & peripheeral Adjs __________________________________________________________ 4
1.2. Classifiication of Ad
djs. ____________________________
___________________________ 5
1.2.1. Synttactic classificcation of adjecctives. __________________
______________________________ 5
1.2.1.1.. Attributive only.
o _______________________________ ______________________________ 5
1.2.1.2.. Predicative only.
o _______________________________ ______________________________ 7
1.2.2. Sem
mantic classificcation. _____________________________ ______________________________ 7
1.2.2.1.. Stative/dynam mic ________________________________ ______________________________ 8
1.2.2.2.. Gradable/nonngradable. __________________________ ______________________________ 8
1.2.2.3.. Inherent/nonninherent ____________________________ ______________________________ 8
1.2.2.4.. Patterns of seemantic classiification. ________________
______________________________ 9
1.3. The adjjective in relation to oth
her word claasses ______
___________________________ 9
1.3.1. Adjeectives and addverbs. _____________________________ ______________________________ 9
1.3.1.1.. Advs withouut -ly. ____________________________________________________________ 10
1.3.1.2.. Adjectives annd Adverbs inn –ly. ___________________
_____________________________ 10
1.3.1.3.. Adjs and advvs beginning with
w a- _______________________________________________ 10
1.3.2. Adjeectives and Nouns _______________________________ _____________________________ 11
1.3.3. Adjeectives and paarticiples ____________________________
_____________________________ 11
2. Expression
n of quality by other iteems rather than Adjs. _______________________ 12
2.1. Types of
o premodifyying items. _____________________
__________________________ 12
2.1.2. Prem
modification by b particles annd participial groups.
g ______
_____________________________ 12
2.1.2.1.. Present particles _______________________________ _____________________________ 13
2.1.2.2.. Past participlle. _________________________________ _____________________________ 13
2.1.3. Prem
modification by b Nouns. ___________________________ _____________________________ 14
2.1.4. Prem
modification by b advs and otther phrases. ____________
_ _____________________________ 14
2.1.5. Prem
modification by b sentences. _______________________ _____________________________ 15
2.2. The adjjectival relaative clause _____________________
__________________________ 15
2.2.1. Otheer kind of adjeectival clausess. ______________________
_____________________________ 15
3. Comparisoon of Adjecttives & adveerbs. _______________
________________________ 16
3.1. The com
mparison off the Adjectiives __________________
__________________________ 16
3.1.1. Irreggular forms off comparison. ____________________________________________________ 16
3.1.1.1.. Comparison of old. _____________________________ _____________________________ 17
3.1.1.2.. Comparison of well and illl. ______________________
_____________________________ 17
3.1.1.3.. Comparison of little & sm
mall. _________________________________________________ 17
3.1.2. Chaanges in spellinng. ________________________________ _____________________________ 18
3.1.3. Chaanges in pronuunciation. ___________________________ _____________________________ 18
3.1.4. Chooice between innflectional & periphrastic comparison
c ____________
__ _________________ 19
3.2. The com
mparison off the Adverb
bs ___________________
__________________________ 20
3.3. Article usage with comparativve and superrlatives ____
__________________________ 21
3.4. Other expressions
e of comparisson. __________________
__________________________ 21
Biibliography __________
_ __________
____________________
________________________ 22
Brrief summarry __________________
____________________
________________________ 23

Iván Matella
anes’ Notes
 Tema 14:
Expresión de la cualidad. Expresión de grado y comparación.
3

1. The expression of quality: Adjectives.

Although there are other parts of speech that can qualify a N, such as
other Ns, advs, participles, infinitives and adj clauses, Quality is expressed
mainly by means of the adjective.
Adjs are defined as words used to describe or give more information
about a N (an old man), but notice that Ns can also function this way. I will first
introduce the topic looking at adjs.

1.1. Characteristics of Adjs.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADJS
It cannot be said whether a word is an adjective by looking at it in
isolation, because its morphological form does not necessarily indicate its
syntactic function. Some suffixes are indeed found only, or typically, with
adjectives:
Suffixes: -able, -ful, -ish,
-able: readable -al: criminal -ous, -al, -ic, -less & -y

-ful: unforgetful -ic: Arabic.

It’s not enough

-ish: foolish -less: childless
-ous: ambitious -y: dirty
However, many common adjectives have no identifying morphological
form (good, hot, little, young, fat).
Potentialities for
Nor can we identify a word as an adjective merely from its inflection: comparative
& superlative
potentialities for inflection. It is true that many adjs inflect for the
comparative and superlative:
Great – greater – greatest
But many do not allow inflected forms:
Disastrous -- *disastrouser -- *disastrousest
Moreover, a few advs can be similarly inflected:
(He worked) hard – harder -- hardest

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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1.1.1. Four criteria for adjectives. FOUR criteria for adjs:

Four features are commonly said to be considered as characteristic of adjs:
(a) They can freely occur in attributive function. That is, they can 1. Attributive Fn

premodify a N, appearing btw the determiner (including the Zero det)

and the head of the NP:
An ugly painting; the round table; dirty linen
(b) They can freely occur in predicative function. That is, they can 2. Predicative Fn

function as subject complement as in [1] or as obj complement as in [2]:

[1] The painting is ugly.
[2] He thought the painting ugly.
(c) They can be premodified by the intensifier very: 3. Premodified by very

The children are very happy.

(d) They can take comparative & superlative forms. The comparison 4. Comparative &
superlative
may be by means of inflections (er, -est) as in [3] & [4], or by the
addition of the premodifiers more and most, as in [5] & [6]:
[3] The children are happier now.
[4] They are the happiest people I know.
[5] These students are more intelligent.
[6] They are the most beautiful painting I have ever seen.

1.1.2. Central & peripheral Adjs Central & peripheral

However, not all words that are traditionally regarded as adjs Adjs

possess all of these four features. Look at the table below for examples:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
[1] hungry + + + + John is hungry
Central
[2] Infinite + + - - The universe is infinite
Adjectives

[3] Old + - + + Susan is an old friend

[4] Afraid ? + + + The prisoners were afraid
peripheral
[5] Utter + - - - Bob is an utter1 fool
[6] Asleep - + - - The patient was asleep
[7] Soon - - + + The meeting is soon
Adverbs
[8] Abroad - - - - Anna is abroad
Predicative use

Premodified by
Attributive use

Comparison
after seem2

very

1
=Absolute
2
Copula seem.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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Criterion (c), acceptance of premodification by very, and criterion (d), the

ability to make comparisons, have no diagnostic value in distinguishing adjs
from advs. These two features generally coincide for a particular word, and are
determined by a semantic feature (gradability) which cuts across word classes.
Many advs are gradable, just as many adjs are gradable. So, hungry,
infinite, old, afraid, utter and asleep are regarded as ADJECTIVES, whereas soon
and abroad are said to be ADVERBS. The ability of functioning both attributively
and predicatively are a central feature of adjs. Words like hungry or infinite,
which satisfy both criteria, are called central adjectives. Words like old, Central adjectives
Can be both attributive
& predicative
afraid, utter and sleep, which satisfy at least one of these first two criteria
(a or b) are called peripheral adjectives. Peripheral adjectives
Can only be either
attributive or predicative

1.2. Classification of Adjs. SYNTACTIC CLASSIFICATION

OF ADJS
1.2.1. Syntactic classification of adjectives.
I turn now to consider the characteristics of the peripheral adjs,
those that are restricted to attributive or to predicative use.

1.2.1.1. Attributive only. Attributive only

In general, adjectives that are restricted to attributive position do not

characterize the referent of the N directly. For example, old can be either
a central adj or an adj restricted to attributive position. In that old man (the
opposite of the young man), old is a central adj, and can thus also be
predicative: The man is old. On the other hand, in the usual sense of an old Attributive only:
An old friend of mine
friend of mine, old is restricted to attributive position and cannot be NONINHERENT

related to my friend is old. In this case, old is the opposite to new. The
person referred to is not being identified as old: it is friendship that is
old. Similarly, the attributive adj in the wrong candidate does not refer to the
wrongness of the person, but to the mistake in identifying the person as a
candidate.
When adjs characterise the referent of the noun directly (The old man, my friend is
rather old), their use is called inherent. When they do not (an old friend of mine), it

is called noninherent.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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Here there is a list of some peripheral only in attributive position adjs

in English:
1. Intensifying adjs: Some adjs have a amplifying effect on the Noun 1. Intensifying Adjs

they modify, or the reverse, a lowering effect. At least, three semantic

subclasses of intensifying adjs can be distinguished:
a. EMPHASIZERS have a general amplifying effect and are a. Emphasizers:
Amplifying effect.
generally attributive. Convey emphasis: True, clear …

A true scholar, a clear failure, a definite loss

b. AMPLIFIERS scale upwards from an assumed point, and are b. Amplifiers:
Convey degree.
central adjectives if they are inherent and denote a high or Complete, great …
Complete, fool …
extreme degree. Convey degree:
A complete victory --- The victory was complete. [Central adj > inherent]
Great destruction ---- The destruction was great. [Central adj > inherent]
On the other hand, when they are noninherent, amplifiers are
attributive only:
A complete fool --- * the fool is complete [Attributive > noninherent]
A firm friend --- * The friend is firm. [Attributive > noninherent]
Complete refers to the completeness of the folly, and firm to the
firmness of the friendship.
Amplifiers are only attributive also when used as
emphasizers, conveying principally emphasis rather than degree:
Total nonsense --- * The nonsense was total >>>> EMPHASIZER
Total destruction --- The destruction was total >>> AMPLIFIER
c. DOWNTONERS: have a lowering scale, usually moving c. Downtoners:
Lowering scale.
downwards from an assumed point. They are relatively few (Slight Slight, feeble …

→ a slight effort; feeble → a feeble joke).

Many intensifying adjs can be related to intensifying advs:

He is a true scholar --- He is truly a scholar
It is utter folly to do that --- It is utterly foolish to do that.
2. Restrictive adjs restrict the reference of the N exclusively, particularly 2. Restrictive Adjs

or chiefly.
The exact answer The specific point
The sole argument The very man
Again, some of these adjs can be related to restrictive Advs:
That was the precise reason --- that was precisely the reason

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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3. Some adjs are derived from Ns (denominal adjs) by means of suffixes: 3. Denominal Adjs:
Polar, atomic, yearly …
-al: polar bear -an: urban population
-en: earthen pottery -al: tidal wave
-ic: atomic scientist -ly: yearly income
Many of such denominal adjs are nongradable and restricted to
attributive position.

1.2.1.2. Predicative only. Predicative only

Adjs that are restricted to predicative position are most like Vs or Advs. SYNTACTIC CLASSIFICATION
OF ADJS
They tend to refer to a (temporary) condition rather than to characterize.
Referring to health:
Perhaps the most common are those referring to the health (or lack of Well, faint, unwell …

health) of an animate being:

He felt well / faint / unwell.
Sick is the exception among these ‘health’ adjs, in that its attributive use is
very common: The sick woman.
A large group of adjectives that are restricted to predicative position Adjs that can take
complementation:
comprises adjs which can take complementation: Aware of, glad that …

I am aware of that I am afraid of his dog

She was glad that everything was all He is fond of me
right I am subject to much pressure.

1.2.2. Semantic classification. SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION

OF ADJS
Three semantic scales are applicable to adjs: Stative/dynamic,
gradable/nongradable, inherent/noninherent. It is important to realize
that we are dealing with scales rather than with a feature that is
present or absent. That is to say, not all the realizations of a feature are
available in each case. Furthermore, there may be idiolectal variations in the
recognition of a feature or in the acceptability of its realization.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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1.2.2.1. Stative/dynamic
1. Stative / dynamic
Adjs are characteristically static. Many adjs, however, can be seen
Dynamic adjs
as dynamic. In particular, most adjs that are susceptible to subjective characteristics:
- Semantic:
Subjective to objective
measurement are capable of being dynamic. Another semantic feature of measurement.
dynamic adjs seems to be that they denote qualities that are thought to be Denote qualities which
are under control of the
subject to control by the possessor and hence temporal. possessor and then are
temporal.
Impatient Funny
Careless Naughty
Gentle Untidy
Static and dynamic adjs differ syntactically in a number of ways. Dynamic - Syntactic: can be used w/
the progressive &
adjs can be used with the progressive and the imperative, whereas static imperative.

adjs cannot:
* He is being tall. * Be tall >>>>>>>> Static adjs
He is being careful. Be careful. >>>> Dynamic adjs

1.2.2.2. Gradable/nongradable. 2.Gradable/Nongradable

Most adjectives are gradable. Gradability is manifested through

Gradability is manifested
comparison: through comparison:

Tall taller tallest - comparative / superlative

Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Gradability is also manifested through modification by intensifiers, that is,
- Advs intensifiers
advs which convey the degree of intensity of the adjective:
Very tall So beautiful Extremely useful

Gradability applies to advs as well as adjectives, and hence it is considered

below in relation to both classes.
All dynamic and most stative adjs (tall, old) are gradable. Some All dynamic adjs are
gradable.
stative adjs are not, principally denominal adjs like atomic, scientific and adjs Some static adjs are
nongradable:
denoting origin (British). - denominal adjs
- Origin adjs

1.2.2.3. Inherent/noninherent
3. Inherent/Noninherent
The distinction btw inherent and noninherent has already been discussed.
Most adjs are inherent, as they characterize the referent of the N directly. Inherent: characterize the
reference of the N directly.
Inherent Noninherent
A firm handshake A firm friend
A true report A true scholar
If the adj is inherent, it is often possible to derive a N from it: Possible to derive
a noun from it
Her soft touch --- the softness of her touch

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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However, with a noninherent adj no such derivation is possible:

A true report --- the truth of the report <<<<<<<< Inherent
A true scholar --- *The truth of the scholar. <<<< Noninherent

1.2.2.4. Patterns of semantic classification.

Gradable Inherent Stative
+ + + That’s a big boat. She is a brave woman. [CENTRAL ADJS]
+ + - She is being very brave. [DYNAMIC USE OF CENTRAL ADJS]
+ - + He is a firm friend. [PERIPHERAL ADJS: NONINHERENT]
+ - - This actor is being wooden tonight. [DYNAMIC USE OF STATIVE ADJS]
- - + She is a medical student. [PERIPHERAL ADJS: NONGRADABLE & NONINHERENT]

Gradable adjs are either inherent (as in a black coat) or noninherent (as in a
new friend).

1.3. The adjective in relation to other word classes

I will now consider some examples of overlapping btw the adj & other
word classes. The overlapping may be due to syntactic features that are
characteristic of other classes but displayed by some adjectives, or to features
characteristic of the adjective class but displayed by members of
other classes. The three relevant word classes are: adverbs, nouns and
participles.

1.3.1. Adjectives and adverbs. ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS

There is a certain overlap between the adjective and the adverb classes.
Compare the adj function of premodification in the left hand column and the
adv function of adverbial in the right-hand column:
[1] A rapid car Drive rapidly / *rapid → Normal case: variation btw adj & adv
[2] A fast car Drive *fastly / fast → identical form in both adj & adv Fns
[3] A slow car Drive slowly / slow → Both function as advs

Example [1] represents the normal case, where there is a regular variation
btw form and function of the adv & the adj, and where the adv is formed by
derivational suffix –ly. Fast in [2] has identical form in both adjective and
adv functions. Similarly, long and short can be used as both adj and adv:

a long time?
Did you have to wait long ?
* longly ?

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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[3] Adj/Adv homomorphs are exceptional, and many such uses in adv
function occur mostly in fixed positions (as in [3]). Adj forms like slow (in [3])
differ from the corresponding adv form in several ways. The adj for, if
admissible at all, is restricted to a position after the V or obj:
He [slowly / *slow] drove the car into the garage
He droved the car [slowly / *? slow] into the garage

1.3.1.1. Advs without -ly. 1. Advs w/out –ly.

There are some words which have the same form (without the –ly suffix)
in adjective and adv functions:
She arrived in the late afternoon [Adj]
She arrived late in the afternoon [Adv]
Late has also a –ly form, but w/a diff meaning: Have you seen her lately? [Recently]

Other examples: clean, deep, flat, wide …

1.3.1.2. Adjectives and Adverbs in –ly. 2. Adjs & Adv in –ly.

Some words in –ly can function both as adjectives and adverbs:

ADJECTIVE ADVERB
An early train We finished early today
A monthly visit She visited him monthly.
Words like monthly, which denote time, can also function as time advs: daily,
fortnightly, weekly …
When advs corresponding to –ly adjs (friendly, kindly …) are required, the
adj construction is normally used to avoid double suffixation –lily:
She received us in a friendly (*fiendlily) way

1.3.1.3. Adjs and advs beginning with a- 3. Adjs & Adv

Certain words beginning with –a (like asleep) have constituted a problem beginning w/-a.

in classification for grammarians, some assigning them to the adj class, and
others to the adv class. These a-words function predicatively, but only a
few can be freely used attributively.
My grandfather is asleep / awake >>>> Predicative function
Only a relatively small number of advs can function predicatively
(some place advs –abroad, upstairs- and time advs –now, tonight-). But even these
advs are used predicatively only after be, while adjs can be used with
other copula Vs as well.
was asleep / hungry /abroad / there

The patient Asleep / hungry [Adjs]

seemed
* Abroad / *there [Advs]

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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Another difference btw a-adjs and a-advs is that a-adjs refer to temporary
states and cannot be part of the predication after Vs of motion. On the
other hand, a-advs denote direction after such Vs:
aboard / abroad / around / away [Advs]
She went
* afraid / * alert / *asleep / *awake [Adjs]

1.3.2. Adjectives and Nouns ADJECTIVES & NOUNS

Some items can be both adjs & Ns. For example, criminal is an adj in
that it can be used both attributively & predicatively:
[1] A criminal attack
[2] The attack seemed criminal to us.
But the word criminal can also be a count N (it can take determiners, be
inflected, be premodified by an adj and appear in the genitive case). Of course,
the attributive use of an item such as criminal is not sufficient criterion for
calling it an adjective. However, in [2], criminal cannot occur with an article:
The attack seemed [*a / *the] criminal to us.
Morover, criminal is gradable in that context
A [very / rather] criminal attack
We can say that criminal is both an adj and a N, and that the relationship Some Ns have the same
form as Adjs (conversion)
btw them is that of conversion (A word formation process). Here there are
some other examples:
Adjectives Nouns
A black student There was only one black in my class
A noble family The king greeted his nobles
A classic book You won’t find many classics in our library

1.3.3. Adjectives and participles

There are many adjs that have the same suffixes as participles in –ing
and –ed. These will be called participial adjectives.
Predicative use Attributive use
His views were very surprising His surprising views.
The man seemed very offended The offended man
They include forms in –ed that have no corresponding V:
The results were unexpected The unexpected results
All his friends are talented His talented friends

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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When there is no corresponding V, the forms are obviously not

participles. When there is a corresponding V, attributively used –ed forms
usually have a passive meaning.
Lost property --- property that has been lost.
Another important characteristic of participial adjectives is gradability.
Whereas gradable adjs & advs are intensified by very, Vs are intensified
by other advs such as (very) much or (very) well. So:
He was very much loved *? He was very loved → [Verb Participle]
*? Her views were very much alarming Her views were very alarming → [Participial Adj]

2. Expression of quality by other items rather than Adjs.

2.1. Types of premodifying items. PREMODIFYING ITEMS
The major types of premodifying items are the following (head indicated
in <brackets>):
1. Adjective as I have already discussed. Premodifying items

We also met her delightful <family>

2. Participle:
They never found the missing <report>
Have you ever reported the stolen <car>
3. Noun:
I hate city <traffic>
In addition, there are some minor types of premodification:
4. Advs and other phrases:
We have round-the-clock <service>
5. Sentence:
She has asked I don’t know how many <people>

2.1.2. Premodification by particles and participial groups. 1. Particles &

participial groups
Participles and participial groups, both present and past, have the
characteristics of adjs (see section 1.3.3.):
- Attributive and predicative use.
- Modified by advs.
- Gradable.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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2.1.2.1. Present particles 2a. Present particles.

When functioning as adjs, they can be divided into two groups:
a) –ing adjs describing an EFFECT: EFFECT

- Used with
a. They are formed from transitive Vs used to describe the way Transitive Vs
someone is affected by something.
b. They are used both attributive and predicative positions. - Attributive &
predicative positions
It was an amazing story
The story was amazing
- used with very
c. Can be used with a submodifier:
There is nothing very surprising in it
d. Can be used in comparison: - used in comparison

That was the most amazing story that … PROCESS

b) –ing adjs describing a PROCESS or STATE:
STATE
- Used with
a. They are formed from intransitive Vs. Intransitive Vs

b. Used only attributively. - Attributive positions

There is no living being in that part of the world

2.1.2.2. Past participle. 2b. Past particles.

They are related to transitive Vs and have a passive meaning.

A frightened person = a person who is frightened by something / someone (passive)
They can behave as:
a) Qualitative adjs referred to a person’s mental or emotional reaction - Qualitative adjs

to something:
He is a satisfied man.
b) Classifying adjs referred to physical distinctions: - Classifying adjs

Some boiled water / a painted room

c) Most of them can be used in both attributive & predicative position, - Can occur both
attributively &
although a small number of them only occur in predicative position. They predicatively.

are often followed by a PpP:

They were pleased with the result .. BUT … *The pleased result was …

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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2.1.3. Premodification by Nouns. 3. Ns.

There are some features that characterize premodifying Ns:

a) Premodifiers N are often so closely associated with the head that it - Stress pattern.

is considered to be compounded with it, as indicating by the stress

pattern:
His ‘life ‘story A ‘dish ‘cloth A ‘Sussex ‘man
b) In many cases, premodifying Ns correspond to postmodification - correspond to
postmodification.
with prepositional phrase:
His life story --- The story of his life.
A Sussex man --- A man from Sussex.
An iron rod --- A rod of iron
c) Attributive Ns can be coordinated with adjs by means of a - Coordinated w/an adj

conjunction.
London and provincial papers
d) They may be premodified by an adv. - premodified by an adv

… on merely business grounds

e) They occur in the singular form, even when they express a plural - sing form always

concept.
A five-pound note (*five-pounds note)
A two year-old baby (*a two year-olds baby)

2.1.4. Premodification by advs and other phrases. 4. Advs & other phrases.
Another minor type of premodification is the adverb and the adv phrase:
a) Adverb: Some adverbs can be used as attributive adjs before Ns: - Advs:

a. Advs of time:
Time
The then Duke of York The once pretty actress.
b. Advs of place:
Place
The above paragraph This downward progress
b) Adv phrases:
- Advs phrases:
She travelled to many far-away places (the places are far away)
I have this strange under-the-weather feeling (I feel under the weather)
Apart from a few institutionalized examples (an away match in contrast with a
home match), the plexibility of this type of premodification tends to be

exploited only colloquially

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2.1.5. Premodification by sentences.

5. Sentences.
What was said of Adv phrases applies at least equally to premodification
by a sentence:
I visited his what-he-calls cottage
A few institutionalized examples retain a colloquial flavour and the non-standard
grammar and spelling are preserved as part of the ironic slang (A do-it-yourself
job).

Non-finite sentences (headed by an infinitive) can also have an

attributive function and qualify a N:
This never-to-be-forgotten day
An impossible-to-be-realized wish

2.2. The adjectival relative clause Adj relative clause.

An adjectival relative clause is a clause that functions as an
adjective. The position of this clause is immediately after the N it qualifies,
which is called the antecedent. According to this definition, most grammarians
recognize relative clauses as the only type of adjectival clauses.
- Relative Clauses.
The letters that he wrote to her should be published

2.2.1. Other kind of adjectival clauses.

a) Clauses introduced by as, after an antecedent qualified by same - Introduced by as.

or such.
Do you want the same cakes as you always have?
We had such grapes as you never saw.
b) Clauses introduced by but qualifying a negative sentence: - Introduced by but.

There is no man here but would like to be in your place. (who would not like to be
in your place)
c) Clauses introduced by before or until: - Introduced by before
and until.
The time before he arrived was spent in making preparations.
d) Clauses with the present or past participle and the infinitive: - Introduced present,
past participle or
The man waiting for me outside is my friend George. infinitive
The only car repaired by the mechanic is mine
The next train to arrive was from NY
e) A type of Verbless clause which consists of an adj functioning as a - Introduced by a
Verbless clause.
full clause:
Nervous, the man opened the letter

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3. Comparison of Adjectives & adverbs.

With gradable adjs and advs three types of comparison are possible:
a) To a higher degree.
b) To the same degree
c) To a lower degree.
The three types of comparison are expressed by the following means:
a) The comparison in relation to a higher degree is expressed by the Higher degree:
-er/-est or more/most
inflected forms –er and –est or their periphrastic equivalents with more
and most.
Anna is [cleverer / more clever] than Susan.
Anna is the [cleverest / most clever] student in the class.
b) The comparison in relation to the same degree is expressed by Same degree:
as/so … as
as (or so) … as:
Anna is as tall as John
Anna is not [as / so] tall as John
c) The comparison in relation to a lower degree is expressed by less Lower degree:
Less, least
and least:
This problem is less difficult than the previous one.
This is the least difficult problem of all.
For higher degree comparisons, English has a three-term inflectional
contrast btw ABSOLUTE, COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE forms for many adjs
and for a few advs. The ABSOLUTE is the base form.
ABSOLUTE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
INFLECTION
Adj High Higher Highest
Adv Soon Sooner Soonest
PERIPHRASIS
Adj Complex More complex Most complex
Adv Comfortably More comfortably Most comfortably

3.1. The comparison of the Adjectives

3.1.1. Irregular forms of comparison. Irregular forms
A small group of highly frequent adjectives have comparative and 1. Good, bad, far.
superlative forms with stems which are different from the base:
Further/farther are both adj and adv
Good → Better → Best and are used interchangeably by
Bad → Worse → Worst many speakers. Further/furthest are
Far → Further / farther → Furthest / farthest the usual forms found.

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3.1.1.1. Comparison of old.

2. Old: Elder/eldest.
Old is regularly inflected as older → oldest. In attributive position,
particularly when referring to order of birth of members of a family, the
irregular form elder → eldest 3 are normally substituted.
My elder / older sister is an artist
His eldest / oldest son is still at school
However, elder is not a true comparative in that it cannot be followed by than:
My brother is three years [older / *elder] than me.

3.1.1.2. Comparison of well and ill. 3. Well, ill.

Well [in good health] and ill [in bad health] are inflected like good and
bad, respectively, for the comparative:
He feels better / worse
He is better is ambiguous btw (a) “he is well again” and (b) “he is less ill”. In
the first use (a), we can have intensifiers expressing absolute degree. In the
second use (b), we can have expressions with comparative sense:
He is better
(a) He is well again (b) He is less ill
Use intensifiers: Expressions w/comparative sense:
He is completely better He is [a little / a bit / somewhat ] better
There is no superlative best in the health sense: *He is best.

3.1.1.3. Comparison of little & small.

4. Little, small.
Little shares the comparative forms with small. That is little → smaller
→ smallest 4, as an adj modifying count Ns.
Anna is only a [little / small] child
She is smaller than Susan
She is the smallest child in her playground
Lesser is used attributively in the sense of “less important”: to a lesser degree.

3
Elder → eldest require personal reference
4
Littler → littlest occur occasionally, typically in familiar use.

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3.1.2. Changes in spelling. Changes in <spelling>

With adjs taking the regular inflections, certain changes in spelling or
pronunciation may be introduced in the base of the adj when the suffixes are
added.
1. A single cons at the end of the base is doubled before –er and –est
when the preceding vowel is stressed & spelled w/a single letter:
<C> → <CC> /<V>[+Stress]___-er / -est :
Big → bigger → biggest 1. <C> → <CC> /<V>[+Stress]___-er / -est
Sad → sadder → saddest
Neat → neater → neatest >>>> Neat is spelled with TWO vows.
Thick→ thicker → thickest >>> Thick is spelled with TWO cons.

2. In bases ending in cons followed by –y, the y changes to –i

before –er or –est:
<y> → <i> /____ -er / -est: 2. <y> → <i> /____ -er / -est:
angry → angrier → angriest
early → earlier → earliest

3. If the base ends in a unpronounced –e, this <e> is dropped before the
inflection. The same applies if the base ends in –ee:
<-e>[+silent] → ∅ / ___ -er / -est: 3.a <-e>
[+silent]
→ ∅ / ___ -er / -est
Pure → purer → purest (NOT *pureer → *pureest)
Brave → braver → bravest (NOT *braveer → *braveest)

<-ee> → <-e> / ___ -er / -est:

free → freer → freest /fri:st/ 3.b. <-ee> → <-e> / ___ -er / -est

3.1.3. Changes in pronunciation. Changes in [pronunciation]

1. A base ending in vocalized-l /l`/ normally loses its second syllable

before the inflection: 1. [l`] → [l] / ____ -er / -est

[l`] → [l] / ____ -er / -est:
Simple /sImpl∑`/ → /’sImpl∂r/ → /’sImplIst/

2. Even for speakers that do not give consonant value to a final <r> in
spelling, the /r/ is pronounced before the inflection:
<-r>([+silent])→ /r/ /____ -er, -est 2. <-r>([+silent])→ /r/ /____ -er, -est
Rare /re∂ r/ → /'re∂r∂ r/ → /’re∂rIst/
3. Final /N/ in the absolute forms long, strong and young is pronounced

/Ng/ before the inflection:

[N] → [Ng] / ____ -er, -est : 3. [N] → [Ng] / ____ -er, -est
Long /loNg/ → /loNg∂ r/ → /loNgIst/

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Expresión de la cualidad. Expresión de grado y comparación.
19

3.1.4. Choice between inflectional & periphrastic comparison Inflectional & periphrastic
comparison
The choice btw inflectional and periphrastic comparison is largely
determined by the length of the adj:
1. Monosyllabic adjs normally form their comparison by inflection: Monosyllabic adjs:
Inflectional
Low → lower → lowest

Real, right, wrong and the Pp like take ONLY periphrastic forms:
She is [more like / *liker] her grandmother
2. Many disyllabic adjs can also take inflections, though they have the Bisyllabic adjs:
Inflectional & periphrastic
alternative of the periphrastic forms:
Her children are [politer / more polite; (the) politest / (the) most polite]
Disyllabic adjs that can most readily take inflected forms are those
ending in an unstressed vow:
-y: early, easy, funny … BUT –ly: friendly → more friendly; likely → more likely
-ow: mellow, narrow, shallow …
-le: able, feeble, gentle …
Trysyllabic adjs:
3. Trisyllabic or longer adjs can only take periphrastic forms: Periphrastic
Beautiful → more beautiful / *beautifuller → (the) most beautiful / *beautifulest

Adjs w/the negative un-prefix are the exceptions:

Unhappy → unhappier → unhappiest
Untidy → untidier → untidiest

4. Participle forms which are used as adjs regularly take only Participle forms:
Periphrastic
periphrastic forms:
Interesting → more interesting → most interesting
Wounded → more wounded → most wounded

Most Adjs that are inflected for comparison can also take the periphrastic
forms with more / most. With more, they seem to do so more easily when they
are predicative and are followed by a than-clause:
John is more mad than Bob is.
It would be difficult to find a man more brave than he is.
Periphrastic forms are, however, uncommon with a number of monosyllabic
adjs (including the irregular ones):
Fair Quick Wide
Great Tight Clean
Thin Black Low
Big Fast Thick
Hard High Young

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 Tema 14:
Expresión de la cualidad. Expresión de grado y comparación.
20

3.2. The comparison of the Adverbs Comparison of Advs

For a small number of adverbs, the inflected forms used for

comparison are the same as those for adjectives. As with adjs, there is a
small group with irregular comparative and superlatives formed from Similar to adjs

diff stems. The comparative and superlative inflections are identical with those
for the adjs good, bad and far, and the quantifiers much and little:
Badly → worse → worst
Well → better → best Irregular advs
Far → further / farther → furthest / farthest
Much → more → most
Little → less (lesser) → least
1. Worse as the comparative of badly is used in: 1. Worse : w/need & want >
periphrastic (Br-UK)
He behaves even worse than his brother.
With the Vs need & want, however, the periphrastic form is required
(specially in Br-UK):
I really need that job more badly than you [In Am-UK: worse]

2. Compounds of well & ill + participle have both types of comparison: 2. Well/ill + participle: both
types of comparison
Well-behaved → better-behaved / more well-behaved → best-behaved / most well-behaved

The inflectional forms are more formal than the periphrastic ones.
3. Advs that are identical in form with adjs (fast, hard, late, long, quick) 3. Advs = adjs (fast, hard,
late, long, quick): Inflections
take inflections. They follow the same spelling and phonological rules
as for adjs:
You have to work harder / faster / longer
The inflections cannot be added to advs ending in –ly :
Quickly → more quickly / *quicklier → most quickly / *quickliest

4. Soon, which has no correspondence adj, is frequently used in the 4. Soon: sooner
but ?soonest.
comparative (sooner). Some find the superlative (soonest) unacceptable,
or at least very informal.
5. Often has the comparative forms oftener and oftenest, although they 4. Often: more common
the periphrastic form,
are less commonly used than the periphrastic more often and, in though both are used

particular, most often.

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 Tema 14:
Expresión de la cualidad. Expresión de grado y comparación.
21

3.3. Article usage with comparative and superlatives Article usage

In general, the comparative and the superlative express comparison

between the two sets. There is no article with a than-construction. than-construction: No
article (comparative)
Jane is cleverer than all the other girls in the class
With the superlative, Jane is included in the group and compared with all the
of-Phrase: article
others. The definite article is used with an of-phrase following. (superlative)

Jane is the cleverest of all the students in the class

If the superlative is used attributively, the definite article (or Superlative:

other definite determiner) is required: Attributively:

Art is required
Della is [the most efficient publisher in the office / our most efficient publisher / *most
efficient publisher]
Anna is [ (the / their) youngest child / *youngest child]
But, if the adj is not attributive, the is optional: Predicatively:
Art is optional
Anna is (the) youngest (of all)
Della is (the) most efficient (of all)
Without a definite determiner, the construction with most is always ambiguous
btw superlative and intensifier interpretation:
Della is most efficient [“the most efficient of all”(superl) or “extremely efficient”(Intens)]

3.4. Other expressions of comparison.

In addition to standard expressions of comparison, there are some other,
related expressions. Some Latin comparatives have an implicit 5 comparative
force. Such implicit comparatives are:
A is senior to B
B is junior to A
Superior quality
A prior claim over X
The major political parties.
A minor point.
Anterior and posterior positions.
Repeated and coordinated comparatives, as in the examples above,
indicate gradual increase:
She is getting better and better
They are becoming more and more difficult
Enough (postpositive) and sufficiently (attributive) express sufficient
degree:
The message is [clear enough / sufficiently clear] (“as clear as possible”)

5
It is not explicit because they cannot be used in comparative constructions with than.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Tema 14:
Expressión de la cualidad. Expresión de
d grado y comp
paración.
22

Gradin
ng is a se
emantic process wh
hich may be expresssed not o
only by
me
eans of co
omparison of
o adjs & advs,
a but also
a by means
m of Vs that d
denote
grrading (implicit comparison
c n). We can
c disting
guish thre
ee types of Vs
co
orrespondin
ng to three
e types of comparison
c n:
I Vs exprressing com
I. mparison on to a higher degree:
n in relatio
Dem
mand exceed
ds supply (“iss greater than
n)
Otheer Vs: Exagg
gerate Enlarge
Incre
ease Maxim
mize Amplify
Inten
nsify Length
hen
III. Vs exprressing com
mparison
n in relatio
on to the same deg
gree:
The length of thiss boat equalls the width of
o that boat
IIII. Vs exprressing com
mparison
n in relatio
on to a low
wer degree:
This action dimin
nishes the possibilities
p o an early se
of ettlement of the
t dispute.
Otheer Vs: Lowerr Minimizee
Lessser Abridg
ge Decline
Curtaail Impairr

Bibliogra
aphy
- Quirk,
Q R et al (1985) ; A comprehensi
c ive Grammarr of English.
1.
Qu Characteristicc of Adjs); 7.31-44 (classification of Adjs); 7.5--19 (Adjs in relation
uirk: 7.1-4 (C
w/other word classes)
c
2.
CEEDE apuntes; Mad editoria al
3.
Quuirk: 7.74-86 (comparison n of Adjs & advs)
a

Iván Matella
anes’ Notes
 Topic 14: Brief summary
23

Brief summary
- Expression of quality: THE ADJ. Although there’re other parts of speech that can qualify a N (other Ns, advs,
participles, infinitives and adj clauses), Quality is expressed mainly by means of the adjective.

- CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ADJS. MORPHOLOGICAL

FORM DOESN’T
♦ Sm suffs are found only w/adjs: readable, unforgetful, foolish, ambitious, criminal, Arabic, childless, dirty.
NECESSARILY
♦ Many adjs inflect comparative and superlative, but not all.
- INDICATE ITS
SYNTACTIC FN
Features Attributive Use: premodify a N

Premodified

Comparison
Predicative
Attributive

characteristic
use after

by very
Predicative use: function as subj/obj complement.

seem
use

of Adjs ⇒ Premodified by very

Can take comparative & superlative forms.
Examples ⇓
[1] hungry + + + + John is hungry Satisfy both criteria
Central
[2] Infinite + + - - The universe is infinite (attributive &
predicative use)

ADJS
[3] Old + - + + Susan is an old friend
[4] Afraid ? + + + The prisoners were afraid Satisfy at least
peripheral
[5] Utter + - - - Bob is an utter1 fool one criterion
[6] Asleep - + - - The patient was asleep (attributive or
predicative use)
[7] Soon - - + + The meeting is soon
ADVS
[8] Abroad - - - - Anna is abroad
Central No diagnostic value in
features of adjs distinguish adjs from Advs

- SYNTACTIC CLASSIFICATION OF PERIPHERAL ADJS.

- Attributive only: adjs that are restricted to attributive position do not characterize the referent of the N directly.
An old friend of mine, old is restricted to ATTRIBUTIVE POSITION and cannot The old man (the opposite of the young man),
be related to my friend is old. In this case, old is the opposite to new. The old is a CENTRAL ADJ, and can thus also be
person referred to is not being identified as old: it is friendship that is old. predicative: The man is old.
NONINHERENT INHERENT ADJS
INTENSIFYING

- EMPHASIZERS have a general amplifying effect and express emphasis → A true scholar, a clear failure, a definite loss
- AMPLIFIERS scale upwards from an assumed point, and express degree.
ADJS

♦ Noninherent → A complete fool --- * the fool is complete

♦ Inherent → A complete victory --- The victory was complete
- DOWNTONERS have a lowering scale, usually moving downwards from an assumed point. They are relatively few → a slight effort

- RESTRICTIVE ADJS restrict the reference of the N exclusively, particularly or chiefly → The exact answer, The specific point.

- Predicative only adjs are most like Vs or Advs. The most common are those referring to the health.
→ He felt well / faint / unwell.
- SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF ADJS: we are dealing with scales rather than with a feature that is present or absent.
- Stative/Dynamic: ADJS are usually static. Many adjs, however, can be seen as dynamic.
♦ Characteristics of Dynamic adjs: (a) Subjective to objective measurement & can be used w/ the progressive & imperative.
→ He is being careful / Funny / Naughty
- Gradable/Nongradable: Most ADJS are gradable.
- Inherent/noninherent: Most ADJS are usually inherent, as they characterize the referent of the N directly.
- THE ADJS IN RELATION WITH OTHER WORD CLASSES: Examples of overlapping btw the adj & other word classes.
- Adjs & Advs: There is a certain overlap between the adjective and the adverb classes.
♦ Advs without –ly: Words which have the same form (without the –ly suffix) in adj & adv functions.
→ She arrived in the late afternoon [Adj] vs. She arrived late in the afternoon [Adv]
♦ Adjs and Advs in –ly: Some words in –ly can function both as adjs & advs. → A monthly visit [adj] vs. She visited him monthly.
♦ Adjs & advs beginning with a- function predicatively (only a few can be freely used attributively) → My grandfather is asleep.
- Adjs & Ns: Some items can be both adjs & Ns → Criminal.
♦ Criminal can be both used attributively (gradable in that context) & predicatively (the article cannot occur in such position):
→ A [very / rather] criminal attack vs. The attack seemed [*a / *the] criminal to us
♦ We can say that criminal is both an adj and a N, and that the relationship btw them is that of conversion
→ A black student [adj] --- There was only one black in my class [N]
- Participle adjs: There are many adjs that have the same suffixes as present & past participles in (–ing; –ed.)
→ His views were very surprising --- His surprising views.
→ The man seemed very offended ---The offended man Iván Matellanes’ Notes
 Topic 14: Brief summary
24

- Expression of quality by other items:

- PARTICIPLE: PRESENT (-ing) & PAST (-ed).

- -ING ADJS DESCRIBING EFFECT.
♦ Formed from transitive Vs; used both attributive and predicative positions; used w/submodifier very; & used in comparison.
→ It was [a very / the most] surprising story --- the story was [very / the most] surprising
- -ING ADJS DESCRIBING PROCESS or STATE.
♦ Formed from intransitive Vs & used only attributive.
PREMODIFYING ITEMS

→ There is no living being in that part of the world

- PAST PARTICIPLE (-ed) are related to transitive Vs and have a passive meaning. Most of them can be used in both attributive &
predicative position, although a small number of them only occur in predicative position
→ A frightened person = a person who is frightened by something / someone (passive)

- NS: Premodifiers N are often so closely associated with the head; correspond to postmodification with PpP; premodified by an adv; &
occur in the sing form, even when they express pl. 1. <C> → <CC> /<V>[+Stress]___-er / -es
→ His life story --- The story of his life; Two five-pound note (*five-pounds note)

- ADVS: Another minor type of premodification is the adv and the AdvP.
→ The then Duke of York (Adv of time); The above paragraph (Adv of place); She travelled to many far-away places (Advl phrase)

- SENTENCES: Few colloquial examples. → I visited his what-he-calls cottage

- ADJECTIVAL RELATIVE CLAUSE: adjectival relative clause is a clause that functions as an adj. The position of this clause is immediately
after the N it qualifies, which is called the antecedent → The letters that he wrote to her should be published
♦ Other relative clauses:
(a) Clauses introduced by as, after an antecedent qualified by same or such → We had such grapes as you never saw
(b) Clauses introduced by but qualifying a negative sentence → There is no man here but would like to be in your place.
(c) Clauses introduced by before or until → The time before he arrived was spent in making preparations.
(d) Clauses with the present or past participle and the infinitive → The man waiting for me outside is my friend George.

- Comparison of adj & advs: With gradable adjs & advs 3 types of comparison are possible

- HIGHER DEGREE: expressed by the inflected - SAME DEGREE: expressed - LOWER DEGREE: expressed
forms –er & –est or their periphrastic by as (or so) … as. by less and least.
equivalents with more & most → Anna is as tall as John → This is the least difficult crisis of all

ABSOLUTE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

INFLECTION Adj High Higher Highest
Adv Soon Sooner Soonest
PERIPHRASIS Adj Complex More complex Most complex
Adv Comfortably More comfortably Most comfortably

- IRREGULAR FORMS OF COMPARISON: small group of highly frequent adjs have comparative & superlative irregular forms.
Good
→ Better → * Best (*No superlative form of well)
Well
Bad
→ Worse → * Worst (*No superlative form of ill)
Ill
Far → Further / farther → Furthest / farthest
Old → Older → Oldest (regular form)
→ Elder → Eldest (order of birth of members of a family [ My elder sister] and personal reference)
Little → Smaller → Smallest (Anna is only a [little / small] child --- She is smaller than Susan)t
→ Littler → Littlest (familiar and informal use)

- CHANGES IN SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. Pronunciaiton: Spelling:

1. [l`] → [l] / ____ -er / -est 1. <C> → <CC> /<V>[+Stress]___-er / -est
- CHOICE BTW INFLECTIONAL
2. <-r>([+silent])→ /r/ /____ -er, -est 2. <y> → <i> /____ -er / -est:
& PERIPHRASTIC OMPARISON:
Monosyllabic adjs: Inflectional 3. [N] → [Ng] / ____ -er, -est 3.a <-e>[+silent] → ∅ / ___ -er / -est
Bisyllabic adjs: Inflectional & periphrastic 3.b. <-ee> → <-e> / ___ -er / -est
Trysyllabic adjs & Participle forms: Periphrastic.
- ARTICLE USAGE WITH COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE :
- COMPARISON OF THE ADV: inflected forms used for ♦ Than-construction: No article (comparative)
comparison are the same as those for adjs → Jane is cleverer than all the other girls in the class
Well → Better → Best ♦ Of-Phrase: article (superlative)
Badly → Worse → Worst
→ Jane is the cleverest of all the students in the class
Far → Further / farther → Furthest / farthest
♦ Superlative: Attributively (art required)
Much → More → Most
♦ Superlative: predicatively (art optional) Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Little → Less (lesser) → Least