Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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MINE PLANNING AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION 2004
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTEENTH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON MINE PLANNING AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION, WROCŁAW,
POLAND, 1–3 SEPTEMBER, 2004
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection 2004
Edited by
Monika Hardygóra & Gabriela Paszkowska
Wrocław University of Technology, Poland
Marek Sikora
Wrocław University of Technology and SITG—Association of Mining Engineers and Technicians, Wrocław, Poland
A.A. BALKEMA PUBLISHERS LEIDEN/LONDON / NEW YORK/PHILADELPHIA/SINGAPORE
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Copyright © 2004 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
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Published by: A.A. Balkema Publishers, a member of Taylor & Francis Group plc
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This edition published in the Taylor & Francis eLibrary, 2006.
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ISBN 0203023412 Master ebook ISBN
ISBN 04 1535 937 6 (Print Edition)
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Table of Contents
Foreword XIII
Organization XV
Open pit and underground mine planning, modelling and design
Study on application of Petri Nets in opencast mining 03
K.C.Brahma, B.K.Pal & C.Das
Planning mines by digital methods 07
T.Cichoń
Graph algorithms in a mining CAD system 13
J.Chen, J.Li & T.S.Golosinski
Determining underground stope mineability using dynamic block value assignment approach 19
B.Ding, C.W.Pelley & J.J. de Ruiter
Designing and planning of mining operations development at open cast on the basis of integration of optimization methods and nonformal procedures of decision 27
making
U.A.Dzharlkaganov, D.G.Bukeikhanov & M.Zh.Zhanasov
Evaluation of Sungun copper mine design 31
M.Heidari & F.Rashidinejad
Resources estimation of a coal deposit using ordinary block kriging 37
M.N.Heriawan, J.Rivoirard & Syafrizal
A 2D dynamic programming algorithm to optimize stope boundaries 45
S.E.Jalali & M.Ataeepour
Shortterm scheduling and blending in a lignite openpit mine with BWEs 53
W.Kawalec
Use of Lagrange’s polynomial theory for calculation of optimal and limit depths in open pit mine 61
M.Mukalay, K.D.Mboko, M.Kamulete & S.Ngoie
Identification of mineable blocks in dimension stone rock masses 69
R.Prissang, P.Hellä, T.Lehtimäki, P.Saksa, J.Nummela & A.Vuento
Computer modeling of an airflow in ventilation network 75
F.Rosiek, M.Sikora, J.Urbanski & J.Wach
An underground coal mine area design based on digital terrain modelling 79
J.Toraño, R.Rodríguez, J.M.Rivas & A.Pelegry
Mineral resource evaluation based on AHP 85
X.Li & Y.Zhang
Geomechanics
Post failure stability analysis and management of Wanagon Overburden dump 91
I.Arif, I.W.Sengara, G.S.Adisoma, W.J.Sungkawa, M.Stawski & Y.Nasution
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Study on floor heave mechanical principle of underground roadways with the action of abutment pressure 97
X.H.Li, Q.D.Qu, Z.J.Wan & F.Q.He
The effect of simulation method and distribution shape on the selection of iteration frequency in rock engineering risk analysis 101
P.A.Lilly & K.Oageng
Rock pressure regularity of the gobside entry retaining in fully mechanized coalface with topcoal caving with roadin packing 105
L.Ma & D.Zhang
Vital role of instrumentation & rock mechanics for manganese underground mines of Manganese Ore (India) Limited (MOIL) for introduction of Rapid Mining 111
Technology (RMT)
G.G.Manekar & P.M.Reddy
Characterization of pillar burst in deep underground mines 117
H.S.Mitri & X.Y.Yun
Dependence of pillar strength on excavation depth in Estonian oil shale mines 123
O.Nikitin
The strength asymmetry effect in laminar rocklike materials on crack propagation 129
J.Podgórski, J.Jonak & P.Jaremek
Study of rockstrata pressure on the base of ant colony optimization algorithm 133
X.H.Zhao, X.F.Wang & D.J.Tan
Research of a geological hole state in rock massif with mining work 137
M.A.Zhuravkov, S.I.Bogdan & O.V.Stagurova
Applied theory of cracks behavior in rock massifs 143
M.A.Zhuravkov, S.V.Pavlov & A.I.Amjed
Mining and processing methods
Production preparation, control and storing process in an open pit Silver Mine in Turkey 151
H.Akçakoca, H.Akdaş & Ö.Uysal
Changing from gallery blasting to bench blasting method in a quarry 157
H.Akçakoca, B.Elevli, O.Uysal & I.G.Ediz
Means for optimizing of coal dressing at Coroesti Coal Processing Plant in Valea Jiului 161
S.Arad, S.Cierpisz & N.Craciun
Probabilistic model of the blasting process from the Turcoaia—Iglicioara open pit 167
V.Arad, S.Arad, C.Danciu & V.Partnoi
Improvement of coal quality fed to power plant by using selective excavation method at Seyitömer Coal Mines 171
H.Aykul & E.Yalçin
Development of a direct rippability assessment method 181
H.Basarir, C.Karpuz & T.Bozdag
Mechanical excavation of hard rocks 189
R.Ciccu, B.Grosso, C.Loddo, J.Vašek & A.Bortolussi
Use of hydraulic backhoe excavator in Vietnam open pit coal mines 197
X.N.Bui & C.Drebenstedt
Method of regulation of regime of mining operations at open cast 203
D.G.Bukeikhanov, R.K.Shakirtova & O.S.Isachenko
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Roomandpillar mining systems in Polish copper mines 211
J.Butra & W.Pytel
An experimental research on diamond cutting tools operation on rocks 217
M.Cardu, E.Lovera, E.Michelotti & G.Montaldo
Development of alternate roomandpillar mining geometries for improved extraction and ground control in coal and copper mines 223
Y.P.Chugh & W.Pytel
Environmental balance in mining—basics and results 229
C.Drebenstedt
Considerations upon extraction technology influence on quality production 235
D.Fodor, L.Maria & V.Ion
Water as a mining tool 241
W.T.Hennies, A.Stellin Jr., F.Fujimura & L.Soares
Dimension stone cut with synthetic abrasive water jet 247
W.T.Hennies, C.T.Lauand, G.R.M.Cortés & L.Curimbaba
Rock cutting process simulation by dynamic finite element analysis 253
A.W.Khair & B.Yu
Prediction of fragmentation for ring blasting in largescale sublevel caving 257
A.Lith, M.Kuchta & C.Quinteiro
Actual aspects of lignite mining in Mongolia 267
D.Purevsuren & C.Drebenstedt
Extraction of tabular seam of a moderate thickness within areas protecting the existing development entries in the LGOM copper mines 273
W.Pytel, R.Dębkowski & A.Kosiorowski
Study on paste stowing mining technology in coal mines 279
Q.Qu, H.Zhou, C.Hou & X.Li
Determination of rules and formulas of blasting engineering by Rough Set theory 285
Q.Lu, G.Huang & Z.Zhang
New classification of mineral opencast mining systems 291
B.R.Rakishev
Long hole drilling in narrow vein mining 297
S.M.Rupprecht
Improvement of quartz sand quality using attrition cleaning 303
B.Salopek, I.Sobota, R.Halle & G.Bedeković
Analysis of ground vibration and fragmentation by blasting: case study at limestone and shalestone quarries of PT Indocement Tunggal Prakarsa, West Java, 309
Indonesia
G.M.Simangunsong, K.Matsui, H.Shimada, B.Sulistianto, I.Arif & S.Kramadibrata
Assessment and prediction of rock mass damage by blast vibrations 317
S.P.Singh & R.Narendrula
Dimension stone milling by abrasive water jet 323
A.Stellin Jr., W.T.Hennies & V.H.Lauand
Environmentally sensitive drilling and blasting design for a surface mining 329
O.Uysal, B.Elevli & H.Akcakoca
A semicaving method applied at level 600 Ciurug vein, Pongkor underground gold mine, PT Aneka Tambang Tbk 333
R.K.Wattimena, B.Sulistianto, Risono & K.Matsui
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Application of presplitting at Chuquicamata mine, Chile 337
A.Zablocki
Driving predriven roadway for coalface passing rapidly through fault and disposing of associated waste in underground 341
J.Zhang, D.Zhang & L.Zhang
Remaining material exploration in underground mines using reverse air techniques 347
P.Zuñiga R. & R.Miranda V.
Design, monitoring and maintenance of mine equipment
Automation of inferring process in gearbox diagnostic 353
W.Bartelmus, R.Zimroz & H.Batra
The load of the longwall tumble heading machine’s head 359
W.Biały
Construction of bucket wheel excavators determined by specific mining conditions 365
J.Bojczuk
Microprocessor based solid state control system for improving efficiency of the conventional coal mine hauler 371
R.N.Gupta & S.Tadisetty
Machine maintenance from the viewpoint of present procedural understanding maintenance 377
F.Helebrant & J.Fries
Application test of rock fall detection system using steel wire cable sensor and mobile multimedia network for a cropped slope 383
F.Ito, D.F.Akhmetov, M.Komazaki & M.Ujihira
Experimental tests on the influence of mining conditions on powered roof supports advancement 391
M.Jaszczuk & J.Krodkiewski
Theoretical analysis of the external load determination of support units 397
M.Jaszczuk, K.Stoiński, J.Markowicz & S.Szweda
Specific power consumption as factor disintegration process control of diggingwheel excavators 403
J.Jurman & M.Balìček
Analysis and synthesis of spatial structures of the crossing longwall and gallery supports 407
A.Kalukiewicz & M.Szyguła
Support for mine rescue purposes made from light alloys 415
A.Kalukiewicz, D.Kwieciński & J.Senderski
The new longwall mechanized complex with daily output of 20,000 tons in “Bogdanka” mine in Lublin coal basin in Poland 425
J.Kasprzak & B.Kozek
Newdesign cutting tools and tool holders to be used in hard rocks mining 431
K.Kotwica & P.Gospodarczyk
Selection of combined cutterloader parameters for unidirectional and bidirectional longwall mining systems 439
K.Krauze
Dynamic startup calculations for belt conveyors with measured torque curves of fluid couplings 443
P.Kulinowski
Mine equipment selection by using failure mode and effects and criticality analysis 449
R.Kumar & A.K.Ghosh
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New technologies available to maximizing equipment reliability 455
M.D.Kuruppu
Testing of conveyor belts made by the FTT Stomil Wolbrom S.A. Company and used in modern conveyors designed for underground mining applications 461
A.Lutyński, M.Lutyński & J.Dyduch
A new technology for ground monitoring in underground mines using instrumented rockbolts 469
H.S.Mitri & L.Laroche
eMaintenance for equipments effectiveness in mining and mineral based industry 475
A.Parida & U.Kumar
Material aspects in the degradation theory of the surface mining machinery 479
G.Pękalski
New methods of design and dynamic control of shaft steelworks performance and conveyance guiding in mine shafts 489
M.Płachno
Transport of heavy loads in Czech deep mines 495
J.Polák
Design objectives for a new (allpurpose) rock drill 499
J.Reś & K.Władzielczyk
Electrical equipment upgrading of contactless electric locomotive power supply system 505
A.Ya.Rybalko, V.I.Panchenko & M.V.Rogoza
Shearer drum design using Visual Basic environment 509
S.Somanchi, V.Kecojevic & T.Kozminski
Monitoring and analysis of hydraulic chock shields behavior on real time 513
S.Tadisetty, R.N.Gupta, K.Matsui & H.Shimada
Simulation, optimalization and control of technological processes
Precut operation in the Nochten opencast mine—efficient overburden removal and winning on the basis of innovative equipment and use of suitable geological 521
and technological models
W.Bahrt & T.Bauch
A new developed software for equipment selection in mining engineering 527
A.Başçetin, O.Öztaş & A.İ.Kanli
Optimization of freight traffic and schemes of the openingup in CAD system of open cast 537
D.G.Bukeikhanov, V.F.S’edin, B.Zh.Bekmurzayev, A.A.Jarilkasinov & M.Zh.Zhanasov
Analysis of possible alternatives for the exploitation and hauling system in a marl mine (Tavernola BG, Italy) 543
M.Cardu, I.Sacerdote, A.Magro & M.Crosa
To what extent the number of conveyors affects the operating efficiency of haulage systems in coal mines 553
M.Grujic & I.Ristov
Virtual reality lab and control of mine technological process 557
O.Kodym
Cauê mine primary crushing material handling optimization 563
L.G.M.Lança & C.C.Cabral
Application of data mining tools for scientific and economic data analysis 567
M.Macháčová
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Discreteevent simulation of a tunneling haulage system 573
T.N.Michalakopoulos, A.D.Kouvardas & G.N.Panagiotou
Computeraided simulation of loading and transport in medium and small scale surface mines 579
C.NiemannDelius & B.Fedurek
Fuzzy model for truck allocation in surface mines 585
K.Oraee & B.Asi
Prediction of loading system (shovel) productivity based up on large fragmented rock caused by blasting operation in GoleGohar iron mine of Iran 593
M.Osanloo & A.Hekmat
Optimization of extracting work technology at the quarries of nonferrous metallurgy of Kazakstan 599
B.R.Rakishev, A.B.Begalinov & E.B.Muhamedzhanov
Computer simulation technology and demonstration 605
S.Schafrik, M.Karmis, Z.Agioutantis & T.Henderson
Simulation analysis model of mining methods 613
J.Szymanski, R.Suglo, S.Planeta & J.Paraszczak
The control of mining operations at OJSC “SSGPO” with due account of distinctions of simulating the preparation processes 619
M.M.Turdakhunov, O.S.Isatchenko, V.D.Scherba, S.I.Petrovitch, M.A.Faizulin & N.G.Stukalova
The attempts at the integration of information from different levels of coal mines 625
J.T.Wojciechowski
Rope shovel productivity improvements—site trials experimental design 629
E.WidzykCapehart & A.McDonald
Application of genetic algorithm to optimize the number and size of equipment of surface mine 637
X.Z.W.Li & Y.Zhang
Management, mine economics and financial analysis
A computerized evaluation of mining project 643
J.Čech & V.Bauer
The breakeven point in the case of a curvilinear function of exploitation costs 647
K.Czopek
Activity Based Costing (ABC) in the conditions of a mining enterprise 653
K.Czopek & B.Tyrała
Valuation of longterm postmining activities 659
C.Drebenstedt & D.Slaby
Sensitivity analysis of production plans of mines to changes in demand using the Monte Carlo method 667
D.Fuksa
Tandem lignite opencast mine & power plant as a bilateral monopoly 673
L.Jurdziak
Possibilities and barriers in the utilisation of rock mining for economic development of municipalities and area planning 681
U.Kaźmierczak & J.Malewski
Grouping of mines using simulation 687
V.L.Konyukh & V.V.Sinoviev
Sterilization of mineral resources by area planning and urban sprawl 691
K.Nielsen
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OPCE—software developed for cost estimation of mined material in open pit mines based on O’Hara’s detailed and escalation methods 697
M.Osanloo & H.Hamidian
Minecommunity relationships—the experience of Stawell Gold Mines (SGM), Stawell, Victoria, Australia 703
J.M.Osborne
Economic evaluation model for selective narrow vein cutandfill mining 709
S.Planeta, J.Szymanski & J.Paraszczak
The investment risk in the mineral and energetics sources 715
D.Rajkovic & M.Golub
A decision making model for lignite deposits exploitability 721
C.Roumpos, N.Akylas & N.Terezopoulos
Strategy and swot analysis of humancentered mine garden 727
Zh.H.Yang, H.Li, X.Zh.Wang, D.Zh.Ma & J.X.He
Health, safety and environmental protection
Sustainable development and environmental protection through coal bed methane drainage in India 735
A.K.Agarwal
Method of managing the environment 739
M.A.Aisautov & A.M.Aisautov
Environmental monitoring in the process of coal mines liquidation 743
Z.Bzowski & K.Bojarska
The management of former mining areas in the northeastern part of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (Poland) 749
J.M.Cabala, S.R.Cmiel & A.F.Idziak
Minewaste impact on soils in the Olkusz ZnPb ore district (Poland) 755
J.Cabała, E.Teper & L.Teper
Safety and legislative issues on environment and mine closure in India 761
S.K.Das
Whole body vibration in road tunnel excavation 767
V.Dentoni, G.Massacci, A.Contini, P.Mura, V.Presicci & A.Perra
A case study from the Victorian Goldfields: Australian sustainable endland uses on tailings 773
A.Doronila & J.M.Osborne
Environmental impact of mining in China and control measures 779
L.M.Dou, Y.H.Qin & Z.L.Mu
Development of the operative environmental monitoring system if the mine transport complex in the open cast mines 783
S.Zh.Galiev, E.E.Sarsenbaev & M.Zh Daribekov
Safety in American and Polish coal mines: a comparison 787
T.S.Golosinski & P.M.Szmigiel
Dynamic models for gas flow modeling—quantifying the capacity of an underground gas storage 791
J.Gottfried, H.Shimada & K.Matsui
Accidents in Brazilian mining waste dams 795
W.T.Hennies, M.H.Guilart, S.M.Eston, L.A.A. da Silva & G.R.M.Cortés
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The process of underground gas storing 801
I.Juettner & B.Kavedžija
Anticollision System 805
V.A.Kononov
Handheld instrument for remote and distributed gas monitoring 809
V.A.Kononov & M.J. de Beer
Prediction of dangerous states of degassing boreholes 813
D.Létavková
Coexistence of natural and technical hazards in the underground mines 819
B.MadejaStrumińska & A.Strumiński
Decision support system for management of municipal waste and mining voids 825
J.Malewski & J.GórniakZimroz
The safety status in Polish mining industry 833
J.Migda
Complex using of mineral raw materials as a way of resource base development in Kazakhstan 839
V.S.Muzgina, A.A.Zharmenov & A.Zh.Terlikbaeyva
Modelling and visualisation for the management of regeneration of a landscape affected by underground mining 843
Z.Neustupa
Environmental management plan for Sungun copper mine 849
F.Rashidinejad
Tailings disposal options study at Sungun copper mine 857
F.Rashidinejad & F.Raouf Sheibani
The importance of vegetation to the planning of mining landscape regeneration 863
B.Stalmachová
Experience with solution of Grant Task Methane 871
V.Strakoš & J.Gottfried
Environment protection in mining area resulted from green mining 879
S.H.Tu, L.Zhang & Y.X.Chen
Computer visualization of risk factors which occur during mining machines assembling in the underground workings 883
T.Winkler, D.Michalak & S.Bojara
Author index 887
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 041535 937 6
Foreword
MPES2004 (Thirteenth International Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment Selection) is the thirteenth edition of annual symposium previously held in Calgary
(1998, 1995, 1998), Istanbul (1994), Sao Paulo (1996), Ostrawa (1997), Dnipropetrovsk (1999), Athens (2000), New Delhi (2001), Bouzov (2002), Calgoorie
(2003). This symposium is an annual event recognized by the mining society as a leader in promoting international technology transfer in the fields of mine planning,
mining systems design, equipment selection and operation techniques.
Organizers of the 13th International Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment Selection are: Institute of Mining Engineering, Wroctew University of Technology,
Poland; National Technical University of Athens, Greece (NTUA); Department of Mines et Metallurgie, Universite Laval, Canada; Dipartimento di Geoingegneria e
Tecnologie Ambientali, Universita degli Studi di Cagliari, Italy; Universidad Politechnica de Madrid, Spain; Atilim University, Ankara, Turkey; National Mining
University of Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk; WH Bryan Mining Geology Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Australia; International Journal of Surface Mining,
Reclamation and Environment; American Society for Surface Mining and Reclamation; School of Mining and Petroleum Engineering, University of Alberta, Canada;
CENTEK—International Training and Development Centre, Lulea University, Sweden; Faculty of Mining and Geology, VSB—Technical University, Ostrava, Czech
Republic; Silesian University of Technology, Institute of Mining Mechanisation, Poland; Hokkaido University, Mineral Resources Engineering Department, Japan.
The symposium’s call for papers has been answered by over two hundred and twenty abstracts, of which one hundred and forty seven papers from 33 countries
were accepted for publication and presentation. The major topics announced for the 13th MPES symposium are listed below:
• Open pit and underground mine planning, modelling and design,
• Geomechanics,
• Mining and processing methods,
• Design, monitoring and maintenance of mine equipment,
• Simulation, optimalization and control of technological processes,
• Management, mine economics and financial analysis
• Health, safety and environmental protection.
The papers of this volume are listed in an alphabetical order, by first author’s last name, for each of eight major topics of the symposium, in order to facilitate the
locating of specific papers during presentations.
The organization and success of such a large world mining event is due mainly to the timeless efforts of many individuals, authors included. Dr Raj K.Singhal,
chairman of the International Organizing Committee, and all committee members have contributed greatly.
Particular recognition is accorded to all members of the National Organizing Committee, sponsors, and to our publisher A.A.Balkema.
My greatest appreciation goes to Gabriela Paszkowska for her dedication and timeless work in organizing the symposium and editing this volume of proceedings.
Monika Hardygóra
MPES2004 Symposium Chair
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 041535 937 6
Organization
SYMPOSIUM CHAIR
Prof. Monika Hardygóra
Poland
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Chairman: Dr. Raj Singhal
Canada
CoChairs: Prof. Marek Jaszczuk
Poland
Prof. Sukumar Bandopadhyay
USA
Members:
Dr. Newton Amegbey
Ghana
Dr. Irwandy Arif
Indonesia
Dr. Arun Basu
United Kingdom
Prof. Nuh Bilgin
Turkey
Dr. Marilena Cardu
Italy
Prof. Raimondo Ciccu
Italy
Mr. I.Montenegro de Menezes
Brazil
Dr. Euler M.De Souza
Canada
Prof. Roussos Dimitrakopoulos
Australia
Prof. Michel Duchene
France
Dr. S.Frimpong
Canada
Mr. Laureano Fueyo
Spain
Prof. Kostas Fytas
Canada
Prof. Mircea Georgescu
Romania
Prof. Lech Gladysiewicz
Poland
Dr. John Hadjigeorgiou
Canada
Prof. Martin Haigh
United Kingdom
Prof. Wildor T.Hennies
Brazil
Mr. Zou Jian
P.R. of China
Prof. Celal Karpuz
Turkey
Dr. Vladimir Kebo
Czech Republic
Dr. Vladislav Kecojevic
USA
Dr. Valery Kononov
R. of South Africa
Prof. Uday Kumar
Sweden
Dr. Mahinda Kuruppu
Australia
Prof. Peter A.Lilly
Australia
Prof. Kikuo Matsui
Japan
Dr. Hani Mitri
Canada
Dr. Vera Muzgina
Kazakhstan
Prof. Joan Osborne
Australia
Mr. Sven Erik Österlund
Sweden
Prof. George N.Panagiotou
Greece
Prof. A.Günhan Pasamehmetoglu
Turkey
Prof. Gennadiy G.Pivnyak
Ukraine
Prof. Roman Y.Poderni
Russia
Prof. Richard Poulin
Canada
Prof. L.Puchkov
Russia
Prof. Bayan R.Rakishev
Kazakhstan
Mr. V.S.Rao
India
Page xvi
Prof. Branko Salopek
Croatia
Prof. Malcolm Scoble
Canada
Mr. B.P.Singh
India
Ms. M.Singhal
Canada
Prof. Lindolfo Soares
Brazil
Prof. Vladimir Strakoš
Czech Republic
Prof. John R.Sturgul
USA
Dr. R.J.Thompson
R. of South Africa
Dr. Masuyuki Ujihira
Japan
Mr. Tsolo Voutov
Bulgaria
Dr. Marie Vrbova
Czech Republic
Prof. Yun Qing Xia
P.R. of China
Prof. Michael Zhurakov
R. of Belarus
NATIONAL ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Dr. Gabriela Paszkowska
Dr. Marek Sikora
Prof. Janusz Reś
Dr. Wojciech Sawicki
Dr. Radoslaw Zimroz
Dr. Anna Gogolewska
Mr. Jarosłew Gogolewski
Ms. Wanda Nowak
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Open pit and underground mine planning, modelling and design
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Study on application of Petri Nets in opencast mining
K.C.Brahma
S.O.M. RIVII, CMPDI, Bhubaneswar, India
B.K.Pal
HOD (Mining) N.I.T., Rourkela, India
C.Das
HOD (Math) N.I.T., Rourkela (Retd). Orissa, India
ABSTRACT: Mining is an unstructured environmental activity posing significant challenges for the improvement of the existing systems of working.
Many a mines detailed task planning is not possible because of the unexpected change in the work space environment. Petri Nets can be used to solve
a number of practical problems cropping up due to the unpredictable nature of the mining environment by making use of the essential components of
mobile robot. Highlevel Petri Nets have been found broadening applications to simulate complex systems in decision making, informatics and
manufacturing. This work proposes the use of Petri Nets in drilling, blasting, loading and transportation of coal in an open cast mine. The complete
mining systems can be modeled from standard components of Petri Net systems. The concept of design of a system using Petri Nets commences with
a process which is reflected as movement of tokens across logical transitions with time delays in places of net. This paper discusses the application of
Petri Net in modeling of drilling task in a large open cast mine.
1 INTRODUCTION
There is an increasing need for technologies to perform complex mining tasks autonomously in order to provide for efficient and safe extraction of mineral resources.
The recent significant advances in sensor, computer and system engineering will lead to the ability to complete complicated mining tasks through the utilization of
robotics and automation. There is a difference between automation and robotics. Automation is limited by minerbased technology. Mining robot is an autonomous
mining machine with flexible control that provides all purpose use of working head during mining. The deterioration of mining condition, the increasing cost of labor,
limited potential of both humans and traditional mining machines are some of the reasons which call for the use of mining robotics. Robotics based mining can be
simulated by using Petri Nets. Petri Nets were named after Carl Adam Petri who had submitted his doctoral dissertation “Kommunikation mit Automaten”,
[Communication with automata] to the faculty of Mathematics and Physics at the Technical University of Darmstadt West Germany in 1962. This dissertation was
prepared while C.A.Petri worked as a scientist at the University of Bonn. He had formulated the basis for a theory of communication between asynchronous
components of a computer system. The use and study of Petri Nets have spread widely in last few years. High level Petri Nets have been developed using color Petri
Nets, predicate/transition Nets etc.
2 OVERVIEW OF PETRI NETS
Petri Nets are graphical and mathematical modeling tools that can be used to perform static and dynamic modeling of existing or new systems. Systems that are
characterized as being concurrent, asynchronous, distributed, parallel, nondeterministic, and stochastic can be effectively modeled and analyzed by using Petri Nets
(Murata, 1989).
A Petri Net is a directed weighted, bipartite graph consisting of four main types of modeling elements called places, transitions, arcs, and tokens. Figure 1 shows the
four modeling elements that are used to develop a classical Petri Net. A place—denoted by a circle—represents a condition such as input data, input signal, resource,
condition or buffer. A transitiondenoted by a solid bar—represents an event such as
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Figure 1. Modeling elements of Petri Net.
a computation step, task, or activity. Arcs are utilized to connect places and transitions in a Petri Net. Arcs are directed (depicted by arrows) and are drawn from a
place to a transition or from a transition to a place. Multiplicity of an input arc, represented by an integer k (as shown in figure 1), dictates the number of tokens
required to fire or enable a transition. The fourth element called the token and denoted by a solid circle provides the dynamic simulation capabilities of Petri Nets.
Tokens are initialized at a place and a place may contain zero or more tokens. With the use of tokens the modeler can provide the necessary links between the places
(conditions) and transitions (tasks or events) in a Petri Net.
The concept of transition “firing” allows a Petri Net to simulate the dynamic behavior of a system. A transition in a Petri Net can fire when each input place has “k”
or more tokens available, where k is the multiplicity of the arc connecting the transition and the respective input place. Such transition is said to be “enabled” (Murata,
1989). Firing of an enabled transition removes the appropriate number of tokens from its input place and puts them in the output place.
In the original form transition firing in Petri Nets was assumed to be instantaneous. However, time can be incorporated into Petri Nets by introducing delay after a
transition is enabled. This results in a timed transition that will have the ability to model tasks or activities. Such a Petri Net is known as Timed Petri Net (TPN). If the
transition times are deterministic, the Petri Net is called a Deterministic Timed Petri Net (DTPN). If the transition times are allowed to be random variables, then it is
called Stochastic Timed Petri Net (STPN). A Petri Net that contains immediate transitions, deterministic transitions, and stochastic transitions is called a Generalized
Stochastic Petri Net (GSPN).
3 MODELLING WITH PETRI NETS
Petri Nets are used to model the occurrence of various events and activities in systems this may also be used
Table 1.
Condition Event
a Work place in waiting 1 The order arrives
b An order has arrived and is waiting 2 The work place starts in the order
c Work place is working with order 3 The order has been completed
d The order is complete 4 The order is sent for delivery
Figure 2. A Petri Net model.
Figure 3. Conflicting transitions.
to model the flow of information or other resources within a system.
3.1 Events and conditions
Events are actions which take place in the system. The occurrence of these events is controlled by the state of the system that is described as a set of conditions. A
condition is a predicate or logical description of the state of the system. An example of events, conditions at a workplace and corresponding Petri Net model is
illustrated in Table 1 and Figure 2.
3.2 Conflict
Two events e1 and e2 are in conflict if either e1 or e2 are conflict but not both, and they can be concurrent if both the events occur on any order without conflicts. In
Figure 3, transitions t1, t2 and t3 are in conflict.
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Figure 4. Illustration of synchronisation.
3.3 Synchronisation
Petri Nets have been used to model a variety of synchronisation mechanisms, including the mutual exclusion, readerswriters and producerconsumer problems. The
transfer of information or resources from one component to another requires that the activities of the involved component be synchronised while the interaction is
occurring. Figure 4 exhibits synchronisation.
4 APPLICATION IN MINING
Mining robotics is expanding between mining and machine built robotics. In case of underground mines, miners confront with various insidious hazards to health and
safety such as gases, dust, temperature and humidity. Petri Net models, which can be used to analyze discrete event systems, can be used to develop suitable robots.
Automation is one of the most important current areas of research and development for both opencast and underground mining operations. There have been great
progress in the field of automation in countries like Russia, USA, UK, Australia, etc. and research is still going on to improve the implementation of robotics in mining.
The hazards and difficult conditions of mining environment can be well averted by using the mining robotics, thereby saving the valuable lives of miners lost every year
either due to accident or chronic diseases resulting due to hazardous mining conditions.
Entrenched methodologies dictated the course of mining industry for well over a century until the advent of computer technology. Today the specialized software and
the state of art of computer work stations have radically altered the established mining methods by providing quick and simple solutions to the environmental and
complex engineering problems. The history of application of robotics in mining dates back to 1967, when simple robots for unmanned rail haulages are used. The first
teleoperated manipulator for extraction of thin coal seams in deep mines was designed by M.Thring (1971).
Figure 5. Petri Net modelling of drilling operation in an opencast mine with double rod drilling.
During 1980–1985 application of robotics in mining were discussed intensively in world publications (Konyukh, 1995). At present some proto types of robots are used
in drilling, roof bolting, road heading or shotcreting operations. The application of Petri Nets can be utilized in the design of robotics in mining keeping in view the
unforeseen constraints and hazardous mining conditions.
4.1 Petri Net model of drilling operation in an open cast mine
Drilling operation in an opencast mine is very hazardous because of the continuous exposure of the drill operator to an environment which is saturated with dust and
high levels of noise and vibrations. In order to automate the drilling operation the concept of Petri Nets can be applied and drilling of more than one rod can be done
with less time as compared to the conventional mode of drilling. Thus the automation in drilling operation can be very safe and economic and at the same time
preventing the exposure of the operator to such a dusty atmosphere and other associated health hazards like noise and vibration inside the cabin can be well eliminated.
The process of drilling operation starts after the area for drilling is cleaned and leveled by the dozer or other equipment. The stepwise decomposition of drilling
operation is shown in Figure 5 and different places and transitions were illustrated in Table 2.
The firing of the token has been tested and simulated in a computer.
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Table 2.
Place description Transition description
p1 The leveling of drill machine is ready to commence t1 The leveling operation is in progress
5 CONCLUSION
The present work is an attempt to throw some light on mine automation using the concepts of Petri Nets. The drilling operation in an opencast mine with double rod
drilling provision has been considered for analysis and has been simulated. Further, research and development is necessary in the field of mine automation and there is
enough scope of improvement for enhancing the utilization of the concept of Petri Nets in mine robotics. The concept of highlevel Petri Nets which include predicate
transition nets, colored Petri Nets and nets with individual tokens can be used where a token can be a compound object carrying data. This data can be of arbitrary
complexity involving integers, real, text strings, records, lists and tuples.
Petri Net based modeling of drilling operation in this paper is a simple and effective method that can provide an insight to the academicians and mine managers to
further develop a more refined and realistic time and cost estimates for complex opencast mining projects. The Petri Nets can be applied for automation in mining
technology in an environmental friendly and safe manner so that Zero Accident Potential (ZAP) can be achieved. Temporary machine failures can be averted with better
simulation which can be updated time and again reducing the breakdown hours to minimum.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the CMPDI Management for permitting them to publish the paper. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily of the
organization to which they belong.
REFERENCE
Hale, R.D., Rokonuzzaman, M. and Gosine, R.G., 1999. Control of mobile robots in unstructured environments using discrete even modelling. SPIE International
Symposium on intelligent systems and Advanced Manufacturing. Boston.
Konyukh V., 2003. Automation and Robotics. The Different Approaches. 19th World Mining Congress, New Delhi: pp 1741–1748.
Konyukh, V., 2002. Robotics for Mining. Mineral Resource Engineering, Vol. II, No. 1, Imperial College Press, pp 73–88.
Murata, T., 1989. Petri Nets: Properties, Analysis and Application. Proceedings of IEEE, Vol. 77, No. 4, pp 541–580.
Peterson, J.L., 1981. Petri Net Theory and Modeling of Systems. Englewood cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.
Sawhney, Anil, 1997. Petri Net Based Simulation of Construction Schedules. Proceedings of the 1997 win simulation conference ed S.Andradottier, K.J.Healy,
D.H.Withers, and B.L.Nelson: 1111–1118.
Woof Mike, 2003. New Worlds Robot loading and haulage are coming to material moving. World Mining Equipment Vol. 27, No. 9, pp 20–23.
Zurawski. Richard and Zhou, Mengchu, 1994. Petri Nets and Industrial Application: A Tutorial. IEEE Transactions on industrial Electronics, Vol. 41, No. 6, pp 567–
583.
Page 7
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Planning mines by digital methods
T.Cichoń
Poltegor—Projekt sp. z o.o.
ABSTRACT: The most quickly developing branch of engineering widely used in planning and designing are the computer techniques. Starting with
mining operations in surface mines is preceeded by a number of design works, such as analyses, feasibility studies, technoeconomic feasibility reports,
directive designs, process designs, engineering designs.
All the geological and geotechnical studies and mining designs are prepared by Poltegorengineering Ltd. with use of computer programs, such as
Microstation, Intergraph I/Mine Modeller, Intrasoft MX Foundation, Datamine Studio, AutoCAD.
The paper will present methods and procedures of calculation taking specific surface lignite mines as example, namely:
– big Szczerców Open Pit in Bełchatów Lignite Mine,
– small Tomisławice Open Pit in Konin Lignite Mine.
Recently, a quick development of computer techniques and resultant increased speed and accuracy of calculation carried out, easy graphic representation of design and
its duplication, quick creation and processing of databases and also, their searching, further treatment of graphic files, possibility to create spatial model of designed
facility, its visualization (representation of a facility not existing in the reality), archive of data, brought about an interest in aiding of mine planning by specialized
computer programs.
Therefore, as a result of increasing requirements on the customers’ side, such computer software is used in Poltegorengineering Ltd. as Microstation, Integraph
I/Mine Modeller, Intrasoft MX Foundation (MOSS), Datamine Studio, AutoCAD, or commonly used MS Office package.
The overburden removal in Szczerców Field of Bełchatów Lignite Mine started on 21.10.2002 was preceeded by many years of planning and designing works, i.e.
analyses, feasibility studies, technoeconomic feasibility reports, directive designs, process and engineering designs. All of them, wholly or partially, were made in the
recent years with use of computeraided techniques.
The use of computer software in aiding design works allowed to select a best option through the wider range of alternatives to be analyzed. Owing to the use of
computer software, it was possible to select an optimum option.
Presently, all the mining designs, not only those for Szczerców Field, are made with use of computeraided techniques. The multidisciplinary design is possible to be
made owing to the increasing compatibility of programs and frequently, it is of no importance in which one of programs the design is made since anyway it is also “read”
by other programs.
A main tool for planning exploitation in Szczerców Field is Microstation software used, among others, for graphic representation of designed facility and also,
Intergraph I/Mine Modeller application enabling digital models of facilities to be created on the basis of graphics or databases.
The creation of a “drawing”, or graphic representation of facility (two or threedimensionally) decidedly facilitates making any measurements without a reading error
known from todate “manual” methods of making measurements. The computer program allows to read faultlessly any parameters or quantities with accuracy fixed by
the designer.
The graphic representation of facility (of course, apart from conceptual work) is most difficult in the designing process which incorporates such few elements as initial
data gathering, analyses of previously made studies, making few concepts of design option, selection of optimum option, consultancies with engineers of other
disciplines, graphic representation of facility, i.e. option, production of backing documents for engineers of other disciplines, corrections of
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Figure 1. Szczerców Field. Mining operations as of 31.12.2020. Open pit site.
design option caused by the interferences with engineers of other disciplines (constituting two or three approximations), production of design in traditional form (paper)
or vectorial one (CD).
Similarly, creation of database is labourconsuming point of issue for further treatment and production of file, e.g. graphic one.
However, practically unlimited possibilities of edition and modification for already represented facility allow, when this most labourconsuming portion of work has
been done, to further treat the drawing files, databases, etc. at lightning speed.
Thus, the uptodate graphic software provides also more possibilities for rapid updating of already produced design (design file).
Such software allows to reduce time consumption due to the possibilities to adjust a drawing to printing to a different scales and with different elements owing to the
use of socalled layers where facilities of a given category or reference files are placed constituting usually separate design files.
The files of Microstation program were a basis for creation of the model of excavation site and external dumping area for Szczerców Field acc. to programs I/Mine
Modellers, InRoads, which was a basis to calculate volumes of any bodies (excavation site, dumping site, reserves contained in seams of lignite deposits, etc.). The
calculation acc. to the above mentioned program is made with any assumed accuracy.
While designing both exploitation in Szczerców Field (Bełchatów Lignite Mine) and Tomislawice Open Pit (Konin Lignite Mine) with use of Modeller Inroads
program face advances were optimized and then, fixed considering real capacity of heavy machinery.
In planning and designing, there are also used, although less and less frequently, possibilities of servicing raster files. The scanned drawings, or even air photographs,
are used in the designs as backing documents and are kept along with the vectorial data. The raster files are freely calibrated or edited by means of IRAS program.
Scanning the old maps and their vectorial treatment facilitates archive of these data and allows easier access to them. In the recent years, due to the better and better
embracement of this country by vectorial maps, particularly in areas where new development projects are located, the use of raster maps as those being inconvenient
and charging the computer memory is waived.
Making use of possibilities to communicate with databases allows to create “maps” of any parameters (thickness, sulphur, ash, moisture contents, etc.).
The possibility is used to communicate between Microstation, AutoCAD and MOSS programs. With use of LAN network, it allows to freely exchange the files
between designers working on different platforms. The use of global network allows quick consultancies of the designer with customer. The increasing compatibility of
programs (Microstation and AutoCAD) in their successive versions considerably facilitates to transfer data between designers working in different environments. The
Microstation V8 version allows to work even directly with dwg files without changing file format for dgn.
A very important function is the photorealistic visualization with possibility to represent textures, cavity maps, photomontage technique (e.g. connection of designed
models with actual appearance of adjacent area, lighting operation). This function allows to see a facility not existing in the reality. Additionally, the animations are
created by shifting the camera along earlier defined path, or by interpolation of frames.
Using I/Mine Modeller application it is also possible, apart from making calculation, to obtain any kind of sections, lines of body intersection, to calculate surfaces,
slope angles. Also, complete geometrical data are obtained at any point of the model.
One can mention many studies made in Poltegorengineering Ltd. in their mining part exclusively with use of computeraided techniques and software as specified
above. Let us mention at least those most important which were prepared recently:
• Szczerców Field. Updating of Technoeconomic Feasibility Reports—Maximum Production.
• Szczerców Field. Contour line Design of Working Benches at Open Pit from Temporary Eastern Side to Salt Diapir.
• Verification of Open Pit Delimitation in Szczerców Field. Stage II. Volumes 1 & 2.
• Contour of Eastern Side in Szczerców Field.
• Technoeconomic Feasibility report for Tomislawice Open Pit.
One must not forget easy archive of produced files, either on the hard disk or CDs and also, easy exchange of design files between the designers of
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Figure 2. Portion of computer animation (frame of animation). Mining operations as of 31.12.2020. Open pit site and external dumping
area.
particular disciplines or sending the final product (design) to the investor.
As mentioned above, in the recent years, the mining designs made for the Investors, i.e. both Bełchatów and Konin Lignite Mines, regarding among others
Szczerców Field and open pits in Konin Basin, are practically wholly prepared using computeraided techniques.
The engineering and process drawings in the mining branch are made acc. to Microstation program in 3D files only (2D files have been waived due to their small
utility), thus enabling the designer to view a facility, e.g. open pit site, in space, to look at any element from any side and, of course, in any enlargement, to make cross
section through open pit and, what is important, to check the drawing with respect to its usefulness for volumetric calculation to be carried out (correct altitude
ordinates “Z”).
1 COMPARISON OF REQUIREMENTS IMPOSED BY DESIGNS FOR BIG AND SMALL PROJECTS
1.1 Big project—Szczerców Field—One of two fields of Bełchatów Mine in Bełchatów Basin
The area covered by the designed future open pit in Szczerców Field is about 7200m long and 4050 m wide to a maximum. In the design “Szczerców Mine”. Directive
design of longterm slopes till the end of exploitation, there has been planned and then, in the designs, verification of open pit delimitation in “Szczerców Field. Stage II.
Vol. 1 & 2” and “Contour of eastern side in Szczerców Field”, there is made more precise about layout of slopes at excavation site with reference to the used
dissection into benches and to the used haulage options (haulage
Figure 3. Szczerców Field. Excavation site. Southern side with area of occurrence of Mesozoic bedrock formations.
slopes, haulage ramps), occurrence of Mesozoic bedrock and, of course, lignite deposit bedding. By traditional design methods, embracing such a large area in one
drawing would result in obliteration or even disappearance of details. Differently, while designing with use of computeraided techniques. For example, it is possible to
represent detailed delimitation within area of Mesozoic bedrock occurrence on the southern side of open pit. While designing both dissection of the deposit and details
the same drawing was used making only any enlargements and any “views” on facilities or elements.
After having drawn in detail in 3D the excavation site along with options for slopes: northern (haulage) one, southern one, western (haulage) one and eastern one, and
technological bottom at open pit as well, it is possible, while creating the model, to calculate volume of mas incorporated in the body which is constituted by excavation
bowl along with the land surface.
Basing on the solved contour of slopes and earlier used time schedule of heavy machinery operation, it is possible to create “drawings” of face advances for any
statuses and while creating models of particular benches (layers), based on particular contour lines (“Szczerców Field. Contour line design of working benches at open
pit from temporary eastern slope to salt diapir”) located on successive working benches, it is possible to make rapid calculation and adequate corrections.
After having calculated by the geologists lignite amounts in working benches with assumed face advances (in selected years, e.g. 10 years in fina phase of
exploitation), first approximation is obtained to check whether fuel requirements of Power Plant can be met.
After having made adequate corrections of the ordinates of benches and face advances, the next approximation is done. As a rule, as much as 2 or 3 approximations
give satisfactory results.
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Figure 4. Szczerców Field I. Main haulage ramp.
When computeraided techniques were not used it took very long time to make few approximations. Presently, as already mentioned, most of all time is taken up just
by the preparation of initial data, or making “the drawing”. Any calculation is made very quickly.
The design works are performed on vectorial basemaps received from the investor, which guarantees their correctness and uptodate nature.
Making the design “in computer” (of course, assuming the design to be made correctly) provides enormous possibilities to edit the design, to make corrections
immediately, to make precise measurements both on plane and in space, to read ordinates to any accuracy and also, in case of the design performed in 3D, to read
altitude ordinate “Z” of selected point in any place.
Such an accuracy was necessary, among others, in case of the design “Szczerców Field. Updating of mining technology with the aim of introducing ECS complex
III”, where requirements regarding degree of the minuteness of detail were placed at a very high level. Scale of “drawing” imposed high accuracy on the designer.
Finally, more than ten phases were obtained to open up benches I, II & III, these phases being a result of tens of fiton and trials. These trials were performed by
planning the successive phases having as backing documents (another layer in program) the preceeding phase, contourfinal outline open pit, and basemap as well.
While designing “The updating of technoeconomic report…” all above mentioned advantages of computeraided design were put to good account. The designed
contour of longterm slopes, map of technological bottom, map of land surface were used as basal documents. As initial statuses of mining operations, the statuses from
earlier design “The updating of ECS I…” were adopted. Since the above designs were made with use of computeraided techniques and were stored on the hard disk
and
Figure 5. “Szczerców Field. Updating of mining technology with the aim of introducing ECS complex III”. Phase X (spatial layout).
CD it was none too difficult to achieve access to the above files and to make use of them.
Based on the timeschedules of heavy machinery operation, maps of working benches on particular levels and their models were created for purposes of calculation.
Afterwards, face advances on levels were determined and after having drawn them, the volume of the entire body of excavation as a whole and on particular levels
was precisely calculated. Drawing the successive statuses was considerably facilitated owing to the possibility to superimpose particular “drawings” one on the other, to
create out of them or their copies the copies or quite new “drawings” as a basis for further calculation. Some elements of “drawing” required to be very precisely
polished up, these elements being, for example, platforms of haulage ramps, delimitation of Mesozoic bedrock formations, entrance ramps for heavy machinery and
communication ramps. These elements were polished up on the adequate enlargements.
While designing, many working sections through the longterm slopes of open pit were made facilitating a proper outlook on some problems, e.g. slope stability. The
Microstation program is capable of quick creating any sections in any places.
The threedimensionless of “drawing” allowed to see the design or designed elements of open pit from any side and at any angle, which facilitated, among others, to
imagine the element and also, to avoid errors, if any (of importance for making calculation) or shortcomings of the design.
Taking mining operations as of 31.12.2002 as a basis, visualization of the design was also made in form of 700frame film of more than ten seconds where both
open pit site, internal dumping area and external dumping area was shown from bird’seye view.
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Figure 6. “Technoeconomic feasibility report for Tomistawice Open Pit”. Portion of conveying lines for lignite and overburden.
1.2 Small project—Tomislawice Open Pit—one of future operations in konin basic
The area covered by the designed future excavation site at Tomisławice Open Pit is approx. 8.5 km long and 2.4 km wide to a maximum. In the design “Techno
economic feasibility report for Tomisławice Open Pit”, there is made more precise about layout of open pit slopes with reference to the used dissection into benches,
adopted haulage options (haulage slopes, haulage ramps) and lignite deposit bedding. Also, there is made more precise about the option of lignite transportation by
railway from Tomislawice Open Pit along some 13.2 km long route to the loading station of Lubstów Open Pit and also, in the initial phase, option of overburden
transportation by belt conveyor system to the internal dumping area of Lubstów Open Pit. As while designing Bełchatów Field with use of traditional design methods,
the embracing such a wide area in one drawing would result in the obliteration or even disappearance of details, or impossibility of socalled wider outlook on the
problem as a whole. Planning and designing with use of computeraided techniques looks differently.
By way of example, the detailed delimitation of Tomisławice Open Pit and also, layout and details of haulage routes can be presented. While designing both the
deposit dissection and details of haulage routes the same drawing was used with nothing but any enlargements and any “views” on facilities or elements.
The excavation site along with options for slopes: eastern and western (haulage) ones, northern and southern one, and technological bottom at open pit as well,
designed in 3D creates model for calculation of the volume of mass incorporated in its body.
Just as in case of “big” project, “drawings” of face advances for any statuses are created basing on the above contour of slopes and earlier adopted criteria
Figure 7. “Technoeconomic feasibility report for Tomislawice Open Pit”. Excavation site.
Figure 8. “Technoeconomic feasibility report for Tomislawice Open Pit”. Mining operations as of 2018.
(timeschedule) of heavy machinery operation. By creating models of particular benches (layers) based on the contour lines obtained in the designing process and
located on the successive working benches, quick calculation and adequate corrections are made.
As while designing a “big open pit” first approximation of that whether fuel requirements of Power Plant can be met is obtained after the geologists have estimated
lignite volumes in working benches considering adopted face advances (in selected years, e.g. every one year in the initial phase of exploitation, every five years in the
next phase, every ten years in the final phase of exploitation).
One can say that the “procedures” in the designing process are independent of the Investor or open pit size. On the other hand, degree of complication (4 benches at
open pit, 2 dump layers in case of Tomisławice Open Pit and 30 benches and cuts at open pit and 15 dump layers and sublayers on spoil disposal sites of Szczerców
Field in Bełchatów Open Pit) depicts the difficulties with planning and designing and also, range of problems faced in both cases.
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All the facilitations mentioned in the paper have been achieved thanks to the use of computeraided techniques, mostly the Microstation program and its applications.
The subsequent latest versions of computer programs (e.g. Microstation V8) show new possibilities for designers, among others, mining engineers. These are
professional programs for engineering modelling, which ensure to achieve a new level of productivity owing to the integration of modelling with engineering applications
and software for management purposes, which are to help in working together on the engineering projects on a large scale in Internet or company’s internal networks.
It provides support all the time when products and assets exist, from the feasibility study to construction and application. Also, the designers have, and will still have in
the future, more influence on the creation of programs themselves by producing demand for specific products.
Page 13
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Graph algorithms in a mining CAD system
Jianhong Chen & Jianxiong Li
Central South University, ChangSha, Hunan, China
Tad S.Golosinski
University of MissouriRolla, Rolla, Missouri, USA
ABSTRACT: Efficient CAD system for mining applications requires use of unique graph algorithms. This paper reviews several related problems and
defines the basic characteristics of graph geometry. The authors present the method of definition of vector intersections and vector eigenvalues, and
discuss their function in mining graph operation. Furthermore, relations between a point and a polygon, as well as between a polygon and a polygon
are discussed. The algorithm for polygon and borderline parallel push out or pull in is defined. This algorithm includes a general purpose polygon
intersection utility. Finally, several examples of polygon graph operation is presented as applied to mining applications.
1 INTRODUCTION
Unique to mining application a CAD system needs to be able to handle a variety of curvilinear mine features such as drifts, interfaces between ore and waste rock, pit
limits, haulage roads, and the like. All of these features are represented by a large number of polylines or polygons, with relevant coordinates assigned to each.
Sometimes the number of polygons exceeds several thousand. Therefore, reducing polygon count without a corresponding reduction in object detail is important for
achieving acceptable frame refreshment rates in scientific visualization. Reduction of polygon count allows for reduction of mass storage requirements and facilitates fast
transmission of large multistep geometric data sets.
Optimization of graph algorithm operation is the key to development of efficient mining CAD software; a well designed algorithm can greatly increase the efficiency of
the software and reduce complexity of programming. A number of serious operational problems is associated with use of conventional graph algorithms (Lathan, 1996
and Tad, 2000). These relate to the way of implementing polygon or vector intersectionpoint parallel push out or pull, and attract much attention (Liu, 2000).
Algorithms for polygon or vector intersectionpoint parallel push out, or pull in, need to be used in such mining CAD applications as the delineation and merging of
mining sections, waste disposal site planning, open pit planning, and the like. Unfortunately, such algorithms are not a part of the standard versions of AutoCAD
software.
2 GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MINING GRAPHS
Mining graphs, unlike those used in architectural design or in mechanical engineering, usually posses geometric meaning and have accurate geodesy coordinates
associated with them. It follows that mining graphs are characterized by orientations and are associated with geometric meanings such as area or volume.
In a mining CAD system that is based on line and frame scheme, boundaries or borderlines which are the dividing lines of adjacent domains are usually used to
describe the domains or the entities. The borderlines belong to two adjacent domains at the same time in sense of geometry, what creates ambiguity that makes correct
CAD system operation impossible. Elimination of this ambiguity requires introduction of orientations of graph elements. Vector graphs are often used instead of
boundary graphs, which include straight lines, polygons, arcs and their combinations. The following part of the paper discusses these vector graphs as well as their
orientation.
In analytical geometry the expression of plane curves f(x,y)=0 divide the infinite plane into the
Page 14
following three domains:
G0={(x,y)|f(x,y)=0}
G+={(x,y)|f(x,y)>0}
G−={(x,y)|f(x,y)<0}
If a graph consists of closed geometric sections, the above expressions can be used to determine whether a given point of the plane is inside or outside of the enclosed
sections. In case if there is no closed path involved, the above expressions can be used to determine whether certain points in the plane are positioned to the left or to
the right of the curve path. This relationship can be extended to 3D system to determine the spatial position of entities. In righthand Cartesian coordinate system
following geometric characteristics exist:
2.1 Orientation and domains of straight lines
A straight line on a plane can be expressed by the following equation:
ax+by+c=0 and a2+b2=1
Orientation and domains of straight lines are determined as follows: if one walks in the direction of line orientation, the domain on the left hand side is positive. This
holds true for all graph operations.
2.2 Orientation and domains of polygons
Orientation of ordered polygons in a plane can be either counterclockwise (left turn) or clockwise (right turn). The domain of a polygon on the left hand side
(counterclockwise) is defined as positive.
2.3 Orientation and domains of arcs
The orientation of an arc corresponds to the location of its radius; it is positive if the arc is formed in counterclockwise fashion.
2.4 Orientation of angles
The angles formed counterclockwise are defined as positive.
2.5 Orientation of distances
On the borderlines (straight lines, arcs and polygons included), orientation of distances is positive if it follows the line orientation; otherwise it is negative. In case of
traversing of any graph element, orientation of distances is positive if traversing occurs towards a positive domain.
2.6 Orientation of areas
Any area formed by tracing the closed path counterclockwise is defined as positive, otherwise it is negative.
3 INTERSECTION OF VECTORS AND THEIR EIGENVALUES
Definition of intersections between vectors and their description is the basis for graph operation. Vector intersection has an ambiguity in geometric sense and the
concept of eigenvalue is used to eliminate this ambiguity. The absolute value of eigenvalue equals one. Due to the fact that product of vectors is nonreversible a pair of
eigenvalues exists for each intersection. The signs of each of the two vectors of the pair are opposite to each other and their algebraic sum equals zero as shown in
Figure 1(a).
Study of the phenomena related to a vector intersecting a closed polygon provides geometric interpretation of eigenvalues. As shown in Figure 1(b), vector P1−P2
intersects a closed polygon L {1, 2, 3, 4} and forms two intersections Sl and S2 with edge vector 41 and 23. It is known that eigenvalues of intersection are +1 and −1
respectively. The vector P1−P2 enters the polygon through intersection S1 and leaves it through intersection S2. That is why S1 is called the inlet and S2 the exit.
Geometric meaning of eigenvalue can now be expressed as follows: if eigenvalue of intersection is +1 the vector has entered the positive domain of the intersected
vector. Conversely if eigenvalue of intersection is −1, the vector has entered the negative domain of the intersected vector. This interpretation provides guidance for
definition of relative positions of the plane points and polygons. There are three methods (sign, angle and semiradial criteria) to
Figure 1(a & b). Intersection of two vectors and eigenvalue of the intersection points.
determine whether a certain point lies inside or outside a known polygon. Refer to the relevant reference (He Y.J., 1992) for the detailed discussion of these methods.
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4 ALGORITHM FOR ALGEBRAIC OPERATION OF POLYGONS
4.1 Types of polygons and their relationships
Any domain in a plane can be defined by one or more polygons. A single connected polygon divides an infinite plane into two domains which are uniquely defined by
their orientations and azimuths. Compound polygons are the result of fusion of simple polygons.
Suppose there are two simple polygons A and B, then their relationship in the same plane can be expressed as follows: A intersects B; A contains B; B contains A;
A is independent of B.
4.2 Algorithmic hierarchy of polygo n operati
Plane graphs are defined by their boundaries; therefore any operation that involves graphs requires manipulation of the boundaries. Intersection of two graphs will
generate a new graph and also form a new boundaries, namely a new polygon. The edges of the new polygon are made of parts of boundaries of original graphs with
the change of boundary taking place at the intersection of original polygons. So finding these intersections leads to the discovery of the boundary that defines the newly
created pol The algorithm that can be used to do this involves the following steps:
(1) Initiation by identification of all the vertices of the different loops and indexing these with sequential numbers, each loop starting at loop 1.
(2) If difference operation is involved, change the orientation of loop 2.
(3) Find all the intersection points on the edge vector between the two loops and insert them back to the original loop.
(4) Merge and delete duplicate points if any are found.
(5) Check the parent relationship of the two loops if segment intersection does not exist, then go to step (13).
(6) Take the first intersection as the initial one.
(7) Link the initial intersection with the new loop and define out the product, sum and difference of polygons. If the eigenvalue of the intersection is positive or negative
mark the intersection appropriately and follow to another loop.
(8) Take the next node on the loop and go to (10) if it is an intersection.
(9) Connect the vertex with the new loop and go to (8).
(10) Go to (11) if it has returned to the initial intersection, otherwise go to (7).
(11) Merge the duplicate adjacent nodes on the new loop and set up a new loop.
(12) Go to (6) if there are more segment intersections;
(13) Process the results completes algorithm execution.
4.3 Algorithmic forms of polygons
The geometric operations on polygons are used when subtraction of different domains in the plane is required. These operations are based on the set theory and are
classified into three types: sum operation, product operation and difference operation. Suppose there are two polygons A and B, their geometric operations can be
expressed in the following forms:
(1) C=A−B, subtraction operation is performed that results in cutting parts of polygon A by polygon B, as shown in Figure 2. b1 and b2.
(2) or C=A∙B, a product operation is performed with only the overlapped parts of the two polygons is left, as shown in Figure 2. c1 and c2.
(3) or C=A+B, addition operation is performed that results in merging the two domains as shown in Figure 2. d1 and d2.
(4) C=B−A, it is the opposite operation of (2) the result of which is cutting off the overlapping polygon parts as shown in Figure 2. e1 and e2.
Figure 2. Operation algorithm of the parallel push.
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It can be seen from Figure 2 that the results of the graph operation are closely related to their orientation. The orientation of polygon and eigenvalue of intersection form
the foundation of algorithm hierarchy, as the orientation determines the relevant domain and eigenvalue of intersection determines the difference between the inlet and
the exit.
Polygon operation plays an important role in such applications as open pit planning, pit generation, advancement of work faces and ore body delineation. It is a basic
algorithm of great utility in any graph manipulation.
4.4 A method of normal line for the parallel algorithm
From the equation of any straight line in a plane:
Ax+By+C=0
(1)
where A=y1−y2; B=x2−x 1; C=Ax1+By1
The distance from any point P(xp ,yp ) in the plane to the line can be expressed as:
(2)
If D>0, then the point P lies on the left side of the line, that is to say it lies in the positive domain. For D=0, the point lies on the line and when D<0 the point P lies on
the right side of the line, that is to say it lies in the negative domain.
Dividing both sides of equation (1) by , the equation of its normal line can be expressed as:
ax+by+c=0
(3)
where:
(4)
In this case, a and b contains obvious geometric meanings:
a=−sinα, b=cosα
(5)
where α is the angle between the line orientation and x axis and c is the distance from the origin to the line.
4.5 Algorithm of borderline parallel push
The first step in the parallel push algorithm is to generate the parallel lines by subtracting the distance d from the parameter C in equation (3), which is a simple
operation:
ax+by−d=0
(6)
If d>0, the parallel lines are generated in the positive domain of the polygon, otherwise they are generated in the negative domain of the polygon.
4.6 Modified algorithm of vector intersection
For any two adjacent edges [Pi, Pi+1] and [Pi+2, Pi+3] in a polygon L={P1, P2, P3,…, Pn }, the intersection of their parallel lines can be obtained by the following
equations:
(7)
where a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2 are calculated from equation (6). The intersection defined by Equation (7) is the (i+1) vertex of the new polygon. The new polygon, which
has been formed by the algorithm of borderline push, is obtained by connecting each new vertex sequentially.
In the case of a polyline, the algorithm of borderline push can only locate n−2 vertices, therefore missing the start and end points. This problem can be overcome
by drawing lines that are perpendicular to relative edge and originate at the start and the end points, and intersect the perpendicular lines at +d or −d respectively. The
intersection points are the desirable start and end points.
Only general situations have been discussed so far. Following the 8form polygons will be generated and operation of the parallel push algorithm illustrated. If the
need to process such twisted polygons exists the following approach needs to be taken.
For the polygon with intersection between the nonadjacent edges, mark its eigenvalue. If the following condition is satisfied:
Area*Attr*d>0
(8)
where:
Area is the area of the original polygon (positive or negative)
Attr is the eigenvalue of the intersection to be found (positive or negative), and
d is the distance generated in the translation of polygon (positive or negative).
Then all the vertices of the polygon around the intersection can be deleted. Thus the 8form polygon is deleted entirely. Two applications of the algorithm of
borderline push are shown in Figure 3.
Operation algorithm by borderline parallel push.
The steps involved in the algorithm of borderline parallel push are as follows:
(1) Delete duplicate points in the polygon to avoid singularity of algorithm (an important step).
(2) Define the equations of normal lines and polygon vectors, and move the vectors for a distance of d.
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Figure 3. Types of operation algorithm for polygon parallel push.
(3) Identify the intersection points of the adjacent edge vectors after moving.
(4) Connect the intersection points sequentially to form the new polygon.
(5) If the original polygon is not the closed one, then process its start and end points.
(6) Check whether there is intersection among the adjacent edges of the new polygon (starting from the first point). If the answer is negative, then go to (8).
(7) Delete 8form polygon.
(8) End of the algorithm.
5 ALGORITHM APPLICATIONS
The geometry optimization algorithm can significantly reduce the amount of basic geometric information required to faithfully reproduce an object. This method has been
used successfully on many scientific applications with results presented for the representative applications. The results indicate that the algorithms described in this paper
works best when optimizing areas of gradually changing orientation.
In the development process of MCAD (Chen J.H., 2001), more than ten frequently used graph algorithms have been successfully defined through countless tests and
modifications, including borderline parallel push out and pull in, algebra operation on polygons, automatic drawing of visual slope lines and the drawing of polygons
with sharing edge, etc.
The above algorithms greatly improve the efficiency of mining CAD. For example, definition of pit limit using borderline parallel push algorithm is very simple and
fast. Figure 4 and Figure 5 present two case studies in which 3D and 2D open pit limits were formed using polygon parallel push algorithm that is
Figure 4. 3D Open pit limit polygon by MCAD.
Figure 5. 2D Open pit limit polygon by MCAD.
a part of MCAD. Data from Gaocun iron mine in China were used in these examples.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research reported on in this paper was funded by NSFC grant no. 50374072.
REFERENCES
Lathan, R. & Middleditch, A. 1996. Connectivity analysis: a tool for processing geometric constraints. ComputerAidedDesign, 28(11):917–928.
Golosinski, T.S. 2000. Mining in the New Millennium: Challenges and Opportunities. A.A.Balkema: 263–301.
Archibald, N.J. & Powder, W.L. 1997. Geology and ore body delineation using 3D computer modeling, Computers & Geosciences, 15(8):312–319.
Page 18
Liu, X.P. 2000. Study of Engineering Section Algorithm in CAD System, Journal of CAD and Computer Graphics, 2000, 12(11):839–843.
He, Y.J. 1992. Algorithm and Applications of Computer Graphics, Changsha, Hunan Press of Science and Technology: 161–170.
Chen, J.H. & Gu, D.S. 2001, Graph Element Hierarchy of Mining CAD based on Line and Frame Technique, Journal of CSUT, 32(6):559–5
Chen, J.H. & Gu, D.S. 2001, Study of Description Method of Graph Element Attributes in Mining CAD, Metal Mines, 30(8):9–11.
Zhu, J.H. &Gu N.L. 1994, Some Algorithms used in Mining Graphics Software, Journal of Beijing University Of Science and Technohgy, 3:28–32.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Determining underground stope mineability using dynamic block value
assignment approach
B.Ding
Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
C.W.Pelley
Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada
J.J.de Ruiter
Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
ABSTRACT: To define an efficient underground mine development system that leads to a maximum total mine production profit is undoubtedly a big
challenge to the mine planners. At the mine planning stage, a clear knowledge of the deposit and thorough understanding of the cost components
involved in mineral extraction become increasingly critical to determine the extent of mine development and the following mining production. This paper
attempts to present a dynamic block value assignment approach to determine the mineability of a mining stope. A sophisticated iterative 3step block
search process is designed to calculate the profit value of each block, continuously revise the mineable block profile and redistribute the costs to the
remaining blocks. This dynamic block value assignment and mineability examination process excludes all the negatively valued mine stopes, includes all
the profitable blocks in the system, and therefore provides a valid solution to the total mining profit problem.
1 INTRODUCTION
At the early mine planning stages, the production scale is defined based quantitatively on the reserve information, the total tonnage and average grade, by using such
economical optimization techniques as net present value or internal rate of return maximization. The principle of “the best ore taken first” employed in the early planning
stages usually relies on the assumption that every ton of ore is equally accessible regardless of the physical location of the parcels. In reality, however, part of the “best
ore” might not be economically accessible due either to the high development cost or remoteness from the main zone. Contrarily, some of the lowgrade material might
have to be removed to ease the mining of the surrounding highgrade materials, or can be economically exploited because of their high accessibility from the available
openings.
At the strategic planning stage, the mine development lay out becomes critical. This necessitates a more detailed analysis of the physical characteristics of the deposit,
such as the location and the shape of the orebody, to determine the extent to which it is exploited, and the sequence by which the deposit is developed to meet the
production requirement. Modifications on the previously determined production level and production rate might also be needed according to the change of the mineable
reserve.
This paper provides an approach to provide insight into the orebody characteristics, such as the physical location of deferent parcels and the grade distribution. By
incorporating a profitability analysis of recovering each unit of the orebody, the major objective of this paper is to develop a methodology, similar to the “floating cone”
technique applied to openpit mining, to examine the mineability of deferent units of the deposit, and further define a practical development system that reasonably
maximizes the total profit.
It is assumed that up to this planning stage, a valid block model has been available and the production rate and level have been determined at earlier planning stages;
A feasible mine development system has been also suggested by the engineering design group according to the orebody location and geometric features.
Page 20
2 PROFIT MAXIMIZATION PROBLEM
Efforts have been made over the past decades to apply a mathematical approach to maximizing the total profit or net present value of a mining project (refer to Carlisle,
D. 1954, Gentry, M.T. & O’Neil, T.J. 1984, Lane, K.F. 1988, Von Wahl, S. 1983, Gordon, Richard, L. 1985). Due to the complex interrelationships and inter
dependence of the associated factors affecting the project economics, mathematical relationships are either overly complicated yet present unconvincing results, or over
simplified by adopting numerous assumptions that lead to wrong “optimal” solutions. Seeking traditional mathematical approaches to solve the economical optimization
problem of the mining industry is thus neither realistic nor necessary. This is determined by the unique features of the mining operation, such as low similarity from mine
to mine, high uncertainty of the factors and progressive availability of orebody information as well as exhaustibility of the orebody over a relatively long period (Pareja,
L.D. & Pelley, C.W. 1995).
Ideally, the total profit of a mine development project is maximized, given the orebody information and production capacity as well as mine development system, only
when two conditions are met: (a) any stope to be developed will contribute nonnegative profit, and (b) all the stopes that may generate a positive value shall be
developed and recovered. This profit maximization problem can be expressed in the form of an illustrative mathematical equation,
where,
TP—total profit of development
Vn —prospective value of recovering a mining block, a parameter determined by many different parameters such as the grade of the block, metal price and the costs
required to access, remove and treat this block
n—total number of the mining blocks to be mined.
To avoid any confusion, it is necessary to state that in this paper there will be no effort made to seek a mathematical solution to this optimization problem, but rather
a modified “rule of thumb” or “trial and error” approach will be employed as described in the following sections.
3
METHODOLOGY3
The procedure for solving the total development profit maximization problem starts from the definition of the mining blocks including their parameters such as size,
quality and location, etc. A computer program is designed to search for all the mining blocks, pick up their parameters, assign the price and cost data and further
estimate the profit value of each of the blocks. Finally the calculated profit value of each mining block is examined to determine whether or not a block shall be
developed. The negatively valued mining block shall be removed from the “mineable reserve” profile. If there are any mining blocks being removed, this procedure
needs to start all over again based on the modified collection of mining blocks and the “shared costs” are recalculated and redistributed amongst the remaining blocks.
Such an iterative process continues until there is no further change in the number of mining blocks in the system. The end result of this process is all the potentially
profitable reserves are kept in the system, and all the mining blocks that might diminish the potential total profit of the operation are excluded from the development
system.
The principle to solve this total profit maximization problem is somehow similar to the floatingcone method adopted for the final limit optimization of an openpit,
which excludes any negatively valued blocks after incorporating a consideration of the minimum space required by mining activities. An obvious difference, however,
can be observed between these two techniques. The floatingcone approach is to determine whether or not a block should be removed based not only on the value of
the block itself, but also on the values of the unmined block(s) which have to be removed to liberate this block. In an underground mining operation, the development is
mining level based. This provides high selectivity and makes the blocks relatively independent from each other. Therefore, the development extent optimization process
in underground mining cases looks more into each individual mining block on each mining level, although some of the development costs might be “shared” by some or
all the mining blocks.
4 MINING BLOCK MODEL
Underground mining activities are usually conducted in stopes, or “mining blocks” as it is termed in this paper, on different levels. Because the accessibility and quality
of the blocks may vary throughout the orebody, the precision of the orebody information needs to be high enough to determine an efficient underground development
excavation layout. Such orebody information can be provided by valid block modeling, here the term “modeling block” is used to make it distinct from mining block.
In case of flat bedding or gently dipping deposits, such as coal seams, nonmetal and some of the metallic deposits, the orebody often has a wide horizontal
Page 21
extent. The horizontal development layout thus prevails over vertical as only one or very limited mining levels will suffice for orebody access. This type of development
is relatively simple and therefore not discussed in this paper. Emphasis of this paper focuses on multiplelevel development cases.
If the orebody is steeply dipping, in conventional practice the mining block height (level height) and width are usually defined to be fixed throughout the whole
orebody according to the mining methods selected. The thickness is, however, allowed to vary with the thickness of the orebody. The ore quality is often assumed to
be homogenous within the mining block. If the mining block size is set too large or the grade of the ore is rather variable, however, the homogeneity assumption may
result in serious errors in estimating the value of a block, especially if precious metal extraction project is concerned. In cases where highly selective and expensive
mining methods such as cutandfill are adopted, differentiating the quality of the materials in mining blocks may be essential to achieve a more accurate profitability
estimation. If the modeling block provides sufficient resolution of ore quality details, the division of the mining block into selective mining units (SMU) is recommended
to handle the grade viability problem and the subblock might be introduced to allow for resizing of the mining block if part of the block proves to be unexploitable.
Figure 1 illustrates the concepts of mining block model and SMU, subblock division.
In cases where an SMU model is introduced, an initial cutoff grade defined on a basic production cost benefit analysis should be used to determine the mineability of
the SMUs. A subblock is defined to the smallest workable portion of the mining block that can be facilitated with the development system if all the other portions of
the block are not mineable. A subblock should contain at least one mineable SMU. The mineability of a subblock should be judged by its payability of the basic
block development and production costs. The group of subblocks is in turn examined as a integrated mining block for its mineability by adding other cost items to it.
Figure 1. Mining block, subblock, SMU.
Whether a mining block is to be recovered or left is determined solely on its prospective profit contribution to the overall mining operation. It of course relies on the
value of the minerals contained in the block and the total cost of winning the minerals. The cost, as it is strongly related to the location of the block in the orebody as
well as its surrounding mining blocks (Ding, B. 2001), is a more sophisticated factor in the mineability examination process.
5 THE COST TERMINOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION
Talking about the cost of mining a block from the deposit, two facts should be acknowledged: a) the deeper the block is located from the surface, or the farther the
block is located from the hoisting point the higher the cost to mine it; b) the unit costs of extracting isolated blocks can be very high.
These two facts specify a need for inspecting the profitability of the mining blocks individually. The positive value is simply the prospective revenue of a block. The
cost to exploit a block, however, can be different from one block to another. Some of the cost components such as the mining operating costs and block development
costs, may directly relate to the block itself, whereas some of the components, the capital costs for shaft and ramp, main drift excavation and installation for the
instance, might indirectly relate to the blocks and therefore need to be distributed to (or shared by) several or all the blocks. The way these capital costs are distributed
to the blocks may critically affect the mineability of a block. In order to provide a more understandable approach to the cost assignment to the blocks, different cost
terms are adopted in this paper.
Block operating costs (BOC) including both fixed and variable operating costs that are directly related to exploit the block alone. The variable costs are typically
rock breakage, loading, hauling and hoisting, crushing and milling. Variable costs are usually expressed in terms of dollars per ton. Fixed costs might cover general
expenses, surface plant and services, staff and administration costs, and interest. Fixed costs are often given in dollars per annum.
Block development capital costs (BDCC) refer to the capital costs of excavation and installation of the main drift section covering the mining block, the crosscuts
or accesses, the raises located in this block, and other structures required by the specific mining method, such as undercut, drilling accesses, etc.
Shared Development capital costs (SDCC) allude to the capital costs for creating sufficient access to the blocks, remembering that some of the development
excavations serve only for the blocks on specific mining levels whereas the others serve for all the
Page 22
levels. It is necessary to differentiate the shared capital costs from level shared capital costs (LSCC) to block shared capital costs (BSCC). LSCC specifies the cost for
excavation and/or installation of all those facilities, structures and accesses that serve for all the mining levels during the whole mine lifetime, for instances, shafts, main
ramps and main ore passes. LSCC is averaged to each tonne of ore outlined on each level. BSCC indicates the cost of excavation and/or installation of the facilities,
structures, and accesses placed on a specific level and will serve all the mining blocks on that specific level until it is mined out, the drift sections from shafts to the
orebodies, for example.
General depreciable capital costs (GDCC)1 refer to the capital expenditures on equipment, structures and installations that are depreciable and should be evenly
distributed to each ton of ore mined. GDCC usually contains the capital needed for:
• both underground and surface mining and milling equipment purchase;
• shaft ancillary excavation and installation (e.g., shaft stations, loading pockets, lip pockets, spill handling, shaft bottom construction);
• hoisting systems (typically, headframes and bins, hoists and hoistroom, headframe and collarhouse, conveyances, etc.);
• ventilation, mine air heating and mine compressor plant (such as primary ventilation fans, mine air heater, mine compressor plant) and;
• underground installation (main sumps and pump stations, rockbreaker and grizzly, ore pass controls, underground electrical room/load center, miscellaneous
installations).
Among the abovespecified cost categories, the BOC and BDCC of one block are independent of the other blocks, although the values may vary from one block to
another depending on the block dimensions and the location of the block in the orebody. The shared capital costs, however, are strongly related to the mineability of
the other blocks in the orebody. For example, the level shared capital costs will depend on how many mineable levels exist. Should any of the mining level turns out to
be unmineable, the cost share of this level is transferred to the levels below resulting in an increased level shared costs of the subsequent levels.
Figure 2. 3step of block search process.
6 THE 3STEP BLOCK SEARCH PROCESS
The mineability examination is implemented by a 3step block search process (Figure 2). Each step uses a specific approach to search for the mining blocks in the
orebody, calculate and assign the positive value (the prospective revenue) and negative values (all the applicable cost items) to the blocks (Ding, B. 2001).
In this 3step block search process, the computer program searches the mining blocks from bottom up vertically and sides out horizontally (Figure 3), and checks
and records the parameters and attributes of each block in the system. The first step is to screen out those obviously unmineable blocks by comparing their potential
revenues with the assigned basic cost components. The remaining blocks are brought to the second step in which they are assigned the
1
These cost items are organized on the basis of the book Underground Metal Mining—Estimating Preproduction and Operating Costs of Small Underground Deposits (J.S. Redpath
Limited 1986) and based on O’Hara’s work (O’Hara, T.A. 1980).
Page 23
Figure 3. Illustration of block search directions.
shared capital costs according to their location, and examined if they are profitable if exploited. Notably, the group of mining blocks rejected in the second step as they
are assigned the shared capital costs, should not be considered unmineable without further examination. Some of them may be easily accessed from the existing
openings, and hence they might be exploited at a profit if they are exempted from all or part of the shared capital costs. A third step of this block search process is,
therefore, set up to check out this group of blocks and reestimate their mineability.
6.1 Initial block screen
The initial block screen is quite straightforward. In this step, the computer program calculates and assigns the revenue and basic cost components, the operating costs
and block development costs (except drift excavation costs) of all the mining blocks under investigation, and calculates the instope profit value and determines whether
or not each block has mineability potential. Low grade blocks are rejected from this screening process.
6.2 Primary block search
The remaining blocks from the initial block screen step are examined in this iterative primary block search process for their mineability by taking into account the
location factors to ensure only those positively valued blocks are accepted. The profit value of each block is calculated based on the block value assigned in the initial
screen process and the added shared capital cost components (negative value). As discussed previously, the shared capital costs may vary from one block to another
according to where the block is sitting in the orebody.
The block search process starts from distributing all the shared cost components over the remaining mining blocks in the way specified previously, and checking the
value of the blocks to determine if any of the blocks are negatively valued and thus rejected. Should the number of blocks on a specific mining level change, or any
blank mining level be detected, the BSCC should be redistributed to the remaining blocks after that iteration and the share of the blank level carried LSCC should be
allotted to the levels below. Any block number change will trigger a new iteration of block search, in which the values of the remaining blocks are dynamically adjusted
based on the reestimated added cost value of each block from those missing blocks. Those blocks that are rejected from this primary search process are recorded as
marginal blocks for the next step of block search.
6.3 Marginal block search
The last step of this block search process is to reexamine the value of the marginal blocks that are rejected during primary block search process. Because these group
of blocks usually have a relatively low grade at which the blocks can’t pay all the shared capital costs, but if any of the blocks are highly accessible, the expensive stope
access cost might be saved in part or in full, which turns some of the marginal blocks back to a mineable profile. Neglecting the contribution from this group of blocks
will not obviously lead to an incorrect solution to the total profit maximization problem.
Page 24
Whether or not a marginal block is mineable depends on if its potential revenue will cover the basic block development (stoping) costs, operating costs of the block
and such necessary development capital costs as for extending the drifts, or crosscuts, etc to the block. If the gain justifies the total necessary costs to exploit a marginal
block, then it is added back to the mineable profile.
7 SHARED COST ASSIGNMENT
In the whole block search process, the first step is easy to understand, and the third step is simply to reverify if the value of a marginal block calculated in the first step
is sufficient to pay the unsaveable development costs for accessing this block from the available openings if any. Shared cost assignment is at the primary block search
stage, in which an iterative cost assignment and value examination process is carried out. The iteration stops when no change of the number of blocks is detected
implying all the blocks remaining are positively valued.
As discussed previously, the shared capital costs are classified as the general depreciable capital costs (GDCC) and shared development capital costs (SDCC,
including LSCC and BSCC). The initial shared costs assignment is to:
– average total GDCC over each tonne of material to be mined and processed, and assign the share to the blocks according to tonnage they hold;
– calculate the capital costs for shared horizontal development, the BSCC components, and average BSCC to all the blocks on a specific level;
– compute the capital costs for the shared vertical development, LSCC components, and average the LSCC over all the mining level, which is in turn distributed evenly
to each tonne of material to be mined on the level.
As the mineable tonnage is reduced due to some unmineable blocks identified in the examination process, these 3 different shared capital costs need to be re
distributed in different ways.
A hypothetical mining block model is presented in Figure 3, which contains a zone on each side of the main shaft. Each zone has 8 different mining levels which are
divided into 14 blocks. For illustration of the process of BSCC and LSCC redistribution, let’s assume that all these blocks remained after the initial screen step, and
take only Zone I for the example.
After being assigned the initial GDCC, LSCC and BSCC and the value of the blocks calculated, the mineability of blocks is depicted in Figure 4 (the deeper the
color, the lower the mineability). The different block values are shown in Figure 4(a). Then, after mineability examination, the negatively valued
Figure 4. Illustration of the changes of the block and level mineability in block search process.
blocks are screened out from almost all the levels (Figure 4(b)), and thus the remaining blocks will share the released shared costs of those missing ones. GDCC
redistribution is relatively simpler, which can be simply averaged to a new tonnage of mineable profile, but BSCC and LSCC redistribution might need some further
analysis.
7.1 Redistribution of BSC
Figure 5 illustrates how BSCC is redistributed amongst the remaining blocks as some of the 14 blocks are removed, Those that are numbered “B” refer to blank
blocks which have been screened out, and those with digital numbers are then remaining blocks. The principle of the cost redistribution is based on whether or not one
block needs to be accessed from the marginal blocks.
The 14 blocks share the total excavation cost of the main drift and shaft crosscuts that connect the zone to
Page 25
Figure 5. Illustration of the block shared level development excavation.
the main shaft, BSCCbasic. Therefore the basic block shared capital cost of block i is:
BSbasic(i)=BSCCbasic/14
Besides that, each block should also pay the horizontal excavations that go through the block (e.g., the drift driven along the block), denoted as BSblock(i). As block
B1 is out, it is no longer able to carry the share of BSCCbasic, therefore, the BSbasic assigned to this block will be transferred to all the other blocks on the level. It’s
BSblock, however, will be transferred only to those blocks that need to get access from it. The redistributed BSCC of each block on the level is thus:
Blocks 1 and 2:
BSi=BSBasic(i)+BSblock(i)+BSbasic(B1)/(14−1)
=BSCCbasic/13+BSblock(i)
Blocks B2 to 9:
BS(i)=BSCCbasic/13+BSblock(i)+BSblock(B1)/11
Denote the summation of BSblock(i) and the cumulated share of the BSblock of the missing blocks transferred to this block as BSadded, the above equation can be
rewritten as:
BSi=BSCCbasic/13+BSadded (i)
In the next iteration, if any of the blocks is screened out, then the BSadded should be averaged to the blocks behind it. When B2 is out, the redistributed share of the
remaining blocks will be:
Blocks 1 and 2:
BSi=BSbasic(i)+BSblock(i)+BSbasic(B2)/(13−1)
=BSCCbasic/12+BSblock(i)
Blocks B2 to 9:
BSi=BSCCbasic/12+ BSadded(i)+BSadded(B2)/10
If a zone contains I blocks, and block j is screened out, then a general expression of the redistributed BSCC of block i on the level can be formulated as:
7.2 Redistribution of LSC
Similar to the BSCC redistribution, the vertical excavation and installation capital costs are shared by all the levels based on how they obtain the access. LSCC can
also be classified into basic share (the capital costs on common sections of the vertical excavations from the surface to the first level), LCSSbasic, which are shared by
all the levels, and cumulated LSCC, the costs on the vertical access the lower levels might need to extend from the upper levels, LSadded. If all the levels are
continuously mineable, then the LSadded of level n is simply the expenditure on the vertical development going through this level. If any of the level turns out to be
undevelopable, the LSadded of the missing level should be evenly shared by all the levels below it.
If there are N levels developed into the zone, among which level m is found not to be mineable during the level search process. The level shared capital costs are
therefore redistributed to the other levels in a similar way to the BSCC redistribution. The revised share of LSCC of level n can be expressed as:
7.3 Multiple zone case
The above illustration is based on a single zone deposit. In many mining cases, the deposit contains several zones or separate orebodies. Such cases may still be treated
as a single zone which may contain several continuously located blank blocks if the zones are horizontally separated (Figure 6) or several blank levels if the zones are
vertically separated (Figure 7).
Page 26
Figure 6. Horizontally separated zones treated as a single zone for block search.
Figure 7. Vertically separated zones treated as single zone for block search.
8 CONCLUSION
This paper demonstrates an dynamic block value assignment and block mineability examination approach to maximizing the total development profit. This method is
applied, by studying the features and physical grade distribution of the orebody, to optimize the underground development layout based on a mineability study of the
mining blocks.
Based on the orebody information and the production decisions (mining and development methods and production scale), the mining block model can be
constructed for stope mineability examination, Depending on the mining methods selected and the orebody features, the mining block model are usually built up either
by using an SMU and subblock system or directly from the modeling blocks applied for ore reserve estimation.
A 3step mining block search approach is introduced in the paper, which is the key process for block value calculation and assignment, and further block mineability
examination. The fundamental objectives of this process are to prevent those unprofitable (negatively valued) mining blocks from being developed if these blocks are
not readily accessible and to ensure all the mineable blocks are accessed, so as to leads to a reasonable solution to the total project profit maximization problem.
REFERENCE
Carlisle, D. 1954. The economics of a Fund Resource With Particular Reference to Mining, The American Economic Review, vol. XLIV, 1954: pp595–616.
Gentry, M.T. & O’Neil, T.J. 1984. Mine Investment Analysis, Society of Mining Engineers.
Gordon, Richard L. 1985. The Production of Mineral Commodities. Economics of the Mineral Industry (A Series of Articles by Specialists), 4th edition. AIME: pp99–
160.
Ding, B. 2001. Examining the Planning Stages in Underground Metal Mines. Ph.D. Thesis. Mining Dept, Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada.
J.S.Redpath Limited. 1986. Underground Metal Mining—Estimating Preproduction and Operating Costs of Small Underground Deposits. CANMET, Canadian
Government Publishing Centre.
Lane, K.F. 1988. Economic Definition of Ore—Cutoff Grades in Theory and Practice. Mining Journal Books.
O’Hara, T.A. 1980. Quick Guides To The Evaluation Of Orebodies. CIM Bulletin, February 1980: pp87–99.
Pareja, L.D. & Pelley, C.W. 1995. Underground HardRock Mining Strategy Development. Mine Planning And Equipment Selection 1995. Singhal et al (eds):
pp193–198. Rotterdam.
Von Wahl, S. 1983. Investment Appraisal and Economic Evaluation of Mining Enterprise. Trans Tech Publications. ClausthalZellerfeld, Federal Republic of
Germany.
Page 27
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Designing and planning of mining operations development at open cast on the
basis of integration of optimization methods and nonformal procedures of
decisionmaking
U.A.Dzharlkaganov & D.G.Bukeikhanov
National Centre of the Republic of Kazakhstan Complex Processing of Mineral Raw Materials RSE,
Almaty, the Republic of Kazakhstan
M.Zh.Zhanasov
NOVA—Trading & Commerce AG, Almaty, the Republic of Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: In the paper system is presented of automated forming of perspective and current plans of mining operations development when open
mining of complexstructural multicomponents ironore and polymetallic deposits. It includes two programmingfunctional complexes (modules):
optimizing and interactive.
1 INTRODUCTION
Industrial and economicfinancia l activi ty of min and miningandprocessing enterprises in many respects depends on quality of planning and control of mining
operations. When planning of mining operations volumes of winning of useful minerals and overburden are determined with due account of their qualitative
characteristics by withinyear and annual longterm periods. And problems are solved of freighttransport connection of working levels with points of receipt of open
cast’s ore and rock flows.
Construction of programmingfunctional complex of perspective and current planning of mining operations development allows solving a problem of planning in
automated regime.
2 GETTING STARTED
In open casts with hard mininggeological conditions mining operations are carrying out, as a rule, by all front of operations, moving from central part of an openpit
field to their boundaries. A problem of optimization of annual plan of mining operations is in determination of volumes of ore mining and removing overburden at
different districts and benches of an open cast, which ensure carrying out of required volumes and qualitative characteristics of production with minimum costs.
When simulating, openpit field is divided in plan into contours of mining. For determination of optimal area of location of contours of mining in module 1, method of
integervalued linear programming is used. As a controlled variable Boolean variable of contour of mining operations x ijk is used, determining fact of entering of this
contour into plan cuttings by massif. And x ijk=1, if contour was included in this plan of mining operations, in otherwise x ijk=0.
Goal function of solving a problem of annual planning of mining operations is determined by the expressions:
(1)
where Sijk—annual costs on mining and processing of ore by kth variant of contour of mining operations in jth sector of ith level, USD; uij, si, Ng —correspondingly
number of variants of contours of mining operations in a sector, number of sectors and working benches (levels) in an open cast for a planned period.
(2)
where —changing part of cost of stripping operations with cost on reloading and transportation,
Page 28
USD/m3; —ore reserves in kth contour of mining jth sector ith level, m3; γor—ore density, t/m3; Qijk—reserves of rock mass in kth contour of mining jth sector
ith level, m3.
Into model restrictions are entered, proceeding from technological requirements and safety rules of mining operations. They are: necessity of fulfillment of planned
output of an open cast by ore; following of limits of deviations calculated stripping ratio from taken by design or perspective plan of values. Content of the main
component in commercial ore must be also in given limits. In every planned period constant standard volumes of opened up and prepared ore reserves must be
ensured. When using of temporary out of operating pit wall in an open cast, by separate sectors condition of limiting moving of mining operations is entered into the
model. Every contour of winning may be included into variant of mining only after including into plan all preceding contours by direction of front of bench moving and so
on (Dzharlkaganov U.A, Bukeikhanov D.G. and the others. 2003).
Experience of using of this model of subsystem of perspective and current planning of development of mining operations in CADOpen cast at some miningand
processing enterprises of Kazakhstan showed, that by virtue of steptype behaviour of a problem and presence of many nonformalized up to the end connections in
miningtransport system at an open cast these contours will be not ready else to adoption of final solutions when planning. That is why the second module was entered
into the subsystem, operating of which is based on evaluation of received contours of mining operations and their finishing in interactive regime. In this case criterion (1)
is used for making a decision. This module may be used independently for the same problem solving. And as a criterion value of current profit is taken.
New variants of contours of winning in the second module are formed as cuttings of specific volumes of ore and overburden at benches. Besides economic reasons,
technological requirements for carrying out of mining operations effect on choice of place of a cutting on a bench. For example, when choosing a cutting at a bench, we
must not allow undermining a bank, located at above bench.
Logicalanalytic connections and relations between the constructions at adjacent benches on theoreticalmultiple language we may formulated in the following form.
Let denote a point on line of contour of forming cutting on studying level (xt, yt) ( (xτ, yτ) (ρ=1 2, 3,…, rq ) may lie under condition
(3)
(4)
(5)
where bd —width of a base of a descent, m; i—inclination of a descent, part of unit; k fd—degree of
Page 29
Figure 1. Plan of 6 levels of ore zone of Katcharskiy open cast (from −105 m up to −30m).
(6)
(7)
Page 30
Figure 2. Scheme to calculation of ore volume at a descent.
Volume of ore lower a base of a descent is determines as
(8)
3 CONCLUSIONS
– Joint using of two modules with different ideology and principles of operation in one system of computeraided design and planning of mining operations at open casts
allows substantially increasing quality and decreasing duration of decisions making.
– By using of the first module of optimization calculations and constructions of contours of mining operations in package regime we receive the most priority directions
of moving of mining operations by working levels. It allows substantially decreasing time of a search of optimal contours of mining operations up to the end of
planned period.
– The second module is used for taking final decision in interactive regime and allows more adequate taking into account possible complex situations. It may be used in
addition to operations of the first module or as independent apparatus for current and timely planning of mining operations.
– For taking correct decisions it is important to ensure aforenamed subsystems with reliable information about interaction of parameters and indexes of operation of
open cast in different miningtechnical and technological conditions with the help of special recognizing algorithms and formulae.
REFERENCES
Dzharlkaganov U.A, Bukeikhanov D.G., Bekmurzayev B. Zh., Zhanasov M.Zh. 2003. “Imitationoptimizing planning of winning operations at open casts”. Proceedings of
the Copper 2003—Cobre 2003 the 5th inter conference, volume I. Plenary Lectures, Economics and Applications of Copper. Santiago, Chile, 353–367.
Dzharlkaganov U.A. 2003. Determination of volumes of mining operations when cutting of working benches and descents on plan of an open cast. Scientifictechnical
support of mining production. Proceedings of the Kunayev’s Institute of Mining, vol. 66, Almaty, 190–201.
Page 31
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Evaluation of Sungun copper mine design
M.Heidari
Department of Mining Engineering, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
F.Rashidinejad
Department of Mining Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Sciences and Research Campus, Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: Three production profiles proposed in the Feasibility Study has been reviewed. The size of the resource indicated that a larger project
might be economically more attractive but further studies demonstrated that the high production profile could not be carried out. Fixing the throughput
of the concentrator before optimizing the mine design caused the project not to be designed economically. Final mine design has been evaluated in this
paper. Based on the latest data, a cashflow model was developed by using the standard Excel formulate. A sensitivity analysis was carried out to
determine the risks and economic robustness of the project. The results of this study show that the most sensitive factor, as it usual in projects of this
nature is copper price. CAPEX is slightly more influential than OPEX indicating that optimization of both parameters will be necessary to improve the
NPV at copper prices under $2200/t.
1 NICICO’S STRATEGY
Iran possesses very large copper resources and numerous copper porphyries occur in an arcuate belt extending from northwest Iran, southeast into Pakistan. These
deposits are estimated to contain around 5% of the world’s known copper inventory (Parwaresh et al. 2003). Total cathode copper production of Iran is currently
0.153 Mt/y and it has been planned the production reach to 0.280 Mt/y up to early 2006. Sungun Copper Project (SCP) is the most important NICICo’s project.
2 EXPLORATION AND GEOLOGY
Sungun Copper Project has a huge amount of exploration information, which has been assembled into two complementary databases. This geological data has been re
interpreted into two summaries comprising borehole information, rock type, mineralization zone, core recovery and RQD data.
The Sungun coppermolybdenum deposit clearly exhibits many characteristics of other porphyry deposits in the world. Copper and molybdenum grades clearly
increase with depth and the deposit has the benefit of a moderately developed supergene enrichment blanket, containing higher than average copper values.
Molybdenum grades are, however, low and coproduction with copper is not considered to be economically feasible.
Sarcheshmeh, Sungun and a number of subeconomic porphyry deposits are all associated with mid to lateMiocene diorite/granodiorit to quartzmonzonite stocks
(Hezarkhani et al. 1999).
3 OREBODY MODEL
A block model has been constructed the following dimensions, 25 m×25 m×12.5 m. This corresponds to one quarter the average borehole spacing and the planned
bench height. With subblocking this also allows adequate definition of lithologi cal boundaries minimizing volumetric errors.
Leached, Supergene, Hypogene and Skarn zones have been recognized as being significant in regard to grade. Dyke and Soil zones are also recognised both of
which are considered waste. The blocks are encoded with these codes to enable lithological constraints to be applied in the interpolation of grades.
4 RESOURCE ESTIMATION
4.1 Previous resource estimation
Over the planning phase, two resource estimations were carried out for the Sungun deposit by following companies:
• SNC 1992, PreFeasibility Study;
• Itok 1996, Feasibility Study;
Page 32
Table 1. Previous resource estimations.
Table 2. Current resource estimation.
The SNC and Itok studies were based on a total of 29 and 129 boreholes respectively. The estimated resource quantities are as shown in Table 1.
4.2 Current resource estimation
The current resource estimations has been carried out by Olang Mining Service Company (OMSC) and is based upon the same drilling data as the Itok Feasibility
Study, plus an additional 27 boreholes.
The orebody has been classified as an inferred mineral resource as defined by the Joint Ore Reserve Committee (JORC) of the Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy (AusIMM). A further subdivision into A and B has been made due to uncertainties related to the sampling. The resource statement used for mine planning
purposes is the Inferred A resources and is shown in Table 2.
To achieve an internationally acceptable standard it is necessary as a minimum to elevate a portion of the resource base to Probable Ore Reserve and preferably to
Proven Ore Reserve. The normal approach would be to have the first five years or more of production in this category (It should be noted that Iran is a new
environment for most investors and also the depressed state of the market at present). An alternative is to cover the payback period with a Proven Ore Reserve. This
gives the ability of the operation to achieve head grades and recovery during the period when the bulk of repayments will be made.
To improve the recourse estimation a supplementary exploratory operation is already underway.
5 PRODUCTION PROFILES
Production profile and extraction rate are related to each other. In theory, it is possible to calculate an ‘optimum’ rate of extraction from an orebody. To do this,
however, knowledge or precise assumption of the total tonnage and its sequential grades (including
Table 3. Production profiles proposed in the Feasibility Study.
Ore production Prestrip
Alternative Annual production Mt Productive life years Tonnage Mt Duration life years
1 14 25 214 5
2 7 4 150 5
14 23
Total 27
3 4.7 4 40 2
9.4 5
14.1 20
Total 29
the effects of varying the cutoff grade), and of all costs and product prices throughout the project life is required. This information is unavailable for early studies and
may indeed never reach high certainty or even be necessary (Hustrulid 1995).
Taylor studied many actual projects (some operating and others only planned) involving a wide range of orebody sizes, and shapes, for which the total ore reserves
were reasonably well known before major design commenced. His studies conduced to a simple formulation which can be used in planning phase. Based on the
Taylor’s mine life rule, the designed lives are proportional to the forth root of the ore tonnage.
For the Sungun deposit the mine life is ranged from 27 to 40 years.
At the stage of PreFeasibility Study which was carried out by SNC, a 5 Mt/y extraction rate proposed in a 20 year period.
Based on the Feasibility Study and considering the size of the orebody which recognized as the ore reserve at that time, three feasible production profiles originally
proposed that are shown in Table 3.
These profiles conform to the Taylor’s mine life formula.
The size of the resource indicated that a larger project might be economically more attractive, so the first alternative (14 Mt/y) was originally selected as the best
production profile and divided into two phases. A detailed design was made accordingly on the assumption of this alternative. Alternatives 2 and 3 also divided into two
and three phases respectively. The most significant advantages of mine design in more than one phase is:
• Decreasing the preproduction stripping, extracting the high grade ore in the early years of production to increasing the profitability;
Page 33
Table 4. Summarized mine plan (Alternative 1).
Table 5. Summarized mine plan (Alternative 2).
Table 6. Summarized mine plan (Alternative 3).
• Studying the characteristics of the rocks;
• Surveying the mine slope behavior in the first phase (through pushing back of the benches from the first phase to the second phase, the final slope angle could be
modified);
• Possibility of selective mining.
The summarized mine plans are shown in Tables 4 to 6.
No optimization study was carried out for mine design in the planning phase. Further studies demonstrated that the production profile proposed in the first alternative
would not be practical because of the following reasons:
• Huge amount of preproduction stripping;
• High capital investment for mine equipment, construction of processing plant, dams and infrastructure against lack of the adequate finance available;
• The need to a long period for construction phase;
• High risk.
It is evident that the production profiles higher than the 14 Mt/y were not reasonable and could not be practical. This needed to large equipment which could not be
obtained because such equipment those tend to be American, are difficult to purchase in Iran (the American embargo against Iran has been in effect for many years).
Small scale projects are not economical in long terms. So, finally the second alternative was selected.
6 PROCESSING PLANT
The processing plant size was fixed based on the results of the Feasibility Study. This limits the mine designer in his options for optimizing the project, because the mine
design would be optimized before fixing the plant throughput.
The Sungun copper deposit is a porphyry type. The predominant copper mineralization is copper sulphide occurring as the mineral chalcopyrite. The choice of the
phase 1 (7 Mt/y) plant design is eminently suited to this type of mineralization and the choice of a crush/grind/flotation/dewatering plant is entirely correct. Porphyry
copper deposits, due to the nature of their relatively low grade worldwide, are developed at as high a plant throughput as possible consistent with a minimum mine life
of approximately 20 years. This format is adopted in order to take advantage of the ‘economy of scale’ where the mine’s fixed costs are borne by a large production of
copper.
7 FINAL MINE DESIGN
7.1 Methodology
As said in section 4.2 the current resource estimate of 796 Mt ore with 0.6% copper has been classified in Inferred category and used for the final mine design
propose. Because the resource model is being finalized the mine design can only be regarded as very preliminary.
Datamine has been used to model the geology and built a geological block model using the same package. Mine planning has been based on this geological block
model. The block model is converted into a financial block model by converting the geological information into revenue and cost. Datamine is recognized throughout the
world as a suitable geological and mining package for this type (porphyry copper) of deposit. Whittle 4X has been used to evaluate this financial block model. Whittle
requires mine design parameter inputs which are then applied to the financial block model both in terms of the financial data and the spatial position of a particular
block. This latter consideration not only applies to the cost of mining the block but also to the time when a block will be mined. This enables Whittle to incorporate the
financial elements in discounted terms. Whittle has been used extensively throughout the world and has enjoyed the position, until
Page 34
Datamine introduced a competitive package recently, as the industry standard as an economic mine design tool. Whittle produces an overall mine design but is not
capable of accommodating relatively minor operational practicalities. It is normal practice to reevaluate the output from Whittle and refine practical aspects of the design
manually. This would normally be completed using the original design package (Datamine). OMSC, however, believed there was advantage in employing an
experienced, practical mine planner. The company engaged were familiar with Gemcom and the Datamine information was downloaded to this package. It would have
been preferable to remain using Datamine but this action of transferring data to and using a second geological modelling/mine planning package is not an unusual
occurrence. Having completed the exercise the information is transferred back to Datamine and the statistical and graphical information required is output. Gemcom is
also a recognized industry standard geological modelling/mine planning package.
All of the programs/packages selected are widely used and recognised within the minerals industry.
7.2 Input parameters for pit limits definition and optimization
7.2.1 Geotechnical and seismic
The current assumptions are a 70° angle for a 12.5 m face height requiring a 16 m berm. Access roads (haul roads) are given as 30 m width with a gradient of 8%. This
equates to a mine overall slope angle of 37°.
7.2.2 Recoveries
It is necessary to determine the copper in a block and the recovery rates for each different ore type. The used recovery rates are shown in Table 7.
7.2.3 Costs
The costs obtained are quoted actual in most cases. The costs are an estimate based on a review of available data from other operations in the world. The costs are
itemized in Table 8.
7.2.4 Revenue
The revenue input is the price of copper. The figure assumed for the study was $2000/t. The copper price
Table 7. Process recovery rates.
Recovery %
Process Supergene Hypogene
Concentrating 85 91
Smelting 92 92
Refining 98 98
Total 76.6 82.0
(cash seller which is the most favorable position) ranged between $1700 to $1800 per tonne approximately between January 1998 and June 2002 since when it has
risen to the current high of $3055 per tonne. Nobody actually uses these highs as they are not believed representative in the financial markets which are traditionally
conservative.
7.2.5 Discount rate
The straight line discount rate used by most international commercial banks will vary between 8% (now probably around 4% to 5%) for a stable country with a stable
currency and up to 18% or more for the converse. Accounting firms are more conservative and use far more complex and, usually, higher discount rates. A discount
rate of 10% is understandable in the current circumstances but could be increased in an international commercial environment.
7.2.6 Cutoff grade
A fixed cutoff grade of 0.25% has been assumed. This is based on an operating cost and makes no recognition of the cost of capital expenditures or replacement
capital requirements. It is a valid cutoff to use to determine the ‘ultimate pit limit’ inside which no construction or nonmining activity may take place in order to ensure
no sterilization of potential ore should the price of copper escalates. However, for the definition of an ‘economic pit limit’, capital and replacement costs should be
included.
A standard approach is to estimate the revenues per % of contained mineral (in this case copper) in a block. One then compares a total production cost against this
value. This total cost is the sum of the all costs to point of sale including the cost of capital and an element of profit. Any block with a revenue value less than this cost is
qualified as waste and the % contained mineral is the cutoff grade value.
In addition, one would take a view of a very optimistic copper price and again, in the same method as the preceding paragraph, calculate the cutoff % of contained
mineral. This figure will be lower than the previous cutoff grade. The material between this lower cutoff grade and the cutoff grade is deemed
Table 8. Cost input.
Cost $
Operation Rock Feed Copper
Mining 1.00
Concentrating 2.10
Transportation* 24.00
Smelting 222.00
Refining 132.00
*The concentrate will be transported to Sarcheshmeh copper complex.
Page 35
‘Low Grade Ore’ and is stockpiled against a possible rise in copper price.
It is common practice to use Whittle to determine the cutoff grades for a mine instead of the above method. This requires a slightly different approach to using
Whittle to that currently but, once in place, enables one to very quickly and easily reset cutoff grades to reflect changes in operations and metal prices to ensure the
profitability of an operation.
7.2.7 Physical limitations
The mine is bounded to the east by the Sungun River. There is also little information in this area. However, the likelihood of economic reserves is slight as the strip ratios
associated with mining to the east up the opposite side of the Sungun River valley could only be justified by exceptional copper values. It is more likely that the
operation would convert to underground extraction at the end of the current proposal although no investigation has been completed.
7.2.8 Haulage and transportation option
Mining using a shovel and truck method is the only option for this project. This may be aligned to a movable/mobile inpit crusher and belt conveyor in the future
although this consideration is at an inception phase.
7.2.9 Operating parameters
Operating practice is to work 330 days a year 7 days a week on a 4 shift system. One anomaly is the operation of waste removal over 3 shifts and ore over only two
shifts per day. It is believed that this will cause unnecessary disruption and both operations should be three shifts per day. This necessitates the crusher also working
three shifts per day but at a lower hourly throughput. Drilling equipment is allocated an availability of 67% (40 minutes per hour) and the remainder of the equipment
83% (50 minutes per hour).
7.2.10 Nested pit and optimization of schedule
The ore production profile and data determined in the previous sections has been utilized. The most important being the required production profiles, the pit wall slope
and the discount factor. The final pit limit optimization is highly dependent on the economic parameters, so to observe the influence of changes in economic parameters,
3 alternatives has been considered and results are shown in Table 9. Alternative 1 has been based on a high copper price and low operating costs; alternative 2 the
base case and alternative 3 based on a low copper price and high operating costs.
Lerchs & Grossmann Algorithm has been used to define the optimum ultimate pit limit. Using this algorithm yields the boundary with the highest cash flow and
pushing back beyond this boundary decrease the profit. Table 10 shows the outstanding pushbacks generated for the ultimate pit limit optimization.
69 pushbacks have been generated for each alternative. The pit number 12 has the highest present value of $325M and total ore tonnage of 145Mt. it is evident that
no mine is extracted with the worst case. On the other hand the pit number 41 has the highest present values of $411M and total ore tonnage of 627Mt. This is the best
scenario but is not practical. The total ore tonnage of the pit 21 is considerably higher than the total ore tonnage of pit 20 which considering the maximum extraction
rate of 14Mt/y the mine life would be 34 years. Considering the
Table 9. Pit optimization alternatives.
Alt
Parameter 1 2 3
Cost:
Mining 0.85 1.00 1.10
Concentrating 1.80 2.1 2.5
Transportation 24 24 24
Smelting 200 222 250
Refining 110 132 150
Price (/tCopper) 2200 2000 1800
Table 10. Optimization results.
Alt
Output 1 2 2 2 2 3
No. of Optimum 62 12 20 21 41 27
Pushback
Ore (Mt) 668 145 384 424 627 514
Waste (Mt) 1584 238 642 730 1355 963
OSR 2.37 1.64 1.67 1.72 2.16 1.87
T Cu (%) 0.603 0.728 0.619 0.614 0.603 0.609
Profit (M$) 2759 658 1258 1350 1657 768
PV Best case 604 325 400 404 411 234
PV Worst case −74 239 81 37 −245 −270
Page 36
Table 11. Sensitivity analysis on NPV.
Table 12. Sensitivity analysis of IRR to copper price.
Copper price $/t IRR (%)
1600 0.8
1800 4.1
2000 6.7
2200 8.8
2400 10.7
useful life of the equipment this life is high. So, conform to the useful life of the equipment and also with regard to decreasing the stripping ratio, pushback number 20
selected with 31 years mine life. A smoothing and scheduling of this pit outline was completed as the basis for the final manual scheduling exercise carried out with
Gemcom.
8 FINANCIAL EVALUATION
To evaluate the final mine design an ‘all equity’ economic model of the Sungun Copper Project was constructed. The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of the base case is
6.7%. At a discount rate of 6.5% the Net Present Value (NPV) of the Project is −$4.6 M at a copper price of $2000/t. The breakeven copper price at the 6.5%
discount rate is $2200. The after tax NPV for the base case project is −$40M.
Tables 11 and 12 show the sensitivity of the project to the main economic parameters.
One can see that the most sensitive factor, as is usual in projects of this nature is copper price. Capital cost is slightly more influential than operating cost indicating
that optimization of both parameters will be necessary to achieve a positive NPV at copper prices below $2200/t.
9 CONCLUSION
• Because the resource model is being finalized the mine design can only be regarded as very preliminary.
• Present plans for 7Mt/y throughputs, followed by an expansion to 14Mt/y in year seven leads to expectation of a mine life over thirty years. The fact that the
concentrator plant size was fixed some time ago limits the mine designer in his options for optimizing the project.
• Although the Phase 1 throughput is fixed, it may be worth reconsidering the throughput for Phase 2 by optimization studies during the upcoming rerun of the mine
design process.
• A grade of 0.25% copper is selected as a fixed cutoff and no calculations of the more advanced variable cutoff grade were made. To maximize value over the mine
life, a variable cutoff grade should be used. Also, for definition of an economic pit limit, capital and replacement costs should be included.
• Given resources the size of Sungun, it is likely that the project economics would be improved by mining the orebody faster with a shorter life.
• The geotechnical parameters appear to be based on experience at Sarcheshmeh. Changing the height of the benches or any other parameter for any reason may
change the currently assumed angle of 37°. A geotechnical study, taking cognizance of the seismology of the area, is required to confirm the geotechnical parameters
with a degree of confidence.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the suggestions made by Mr. N.O.Liddell from International Mining Consultants (IMC).
REFERENCES
Hezarkhani, A., WilliamsJones, A.E., Gammones, C.H., 1999. Factors controlling copper solubility and chalcopyrite deposition in the Sungun porphyry copper
deposit, Mineralium Deposita 34, 770–783.
Hustrulid, W. & Kuchta, M. 1995. Open pit mine planning & design, Vol 1, Netherlands, 476–478.
International Mining Consultants Limited (IMC), 2004. Sungun Copper Project Master Plan (Draft Report).
Iran Itok Engineering & Technological Company (IIETC) 1996. Feasibility study of Sungun copper deposit, Vol 2, Mine Design Report.
Olang Mining Service Company (OMSC) 2000. Geology and exploration studies of Sungun copper mine.
Olang Mining Service Company (OMSC) 2001. Sungun copper mine design and optimization.
Parwaresh, A. Ketabi, M. Iran Mining Annual Review 2003, Mining Journal, www.miningjournal.com.
SNC 1992. Sungun Copper Project PreFeasibility Study.
Page 37
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Resources estimation of a coal deposit using ordinary block kriging
M.Nur Heriawan
Department of Mining Engineering, Institute of Technology Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia
Jacques Rivoirard
Geostatistics Center, Paris School of Mines, France
Syafrizal
Department of Mining Engineering, Institute of Technology Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia
ABSTRACT: This study concerns the geostatistical estimation a coal deposit located in Indonesia. In this case the ordinary kriging is applied to
estimate the quantity and quality of the coal deposit. Four overlying coal seams are used with variables: borehole elevation, top & bottom elevation of
seam, seam thickness, and total sulfur. The objectives in this estimation are predicting waste volume and coal tonnages from estimates of overburden
and seam boundaries, and estimating coal quality within seams. An apparent problem in this study is that a seam is not present everywhere (being
eroded, local disappearance) and that kriging estimation is unable to distinguish whether a seam exists at a point or not. Moreover, the negative
estimated values of overburden and interburden in some blocks are found, due to the estimated top elevation of the upper seam being higher than the
estimated topography elevation. In order to rectify this problem, we select only blocks, which have a positive estimate of overburden and interburden,
and then take into account their estimated seam thickness. Those estimates are used to calculate the waste volume and coal tonnage. Only blocks,
which have a ratio of waste volume and coal tonnage of no more than 7:1, will be considered as prospective. Constraint on the estimated total sulfur,
which should be not more than 1%, concludes that only the three upper seams can be mined in this case.
1 INTRODUCTION
This study evaluates how well kriging method performs in coal resource estimation. Geostatistical method is applied to estimate the quantity (thickness) and quality
(total sulfur) in 2D. It is not nearly as common in coal as in metal deposit; nevertheless some studies have said that kriging works in practice for coal as well as for
metals.3) In this case, 37 boreholes data are available and distributed in a 2×3 km2 area. The local coordinate and elevation have been transformed for confidential
reason, but the transformation did not change the original spatial correlation of samples. Four coal seams will be used in this case.
The objectives of this study are: (1) evaluating the inconsistencies of data by statistical analysis and spatial structures by variographic analysis; (2) estimating the
distribution of borehole elevation, top & bottom elevation of seam, seam thickness, and total sulfur in 2D using ordinary block kriging; (3) optimalizing the mined
prospective blocks and coal seam using two constraints: the ratio between waste volume and coal tonnage maximum 7:1, and the total sulfur is not more than 1%.
2 GEOLOGY OF THE COAL DEPOSIT
Study area is located in Kalimantan, Indonesia. The major rock composition in the study area can be grouped into two rock units:1)
1. Unit of Igneous Rock, which is part of Hry Formation with age PreTertiary.
2. Unit of Mudstone with Coal Insertion is part of Tjg Formation with age Eocene.
The stratigraphic column in Figure 1 describes in detail about the geology of this coal deposit. Six layers have been found in the unit of mudstone: seams Mu2, Mu1,
M1, M2, N1, and N2. In general, those coal layers have NorthSouth striking and dipping ±4° toward East. In several sites, the coal layers have been eroded by the
river. Seam Mu2 did not spread extensively in all area, but only spread in
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places. Seam Mu1 was not cropped out in the northern part (washout?). Seam N1 was similar and spread extensively to the southern part where it was eroded. Seams
M1 and M2 spread extensively in all
Figure 1. Stratigraphic column of study area (no scale)1)
areas. Seam N2 only spread in places and confined in the northern and southern part.
This study uses 37 borehole data and will only evaluate seam Mu1, M1, M2, and N1, which may be mined prospective.
3 STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS
Four types of variables, which will be used in this study, are:
1. Borehole elevation (m)
2. Top & bottom elevation (m) of seam Mu1, M1, M2, and N1
3. Thickness (m) of seam Mu1, M1, M2, and N1
4. Total sulfur (%) of seam Mu1, M1, M2, and N1
Statistics of each variable in each seam components can be seen in Table 1.
3.1 Borehole elevation
Borehole elevation is used to estimate the topography in the study area. Estimate on topography is useful to calculate the overburden thickness, which is the thickness
between topography and top seam Mu1. Otherwise, borehole elevation is used to define the elevation of top and bottom for each seam.
3.2 Top and bottom elevation
Seam thickness is calculated using top and bottom elevation of each seam. Estimates on top and bottom elevation of seam are used to calculate the overburden (OB)
and interburden thickness. Three different interburden (IB1, IB2, and IB3) will be estimated due to the presence of four coal seams.
Table 1. Statistics of coal data set.
Figure 2. Histogram of total sulfur: (a) seam Mu1, (b) seam M1, (c) seam M2, (d) seam N1.
3.3 Seam thickness
To calculate seam thickness, we subtract the bottom elevation from the top elevation in each seam. If a borehole can obtain a top of seam, then the bottom one can be
obtained too. Seam M2 presents an interesting phenomenon; there are three values, which are smaller than the others (total population of 31). Those values are located
separately in the northern area (0.28 m in BH01, 0.10 m in BH12, and 0.15 m in BH13), and they seem to be a different population.
3.4 Total sulfur
Due to the constraint in total sulfur, which is not more than 1%, not all seams can be mined prospective. We will see it after performing kriging estimation. In fact, seam
Mu1 is lacking of data, because only eight data available. An interesting phenomenon appears in seam M1, where the two highest values exist separately in the northern
area, i.e.: 2.53% in BH12 and 3.59% in BH01. They seem to be a different population as well as being the three smallest values in thickness of seam M2.
Statistically, seam N1 is not mined prospective, because 15 out of the 16 data has a total sulfur of more than 2% and only one data in BH16 has lowest one (0.55%).
The total sulfur distribution in each seam can be seen in their histogram in Figure 2, and it appears slightly skewed except for total sulfur seam N1. In general, total sulfur
is often erratic and contains apparent “outliers” which cause the usual problem.3)
4 VARIOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
In this chapter, the techniques for constructing experimental variogram and its fitting model will be discussed. The variogram of an intrinsic random function is defined as:
2)
(1)
For stationary and intrinsic variables, the mean of Z(x+h)−Z(x) is zero, and so γ(h) is the mean square difference between two values, consequently:2)
(2)
Here x and x+h refer to points in 2D space where x denotes the point (x1, x2) and h is a vector according to the lag value in practice.
Distance between the two boreholes varies between 150 m to 500 m, therefore a lag value between 200 m to 400m is chosen. The angular tolerance is set at 90°
for 1 direction (omni directional) variogram and 22.5° for the four directions variogram. The distance tolerance for both variograms is 50%. Anisotropic phenomenon
only exists in the variables borehole elevation and top & bottom elevation of seam. Anisotropic direction is based on the continuity feature in the variogram map. Other
variables (seam thickness and total sulfur) are considered as isotropic, because the appearance of their continuities is not so clear in the variogram map.
4.1 Borehole and top & bottom elevation
The anisotropic direction in borehole and top & bottom elevation of seam M2 and N1 are 60° (mathematical convention) or N30°E in azimuth (geological convention).
Otherwise, the top & bottom elevation of seam Mu1 and M1 are 50° or N40°E in azimuth. All structures in these variables show the high continuity of data. Top and
bottom of the same seam have the same shape and continuity in its variogram, so construction is in the same parameter and fitting model.
4.2 Seam thickness
There is no significant structure apparent in thickness Mu1 and it seems to be a purely random phenomenon (white noise). Thickness M1 and N1 show a spherical
structure associated with a nugget effect. In thickness M2, a high continuity structure exists when an experimental variogram is constructed using all data points (31
data). However when three outliers’ data (smallest values) in the northern area (see Figure 3) are masked, suddenly no significant structure is apparent in the variogram
and only a pure nugget effect exists (see Figures 4a and 4b). The variogram model of thickness seam M2 with three masked data will be used in estimation.
Page 40
Figure 3. Base map of thickness seam M2 (the border is outliers).
Figure 4. Variogram of thickness seam M2: (a) using all data points and (b) without three outliers’ data.
Figure 5. Base map of total sulfur M1 (the border is outliers).
Figure 6. Variogram of total sulfur M1: (a) using all data points and (b) without two outliers’ data.
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4.3 Total sulfur
A purely random phenomenon seems to exist in total sulfur Mu1, M2, and N1. A continuity data is only apparent in total sulfur M1, but a spherical nested structure
exists suddenly when two outliers’ data (highest values) in the northern area are masked. This nested structure indicates the presence of processes operating at different
scales.2) See Figure 5 for the base map and the variogram in Figures 6a and 6b. The variogram model of total sulfur seam M1 with two masked data will be used in
estimation.
5 RESOURCE ESTIMATION
Resource estimation will be performed to determine the distribution of coal resource (quantity and quality) in the study area. The estimation will be used to defin the
coal seam and its site, which are prospective to be mined with constraint on stripping ratio (SR) or ratio of waste volume and coal tonnage maximum 7:1 and total sulfur
not more than 1%. The estimation will be done by ordinary kriging for variables:
– borehole elevation,
– top & bottom elevation of seam,
– seam thickness, and
– total sulfur.
Ordinary kriging system can be written as follows:2)
(3)
(4)
where:
i=1,2, 3…N
λj=kriging weight for each points
γ(xj, Xj)=variogram between two points xi and xj within the domain of kriging neighborhood
μ=Lagrange multiplier
=average of the variogram between xi and block V
The minimized variance of the error between real value and estimated value is known as kriging variance and given by:2)
(5)
where is average of the variogram between two points xi and xj sweeping independently throughout the block V.
5.1 Quantity and quality estimation
In order to perform kriging estimation, 2D grid (domain) is created with block size 100 m×100 m. There is a total 20×30 blocks, which cover all boreholes in the study
area. Moving neighborhood is used in estimation for all variables, except for borehole elevation. Table 1 demonstrates that those variables did not exist in all boreholes,
and therefore should not exist in the whole domain. Moreover, we do not want to estimate everywhere in whole blocks and we do not know the limit which presents up
to where the coal seam exits. The moving neighborhood is used to delimitate the domain of estimation. Borehole elevation is a unique case. It exists in all boreholes and
it is used to estimate the topography elevation in whole domain, which is why the application of unique neighborhood is suitable. The discretization 5×5 in each block
seems an appropriate technique to apply in block estimation for all variables.
The radius of moving neighborhood 500 m×500 m is sufficient to delimitate the domain and to get an optimum number of samples. In particular, case of total sulfur
Mu1, the radius of neighborhood is enlarged to be 600 m×600 m, due to a few numbers of samples. Those neighborhoods also have satisfied the slope of linear
regression as close as possible to 1, to get closer to the “conditional unbiasedness”.4)
Top & bottom elevations of a seam have very similar experimental variograms, and the same model is used to kriged (K) them in order to deduce overburden and
interburden estimates (*), according to the following formulas:
OB*=borehole elevationK−top elevation MulK
(6)
IB1*=bottom elevation MulK −top elevation M1K
(7)
IB2*=bottom elevation M1K−top elevation M2K
(8)
IB3*=bottom elevation M2K−top elevation N1K
(9)
The statistics of estimated OB & IB thickness shows that the minimum value of OB & IB is negative. This means that the elevation of the top seam is above the
elevation of topography for case seam Mu1 or above the elevation of bottom of the upper seam for other seams. The phenomenon above definitely should not exist,
this means selection is required to select only the blocks, which have OB & IB thickness above 0 (positive). The statistics of estimated OB & IB after selection can be
seen in Table 2.
The statistics of estimated seam thickness is calculated in Table 3. In tonnage calculation for each block, a value of 0 is placed for seam thickness in a block where
the negative value on OB & IB thickness exists. However, the thickness of a seam is modeled and estimated separately, and so its kriged estimate does not coincide
exactly with the difference between kriged top and bottom, as would be the case for cokriging.
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Table 2. Statistics of estimated overburden & interburden thickness after selection.
Table 3. Statistics of estimated seam thickness.
The estimated OB & IB and seam thickness are used to calculate the estimate of SR according to the following formulas:
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
where: SG=specific gravity
SGMu1=1.52
SG M1=1.45
SGM2=1.54
SG N1=1.43
Vertical slope is assumed in that calculation. On completion of the estimate map of stripping ratio, the area or blocks, which have value, not more than 7 are selected
in order to make constraint on SR maximum 7:1.
The statistics of estimated total sulfur is shown in Table 4. It shows us clearly that seam N1 can be ignored in mining due to the high total sulfur. The estimation on
total sulfur is used as constraint in choosing the mining blocks, because only the blocks or areas, which have a total sulfur of not more than 1%, will be considered as
mined prospective.
Table 4. Statistics of estimated total sulfur.
Figure 7. Total blocks after constraint on total sulfur.
5.2 Waste volume and coal tonnage calculation
Waste volume is calculated by multiplying the OB & IB thickness and the block area. The coal tonnage is multiplying product of coal volume and coal specific gravity
(SG).
Firstly, the waste volume and coal tonnage in all blocks where the OB & IB and seam thickness estimated will be calculated for all seams, without any constraints.
The calculation result shows that total cumulative SR is 6.62. This means it is not necessary to use the SR constraint with a maximum of 7. Total blocks where the OB
& IB and coal seam estimated are composed of 514 blocks.
If the area above is intersected by the area, which contains total sulfur of no more than 1% for all seams, the area will be changed to be 495 blocks as shown in
Figure 7. Total waste volume and coal tonnage for this area is shown in Table 5, and it is seen that the total cumulative SR is still less than 7.
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Table 5. Total waste and tonnage with constraint on total sulfur.
6 DISCUSSION
The first problem in this study is a few numbers of samples, only 37 boreholes in an area of 2×3 km2. The variogram is less robust because of this constraint. Secondly,
the existence of a coal seam (layer), mainly in upper seam (Mu1) is problematic. Table 1 shows that seam Mu1 was only present in 18 boreholes.
In fact, the domain where a seam (for instance Mu1) exists is not considered known a priori. This can explain why the estimated seam elevation can for instance be
higher than the topography elevation. When the estimated overburden is negative, we assume that the layer does not exist. An additional problem comes from the fact
that the information made by the nonexistence of the seam at some data points (where the elevation is not available) is not taken into account where kriging the
elevation. This is likely to cause inconsistencies such as estimated seam elevation being found lower than topography at data points where the seam does not exist (to
be identified on a map). Constraining the estimation of seam elevation to be lower than for instance topography would require more techniques that are sophisticated.
Otherwise, indicator estimation or simulation may help to solve this problem.
The third problem of estimation is the existence of outliers, mainly in the thickness seam M2 (three smallest values) and in total sulfur M1 (two highest values). Both
of them are located in the northern area and appear to be a different population. In fact, the influence of those outliers to other data points is very strong. The
variographic structure will be changed at all when the outliers are masked. It is better to estimate separately between two different populations if we know where the
border is.
The result obtained from applying kriging estimation in coal quantity and quality shows us that constraint on SR is not needed in this case because without it, the total
cumulative SR is still less than 7 naturally. Constraint on total sulfur concludes that only seams Mu1, M1, and M2 are mined prospective.
7 CONCLUSION
Ordinary kriging is able to perform well in estimation of coal quantity and quality, although there is some limitation about distinguishing the existence of layers. The
estimation shows that without constraint on maximum stripping ratio 7:1, the whole area where the estimated coal seam exists is prospective, as a total cumulative
stripping ratio less than 7. Only seams Mu1, M1, and M2 are mined prospective, as their total sulfur less than 1%.
REFERENCES
1. Anonymous, Geologi Batubara dan Perhitungan Jumlah Cadangan, Bina Pertambangan Archives, Department of Mining Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung,
2002.
2. Armstrong, Margaret, Basic Linear Geostatistics, SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 1998, p. 25–71.
3. Armstrong, M., A.D.S.Gillies, G.D.Just, G.D.Lyman, Y.Y.Wu, Review of The Application of Geostatistics in The Coal Industry, in M.Armstrong (ed.), Geostatistics,
Vol.2, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1989, p. 995–1005.
4. Rivoirard, J., Two Key Parameters When Choosing the Kriging Neighborhood, Mathematical Geology, Vol. 19, No. 8, 1987, p. 851–856.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
A 2D dynamic programming algorithm to optimize stope boundaries
S.E.Jalali
PhD. Student, Dept. of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Eng., Amirkabir University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran
M.Ataeepour
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Eng., Amirkabir University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: In comparison to open cut mining, optimization of stope boundaries has received less attention. A new dynamic programming algorithm
is described in this paper for optimization of stope limits in vein type ore bodies. The algorithm employs an economic block model, called the primary
model. This is a 2D model to reflect the vein length and height. The vein thickness, is considered to be modeled via a single section of variable size
blocks. The ore body is then divided into several levels, on which the optimization is implemented. Various constraints, the minimum stope height, the
minimum stope length and the maximum variation in the elevation of both floor and ceiling of the stope, are imposed through two stages to develop
intermediate and final models. A Dynamic Programming algorithm with a recursive formula consisting of two criteria is then applied on the final model
to maximize the total economic value. The proposed algorithm is quite suitable for vein type ore bodies. It complies with any underground mining
methods while providing the rigorous mathematical proof.
1 INTRODUCTION
There are a large number of algorithms and software tools developed for optimization of open pit limits during the past decades. In contrast, a limited research has been
carried out for underground cases. This is mainly because there are a variety of underground mining methods with various restrictions and conditions and the
underground mining parameters are more complex. Few algorithms are available for optimization of ultimate stope boundaries, which are either tailored for a specific
mining method or lack rigorous mathematical proof and fail to guarantee the true optimum.
This paper introduces a 2D algorithm supported by mathematical proof, employing the Dynamic Programming technique. The proposed algorithm is run on a special
form of ore body model, derived from the conventional fixed economic block model. The objective function is maximizing the total economic value without taking into
account the time value of money.
2 CURRENT ALGORITHMS
Generally, current algorithms for optimization of ultimate limits in underground mines can be categorized in two groups: rigorous algorithms and heuristic algorithms.
Rigorous algorithms include the “Dynamic Programming” solution (Riddle 1977) and the “Branch and Bound” technique (Ovanic & Young 1995). Both of these
algorithms are supported by mathematical reasoning, however, they have limited applications. The dynamic programming technique provides a 2D analysis and has
been adjusted for block caving method. The branch and bound technique provide a 1D solution to the problem and determines the start and end of a stope in one
direction. The heuristic approaches include the “Floating Stope” technique of Datamine (Alford 1995) and the “Maximum Value Neighborhood (MVN)” algorithm
(Ataeepour 1999). Both algorithms provide 3D analysis of the solution and can be applied to any underground mining methods. Nevertheless, they lack mathematical
proof and fail to determine the true optimum. All these algorithms apply on an economic block model of the ore body.
In addition to those mentioned above, there are two alternatives to the problem as well, including the “Octree Division” algorithm (Cheimanoff et al. 1989) and the
“Geostatistical Approach” (Deraisme et al. 1984). These approaches apply on geologic models and not the economic model. Their major disadvantage is the
complexity associated with them and that they have limited applications.
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3 THE ORE BODY MODELLING
The algorithm described in this paper applies on a special form of economic model, derived from a fixed economic block model of the ore body. The derived economic
model is designed in such a way that it reflects the length and height constraints of the stope. In order to build this special model, firstly the conventional economic block
model of the ore body is constructed using the geologic, technical and economic data, collected through the conceptual planning. This is called, in this paper, primary
(economic) model. Then through two stages, the intermediate model and the final economic models are derived from the primary model, imposing the length and height
constraints. The algorithm is run on the final model. Due to the importance of this special form of model in applying the proposed algorithm, the process of the model
construction is explained here.
3.1 The primary economic model
The conventional block model may be used with some modifications. Levels or panels are divided into 3D blocks with specified dimensions through the direction of the
ore body’s strike and dip. The third dimension (thickness) is projected on the plane, which contains the strike and dip of the ore body. Therefore, the model is reduced
to a 2D block model.
The value of each block is then calculated, according to the amount (tonnage) and the grade of ore body contained in the block and using the economic factors due
to the selected mining method. The generated block model is called, in this paper, the primary economic model. Figure 1 illustrates a simple example of such model
containing 10 blocks in the strike direction and four blocks in the dip direction. In the primary model, the block dimensions may or may not be different. Dimensions are
determined by geologic conditions, mining method, grade distribution and other parameters.
Figure 1. An example of the primary economic model.
Generally, the primary model may be thought of as a 2D matrix with each element, my,x, representing the net economic value of a block located in the yth row and xth
column. The matrix has X rows representing the total number of blocks in the direction of ore body’s strike and Y columns representing the total number of blocks in
the ore body’s dip direction.
3.2 Intermediate economic model
The approach described in this paper is based on transferring the constraints of the objective function to the model, on which the algorithm is going to be run. In the first
stage, the stope height constraint is transferred from the primary model to the intermediate economic model. In order to make such a model, all possible stopes, which
satisfy the minimum height constraint are reviewed and their total economic values are calculated. The number of such possible stopes in each column of the model
depends on the stope height constraint (ie the restriction in the dip direction). The maximum number of such stopes, which consist of one or more adjacent blocks, may
be obtained by equation 1:
(1)
Where NSx=number of possible stopes in the xth column, x=the column number, X=total number of columns, y=the row number and Y=total number of rows.
Consider a primary model with four rows (Y=4), the total number of possible stopes in each column, considering no restriction on the stope height, equals:
There would be one stope as high as four blocks, two stopes of three blocks, three stope of two blocks and finally four stopes with one block.
Now consider that the stope height is restricted with a minimum of h blocks, the total number of possible stopes may be obtained through equation 2:
(2)
where NSx,h=number of possible stopes; with a minimum of h blocks; located in the xth column; and h = the minimum stope height measured in the number of blocks.
If the minimum height of the stopes (in the previous example) equals three blocks (h=3), the total number of possible stope in each column may
Page 47
be calculated as follows:
The location of each possible stope in each column, x, is defined as SL(f,c),x, where SL is the stop location and f and c which form a pair, represent the location of the
floor and ceiling of the stope in column x. For example, if the stope contains three adjacent blocks from the first, second and third rows of column x (ie blocks with net
economic values m1,x, m2,x and m3,x), then its location address is represented by SL(0,3),x. Figure 2 shows the location of each of three possible stopes in column x
for a model with four rows.
The net economic value of each stope may be obtained through the following equation:
(3)
Subject to: 1≤x≤X
0≤f≤Y−h
h≤c≤Y
where M(f,c),x=the net value of the stope located at SL(f,c),x and my,x=the net value of the block located at row y and column x of primary model.
Once the net value of possible stopes are calculated, the intermediate model may be constructed. The total number of columns in this model is the same as that of the
primary model, and it’s total number of rows is one more than the number of possible stopes in each columns (ie NSx,h+1). Figure 3 show the
Figure 2. Location of possible stopes in the xth column of a four row economic model.
Figure 3. The intermediate model.
intermediate model of the example shown in Figure 1, assuming a three block height restriction. The lowest row indicates the net value of stopes at the location SL
(0,0),x, which are in fact virtual stopes with zero (block) height. Next rows, from bottom to top, indicate the net value of stopes located at SL(0,3),x, SL(1,4),x and SL
, , respectively. In fact the intermediate model contains, in each row, the economic value of one possible stope (M(f,c),x).
(0 4) x
The lowest row, M(0,0),x, is added just to help the calculation in applying the proposed Dynamic Programming algorithm and it is defined as:
M(0,0),x=0, 1≤x≤X
(4)
3.3 The final economic model
The final model is constructed by imposing the minimum stope length constraint (in the direction of the ore body strike). The minimum length of the stope depends on
factors such as the mining method and the equipment used. If the algorithm does not consider the minimum length restriction, the optimized stope layout although gives
the maximum profit, it will not be feasible to mine it. Generally, the minimum length is more than one block.
The maximum length constraint is not applied in developing the algorithm since it is not a longterm design problem (as it is the case in developing a stope limit
optimization algorithm), but rather it is an executive shortterm problem. In practice, if the stope exceeds the maximum restriction, the excess is caved or backfilled.
The intermediate model is modified by imposing the length constraint to obtain the final model, which is the base for running the algorithm. Each block of the final
model contains the maximum economic value of the stope ending at that block, while satisfying the minimum length constraint. If the minimum stope length equals l
blocks, (l−1) virtual columns are added to the left of the intermediate model to provide feasible stopes, otherwise none of the blocks located in the first (l−1) blocks of
the model may form a stope with a minimum length of l blocks. The final model will, therefore, contains (l−1) columns more than that of the primary model but includes
the same rows as intermediate model. In other words I=Y, J=X+l−1, where I and J are total number of rows and columns in the final model, respectively.
If i>0 and j>0 are a pair of integer indices representing the row and column number in the final model, respectively, then the following relations may be obtained:
j=x+l−1
(5)
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(6)
where k is a counter. For example, the row number of stopes determined as SL(1,4),x in the intermediate model (Fig. 3), assuming that Y=4 and h=3 may be calculated
as follows:
The parameter i is employed in the final model just to simplify addressing of the possible stopes. Stope locations are actually determined by the use of f and c indices.
The net value of all stopes, which are not entirely located inside the primary model (those columns j=1 to j= l−1) is set to a large negative value.
M
(f,c),j=−u, j=1 to l−1 (7)
where u=a very large value. This will prevent inclusion of the virtual columns (stopes) into the optimum limits.
Another restriction that must be considered is the maximum variation of the elevation of both the floor and the ceiling of the stope from one column to the next. This
constraint is expressed as the number of blocks. In a block caving method, the stope floor must be located at the same level for all columns. That is, the maximum
allowed variation of “f” in the stope location SL(f,c),x is zero blocks. However the allowed variation “c”, which shows the level of the ceiling of the stopes, may be
one or more blocks. Consider that SL(f, c),x represents the stope location at column x, then the stope location at column (x+1) may assume one of the following:
SL(f+rf,c+rc),x−1
Subject to:
f+rf≥0,c+rc≤Y,(c+rc)−(f+rf)≥h
|rf|=0,1,2,…, nf, nf<h
|rc|=0,1,2,..., nc, nc<h
where rf=an integer number (positive or negative) representing the floor level variation constraint; rc=an integer number (positive or negative) representing the ceiling
level variation constraint; nf = maximum number of blocks of the floor level variation constraint; nc=maximum number of blocks of the ceiling level variation constraint.
If nc=nf = 0, the floor and ceiling of the stope would be at the same level. If nc=nf=1, the level of the floor and ceiling of the stope at each column may change
(compared to the adjacent column) one block up or down or remain unchanged (ie rf=−1, 0,1; rc=−1,0,1). Obviously, if the stope floor/ceiling at a column is located
at the lower/upper limits of the model, this is a clear reduction in the number of possible stopes at the next column.
When dealing with variation in the stope levels care should be taken not to violate the minimum height constraint. The expression (c+rc)−(f+rf)≥h has been included
in the list of constraints above to guarantee that this condition is satisfied. So, if the stope location at column x is SL(0,3),x (Fig. 2), assuming nc=1 and nf=0, there are
two possibilities for the stope location at (x1)th column (SL(0,3),x–1 and SL(0,4),x–1 ). Also, if at column x, there is SL(1,4),x, there will be only one possibility (SL
(1,4),x–1 ) at (x−1)th column.
Imposing the level variation constraint, the maximum net value of stopes with the minimum allowed length may be calculated through the folloing relations:
if f=0,c =0→ MSV(0,0),j=0
(8)
if f≠0,c≠0
(9)
Subject to:
f+rf≥0,c+rc≤I,(c+rc)−(f+rf)≥h
|rf|=0,1,2,…,nf,|rc|=0,1,2,…, nc
where MSV(f, c),j=the maximum economic value of the stope with minimum allowed length; ending to SL(f,c),j; u=a large positive number; l=the minimum stope length
allowed; M(f,c),j= economic value of the stope at SL(f,c), j and r=a counter.
In order to elaborate the above relations, consider the intermediate model shown in Figure 3, assuming Y= 4 and h=3. The maximum stope net value with the
minimum length constraint of three blocks ending to SL(0,4),12 may be calculated as below to obtain MSV(0,4),12:
Since j=12 and l=3, j is greater than l, so respecting equation 9:
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Figure 4. The final model developed using Figure 3.
MSV(0,4),12 =5+max{6,5}+max{2,3}
MSV(0,4),12 =5+6+3
MSV(0,4),12=14
The address of the stope at SL(0,4),12 may be calculated regarding its row number using equation 6:
The economic value of the stope located at the SL(0,4),12 is, therefore, assigned to the cell located at the 4th row and 12th column of the final model.
In fact, each cell of the final model represents maximum net value of a stope with the minimum length and ending to that cell. In the above example, a stope, formed
by combining stopes located at SL(0,4),8, SL(0,4),9 and SL(0,4),10 in the primary model, provides the maximum economic value. Similarly, the maximum net value is
calculated for all stopes and the final model is completed. Figure 4 illustrates the final model corresponding to the intermediate model of Figure 3.
4 THE NEW ALGORITHM LOGIC
A 2D algorithm is proposed to optimize the stope boundaries, which is run on the final model described above. A Dynamic Programming technique is employed using a
recursive formula, similar to that used for open pit limit optimization. However, the formula consists of two criteria. By applying the algorithm for each stope at a
specified location, the economic value of all possible mining areas ending to that stope are calculated and the maximum one is specified on the final model.
The recursive formula is as follows:
(10)
(11)
Subject to:
f+rf≥0, c+rc≤I , (c+rc)−(f+rf)≥h
|rf|=0,1,2,…, nf, |rc|=0,1,2,…, nc
where P(f,c), j= the maximum net value of the mining area ending to the stope located at SL(f,c),j, P(0,0),j= the maximum net value of the mining area ending to the stope
located at SL(0,0)j; NSVP(f,c),j= new stope value parameter as explained below.
The value of NSVP(f,c),j is calculated only at two circumstances. The first one is when the algorithm starts and there is no stope formed yet. The second one is when
the limits of stope is passed and a new stope is going to be formed. The value of NSVP(f,c),j is assigned zero, otherwise. Consider that in a new stope, the length of the
stope, L, ending to a block in column j is greater than the minimum allowed l, but less than 2l. Then in calculation of the economic value of that stope, the values of
stopes located at the first (L–1) columns of the new stope are not considered. Therefore, to compensate this, the value of NSVP(f,c),j is added to the stope value.
The value of NSVP(f,c),j is calculated only (l–1) times for each new stope; then it is assigned zero. Wherever the condition P(f,c),j<P(0,0),j is true, corresponding
stope is ended. The ending location of that stope would be SL(f,c),j–1 ∙ Then a new stope is going to be formed. Depending on the economic values of stopes located
after column j, the new stope may join to the end of the previous stope or distinct from it (ie there is a gap between two stopes). The parameter NSVP(f ,c),j may be
calculated through following relation:
(12)
Subject to:
f+rf≥0 , c+rc≤I , (c+rc)−(f+rf)≥h
|rf|=0,1,2,…, nf, |rc|=0,1,2,…, nc
Applying the algorithm on the final model shown in Figure 4, for nf=0, nc=1 and l=3, calculation of the
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value of P(f,c),j is provided below for a few cases. Please note that if the stope location at column j is SL(0,0),j with nf=0 and nc=1, for the stop located at column
(j−1), there are three possibilities (ie SL(0,3),j−1 , SL(1,4),j−1 and SL(0,4), j−1 ). If at column j, the stope is located at SL(0,3), j or SL(0,4),j, then there are only two
possibilities for the stope at column (j−1) (ie SL(0,3), j and SL(0,4),j) due to the level variation constraint for the floor and ceiling. Similarly, if the stope at column j is SL
(1,4) ,j
, for the stope located at (j−1) column, there is only one possibility (ie SL(0,3),j−1).
Because of h=3, for j< 3, the value of P(0,0),j is zero (regarding equation 11) and the value of P(f,c),j, which includes P(0,3),j, P(1,4),j and P(0,4),j equals −u.
Hence:
P(0,0),1=0, P(0,3),1=−u, P(1,4),1=−u, P(0,4),1=−u
P(0,0),2=0, P(0,3),2=−u, P(1,4),2=−u, P(0,4),2=−u
for j=3 regarding equation 10:
P(0,0)j=max{P(f+rf,c+rc),j−1, P(0,0),j−1 }
P(0,0),3=max{P(0,3),2, P(1,4),2, P(0,4),2, P(0,0),2}
P(0,0)3=max{−u,−u,−u,0}=0
and equation 11 gives:
for j=4 regarding equation 10:
P(0,0),4=max{P(0,3),3, P(1,4),3, P(0,4),3, P(0,0),3}
P(0,0),4=max{−u,−u,−u,0}=0
and equation 11 gives:
P(f,c),j=max{P(f+rf,c+rc),j−1 , P(0,0),j−1}+MSV(ƒ,c),j+NSVP(ƒ,c),j
P(f,c),4=max{P(f+rf,c+rc),1, P(0,0),1}+MSV(ƒ,c),4+NSVP(ƒ,c),4
Therefore the values of P(0,3),4, P(1,4),4 and P(0,4),4 are calculated through the above relation. Firstly, all parts of this relation is calculated for j=4 (the values of MSV
(f,c),4
are taken from Figure 4).
P(0,0),1=0, P(0,3),1=−u, P(1,4),1=−u, P(0,4),1=−u
MSV(0,3),4=−u, MSV(1,4),4=−u, MSV(0,4),4=−u
No stope is formed yet, therefore, all values of NSVP(f,c),4 equal zero. The value of P(0,3),4, P(1,4),4 and P(0,4),4 are then calculated:
P(0,3),4=max{P(0,3),1, P(0,4),1, P(0,0),1}+MSV(0,3),4+NSVP(0,3),4
P(0,3),4=max{−u,−u,0}+(−u)+0
P(0,3),4=−u
P(1,4),4=max{P(1,4),1, P(0,0),1}+MSV(1,4),4+NSVP(1,4),4
P(1,4),4=max{−u,0}+(−u)+0
P(1,4),4=−u
P(0,4),4=max{P(0,3),1, P(0,4),1, P(0,0),1}+MSV(0,4),4+NSVP(0,4),6
P(0,4),4=max{−u,−u,0}+(−u)+0
P(0,4),4=−u
for j=5, respecting equation 10:
P(0,0),5=max{P(0,3),4, P(1,4),4, P(0,4),4, P(0,0),4}
P(0,0)5=max{−u,−u,−u,0}=0
and equation 11 gives:
P(f,c),5=max{P(f+rf,c rc),2, P(0,0),2}+MSV(ƒ,c),5+NSVP(ƒ,c),5
So, values of P(0,3),5, P(1,4),5 and P(0,4),5 are calculated trough the above relation.
P(0,0),2=0, P(0,3),2=−u, P(1, 4),2=−u, P(0,4),2=−u
MSV(0,3),5=9 ,MSV(1,4),5=8 ,MSV(0,4),5=
No stope is formed yet, therefore, all values of NSVP(f,c),5 equal zero. The value of P(0,3),5, P(1,4),5 and P(0,4),5 are then calculated:
P(0,3),5=max{P(0,3),2, P(0,4),2, P(0,0)2}+MSV(0,3),5+NSVP(0,3),5
P(0 3) 5=max{− u,−u,0}+9+0
P(0,3),5=9
P(1,4),5=max{P(1,4),2, P(0,0),2}+MSV(1,4),5+NSVP(1,4),5
P(1,4),5=max{−u,0}+8+0
P(1,4),5=8
P(0,4),5=max{P(0,3),2, P(0,4),2, P(0,0),2}+MSV(0,4),5+NSVP(0,4),5
P(0,4),5=max{−u,−u,0}+10+0
P(0,4),5=10
for j=6, respecting equation 10:
P(0,0),6=max{P(0,3),5, P(1,4),5, P(0,4),5, P(0,0),5}
P(0,0),4=max{9,8,10,0}
P(0,0),4=10
and equation 11 gives:
P(ƒ,c),6=max{P(ƒ+rƒ,c+rc),3, P(0,0),3}+MSV(ƒ,c),6+NSVP(ƒ,c),6
So, values of P(0,3),6, P(1,4),6 and P(0,4),6 are calculated trough the above relation.
P(0,0),3=0, P(0,3),3=−u, P(1,4),3=−u, P(0,4),3=−u
MSV(0,3),6=11, MSV(1,4),6=10, MSV(0,4),6=11
Through the previous stage a stope was formed satisfying the mining length restriction, so it is also possible to form a stope with the length of L=4
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blocks. Therefore, the values of NSVP(0,3),6, NSVP(1,4),6 and NSVP(0,4),6 are calculated.
Values of M(f,C),j are taken from Figure 3.
M(0,3),1=3, M(1,4),1=1, M(0,4),1=2
Therefore:
NSVP(0,3),6=max{3,2,0}−max{(−u−0), 0}+0
NSVP(0,3),6=3
Similarly:
Now, it is possible to calculate the values of P(f,c),6 (which includes P(0,3),6, P(1,4),6 and P(0,4),6).
Similarly, other values of P(f,c), j are calculated. There is no stope formed before the column j=5, at the 5th column, which is equivalent to x=3, stopes may be formed
with three blocks. If these stopes end at SL(0,3),5, which is located at row 2, the maximum net value of the stope will be 9 units while if it ends at SL(1,4),5 in the third
row, the maximum value of 8 units is obtained. Similarly, ending at SL(0,4),5 in the 4th row provide the maximum economic value of 10 units.
When a new stope is formed (ie a stope with the minimum allowed length), the set of stopes which form the optimum limits are in fact the set of stopes
Figure 5. An application of the proposed algorithm.
which guarantee the maximum value of MSV(f,c),j. Therefore, as the stope length increases, the optimum limit is obtained by adding the optimum stopes at new columns
to the old optimum limits. Since for j=5 a new stoped is formed, all stopes contributing in MSV(0,4),5 should be taken into account to locate optimum limits. The value
of MSV(0,4),5 is, therefore,
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calculated considering the net value of stopes at SL(0,4),3, SL(0,4),2 and SL(0 3),1 in the primary model. Thus, stopes at those locations should be mined.
Figure 5 illustrates the application of the algorithm on the final model for j=5, j=9 and j=12 together with the corresponding limits. As Figure 5 shows, the optimum
limits provide the maximum value of 32 units.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The proposed algorithm is based on the Dynamic Programming technique, which is supported by mathematical proof. The algorithm is applied on a special form of 2D
economic model. So, it is best suited for vein type or tabular deposits. In fact, characteristics of the ore body in the third dimension are projected on the model plane, ie
composited into one block. The proposed algorithm complies with all underground mining methods used for tabular deposits. Although the formulation of the model
construction and algorithm implementation is relatively complex, a computer program my be used to perform the task. This is under construction now.
REFERENCES
Alford, C.G. 1995. Optimisation in Underground Mine Design. 25th International Symposium on the Application of Computers and Operations Research in the
Mineral Industry, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy; Melbourne: 213–218.
Ataeepour, M. & Baffi, e.y. 1999. Stope optimization using the Maximum Value Neighborhood (MVN) concept. In K.Dagdelen (ed.), 28th International Symposium on
the Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry: Colorado 493–501.
Cheimanoff, N.M., Deliac, E.P. & Mallet, J.L. 1989. GEOCAD: An Alternative CAD Artificial Inteligence Tool that Helps Moving from Geological Resources to
Mineable Reserves. 21st International Symposium on the Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry, Societyfor Mining,
Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc.: Colorado 471–478.
Deraisme, J., de Fouquent, C. & Fraisse, H. 1984. Geostatistical Orebody Model for Computer Optimisation of Profits from Different Underground Mining Methods. 18th
International Symposium on the Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry, The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy: 583–
590.
Ovanic, J. & Young, D.S. 1995. Economic Optimisation of Stope Geometry Using Separable Programming with Special Branch and Bound Techniques. In H.Mitri (ed.),
Third Canadian Conference on Computer Applications in the Mineral Industry: 129–135. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Riddle, J.M. 1977. A Dynamic Programming Solution of a BlockCaving Mine Layout. 14th International Symposium on the Application of Computers and
Operations Research in the Mineral Industry, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Colorado: 767–780.
Page 53
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Shortterm scheduling and blending in a lignite openpit mine with BWEs
W.Kawalec
Institute of Mining Engineering, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland
ABSTRACT: The shortterm scheduling and blending procedures for the lignite open pit mine with BWEs have been presented. The shortterm
schedule processes the mining blocks—shortwalls taken from an LifeOfMine schedule. The shortwalls have been evaluated against the locally
updated model of a lignite deposit. Required lignite quality and lignite output rate have been set as the targets of the schedule. The various scenarios of
mining blocks dependency control have to be analysed in order to provide the solution that meets the targets and the limitations of continuous mining
operations with BWEs and belt conveyor transportation system. The final result bases on the chosen sequencing of mining blocks within the active
shortwalls with regard to allowable mining operations.
1 INTRODUCTION
Lignite is extensively used in Poland and several other European countries for power engineering. The years of development of the large opencast lignite mining have
proved the continuous surface mining with BWEs and belt conveying as the most efficient system. On the other hand, mines incorporating BWE system favour long
mining panels and are relatively less flexible than others.
The lack of flexibility of opencast mine with BWEs means that a substantial amount of planning efforts has to be performed in order to develop mining plans that
could meet all requirements.
Lignite is supplied to furnaces that are able to burn only the fuel matching constrained quality parameters. Therefore the online quality parameter control is necessary
(Foscolos 1996) and the required values are often obtained after blending on a special stockpile. Stockpiles of lignite increase the cost of supplying the fuel into the
power plant, not to mention that they are not environmental friendly. Small amount of lignite is also stored (and blended) in power plant bunkers before shipping into
furnaces. As lignite parameters can vary significantly within a coal bed (despite keeping good average values) the proper sequence and advancing mining faces with
regard to quality parameters of blended lignite stream is crucial for matching the power plant requirements without costly, additional blending operations.
A successful “insitu” blending of lignite means that throughout the whole life of mine there are available mining faces that could supply suitable coal by adjusting the
output of excavators only.
2 THE PROPOSAL OF A SOLUTION
The full solution of scheduling and blending of a lignite deposit in order to provide the averaged coal has to be divided into several levels:
– Lifeofmine (LOM) plan built upon the pushback sequence (Tolwinski 2002) which ensures the suitable averaged lignite quality parameters in each period of a mine
life,
– Short term plan built upon the mining panels (called shortwalls) derived from the LOM plan,
– Online coal quality control for enhancement of quality of lignite stream shipped to the power plant.
The example of a LOM plan built with the use of NPV Scheduler software, utilizing the pushback approach was presented in (Kawalec 2000) and has been used for
further evaluation below.
The sophisticated online quality control systems have been successfully implemented in several mines and have already been described (Keller 1998).
The short term plan of mining shortwalls, prepared on the basis of a LOM plan is constructed with the following assumptions:
– Detailed modeling of shortwalls should be done within the integrated 3D CAD environment of a specialised mining package. This is vital due to necessary accuracy
of evaluating mining faces.
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– Short term planning incorporates updated information of lignite quality taken from face samples and/or drillholes made directly from the top of coal bed.
– Lignite quality is marked with the use of a price formula that incorporates all quality parameters (Mastoris 1994). Thus averaging the price can supersede tedious
averaging of several parameters.
– The plan is subjected to several limitations, like bounds of excavating capacity, possible directions of face advancing, typical sizes of mining cuts, angles of working
and stable slopes, etc.
– The project of a shortterm plan consists of three steps:
• generation of a series of output rate from each shortwall with regard to possible mining block sequencing,
• analysis of obtained blended reference coal stream—selection of sequences for further evaluation,
• generation a multiperiod planning model for the chosen sequence of advancing shortwalls.
A case study described below presents the idea of the proposed solution.
3 CASE STUDY
3.1 Modeling the shortwalls
The structural and quality block model of an analysed large lignite deposit has been developed in the Institute of Opencast Mining PoltegorInstytut, Wroclaw and has
already been used for several studies (Specylak 1998). The prototype blockmodel cell sizes (200×200×6 m) were set according to drillhole grid and average sample
length. The selected quality parameters (calorific value, ash and sulphur content) were interpolated within defined geological zones.
The economic model was created upon the quality model with the use of the following price formula (Blaschke 1998):
C=CB×QI
(1)
(2)
where: C—actual selling price of lignite; CB—standard price—price of the standard (or reference) coal; QI—coal quality indicator; QB—calorific value of reference
coal (kJ/kg); QR—actual calorific value (kJ/kg); AB—ash content in reference coal (%); AR—actual ash content (%); SB—sulphur content in reference coal (%);
SR—actual sulphur content (%).
For the short term planning purposes the most important is the actual value of coal quality indicator that represents the quality of coal. The actual price depends on
QI and standard price CB. As standard price is changing regardless on the quality of coal it can be neglected for the further evaluation.
The following values were used in formula (2):
QB=7786 kJ/kg; AB=10.1 (%); SB=0.61 (%).
The quality and economic model were built in DATAMINE. Upon the economic model, assumed cost of mining and technical constraints the ultimate pit (containing
some SOOmillion tonnes of lignite) was created with the use of NPV Scheduler (Jurdziak 2000).
The ultimate pit was the basis for the generation of the optimal pit and series of pushbacks. Eventually the longterm schedule was created with the annual output of
25 million tonnes of lignite (Kawalec 2000).
The strings representing shortwalls (direction: NorthSouth, advance: 200 m, height: 25–35 m) for one year of advancing the mine were designed within the
boundaries of the ultimate pit and sections of mine advance (figures 1 and 2).
The quality and economic block model has been updated for the purpose of detailed shortwall evaluation. First, the new prototype with smaller parent cells
Figure 1. View of the series of shortwalls on the shell of the ultimate pit (vertical exaggeration applied).
Figure 2. View of the wireframe models of the series of shortwalls and the outlines of the ultimate pit shell (vertical exaggeration
applied).
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sizes was set (40×40×6 m). The new prototype was applied to the considered fragment of the whole block model. The smaller parent cells are necessary for
processing more accurate data from face samples and coal analysis from coal drillholes with the spacing of 50×50 m or less.
The solid wireframes were built from the strings representing shortwalls (figure 2).
3.2 Evaluating the shortwalls
The structural block model of shortwalls on 6 benches was then created and added into the quality model to obtain the quality (and economic) model just inside the
shortwalls (figure 3). The evaluation of the shortwalls against the block model (table 1) has shown that only the bottom 3 benches contain coal for blending (the 4th is
neglected). Only these 3 benches have been analysed.
The full block mining is the most common method in lignite mines with BWEs. A shortwall is sliced by cuts (spacing ≈50 m) parallel to the working slope. For the
purpose of control the face advance the shortwall on mining plans is divided into sectors (different spacing is used, here 120 m) that are perpendicular to cuts (figure 4).
However the distribution of lignite and overburden in the benches in not uniform (figure 3). Therefore the detailed evaluation of the benches is necessary for planning
their advancing.
Figure 3. View from the bottom on the cells of block model in shortwalls and the pit shell (vertical exaggeration applied, dark cells contain
coal).
Table 1. Lignite shortwalls results.
A BWE starts mining from one side of a shortwall and advances the face along the working face to the end of the shortwall. Then the face conveyor is shifted for the
next position of the BWE which comes back (figure 5).
Figure 4. The typical layout of mining cuts (α) and sectors (β) of a shortwall mined by a BWE.
Figure 5. Two main directions of advancing a shortwall (with the minimum shifting of mining equipment) N—North to South first, S—
South to North first.
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Figure 6. Grid of sectors and cuts for quick evaluation of analysed shortwalls.
Figure 7. Coal quality indicator for standard advance with different direction for the 1st and 3rd bench.
Table 2. Basic characteristics of advancing scenarios.
Reference coal [thousand tonnes]
Advance Maximum Minimum Average Standard deviation
NNN 517 264 422 46
SSS 476 178 420 47
NSS 505 183 422 47
NNS 521 257 422 62
SNS 495 281 420 41
SNN 499 259 420 59
SSN 524 128 420 59
NSN 497 133 422 53
Note that if not assuming the continuity of mining the face of a shortwall, the number of all possible sequences in this case equals (24)3=4096.
The mining blocks defined by outlines obtained from grid of cuts and sectors for each lignite shortwall have been evaluated against the block model with the use of
outlines generated according to the working slope angle (figure 6). Therefore quality parameters are averaged within true mining blocks as they are excavated by a
BWE (not just taken from a map of a coal bed).
3.3 Bench advance analysis
For the further analysis the uniform advance (or standard advance) of each bench with start positions N and S were generated with the use of Scheduling & Blending
module of the DATAMINE software. The calendar was set to 50 weeks and the output rate for each bench was set to ensure uniform mining under dependency
control as shown on figure 5.
The obtained characteristics of coal quality indicator QI averaged weekly for bench 1 and 3 are presented on figure 7.
Basing upon these characteristics of advancing individual benches a simulation of blending was calculated in order to distinguish the mining scenario that provides
better blending without optimisation. Eight scenarios denoted SSS (all 3 benches start from South), SNS (benches 1 and 3 start from South, bench 2 from North), etc.
were checked.
The average values of reference coal total mass (tonnage of coal multiplied by QI) are obviously the same but the basic parameters of variation differ significantly.
The scenario SNS—bench 1 and 3 starting from South and bench 2—from North was selected for optimisation. The average value of QI is mere 0.89 (the poor lignite
quality).
The stream of reference coal output for all analysed advancing scenarios is shown on figure 8. Even the SNS scenario contains peaks of decreased and decreased
amount of coal stream which have to be
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Figure 8. Reference coal output for various advancing scenarios on all benches; thick line denotes the selected scenario SNS.
Table 3. Characteristics of basic and optimised scenarios.
Reference coal [thousand tonnes]
Advance Maximum Minimum Average Stdandard deviation
SNS optimised 527 382 420 34
SNS basic 495 281 420 41
QI—Coal quality indicator
Advance Maximum Minimum Average Standard deviation
SNS optimised 1,097 0,83 0,892 0,069
SNS basic 1,02 0,69 0,892 0,084
smoothed in order to provide required values of lignite supply over the whole year.
3.4 Shortwall optimisation
The optimisation of lignite supply was made with the use of Linear Programming module in DATAMINE. The schedule has been created for the following settings:
– calendar: 50 weeks,
– targets: tonnage of lignite 460–480 thousand tonnes, QI (coal quality indicator) 0.83–0.95,
– bounds: dependency and bench capacity (constrained by a BWE and the conveying transportation capacity); the maximum weekly capacity were set
Figure 9. The comparison of reference coal and coal output for the basic and optimised SNS scenarios.
to 350 thousand tonnes for the bench 1 and 400 thousand tonnes for benches 2 and 3 respectively.
The analysis of individual advancing scenarios for each bench, especially for the lignite/overburden one shows a significant changeability of the quality of
Page 58
Figure 10. The changes of coal quality indicator and calorific value throughout the planned year.
Figure 11. Changes of actual weekly bench output applied for achieving tonnage and quality targets.
coal. Meeting the targets under such difficult conditions while using the iterative optimisation (Tolwinski 2002) requires several trials. Eventually, after temporary
relaxing the quality targets a reasonable short term schedule has been achieved.
The optimisation of the chosen advancing sequence has led to balanced stream of lignite. The lower quality bound was maintained, only the upper one had to be
relaxed. Figures 9–11 present selected quality and mining parameters.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Lignite opencast mines with BWEs are relatively less flexible in comparison with cyclic mining systems. Most scheduling tools have been developed for cyclic mining
rather so they require additional procedures in order to obtain any useful solution.
The proposed simple method of building an optimised short term schedule comprises of detailed mining blocks evaluation against the locally updated quality block
model, simulation of mine advancing on the basis of standard advances of single benches and selection the most uniform advancing scenario for the final scheduling and
blending with the use of specialised mining software.
The method of selection the best advancing scenario for further optimisation is very basic and for more complicated mine layout may be insufficient. Neural networks
could be then implemented for classification the advancing scenarios for selection a set of toprated ones for blending.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The computations have been made with the use of the DATAMINE mining software granted for the Wroclaw University of Technology.
Publication sponsored by the Polish State Committee for Scientific Research, grant project No. 5T12A00823
REFERENCES
Blaschke W., 1998, Problems of lignite prices with regard to pricing foundations of coal for power engineering, Proceedings of the session of the Mining Committee of
the Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow—Belchatow (in Polish).
Foscolos M.P., Sideris M., Nilchan S., 1996, The development & application of an integrated modelling system for lignite quality analysis, Computers chem. Engng Vol.
20, Elsevier Science Ltd.
Jurdziak L., Kawalec W., 2000, Optimisation of the pit based on the price of lignite and quality requirements for the “Szczerców” deposit, VII Conference Proc.: The
Exploitation of Mineral Resources, Zakopane 2000 (in Polish).
Kawalec W., Specylak J., 2000, Open pit design optimisation of a lignite deposit, Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, 2000 Balkema, Rotterdam.
Page 59
Keller Ch., 1998, Innovative Coal Blending System at the LAUBAG Nochten Opencast Mine, Metals, Mining and More 2/98.
Mastoris J., Topuz E., Karamis M., Schilizzi P., Modis K., 1994, An application of geostatistical modeling and 3D optimisation of the final pit lim its for a lignite deposite,
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, 1994 Balkema, Rotterdam.
Specylak J., Kawalec W., 1998, Modelling of the final pit of a lignite deposit with the use of Lerchs—Grossmann optimisation algorithm, VI Conference Proceedings: The
Exploitation of Mineral Resources, Zakopane (in Polish).
Srinivasan S., Whittle D., 1996, Combined Pit and Blend Optimisation, SME Annual Meeting, Phoenix, Arizona—March 11–14.
Tolwinski B., 2002, MEW NPVS Scheduler and Multimine Scheduler Solution for CVRDItabira, Notes from discussion, Datamine Latin America, Belo Horizonte.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Use of Lagrange’s polynomial theory for calculation of optimal and limit depths
in open pit mine
M.Mukalay
Gecamines Company, Lubumbashi, D.R.Congo
K.D.Mboko
National Institute of Petroleum , Sumbe, Angola
M.Kamulete & S.Ngoie
University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, D.R.Congo
ABSTRACT: Many programs use LerchsGrossmann’s or Floating Cone theory to optimize mining. This paper presents, for dip deposits, an
approach to open pit mine optimization based on successive pits. Each pit drawn by hand or on a computer is numbered (i). The depth h is an
independent variable. Lagrange’s polynomial theory is used to model mathematically the open pit by 3 polynomials of the revenue r(h), expense d(h)
and profit p(h) in function of the depth h. Each pit (i) satisfies the conditions: RI=r(hi), di=d(hi) and pi=p(hi). Values of the profit pi are discounted to
obtain the Net Present Values NPVi and the polynomial NPV(h).
Optimal and limit depths are obtained by solving the polynomial p(h) or NPV(h) with the program Optimin.bas conceived for copper and cobalt
deposits frequently met in D.R.Congo. Algorithms of the program can be adjusted to other kinds of ore. The program application in the KOV mine is
given to illustrate the approach.
1 INTRODUCTION
Mining companies in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) are in big difficulties. Since 1993, several solutions have been carried out. In the same way, mine
optimization techniques were developed in order to improve the profitability.
Many optimization programs based on repetitive and iterative theories like LerchsGrossmann’s or Floating Cone are proposed around the world and run on
computers of big capacities. A numerical method, based on the Lagrange’s polynomial principle, for the calculation of optimal and limit depths in the open pit mine
project on the dip deposit, is suggested in the report. It is easy and can be used on computers of low capacities. It uses the maximal profit criterion or the Net Present
Value NPV criterion. The method application in the KOV mine in DRC is given as an example.
The approach proposed in this paper takes into account the haul road and infrastructure areas (crushers, dewatering…) at the design and optimization step, contrary
to some other theories which lead to the optimal pit design before the road and area introduction. It is necessary to remind that the introduction of the haul road in the
open pit project can increase the waste volume from 10 to 30% and can seriously decrease the profitability of a mine project.
This study requires the design of pits by hand or the automatic procedure on computer with an appropriate program like Vulcan, Surpac… In our case, we used an
old computer Vax with the program called Games. This device helped us to digitalize the pits and to calculate their reserves.
Each pit must be finished with haul roads, infrastructure areas and stability disposals.
Contain (ore and waste) of successive pits designed at different levels of the deposit are economically modeled by a polynomial of profit. Its resolution gives the
optimal depth for the optimal pit design and the limit depth as a limit of profitable exploitation in the open pit mode.
After the determination of the optimal depth, the optimal pit can be designed, as said above.
The complexity of calculations and mathematical equations to resolve conducts us to elaborate the algorithms, organigrams and Optimin.bas program in Basic
language, which is based on the deposits containing copper and cobalt. The program uses one input file containing data and rates of the mine, processing, transport and
market. It generates four output files, one graphic and can be used for sensibility studies.
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2 OPEN PIT PROJECT VALUATION
2.1 Revenues
The revenue can be calculated from ore tonnage, grades, recoveries and product prices, which are often variable but they must be assumed.
There is a number of ways to calculate the revenue of a pit. One used generally in the mining project is as follows:
(1)
– n: number of different metals exploited;
– Metal(i): tonnage of metal(i) in each pit;
– Recovery(i): proportion of metal (i) recovered after processing;
– Price(i): price per unit of metal(i) sold.
2.2 Expenses
To optimize a pit, mining costs, processing costs, and taxes must be calculated. Investment and rehabilitation costs must be estimated. One of the ways to calculate
expenses is as follows:
Prodexpense=(ore x costp)+(rock x costm)
(2)
– Prodexpense: production expenses;
– ore: tonnage of ore in the pit;
– rock: tonnage of rock (ore and waste) in the pit;
– costp: extra cost per ton of ore for its mining and processing;
– costm: cost per ton of waste for its mining.
Note that cubic meter is used regularly in place of ton. Then formulas must be adjusted.
Total expense=Prodexpense+Rehabcost+ Market Cost+Taxes+Investments
(3)
– Rehabcost: rehabilitation costs.
2.3 Proflt and discount
As it is known, the dollar received today is more
Proflt=Revenue−Total expense
(4)
valuable than that received in a year’s time. Then expected profits are discounted by an amount that increases with the time. They become Net Present Values NPV.
The rate of decrease of value is usually expressed as a discount, such as 10% per year.
3 CALCULATION OF OPTIMAL AND LIMIT DEPTHS FOR OPEN PIT MINE
3.1 Introduction
Around the world, many mine optimization programs were written on the base of LerchsGrossmann’s and Floating Cone theories. This study suggests an approach to
mine optimization using the maximal profit and the net present value NPV criteria as said in the introduction.
3.2 Our present approach and its inconveniences
Dip deposits are exploited by the crater method, which is adjusted to technique proposed in this paper.
To determine the optimal depth, in our present approach, we draw successive pits OPi at different depths hi (Fig. 1). The increment of depth between two
successive pits Hi=hi+1−hi is a constant of 5 m, 10 m or 20 m. Then the optimal project is one with the best profit. For ore body of more than 300 m of depth such as
Dikuluwe, KOV, Etoile in D.R.Congo, it is necessary to draw 60, 30 or 15 open pits projects OPi. This procedure causes the following inconveniences:
– It is not easy to draw by hand or by computer several OPi including the haul road, infrastructure areas, and stability disposals. It creates a loss of time, fatigue and
errors during the design process and simulation;
– The ore distribution between two successive levels is not taken into account;
– If the optimal depth is between two successive levels, it is simply omitted because the possible optimal depth must be one of the depths used to draw the successive
pits OPi (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Crater method.
Page 63
3.3 New approach based on Lagrange’s polynomial theory
In this study, a method for which it is not necessary that the successive open pit projects OPi are drawn at the constant increment Hi=hi+1−hi, is suggested. It can be
constant or variable. Its determination includes a good knowledge of the distribution of the ore in the deposit. The man in charge of the project must analyze attentively
the distribution trend of ore before the choice of depths hi that must be used to draw successive open pit mines OPi (Fig.1). He can add new open pits OPi to improve
the curves.
For each OPi of the depth hi, its volume in m3 and its tonnage of ore and metals of levels up to hi are calculated on the base of geological data, With these elements,
the total expense di, the revenue ri and the profit pi is calculated. For n pits, there is:
p0=r0−d0
(5)
p1=r1−d1
p2=r2−d2
pn =rn −dn
3.3.1 Lagrange’s polynomial theory
Each pit has a depth hi and a profit pi. Then hi is the independent variable increasing with the depth and pi is a dependent variable. For n+1 pits, we can have (P0, P1,
P2,…, Pn ) for (h0, h1, h2,…, hn ). An unknown polynomial Pn (h)=f(h) links these two sets of variables.
At the first time, we used Mac Laurin’s serial development and regression curve theories to define the polynomial Pn (h). Errors were very big including loss or
supplement money following the case.
Lagrange’s polynomial theory was chosen in order to achieve good approximations and to correspond at each hi value, its real value of Pi[p0=f(h0), p1= f(h1), p2=f
(h2),…, Pn =f(hn )], h0 is the depth of the first pit and hn is the limit depth of the ore, n is the degree of the polynomial and n+1 is the number of pits drawn.
Note that the approximation is very good if n is high.
The Lagrange polynomial is as follows:
(6)
The important condition for applying this approach is that the values of hi must be different to avoid the denominator being equal to zero (6).
Then optimal depth Hopt is one of the maximums of the function Pn (h). It is one of the roots of the derivative . The limit depth Hlim is one of the roots of Pn (h).
By substituting pi with ri or di in Pn (h), the Lagrange’s polynomial of the revenues Rn (h)=f(h) or that of the expenses Dn (h)=f(h) is obtained. The curves of these two
polynomials are drawn only for analysis of the distribution of ore in the deposit. Dn (h) and Rn (h) must be already increasing and can be improved by drawing and
adding other mines OP.
Pin(h) can be discounted to become the polynomial of Net Present Value NPVn (h). For this purpose, it is necessary to discount the value pi and to subtract the
investment. To calculate the duration of each pit, it is necessary to determine the volume that can be excavated per year. By dividing the volume of each pit OPi, its
duration used for discounting can be obtained. Note that the profit is assumed to be constant each year at this step of study.
3.3.2 Lagrange’s polynomial resolution by successive approximation theory on a computer
For all open pit projects OPi, there are 3 curves Pn (h)=f(h), Rn (h)=f(h), Dn (h)=f(h). The procedure for determination of the optimal depth Hopt and the limit depth
Hlim concerns only Pn (h). To calculate Hopt and Hlim, it is necessary to define an increment x. Good optimization is obtained if 0.5<x<1. Then virtual depths are
calculated as follows:
h’0= h0 (h0 is the smallest depth of designed pits)
(7)
h’1=h’0+x
h’2=h’1+x=h’0+2.x
h’3=h’0+3.x
…
h’j=h’0+j.x
This procedure is repeated until (hn is the great depth of the designed pits).
In substituting progressively h with in (6), j+1 couples are obtained as follows: . For the resolution by successive approximation theory, 3 couples are read
successively in this file and affected as follows:
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– If pp1<pp2 and pp2>pp3 then is a max;
Figure 2. Scheme of a maximum.
– If pp1>pp2 and pp2<pp3 then is a min;
Figure 3. Scheme of a minimum.
After this step, and become and ; and become and . Then new couple of value and is read and the procedure starts
again.
The biggest value of obtained maximum is the optimal depth Hopt that varies with the input parameters. Other values of maximum can be used for the drawing of
phases in a big project.
If <=0), the limit depth Hlim can be approximated as shown in Figures 4 and 5.
. Note that this approximation is very good if the increment x is small.
3.3.3 Optimal depth treatment
At the optimal depth, the volume and the tonnage of ore to be removed, the stripping ratio, the revenue, the expenses, the profit, the tax, the mining exploitation
expenses, the processing expenses and the marketing expenses are calculated by the linear interpolation.
The optimal pit will be drawn by hand or automatically on computer if necessary programs are available.
Comparison of approximated values and those obtained from the design of the optimal pit at Hopt gives an acceptable difference.
4 OPTIMIN.BAS PROGRAM
4.1 Optimin. bas processor
Theories and techniques, given above, for determination of the optimal depth, limit depth and open pit
Figure 4. Scheme of limit depth.
Figure 5. Scheme of limit depth.
valuation were used to write the algorithms, organigrams and the processor called Optimin.bas in Basic language. It is based on the deposits containing copper and
cobalt. However, it can be adjusted for other kinds of ore bodies.
It uses one input file containing the data and rates of the mine, the processing, transport and market. It generates four output files and one graphic. It can be used for
sensibility studies. It is not included in this paper because of its big size.
4.2 Input file
The input file MCO$ called on any name, can be created interactively or in modifying an existing file. It contains:
CARD 1: open pit mine name;
CARD 2: user name, date and hour;
CARD 3: number of open pits drawn;
CARD 4: increment x;
CARD 5:
Depths, tonnage of ore, volume pits, tonnage of copper, tonnage of cobalt, costs per m3 excavated and stripping ratios.
CARD 6: Economical, technical and marketing parameters and taxes.
4.2.1 Model KOV990.IN as printed by Optimin.bas
ENTER THE NAME OF THE MINE: KOV990.IN USER NAME : MUKALAY 03–22–2004 16:34:53
Page 65
DESIGNED MINES NUMBER : 6
6
INCREMENT: .5
0.500
INVESTMENT [$] IVT
INVESTMENT [$] IVT
100000000
ANNUAL CUBE [m3/AN] VOLUAN
10000000
DISCOUNT RATE [%] TAUACT
5
COPPER PRICE [$/LB] PVCu
1.3
COBALT PRICE [$/LB] PVCo
23.0
LOSS OF TRANSPORT [%] FR
3.0
COPPER RECOVERY AT CTR [%] RDCTRCu
75
COBALT RECOVERY AT CTR [%] RDCTRCo
60
COPPER METALL RECOVERY [%] RDMETCu 86
COBALT METALL RECOVERY [%] RDMETCo
55
EXPL COST CTR [$/T] CECT
10.0
COPPER METALL EXPL COST [$/LB] CEMECu
0.13
COBALT METALL EXPL COST [$/LB] CEMECo
2.00
ORE TRP COST TO CTR [$/TKm] CTMI
0.13
TRP COST OF CONCENTRATE TO METALL
[$/TKm] CTME
0.13
TRP COST TO EXPORT COPPER [$/TCopper]
CTEXCu 180.00
TRP COST TO EXPORT COBALT [$/TCobalt]
CTEXCo
230.00
LOADING COST AT STOCKPILE [$/T] CCRBL
0.55
LOADING COST AT CTR [$/T] CCCTR
0.55
LOADING COST FOR FILTERED PRODUCT [$/T]
CCPF
0.63
DEWATERING COST [$/m3] CEXH 0.04
WATER GRADE AT THE STOCKPILE [%] A
10
WATER GRADE IN CONCENTRATE [%] AA
20 VOLUME FACTOR AT CTR [] Q
5.0
PERCENT OF MARKETING COST [%] B
13.0
PERCENT OF COMMISSION [%] C
2.3
PERCENT OF GENERAL EXPENSES [%] D
10.0
PERCENT OF TAX ON THE BENEFIT [%] E
30.0
PERCENT OF COST OF THE OREBODY [%] G
0.0
WATERING FACTOR [m3/T] G1
5.0
DISTANCE STOCKPILE CTR [KM] L1
4.00
DISTANCE CTRMETALL PLANT [KM] L2
10.00
Below are other abbreviations used in this input file:
– DPH: depths (m);
– CUBE: volume of rock (m3);
– Tcopper and Tcobalt: tonnage of copper and cobalt;
– COST: mining cost per m3 ($/m3);
– STRP: stripping ratio (m3/T);
– CTR: concentrator.
4.3 Output file
Optimin.bas program creates the output files given below:
MCO1$ is a file created for each mine and it contains revenues, expenses and profits for all open pits mines designed. It contains also the maximum and minimum
depths of the function Pn (h), the results of the valuation of the optimal open pit.
REC.OUT for revenues, DEP.OUT for expenses and PRO.OUT for profit are the big temporary files.
4.3.1 Model KOV990.OUT as printed by Optimin.bas
NAME OF THE MINE: KOV990.IN
OUTPUT FILE NAME: KOV990.OUT
USERNAME : MUKALAY 03–22–2004 16:52:25
DESIGNED MINES NUMBER : 6
6 INCREMENT: .5
0.500
OPTIMUM: DEPTH OPTIMUM [m]=456
NPV OPTIMUM [$]=1196894464
VOLUME EXCAVATED [m3]=217035616
TONNAGE OF ORE [T]=36149680
COPPER TONNAGE [T]=1955639
COBALT TONNAGE [T]=114851
STRIP. RATIO [m3/T]=6
STRIP. RATIO [m3/TCopper]=111
STRIP. RATIO [m3/TCobalt]=1890
MINING COST [$/m3]=4.37
MAX : H=456 REV=5;.370799E+09 EXP =
3.38632E+09 PROF= 1.196894E+09
ATTENTION! THE VALUES BELOW ARE
SIMPLE APPROXIMATIONS BEFORE DESIGN
ING THE OPTIMAL PIT. THEY CAN BE COM
PARED
COPPER REVENUE=3506657280
COBALT REVENUE=1864141568
REVENUE TOTAL=5370799104
EXPENSES=3394856704
PROFIT=1975942400
TAX ON BENEFIT=846832448
MINING EXPENSES=947398272
CONCENTRATOR EXPENSES=401663136
STOCKPILE LOADING EXPENSES=22091472
CONCENTRATOR LOADING EXPENSES=
22091472
FILTERED PRODUCTS LOADING EXPENSES=
5693575
DEWATERING EXPENSES=7229936
METALL COPPER EXPENSES=350665728
METALL COBALT EXPENSES=162099264
TOTAL METALL EXPENSES=512764992
EXPENSES TRP STOCKPILE CONCENTR
20886482
EXPENSES TRP CTRMETALLURGY=
11748646
GENERAL EXPENSES=195156800
TOTAL EXPENSES=2146724864
EXPENSES TRP EXPORT Copper=220238208
EXPENSES TRP EXPORT Cobalt=8455690
EXPENSES EXPORT TOTAL=228693904
MARKETING COST=72605464
OREBODYCOST=0
4.4 Graphic
After processing, Optimin.bas draws a graphic directly on the screen of the computer. It shows the optimal depth value, the optimal profit value, the curve of revenues
in function of depth, the curve of expenses in function of depth, the curve of profit in function of depth, the line showing the break even and the point of optimal values.
Until now, we could not put the graphic in a file and print it directly from BASIC processor, but we
Figure 6. Curves of revenue, expense and NPV on KOV mine.
use the data from the files REC.OUT, DEP.OUT and PRO.OUT to draw the printable graphics with Excel program.
4.5 Sensibility study
The Optimin.bas program can be used for sensibility studies by changing values for copper price, cobalt price, discount rate, recoveries etc. Below there are the
examples of the sensibility study in function of copper:
Figure 7. NPV in function of copper price on KOV mine.
This figure is made for the cobalt price of 23 $/lb and for discount rate of 5%.
Figure 8. Evolution of optimal depth in function of copper price on KOV mine.
5 CONCLUSION
The optimal pit design is a delicate phase in mining projects because the deposits do not have regular forms. Horizontal and vertical distributions of ore and grades are
hazardous and more difficult to be modeled.
This publication presents, for a dip deposit, the optimal pit design principle based on the optimal
Page 67
depth calculation and on the economical assessment (valuation) procedure for open pit mine. Successive pits designed at different levels of the deposit are economically
modeled by a polynomial of the degree n. Its resolution made with a computer by the Optimin.bas program gives the optimal depth for the optimal pit design and the
limit depth as profitability limit for exploitation in the open pit mode.
Optimin.bas is an amateur program using one input file and creating four output files with one graphic. It offers great advantage because it is simple and can be used
on computers of low capacities with guarantee of the result quality. Its algorithms can be used to write subroutines, which can be included in the big programs known
around the world.
This study will be completed in the way to improve the algorithms and to write a professional program offering the possibility of graphics saving and printing. As
these specialties are not developed in our university, we hope to be helped.
REFERENCES
J.WHITTLE. 1997. Short course on optimisation in mine design. Perth, Australie.
KAMULETE M. 1997. Recherche d’une fosse ultime d’une mine á ciel ouvert exploitée par 1a méthode des fosses emboîtées; cas de la mine de KOV. These de
doctorat. Mons.
KATAMBA K. 1996. Optimisation du projet d’exploitati minière, cas de 1a mine à ciel ouvert de Kamoya Sud 2. UNILU Polytechnique, Lubumbashi.
MUKALAY M. 1997. Elaboration et études d’optimalisation du projet d’exploitation du gisement de Kasombo 2. Gécamines EMI, Lubumbashi.
MUKALAY M. September 2003. Approach for calculation of maximum widths of benches introduced at different depths of deep open pits projects, In Singhal R & Fytas
K. & Chiwetelu C., Fourth intern. Conf. On computer applications in the minerals industries (CAMI 2003), Calgary, Canada.
VERLINDEN P. 1989. Cours d’analyse numérique en ler grade mines. Unilu Polytechnique, Lubumbashi.
TAMBWE N. 1997. Etude d’une approche permettant 1a détermination de la profondeur optimale d’une carrière par des méthodes de simulations numériques.
Unilu Polytechnique, Lubumbashi.
W.K.BRAVERS. 1987. Analyse et évaluation des projets dans les pays en développement. ARCO, Louvain.
Wm.SHARP. 1974. Optimal open pit design under uncertainty. Gecamines DMC/RMI, Lubumbashi.
Wm.SHARP, M.ROBERT. 1975. Production scheduling and design for surface mines. Gécamines RMI, Lubumbashi.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Identification of mineable blocks in dimension stone rock masses
R.Prissang
Institute of Geological Sciences, Free University of Berlin, Germany
P.Hellä, T.Lehtimäki, P.Saksa & J.Nummela
JPFintact Oy, Vantaa, Finland
A.Vuento
South Carelia Polytechnic, Lappeenranta, Finland
ABSTRACT: A novel approach is presented to assist dimension stone quarrying companies in increasing the recovery. It is demonstrated that high
frequency ground penetrating radar measurements in conjunction with DC resistivity logging provide key information about the inner structure of larger
rock masses. For the identification of mineable (or commercial) blocks, a linear octreeencoded volume model of a primary block is set up. Surface
models of discontinuities are converted into surface octrees by hierarchical voxelisation. Subtracting these octrees from the initial model produces an
octree representing the undisturbed, intact regions, only. After removal of small fault blocks, the octree is subjected to a regular block search. The
volumes of the resulting blocks are summed up for userdefined intervals along the primary block’s face. 3D visualisations and volume tabulations of
mineable blocks constitute vital planning aids for the quarry master. Conducted field tests showed that 70–90% of the discontinuities were correctly
recorded and modelled.
1 INTRODUCTION
In Finnish granite quarries the yield of saleable stone products ranges from 5% to 10% of the total volume of rock excavated. Due to transport costs, the option of
using leftover stone to produce aggregates is only viable if the sites are located in the proximity of population centres. Otherwise, the material has to be conveyed to
nearby waste tips. To move the production in a more sustainable direction and also to meet the challenges by the globalisation of the dimension stone market, quarry
operators looked for a methodology to assist them in resource management.
At the outset, it was necessary to develop geological and geophysical measurement and interpretation techniques to map inhomogeneities in dimension stone rock
masses with sufficient accuracy.
In addition to that, software tools had to be devised and realised enabling geophysicists and geologists to build 3D models of the inner structures of the measured
blocks. These models form the basis for automatic identification of regular undisturbed intact blocks.
In the long run, it can be envisaged that measuring, interpretation and model building services will be offered by specialised contractors. To provide quarry masters
with optimum decision support, the necessary model evaluation tools will have to be implemented on site.
2 QUARRYING METHOD
Extraction of granite starts with delineating and loosening of large, rectangular, socalled primary blocks. To ease the production process, the blocks are usually aligned
with major faults and joints. Each primary block is subdivided into slices. Their sizes depend on the spacing of observed discontinuities. The slices are tipped onto the
quarry bench and cut into 15–201 commercial blocks with target dimensions of 2 m×2 m×1.5 m or 3 m×1.5 m×1.5 m (Fig. 1).
The characteristic of the Finnish quarrying method is that loosening of the primary block is carried out by blasting. Rows of closelyspaced blastholes are drilled at
the back and at the bottom of the block while the sides are opened up in most cases by slot drilling. The detonation separates the block 10–20 cm from the surrounding
bedrock without adversely affecting its structural integrity. Stitch drilling and hydraulic wedging is employed in the subsequent splitting work.
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Figure 1. Block extraction in granite quarries (Heldal & Arvanitides 2003).
3 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING
3.1 Field measurements
The main source of dimension stone in south Carelia is Rapakivi granite. On the macroscopic scale, the rock mass is structured by horizontal joints which are several
metres apart. Even though the rock seems to be quite uniform, it comprises various discontinuities and inhomogeneities (fractures, microcracks, veins, mineralogical and
textural variations). Practical experiences highlighted the difficulty to correctly infer the geometry of these features from visual inspections of the primary blocks’ front
faces.
To overcome this problem, JPFintact Oy investigated the application of highresolution geological and geophysical measurements. Highfrequency ground
penetrating radar (GPR) can reveal the inner structure of blocks with volumes up to 2000 m3. To carry out the measurements a RAMAC/GPRTm unit from Malå
GeoScience AB with a 500 MHz shielded antenna is employed. The unit is mounted on a skid sled which has been fitted witha prism for a total station to record its
position. It is drawn along the front and the top face of the primary block (Fig. 2). Survey line spacing is 0.5 m.
In order to calibrate the GPR data, resistivity is measured in the blastholes. In addition to that, discontinuities are mapped in the front face. Mapping of the top
surface would require intensive cleaning and it is therefore not practicable in operating quarries.
3.2 Interpretation
Interpretation and calibration of the GPR results must be carried out by a skilled geophysicist. These activities comprise the following steps:
• interactive picking of reflection points,
• velocity approximation,
• converting travel time to distance,
Figure 2. GPR survey of the front face of a primary block.
• fitting a plane through the reflection points to determine dip direction and dip, and
• calculating the coordinates of the reflection points (using local surface coordinates).
From the scattered data points, triangulated irregular networks (TINs) of the discontinuity surfaces are generated. Visualisation and evaluation are carried out in the
widely used AutoCAD package.
Quarry planners are in need of information on the locations of commercial blocks of sizes suitable for the desired end products (blocks, slabs etc.). The generated
surface models are far too complex to be used as decision support for extraction planning. Due to the difficulty to identify intact blocks by evaluating sections and level
plans, we had to turn from a surface modelling to a volume modelling approach.
4 VOLUME MODELLING
4.1 Linear octree based deposit modelling
To accomplish this task, the Linear Octree Based Deposit Modelling System (Prissang 1992) developed at Free University of Berlin was selected and enhanced with
new functionalities. Linear octree encoding is a spatial enumeration technique that is
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based on a hierarchical decomposition of a model volume (Gargantini 1982, Atkinson et al. 1986). The data structure offers a number of advantages over the
traditional 3D grid approach for geometric as well as property modelling (Bak 1991, Prissang 1994). It is equally apt to handle models with varying as well as uniform
cell size. Models are stored as linear lists of object elements (“obels”) with associated attribute vectors. Thus, there is no need to keep track of cells outside the objects
under consideration. The smallest object elements are called “voxels” as the correspond to the cells in a 3D grid. A suite of routines is available to manipulate and
evaluate the models. Regularised Boolean operations may be employed to merge, intersect or subtract models. Connected component labelling (CCL) allows users to
identify and extract disjoint bodies. Inbuilt aggregation functions keep the generated octrees compact.
The system was designed as a toolbox consisting of a suite of programs accepting their control parameters either directly from the command line or from parameter
files. Hence, all routines are well suited for being called from scripts which may be invoked from a graphical user interface.
4.2 Voxelisation
For the current project, the scope of the toolbox was extended by adding a program to convert TINs into surface octrees. This task is called voxelisation. It is widely
used in 3D volume rendering (Jones 1996). To produce an octree encoded model in a fast and reliable way, a hierarchical voxelisation algorithm has been developed
and implemented.
The new program reads the parameters describing size and orientation of the octree’s model volume as well as the requested resolution (i.e. the maximum number of
hierarchical subdivisions). After that, the input of the files containing the TINs takes place. Triangles which do not overlap the model volume are immediately discarded.
First step in the voxelisation process is the creation of the root node, i.e. the object element representing the entire model volume. To this node, a linked list of pointers
to the triangles is attached. The root is pushed onto a stack and decomposed according to the algorithms listed in figure 3. The timecritical trianglebox overlap tests
carried out using the algorithm of AkenineMöller (2001).
Performance of the algorithm has been tested on a Silicon Graphics O2 Unix workstation with a 200MHz MIPS R5000 processor. The conversion of a set of 4443
triangles into 133 277 voxels in an octree of resolution 10, the equivalent to a 3D grid of 10243 elements, took only about 18s of elapsed time. Thus, the new program
is well suited for the envisaged application in an interactive planning support system.
Figure 3. Hierarchical voxelisation algorithm.
4.3 Regular block labelling and extraction
Regular block labelling and extraction requires reading of a complete octree into the computer’s memory. To facilitate the necessary regrouping, larger object elements
are broken down into voxels. The assignment of a block ID requires addition of an integer attribute which is initialised to zero.
The search is performed on the basis of a grid which is aligned with the xy, xz, or yz plane of the octree’s model coordinate system. By superimposing the grid, the
octree can be thought as being divided into columns. To inspect these columns, a template is generated whose extent corresponds to the grid cell size. It is moved along
each column in onevoxel intervals.
If a complete overlap is detected for the first time, recording of the geometry of potential regular block starts. The block grows with each consecutive filled slice until
either the model boundary or an empty or partly filled slice is encountered. Provided that the thickness exceeds a userdefined minimum height, the block is accepted.
A unique ID is issued and assigned to all voxels within the block. Afterwards, the routine continues with searching for a next block.
At the end, the program produces a list of the identified rectangular blocks including their geometry and position. The user may specify if the output octree should
contain the entire octree or only the obels inside or outside the identified rectangular blocks.
4.4 Volume integration
The volume integration is based on the principle of a’stepwise intersection of a moving template of userdefined thickness with an octree encoded model.
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Figure 4. Model of a primary block with discontinuities recorded by ground penetrating radar and DC resistivity logs.
The calculated volumes are written out as a function of the lag.
4.5 Model building and evaluation
After the decision on size, orientation and resolution of the octrees has been made, the model of the undisturbed regions in the primary block can be generated by the
following operations:
• generation of a solid octree of the primary block
• building of the discontinuity octree by voxelisation
• subtraction of the discontinuity octree from the primary block
• running CCL to eliminate small fault blocks
The identification of regular blocks is carried out in three steps. At first, the octree comprising the undisturbed regions is read in. Rectangular blocks are searched by
growth in zdirection. The obels without assignment to a block are written to an output octree. They are subsequently searched for blocks with a fixed base and a
variable extension in ydirection. The still unassigned obels are inspected for blocks extending in xdirection.
5 CASE STUDY
5.1 Geophysical measurements and model building
The Valkeala granite quarry in southeastern Finland served as a testbed for the proposed methodology. At the site, a 1280 m3 primary block of 40 m length, 7.5 m
width and 6m height has been surveyed by GPR and highresolution mapping of the front face. In addition to that, DC resistivity logs in the blastholes were collected.
Field work was carried out by one specialist and one assistant in two days.
The subsequent interpretation of the resistivity and GPR measurement took a skilled geophysicist about three days. The penetration depth of the radar wave is
usually enough for blocks of this size. Problems are encountered when trying to pinpoint vertical discontinuities that are perpendicular to both measured faces. The
reason is that planar features that lie perpendicular to the measuring plane do not act as reflectors.
Information about the location of these discontinuities can be drawn from the highresolution mapping results. The spatial orientation of the discontinuities can be
roughly estimated from corresponding structures in the surrounding rock.
To quantify the accuracy of our approach, the GPR based interpretations were compared with observations from the block faces. It could be proved that the
accuracy of locating inhomogeneities is of the order of 20–30 cm and that about 70% of the studied true features have a good correspondence with the modelled
features.
The geometric model of the primary block is based on different types of information. For modelling the top and the front faces exact survey data is available. The
geometry of the bottom and rear faces has to be inferred from the location of the blastholes as well as
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Figure 5. Model of a primary block and identified intact regular blocks (dark grey: 1.5 m×1.5 m×0.5 m, light grey: 0.5 m×0.5 m×0.5 m).
Figure 6. Volumes in intact rectangular blocks as function of the distance from the primary block’s origin.
their length and average dip. Surface models of the discontinuities are straightforwardly generated by triangulating the reflector points. This data set was supplemented
with models of the defects recognised by mapping. Finally, it comprised 199 surfaces represented by altogether 5571 triangles. A 3D view of the primary blocks and
the discontinuities intersecting its outline is provided in figure 4.
The generation of the linear octree encoded models and the subsequent search for regular intact blocks is already supported by a prototype software system running
on Microsoft Windows as well as different Unix/Linux platforms. An intuitive graphical user interface allows the user to focus on the control parameters without being
distracted by technical details of the selected modelling technique.
Considering the attainable spatial resolution, the voxels size was set to 0.1 m×0.1 m×0.1 m. To fully enclose the primary block necessitated to set up an octree of
resolution 9. Its model volume is a cube with an edge length of 29×0.1 m=51.2 m. On the aforementioned workstation, the octreeencoded
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model of intact regions was generated in approximately one minute. It comprised 340862 obels representing a volume of 1119 m3.
5.2 Identification of mineable blocks
Two options for searching mineable blocks were compared to assess to the attainable recovery.
The first evaluations were carried out on the basis of regular 3D grids. The initial target dimension for mineable blocks was set to 1.5 m×1.5 m×0.5 m. 144 blocks
with a total volume of 162 m3 have been found. For a subsequent evaluation of the remaining material, the block dimension was reduced to 0.5 m×0.5 m×0.5 m. The
search program spotted 3638 small blocks covering a volume of 455 m3. Figure 5 illustrates the spatial distribution of the mineable blocks of both sizes. After merging
both result octrees the available resource of 617 m3 was broken down into the four regions: Front/Top, Rear/ Top, Front/Bottom and Rear/Bottom. The volumes were
summed up per metre along the face of the primary block and displayed as an Excel chart (Fig. 6).
In the second run, the search aimed at the identification of largest possible blocks with a fixed base. It was carried out using the described block growing algorithm.
A cell size of 1.5 m×1.5 m was selected for grids in xy, xz, and yz. The minimum block height was set to 0.5 m. 132 blocks of heights between 0.5 m to 5 m were
identified comprising a total volume of 293 m3. In contrast to the first result (162 m3) the recognised amount of material in larger, and therefore more valuable blocks
rose by about 80%.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The performed case study successfully demonstrated that the proposed methodology provides quarry masters with the necessary information for planning ahead and
also increasing the recovery. Due to the short time span required for field work, interpretation and modelling, the entire procedure can be incorporated seamlessly into
the existing planning procedures of a quarry.
Ongoing research focuses on the refinement of measurement and interpretation techniques to improve the spatial accuracy especially in the lower parts of the blocks.
Indepth discussions with quarry masters will contribute invaluable information for the development of a commercial service tailored to the needs of the dimension stone
industry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Research and development was carried out in the framework of the LAATUKIVI project which was funded by the Finnish Research Agency (TEKES) and co
ordinated by South Carelia Polytechnic of Lappeenranta and University of Kuopio. We thank Mr. Jouni Okko, Managing Director of Ylämaan Graniitti Oy and Mr.
Jukka Tielinen of LT Granit Oy for providing the testbeds for this study.
REFERENCES
AkenineMöller, T. 2001. Fast 3D TriangleBox Overlap Testing. J. Graph. Tools 6(1):29–33.
Atkinson, H.H., Gargantini, I. & Ramanath, M.V.S. 1984. Determination of the 3D Border by Repeated Elimination of Internal Surfaces. Computing 32(4):279–295.
Bak, P.R.G. 1991. Applied Solid Modelling In Mineral Resources Engineering. London: unpubl. Ph.D. Thesis, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine.
Gargantini, I. 1982. Linear Octtrees for Fast Processing of ThreeDimensional Objects. Computer Graphics Image Processing 20(4):365–374.
Jones, M.W. 1996. The Production of Volume Data from Triangular Meshes Using Voxelisation. Computer GraphicsForum 15(5):311–318.
Heldal, T. & Arvanitides, N. 2003. Quarrying methods/ techniques. In N.Terezopoulos & I.Paspaliaris (eds.), Dimension Stone quarrying in Europe and stability of
quarrying operations: 29–43. Athens: National Technical University of Athens.
Prissang, R. 1992. ThreeDimensional Predictive Deposit Modelling Based on the Linear Octree Data Structure. In R.Pflug & J.Harbaugh (eds.), ThreeDimensional
Modeling of Geologic Structures and Simulating Geologic Processes: 229–238. BerlinHeidelberg: Springer.
Prissang, R. 1994. The application of linear octree encoded property modelling to the Çayeli deposit. In:A.G.Paş amehmetoğlu, Ş.Eskikaya, & T.Hizal, (eds.), Mine
Planning and Equipment Selection 1994: 557–562, RotterdamBrookefield: Balkema.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Computer modeling of an airflow in ventilation network
F.Rosiek, M.Sikora, J.Urbanski & J.Wach
Wroclaw University of Technology, Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego, Wroclaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: For many years a computer system called AutoWENT has been used in copper mines in Poland. The system has been designed to
support calculations of airflow in ventilation network, air temperature prognosis and safety and economic analysis as well. This is a CAD application
that can create and edit vector drawings in 2D space. The purpose of the system is creating and editing a graphical (spatial diagrams) and numerical
representation of main ventilation network. The canonical and potential diagrams of the network are generated automatically. The program supports
calculations of aerodynamic resistance of airways. There is also an option that allows calculating adjustments of aerodynamic resistances in each
airway so that the Kirchhoff’s Laws is satisfied in whole network.
The basic function of the program is making calculations of airflow in ventilation network with temperature prognosis and visualization of results. For
each airway airflow, temperatures, pressures, air velocities and safety and economic indices are computed. The exact values of results for each airway
can be displayed in dialog window. In order to visualize the approximate values of chosen parameters the airways are drawn in different colors. The
colors corresponds to some values ranges defined by user. There is no restriction to the number of junctions and airways excluding limitation imposed
by the disk space. Using the program ventilation network with maximum 2400 airways and 1400 junction has been analyzed.
1 INTRODUCTION
Mathematical methods of analysis of airflow in a ventilation network have been known from many years. However these methods could not be practically applied till
computer technology became available to mine companies at a reasonable cost. Computer analysis can provide fast access to all necessary information about airflow
within the mine network. However, before airflow calculations can be carried out a numerical model of the network should be created. This model should contain data
describing the network structure and parameters related to all its components.
For ventilation purposes it is necessary for mines to maintain up to date ventilation network schemes. It is necessary for such schemes to be in accordance with state
regulations. Creating, modifying and updating such schemes is a time consuming and cumbersome job. In order to make this work easy the mine ventilation services
should posses proper tools for drawing, updating and modifying ventilation schemes.
In polish mines different calculation programs have been used. In LGOM mines (i.e. Legnica and Głogów Copper Basin) an application called AutoWENT has been
used for many years. Apart from its main role, which is the modelling of airflow, the system can perform many other calculations. For example preprocessing data
which has been measured and is necessary for the model. This function is important in the case of LGOM mines, because these mines have large airway crosssections
and exploitation systems with parallel excavations in one airway, which produce serious problems in determining aerodynamic resistance of air branches.
The system is very convenient for a user because creation of a mathematical model is performed simultaneously with drawing a space diagram of a ventilation
network so that coherency between the diagram and the data is kept all the time. Under control of the AutoWENT application the user can modify both data and a
space diagram, as well as run calculations and display calculation results on a scheme.
The AutoWENT system is available as a single executable running in Windows (Win32) environment. This version of the program comprises a simple CAD
subsystem, which makes the whole application independent of any other CAD systems available on the software market. The CAD subsystem has the ability to create
and modify two dimensional (2D) vector drawings. It can insert and edit simple geometrical figures and texts. It uses layers, blocks and provides many useful
commands that make drawing easy. However, the main aim of the system is the performance of airflow calculations, and the assistance in creating, modifying and
updating all kind of diagrams of the ventilation network.
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2 THE GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF A VENTILATION NETWORK
The basic graphical representation of a ventilation network in the AutoWENT system is a space diagram. The system contains tools necessary to create and edit the
drawings representing such a diagram. The appropriate commands are located in the application menus and toolbars. They allow the user to insert into the drawing all
components of the diagram, for example junctions, airways, fans, shafts, stoppings, doors, regulators etc. and edit both their graphical form as well as numerical data
associated with them. The main components of the drawing are labelled. Airway labels are framed and represent selected physical parameters of the airflow
corresponding to that airway. The ventilation network diagram is drawn on many layers and these makes changing its appearance easy. Figure 1 shows the application
window and an example of ventilation space diagram. Among other commands the AutoWENT system provides search commands that let a user easily find interesting
junctions or airways either by name or by number. It is a very important function particularly in the case of large graphs, which contains many airways and junctions.
The space diagram is not only graphical representation of a ventilation network. The program can also automatically create canonical and potential diagrams of the
network. The drawing of the canonical diagram is of draft quality and it needs additional rearrangement. There are couple commands that make doing it easy. The
potential diagram is created on basis of canonical one and is displayed in the background of potential grid. It is possibility to choose nonlinear potential scale of the
grid, so that some interesting parts of the diagram are clearly visible. Only one of the diagrams can be displayed at time and user can easily switch between them. All the
diagrams are coupled in the sense that modifications applied to one of them are automatically transferred to the others.
3 ENTERING AND UPDATING NUMERICAL DATA
In the AutoWENT system entering and editing data of junctions, airways, stoppings and fans is easy and can be realised with a couple of clicks of the mouse. For
instance to edit an airway data one should select an appropriate command from the menu or the toolbar and then click the mouse when its cursor
Figure 1. Application window and a part of ventilation network space diagram created by the AutoWENT.
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covers a line representing the airway. This displays the appropriate dialog window, which allows a user to enter and edit necessary data.
The dialog window of an airway data edition is shown in Figure 2. In the similar manner a user can recall proper dialog window to edit data of junctions, stoppings
and fans. A set of data describing a single junction contains junction location i.e. depth and geological coordinates as well as side airflow parameters (temperature and
volume airflow rate). Stoppings are described by two parameters namely its aerodynamic resistance and type. In case of fans their pressurevolume characteristics are
determined by a set of polynomial coefficients of power of three. A fan data contains also pressure ranges and volume values for which its characteristic has been
verified experimentally.
When entering the data for the airway the user has capability to determine aerodynamic resistance of the airway. Its resistance can be calculated either on basis of
measured thermodynamic and follow parameters or on basis of the topological structure of the airway i.e. workings geometry and type, and the way the airway
workings are connected together.
4 CALCULATIONS AND VISUALIZATIONS
Airflow calculations are necessary for an effective airflow management in a mine ventilation network. It applies particularly to the large networks that have complex
topological structure. Adjusting airflow pattern to excavation evolution requires knowledge about future investments in advance. In order to adjust airflow pattern
suitable software performing airflow calculations is necessary. On the other hand, to run the calculations a proper numerical model of the ventilation network is to be
created. If numerical data describing junctions, airways, stoppings and fans are available when the space diagram of a ventilation network is drawn, then the
mathematical model and the diagram can be created simultaneously. This was described in the previous section.
Airflow calculations can be performed in two variants (namely with and without temperature prognosis) chosen in appropriate dialog window. Selected calculation
results are immediately visible on the screen in the airway frames. They can also be printed as a report, which can be formatted according to user request. According to
the user decision, numbers displayed in the airway frames can represent volumetric airflow rate, air velocity or temperatures at inlet and outlet of an airway. The airway
frames can display two sets of results, firstly “current” results and secondly “prognosis” results. It makes the analysis of airflow convenient because all changes resulting
from network structure modifications or operating with airflow controls such as stoppings, fans, etc. are clearly visible. This helps to make a correct decision and
choose the best from all variants, which have been considered.
If numerical data describing the network components are not available when the space diagram has been drawn, then measurements have to be performed
Figure 2. The dialog window for an airway data editing.
in mine excavations in order to determine the resistance of the network’s airways. The measurement results have to be preprocessed and this is performed in two
stages. In the first stage volumetric airflow rates are adjusted so that I Kirchhoff s law is fulfilled at each junction. In the second stage corrections are applied to
potential fall in order to fulfil II Kirchhoff s law in each network loop. It should be emphasised that potential fall tuning is made with additional assumption, i.e. constant
airflow potential at chosen network junctions. Once the preprocessing has been finished a user can continue the airflow calculations.
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SUMMARY
AutoWENT system is a helpful tool. Its main objective is to create and modify space diagram and numerical model of a ventilation network. The system ensures
coherency between the space diagram and its numerical model. The system provides software tools for drawing, editing and displaying a space diagram, conducting
airflow calculations (also with temperature prognosis) and visualising its results. The program is a valuable tool suitable for airflow management in a mine ventilation
network.
REFERENCES
Hartman H.L., 1982 “Mine ventilation and air conditioning”, New York, Wiley.
Voss J., 1981. “Grubenklima”, Essen, Verlag Glückauf GmbH.
Rosiek F., Sikora M., Urbanski J., 1993, “Determining resistance of ventilation side branches for the purpose of constructing a digital model of mine ventilation
network”, Katowice, Górniczy Vol. 49 No. 6.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
An underground coal mine area design based on digital terrain modelling
J.Toraño, R.Rodríguez, J.M.Rivas & A.Pelegry
Department of Exploitation and Exploration of Mines, Oviedo University, Oviedo, Spain
ABSTRACT: With the introduction of longwall mining method in an underground coal mine, with a total investment of about € 9,000,000, a coalfield
exploration and overall coal resources evaluation was obligued to be done. After this, when the new method started, a more detailed study about the
mined seam was needed (work that is described in this paper). First, it was very important to do a prevision about the coal resources and a more
defined estimation of the future output, even year by year. On the other hand, it was also very important to design properly the new mining areas, i.e.:
the panels layout and the necessary infrastructure (roadways,…etc.). The latter was conditioned by the equipments itself: shields in the working face
and belt conveyors in the gateroads. With this aim, some prediction models, based on digital terrain modelling, were developed and were calibrated
with data from the first panel worked by this method.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The project
Carbonar S.A. is a Spanish private mining company that works in Rengos Coal Basin. This coalfield is located in the northwest of Spain and its most important seam is
the so called “Capa Ancha”. Ancha seam varies in thickness between 3.7 and 4.7, and its largest area dips less than 35°. Several coal companies have been working in
this area for nearly a century with old mining methods but European coal industry has been contracting and continues to do so, and more competitive methods are
needed if mine closures are not desired (Aramburu 2000, Menéndez & Cámara 2001). As a strategic measure, Carbonar decided in 1998 to increase the
mechanization level of its mining methods. The task was hard, as not only expensive equipment was required but it also should be installed within an old mine with non
suitable infrastructure. For this purpose a new global project was needed, the future design of the mine and a widespread exploration work should be done (Toraño
2000). To decrease the degree of geological uncertainty and the related risk of future mine investments (more than €9,000,000) the evaluation of future reserves was
the first step. Exploration drillholes and underground excavations were the two methods used to obtain satisfactory geological information.
Three mining methods are available for mining very thick coal seams: the longwall caving method, multiple slicing method and longwall system mining whole seam
height, the last one was the chosen as the low coal strength and other geotechnical characteristics of coal bearing strata were not suitable for the other methods.
New panels length and width were restricted by the old mine infrastructure. The main layout plan shown on Figure 1 indicates that there are three different areas, the
first one shows small panels that were mined by old mining systems, the second area was used to test the first longwall system and the third area is the one that was
designed based on digital terrain modelling.
1.2 Carbonar’s Longwall face
Longwall panels are 2 km from the surface, its length is about 1000 m and the width, that is restricted by the old mine infrastructure, 80 m along the direction of dip.
Panels are developed using single entry roadways as the coal gate and the tail gate. These gate roadways, designed by FEM models (Toraño et al. 2002), are driven
with a 15 m2 cross section using yielding steel arches. The coal clearance system consists of eight belt conveyors with a total power of 1200 kW, which transport the
coal from the longwall to the mine entrance.
Longwall face (Toraño et al. 2003) is configured to use 53 two leg lemniscate shield supports Glinik 18/ 41 Poz. These are spaced 1.5 m and have a range from 1.8
to 4.1 m. The supports operate at 30 MPa and have a 0.65m web advance. The face is equipped with a Famur KGS324 shearer with 2×132 kW of installed cutting
power and a Glinik 260/724 BP1
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Figure 1. Main layout plan.
armoured face conveyor with maximum carrying capacity up to 1000t/h.
Up to now the full mechanization experience is being entirely successful but new challenges in mine design should be taken up.
1.3 New tasks
After doubling the coal production in one years time new questions should be answered. Although a widespread exploration program was developed during the initial
stages of new system studies, the requirements of longwall mining made necessary to enhance understanding of the geology of the area to be mined.
As well new panels design should be done according to face equipment and coal clearance system specifications and roadways drivage performance should be
according to new productions rate.
Possible damage to surface structures and ground surface effects should be considered as well.
2 DEVELOPMENT OF A DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELLING AND ITS USAGE IN MINE DESIGNING
2.1 3D Digital terrain model
Several tools were used to try to solve the problems above mentioned, with this aim, some prediction models, based on digital terrain modelling were developed and
calibrated.
Although the exact size, shape, grade and position of the deposit cannot be known with absolute certainly until the mine is fully developed, digital modelling became
an important tool for the analysis of future reserves and design mine structure. A 3D model of the deposit (Fig. 2) was developed with SiteWorks Select Cad
(Intergraph 1998).
This model incorporates surface topography and geology, underground topography and geology including all important parameters for the rationalization of coal
strata (thickness, gradient, dip, partings, lithology of rock strata, sedimentation discontinuities, faults, cleats). All this data belong to well known areas (old panels,
roadways, drifts and other excavations) and they are put together with data from explorations drill holes on the unmined area, the program produces an ore body
limited by two boundary surfaces (roof and floor).
Other important surfaces as fault planes and precambric basement are represented in the model.
2.2 Panels layout
Strike and dip of seam are important parameters that strongly affect coal mineability. Shield support specifications limit lengthwise inclination of longwall to 35° and
crosswise inclination of longwall to ±15°, conveying system limits as well maximum slope of roadways. Coal seam dip is represented on isoline map of the Figure 3.
Distribution of coal seam thickness is represented on isoline map of the Figure 4.
Irregular strike and dip of Ancha make difficult new panels design as can be checked with isoline map of the Figure 5. Panels must be divided in several blocks that
are approximated to a coal plate. Nevertheless, sometimes due to the complex geological structure, it is not possible to design rectangular panels.
In this case, in order to achieve a panel of maximum length within the limits of roadways and
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Figure 2. 3D Model of the coal deposit.
Figure 3. Distribution of coal seam dip.
longwall inclination it was necessary to define an intermediate panel of less length and irregular shape.
2.3 Roadways development
Modelling tools give different possible solutions to panels according to system operational limits. The method produces multiple crosssections and longitudinal
sections, so future panels and roadways conditions can be simulated. If these conditions are not entirely satisfactory repetitive computations are made. In order to test
the methodolgy, the first panel tail gateroad development was estimated (Fig. 6).
The real and estimated roadway development are compared in Figure 7.
Figure 4. Distribution of coal seam dip.
2.4 Coal reserves and output
The coal reserve in a new panel can be estimated once the layout of this new panel is defined. This kind of programs allow to use several methods of calculating
volumes. One of them, very fast, uses transversal cross section generated automatically by the program from a low number of data. Based on the tail roadway line
(smart line) the data needed are the longwall length, the floor and roof surfaces and the distance betwen profiles. The program generates these profiles and calculates
the volume. In the Figure 8 a panel with transversal sections is shown.
The method has to be used with rectangular zones, because otherwise the volume of some parts of the coal seam can be overestimated. It is usual to define a new
strech for each panel direction change.
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This method was tested with the first panel mined out. The estimated and real outputs (volumes in m3) along the different streches of the panel, are compared in the
graphic of the Figure 9.
These modelling techniques help to optimise mine production as it is possible to calculate the amount of development required to achieve the desired production
related to the shape of the mineral reserve. Reserve computations are continuously revised to assist in development planning, cost and efficiency
Figure 5. New panel layout on isoline map.
analyses, quality control, and improvement of extraction and processing methods.
3 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL
3.1 Coal field analysis
Ancha seam dips in a syncline which direction is NESW as it is known from upper series of strata.
Figure 6. First panel tail gateroad.
Figure 7. Estimated and real longitudinal section of the first panel tail gateroad.
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Syncline limbs get closer on NE area, but on SW area the fold is larger and slopes should be lower. According to that a 35° slope limit was estimated.
No big fault has been detected in the mining area, only small folds and roof ripples could be considered as low intensity effects of upper series faults.
In the starting areas of the two first longwall faces it was detected that the coal seam lies over an irregular metamorphosed surface.
Figure 8. Estimation of a overall output of a panel.
This phenomenon could be caused by the proximity of Precambric strata to the seam. It is been checked that it happens when the distance from Ancha to Precambric
is low and the slope of Precambric strata is not very sharp.
A survey plane has been made showing such distances in order to predict this kind of problems. Several longitudinal sections can be seen on Figure 10.
This information is quite important as we can link closeness of Precambric materials to the barren coal measures.
3.2 Surface subsidence analysis
During underground longwall mining, the equilibrium conditions in the overburden strata are disturbed and each point on the surface moves
Figure 9. Estimated and real volume of a panel.
Figure 10. Profiles showing distances between coal seam and Precambric paleorelief.
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Figure 11. 3D subsidence model with several contour lines according to different criteria.
towards the center of the gob and forms a surface subsidence basin.
The angle of caving represents the limiting plane of subsidence and is drawn from the edge of the extracted area in the seam to the point where subsidence is just
measurable on surface.
Threedimensional models are helpful for representing the expected contour line of subsidence (Toraño et al. 1999). So it can be predicted if any road or building
are within the subsidence basin (Fig. 11).
After this study, the conclusion was that the small village on the surface (within the circule in the Fig. 11) was within the influence area of the extrated panels. For this
reason, the mining works would produce important damage on the buildings.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Graphical engineering techniques are very useful in the exploration of a mineral deposit and in the designing of the underground mining works. Based on works plan of
the old mine, data obtained from the new galleries excavated and information obtained from the exploration boreholes, a 3D digital model was developed. It was used
in designing the future mine being useful in solving problems as geological interpretation, mine infrastructure design or influence of the mining works on the surface.
REFERENCES
Aramburu, I. 2000. El carbón de importación como alternativa en posibles escenarios energéticos. Industria y Minería 342:20–25.
Menéndez, E. and Cámara, A. 2001. El carbón en el sistema eléctrico español. Industría y minería 346:13–24.
Intergrpah Co. Working with Site Works Select Cad. AL, USA, 1998.
Toraño, J., Rodríguez, R., Cudeiro, O., Paltchak, N. and Cuesta, A. 1999. Ground movements related to mining steeply dipping coal seams. In Gennadiy G.Pivnyak and Raj
K.Singhal (eds.), Mine Planning and Equipment Selection; Proc. inter. symp., Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine, 15–18 June 1999. Dnipropetrovsk: National Mining
University of Ukraine.
Toraño J. 2000. Factores geomecánicos y variables de explotación en la mecanización integral de la capa Ancha. Modelizaciones y simulaciones. Report of Investigation
Oviedo UniversityCarbonar contract CN00–044B1.
Toraño, J., Rodríguez, R., Rivas, J.M. and Casal, M.D. 2002. FEM modeling of roadways driven in a fractured rock mass under a longwall influence. Computer and
Geotechnics 29(6): 411–421.
Toraño, J., Rodríguez, R., Rivas, J.M. and Casal, M.D. 2003. Economic and Technical results mining a 4 m thick coal seam in Spanish Carbonar colliery. Glückauf 139(6):
323–328.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Mineral resource evaluation based on AHP
Li Xinchun
School of Management, China University of Mining & Technology, XuZhou, P.R.C
Zhang Youdi
China University of Mining & Technology, XuZhou, P.R.C.
ABSTRACT: It is important to realize the sustainable development in China. The coal resource sustainable development is key to achieve this
objective. In view of this, this paper will take coal resource as an example, study the optimum exploitation order in China’s different regions, and offer
the theoretical foundation for saving the mineral resources.
1 INTRODUCTION
For a long time, China has been known for the abundant natural resources. However, because the population of China is close to 1300 million, per capita occupancy
volume of most resources is relatively low in the world. Taking mineral resources as an example, the per capita occupancy volume is less than half of the average level
in the world, so the mineral resources are comparatively poor. Secondly, the utilization of mineral resources in China is more severe at present. Problems of the
arbitrary exploitation of resources, improper management, and environmental pollution caused by exploiting the resources are more serious. Moreover, mineral
resources, which are limited in quantity, are a kind of nonrenewable ones and a kind of resources that can be easily exhausted. If the exploitation of the resources is
not economized and the optimization is not carried on, the resources will face exhausting in several years. Coal resources are the best illustration.
This paper will take coal resources as an example, study the optimum exploitation order in China’s different regions, and offer the theoretical foundation for saving
the mineral resources.
2 MINERAL RESOURCES DECISION SYSTEM
The development order of different regional mineral resources is influenced by many kinds of factors inside and outside. Here we divide the factors of the influence into
three levels. The optimum sequence of development of mineral resources is at the upper, the factors which influence the exploitation of mineral resources are given as
four aspects inside and outside: mining area’s geological resources terms, mining area’s exploitation technological terms, mining area’s environmental pollution state and
mining area’s perimeter geographical economic situation, which are regarded as the second level. The four aspects of the second level are subdivided as the third
hierarchically structured factors as follows: Reserves condition of mining, Geological structure condition, The quality of mineral resources, The kind of mineral
resources, The storing conditions of mineral, The stripping ratio of mineral, Structure condition of mineral, Climatic conditions of mining, Equipment conditions of
mining, The soil destruction by the exploitation of resources, The water pollution form the exploitation of resources, The noise pollution from the exploitation of
resources, The transportation conditions of mining area, Economic development state of the Perimeter area, Market demand state of mineral resources, Supply state of
materials of mineral resources, and Other industry’s foundations of mining area.
3 THE PRINCIPLE OF AHP
The method of AHP will be used to decide on the weights of the factors. Confirming every weight of a factor needs to undergo four steps:
The first: setting up the factor hierarchical structure. The decision factor of mineral resources of a different region can be divided into two levels according to the
above.
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Table 1. The value form of judge matrix.
The second: constructing the judge matrix.
The information of AHP is based on the people’s judgments about the relative importance of the factors. Those judgments will be shown with numbers and written
as a matrix to form the judge matrix.
The judge matrix is related to the upper factors and shows the relative importance. For example, the factor of geological resources condition of mining area is related
to the factors: reserves condition of mining area, geological structure condition, the quality of mineral resources, and the kind of mineral resources. The matrix
construction is shown in Table 1.
A in the form represents the geological resources condition of mining area, B1, B2, B3, and B4 represent reserves condition of mining area, geological structure
condition, the quality of mineral resources, and the kind of mineral resources respectively. Bij means the value number of the relative importance of Bi to Bj as well as
to A, and it usually uses the numbers 1~9 or their reciprocals, and their meaning is shown as follows:
bij=1, shows that Bi is as important as Bj,
bij=3, shows that Bi is a little more important than Bj,
bij=5, shows that Bi is obviously more important than Bj,
bij=7, shows that Bi is much more important than Bj,
bij=9, shows that Bi is absolutely more important than Bj.
There are figures 2, 4, 6, 8 between them, and these numbers and their reciprocals have corresponding similar meanings. The whole exploitation decision system for
mineral resources needs constructing 5 pieces of the judge matrix, as above, according to the factor structure.
The third: deciding the level factor weight.
The decision on the level factor weight can be summed up as the issues of calculating or judging the characteristic root and characteristic vector of the matrix. For
example, the judge matrix of geological resource condition can be expressed by B, which satisfies the following formula 1:
BW=λmaxW
(1)
λmaxW of the formula above means the biggest characteristic root of B and positive characteristic of vector, and weight Wi of W is the weight of the corresponding
factor.
The last: checking out the consistency.
In order to check the consistency of the matrix, we need to calculate its index of consistency CI, and we define:
CI=(λmax−n)/(n−1)
(2)
In the above formula, n means the step of the matrix.The smaller CI is, the better, and it is usually required to be smaller than the average consistency index RI.
4 BUILDING THE DECISION MODELS
4.1 Obtaining the weight factors by AHP
This paper will adopt AHP to confirm the factor weight at making policy of mineral exploitation sequences in different region. According to the above AHP principle,
the decision factor is determined as shown in Table 2.
4.2 Building sequence decision by fuzzy logic
The model for exploitation sequence decision of mineral resources adopts the multistage synthesis to judge fuzzily, whose steps are as follows:
1) Classifying the factors.
The factors are divided into 4 factor subsets: U={U1, U2, U3, U4}={Geological resource condition of mining area, The technological condition of mining area,
Environmental pollution state of mining area, Perimeter geographical economic situation of mining area}.
Each Ui among them has its own subsets, for instance: U1={U11, U12, U13, U14}={Reserves condi tion of mining area, Geological structure condition, The quality
of mineral resources, The kind of mineral resources}.
2) Setting up the weight collections of the factors.
Considering the weight collection at this moment should not only take into account the weight of the whole classification, but also the weight of every factor of every
kind, so we need to set up the weight collections in two aspects.
The weight collection of the kinds:
A= {0.31, 0.30, 0.17, 0.22}
The weight collection of the factors:
A1={0.35, 0.28, 0.23, 0.14},
A2= {0.28, 0.16, 0.21, 0.17, 0.18},
A3={0.30, 0.30, 0.25, 0.15},
A4={0.28, 0.17, 0.26, 0.13, 0.16}.
3) Setting up the collection.
The collection is the collection of appraisal results of different possibilities. There is only one collection no
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Table 2. The weights of the factors.
Development order of the mining area
Geological resource condition (0.31) Reserves condition of mining area 0.35
Geological structure condition 0.28
The quality of mineral resources 0.23
The kind of mineral resources 0.14
The technological condition (0.30) The storing condition of mineral resources 0.28
The stripping ratio of mineral resources exploitation 0.16
Structure condition of mineral resources 0.21
Climatic conditions of mining area 0.17
Equipment conditions of mining area 0.18
Environmental pollution state (0.17) The soil destruction by exploitation of resources 0.30
The water pollution from exploitation of resources 0.30
The air pollution from exploitation of resources 0.25
The noise pollution from exploitation of resources 0.15
Perimeter geographical economic (0.22) The transportation condition of mining area 0.28
Economic development state of Perimeter area 0.17
Market demand state of mineral resources 0.26
Supply state of materials of mineral resources 0.13
Other industry foundations of mining area 0.16
matter what the index is. If there are four judgment results, the collection can always be expressed by:
V={v1, v2, v3, v4}={90, 80, 70, 60}.
The appraisal result of the index adopts the excellent, good, medium, and different generally, or adopts the first, the second, the third, and the forth. Sometimes in order
to qualify the results, we adopt the system of numbers, for example, the excellent, good, medium, and poor correspond to 90, 80, 70, and 60 respectively.
4) The synthetic fuzzy judgment of the first grade.
It means giving the judgment synthetically according to each factor of every kind. If we judge according to the first type of factor, then one judge matrix can be
formed.
When judging according to the first type of factor, the Coefficient of Matrix shows the degree of subjection of the results to be the excellent, good, medium and
different. For example, r11 means the degree of subjection to be the excellent, when judging by the geological resource condition of mining area. Here the decision of
the degree of subjection is based on the judgment results of the experts. For example, the expert judges a certain factor, if 10 experts judge, the number of the
excellent, good, medium and poor among them is 3, 4, 2, 1 respectively, then the degree of subjection to be the excellent, good, medium and poor is 0.3, 0.4, 0.2, 0.1
respectively.
We can use the same way to calculate the other judgment results of R2, R3 and R4, which represent the technological condition of mining area, environmental
pollution state of mining area and perimeter geographical economic situation of mining area.
In this way, when judging fuzzily the first type factor, we can get the collection of the judgment B1:
B1=A1•R1={b11, b12, b13, b14}
The bij above means the degree of subjection of the first type factor to be the excellent, good, medium and bad.
In the same way, the B2, B3, and B4 of the degree of subjection of the second, third, fourth kind factor to be the excellent, good, medium and bad can be obtained.
5) The synthetic fuzzy judgment of the second grade.
The first grade fuzzy judgment is synthetic only to judge each factor of every kind. In order to carry on decision on the mineral resources sequence in a certain mining
area, we must also judge every kind of factors synthetically, namely go on to judge once again, which is called synthetic fuzzy judgment of the second grade. Then the
judgment results of every factor, B, form the second judgment matrix R:
The judgment result of the second grade is
D=A•R={d1, d2, d3, d4}
where d1, d2, d3, and d4 represent the exploitation sequence of mineral resources and show the degree of subjection as the excellent, good, medium and poor
respectively.
To get the clear exploitation sequence of mineral resources, sometimes we need to get the score of the exploitation sequence, which is called v.
v=90d1+80d2+70d3+60d4
The higher v is the more mining area resources have priority to be exploited.
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Table 3. The judgment results of the first grade.
5 CASE STUDY
This text carries on research with the examples of the seven major open coalmine districts in China that have already developed and planned to develop. The seven
openair mining areas are expressed by A, B, C, D, E, F, and G separately. F1 stands for the factor of Geological resource condition, F2 stands for the factor of The
technological condition, F3 stands for the factor of Environmental pollution state, F4 stands for the factors of Perimeter geographical economic situation, and Table 3
contains the results of the first grade fuzzy judgments of the seven major mining areas.
Table 4 contains the results of the second grade fuzzy judgments of the seven major mining areas.
According to making use of the formulas, we respectively judge the seven mining areas, and the
Table 4. The judgment results of the second grade.
A B C D E F G
Excellent 0.27 0.33 0.27 0.35 0.32 0.27 0.36
Good 0.34 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.33
Medium 0.23 0.21 0.22 0.2 0.23 0.25 0.21
Bad 0.16 0.11 0.16 0.09 0.12 0.17 0.10
judgment results are shown as the following:
Score of the mining area of A: v1=77.2
Score of the mining area of B: v1=79.0
Score of the mining area of C: v1=77.3
Score of the mining area of D: v1=79.7
Score of the mining area of E: v1=78.5
Score of the mining area of F: v1=76.8
Score of the mining area of G: v1=79.5
The exploitation sequence of the seven mining areas is D, G, B, E, C, A, F, according to the judgment results.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The development order of the mineral resources in different areas is restricted by many kinds of factors that function in a primary and secondary status in deciding on
mining area order of developing. On the basis of considering the restriction of every factor synthetically, this paper adopts the theory of AHP and fuzzily judges to get
the order of exploitation of the same kind of mineral resources in different areas. According to the case study, we can see that the method is rational, and the result is
feasible.
REFERENCES
Li, X.C. & Zhang, Y.D. 1998. Artificial neural network system with hierarchic structure to evaluate resource condition of surface mining areas. 3rd Regional APCOM
Proceedings, Kalgoorlie: 137–140. Western Australia.
Tan, Zhanglu 1996. Application and anglicizing method of mining factors based on neural network. Metal Mine, Oct: 3–6. Anhui: China.(in chinese)
Li Xinchun & Tao Xueyu. 2000. The study of environment management decisionmaking system for coal mines. Proceeding of the Seventh International Conference on
Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, Published and Distributed by Publishing House TANKIN ussian. Dec. 2000, 475–477
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Post failure stability analysis and management of Wanagon Overburden dump
Irwandy Arif & I.Wayan Sengara
Bandung Institute of Technology—Indonesia
Gatut S.Adisoma, Wawa J.Sungkawa, Mike Stawski & Yuda Nasution
PT. Freeport Indonesia
ABSTRACT: Failure of Wanagon Overburden Dump on May 4, 2000 has caused 150–300 thousands cubic meter of material to enter Wanagon
basin and resulted in approximately 600,000 cubic meter of mudflow downstream to Wanagon river. The flow has caused sudden flooding of the river
with water level reaching 10m above normal elevation. Comprehensive geotechnical analyses have been conducted to mitigate further failure due to
slope instability. Systematical efforts are required in overburden dumping and mitigation strategy is prepared to manage possible failure. The
geotechnical criteria consist of material types, slope angle, drainage, dumping sequence, and consistently consider associated environmental aspects.
Various slope stability analyses under various dumping conditions have been conducted to provide input for dumping strategy in the efforts to minimize
downstream risk. In addition, both manual and electronic monitoring system have been implemented. Finally, some design aspects on the stability of
the dump post Wanagon lake era, both during construction and longterm, are presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Slope failure of portion of overburden dump at 4130 m level on May 4, 2000 has caused approximately 150,000 m3 overburden (OB) material to enter Wanagon
Basin. This event resulted in the collapse of water and mud retaining wall at the outlet of the lake basin, which further triggered failure at toe of the overburden dump.
This failure sequence has resulted in approximately 600,000 m3 of mud to flow out of the basin to enter Wanagon river in the form of debris flow and flood reaching
10m above normal elevation.
The cause of the OB dump failure was identified to be triggered by heavy rainfall above normal for four consecutive days (in the range of 20–40 mm/day) prior to
the failure. The normal rainfall varies between 10 to 15 mm/day. The heavy rainfalltriggering failure has been the basis of slope stability analyses considering various
geotechnical conditions and slope geometry.
As with any slope that consists of loose granular material, the Wanagon OB dump has the potential for further failure due to angle of repose dumping. The essential
task that needs to be done is to implement action plans to bring failure risk as low as reasonably practical. In other words, failures need to be controlled and managed
safely to minimize the downstream impact.
Wanagon Basin is the main overburden stockpile (OBS) area of the Grasberg mine, with a unique topography and soft soil lake sediment as the foundation of the
dump. Significant efforts have been made to develop strategies of OB dumping methods in the Wanagon basin, considering geotechnical, environmental and economical
aspects. To avoid further failure causedby slope instability, a systematic dumping strategy to satisfy both geotechnical and environmental criteria needs to be done. This
consists of using stacker dumping to cross the basin, truck dumping to delta, selective material of lower acid generating rock, selective material size and strength or rock
quality designation (RQD) for drainage requirement to discharge sufficient amount of inflow downstream. All these characteristics have made the Wanagon OB dump
unique and need proper analysis and management as an integral part of the mine planning.
2 GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS
Wanagon basin is located in the Kais limestone formation. This formation is karstic in nature with some joints and sinkholes. The basin is crossed by a system of faults,
i.e. the Grasberg fault at NESW direction and the Idenburg I and II faults both in NWSE direction. Wanagon lake lies at the cross section of these three faults. The
foundation of the OBS consists of organic and very soft finegraine lake sediment, with undrained shear strength (Su) of only 20 kPa. With the direct dumping of the
OBS material, toe stability is critical and is sensitive to any kind of disturbance.
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2.1 Failure mechanism and analysis
An assessment of failure mechanism was conducted to provide a basis for stability analysis post failure. Heavy rainfall above normal was considered to be the main
trigger for the slope failure. The soft soil foundation condition of the OBS had caused toe failure of the dump. A combination of the following mechanisms was
concluded to be the cause of failure in two zones:
(1) Flowslide failure of the upper slope, caused by an increase in pore water pressure due to heavy rainfall for four days prior to failure. Static liquefaction was
considered to occur in this particular event due to the increase of pore water pressure, which caused a decrease in material shear strength.
(2) The second zone of failure occurred at the dump toe. This failure is triggered by disturbance of the soft soil foundation of the dump. The bearing capacity of the soft
soil foundation could not resist the load due to high impact (200–300 m) of the upper OB material failure. In addition, the toe failure was also caused by the rapid
drawdown of the lake when the mud retaining wall collapsed.
A back analysis using limit equilibrium method (WinStable computer program, Bosscher, 1999) had been performed, which confirmed the failure mechanism. In
addition, this analysis was performed to evaluate stability post failure. Results of the analysis are presented in Figures 1(a) and 1(b). Material parameters for post failure
analysis were obtained from this back analysis.
Continuous dumping were carried out to fill gullies and maintain OBS stability at its angle of repose, using a boom stacker as illustrated in Figure 2. The dump
condition during construction is considered to be stable at its angle of repose, with some small volume of erosions at the upper portion of the slope. The weight of the
dump pushed out the soft clay sediment to reach its equilibrium. At this condition, slope movement of approximately in the range of 0.2mm–1.4mm/hour was observed.
This typical movement is considered to be below the allowable limit.
A dumping strategy has been formulated to minimize risk of dump failure by directing the
Figure 1. Back analysis of the OBS failure, (a) Flow slide failure; (b) Toe and foundation failure.
Figure 2. Post failure angle of repose OB material dumping using boom—stacker.
dumping to more stable area. The dumping process to this direction must also satisfy both geotechnical and environmental criteria as part of the OB dump management.
Types, quality, and quantity of the OB material are among items that need to be controlled and managed.
As part of the environmental management, the OB to fill the Wanagon basin must consist of green, blue and coarsered types. This material types are mined from
elevation 3535 m (Pushback 5N) to 4225 m (Pushback 7N). In general, these material types are relatively coarse with sand content >20% and RQD>20%.
Therefore, they are expected to have sufficient characteristics as throughflow material.
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2.2 OB dump stability condition
OB placement in the Wanagon Basin is distributed into several areas with different topography and foundation conditions. The dump that rest on more competent
foundation is considered more stable. The dump with most critical stability is that with deep soft soil foundation toward the outlet of the basin. In general, the OBS
along Wanagon basin is considered to be relatively stable under its angle of repose slope. The movement of the dump is indicated by slope monitoring system (SMS)
measurement. The SMS monitoring indicates average rate of movement from 0.6 to 5 mm/hour. Some cracks in the dump crest and local instabilities are identified, and
local settlements were observed mainly around leg of stacker with movement less than 10mm/day. However, at some areas, the movement is relatively significant with
the rate up to 11.25 mm/hour.
After assessment of the slope conditions under its angle of repose conditions, evaluation of dumping methods, analysis of SMS monitoring and verification through
several slope stability analyses, the Wanagon OB dump still needs to be watched for potential future failures. Therefore, the OB dump need to be controlled and
managed to minimize downstream risk, although it is a lower risk compared to when the lake was still present prior to May 2000.
3 POST FAILURE SLOPE STABILITY
Slope stability analyses were performed to evaluate stability of the slope post failure. This was intended to provide geotechnical recommendations for failure potential,
risks associated with the geotechnical conditions of the dump and its external hazard conditions. Both limit equilibrium and finite element slope stability analysis methods
were conducted. Furthermore, stability of the slope is controlled by the drainage system that needs to be built during dumping to allow discharge of significant inflow
downstream of the dump. The geotechnical recommendations provide crucial input for management of the dump and mine planning.
3.1 Analysis using limiting equilibrium method
To assess the slope stability conditions post failure, slope stability analyses have been performed using limit equilibrium method by SLOPE/W computer program
(Geoslope International, 1997) considering geometry, slope conditions and material parameters
Figure 3. Result of post failure slope stability analysis at toe critical section.
from back analysis. Result of the analysis identified a critical zone at the crest and overhanging upper portion of the dump. Another critical zone is identified near the toe
that forms an angle of approximately ±50° to horizontal. This condition is shown by Factor of Safety (FOS) close to 1.0 presented in Figure 3.
3.2 Analysis using finite element method
In addition to limit equilibrium method, a verification using finite element slope stability analysis method by PLAXIS (a finite element program for soils and rocks, 1997)
has also been conducted. Using this methodology, stress, deformation as well as its corresponding FOS and critical failure surface can be obtained. Result of the
analysis using PLAXIS for critical section during additional dumping process using stacker is presented in Figures 4(a) and 4(b).
Both analysis using SLOPE/W and PLAXIS resulted in minimum FOS of 1.03, which implies that the dump has the potential for surficial failure since the OB
material is dumped at its angle of repose.
3.3 Deep seated failure analysis
Continuation of OB dumping to Wanagon basin will eventually fill the entire basin and the risk of deep seated failure extending to the soft soil foundation need to be
evaluated. The analysis was conducted based on our engineering judgment that the soft soil foundation was consolidated by the OB dump weight and during continous
dumping the saturated clay sediment experience undrained condition. Therefore, material parameter obtained from CU (Consolidated Undrained) triaxial test would be
appropriate. Unfortunately, it is technically difficult to obtain undisturbed samples from the lake sediment or the soft soil foundation. Therefore, samples from other
similar basin in the area was recovered and CU parameters
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Figure 4(a). Finite element mesh and FOS post failure during additional dumping using stacker.
Figure 4(b). Deformation contour from finite element analysis post failure during additional dumping using stacker.
Figure 5. Results of deepseated slope stability analysis.
from this samples in combination with expert engineering judgment were used in the analysis. The analysis indicates that there is still possibility of the dump to
experience deep seated failure. Figure 5 presents one case result of the analyses and Table 1 presents FOS summary of the analyses.
The dumping method of the OB tends to squeeze the soft clay sediment out and due to increase of loading, gradual consolidation of the clay with time
Table 1. Summary of slope stability analysis for deepseated failure potential.
Case FOS
Undrained parameter 1.04
Effective parameter 1.25
Seismic load 0.05 g 0.94
OBS failure surface 1.24
would increase the undrained shear strength of the clay sediment. In other words, the FOS of deepseated failure surface would increase with time. Nevertheless,
potential risk of slope failure still exists due to probable seismic event surrounding the mining area.
4 OVERBURDEN DUMP MANAGEMENT
Based on the OB dump conditions, to minimize downstream risk of flood and debris flow, dumping strategy is required. The critical task would be to avoid inundation
inside the basin caused by slope failure during dumping process across the basin. Dump failure could block the water drainage that naturally flow from upstream and out
from the basin. The mitigation strategy currently implemented is to construct troughflow drainage system by coarse OB material.
In short term, coarse material dumping strategy is to use truck from South end to North of the basin. In addition, continuous or active dumping is carried out to
maintain the dump slope to its angle of repose.
4.1 Drainage system construction
To maintain throughflow of water from upstream to the basin and discharge water from the dump, drainage system during dump construction as well as for long term
need to be built. The drainage construction using coarse material is currently considered as the most practical solution. Coarse material criteria was developed to satisfy
permeability requirement the drainage system, which is 0.3 cm/s. The coarse material criteria for this drain are: coarse material with 50% particle size >1 inch diameter,
RQD >20%. Considering the predicted design inflow of approximately 40,000 gpm, the drainage system should have 50meter width with minimum of 12 meter in
height. The drainage system design by coarse OB material is illustrated in Figure 6.
To minimize geotechnical risk of slope instability associated with groundwater flow within the OB material, three number of vertical holes upstream of the basin have
been constructed. The vertical holes were drilled to reach 700 m down to divert three major streams that contribute to approximately total
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Figure 6. Drainage plan using 50m width coarse OB material.
water inflow of 18,000 gpm to the existing drift. This vertical holes reduce the amount of water inflow to the basin and significantly reduce the risk of water inundation in
the basin if there were any dump failure that could block the drainage system. Two out of the three streams are actually flowing relatively high acid rock drainage
(ARD) generated from upstream dump. Therefore, the vertical holes also divert this ARD through existing drift for treatment and not released through Wanagon OB
dump.
4.2 Monitoring and control management
Currently, to manage the stability of the dump, the following monitoring and control has been carried out:
(1) Displacement monitoring. A number of SMS have been installed to monitor any slope movement and the recorded information can be immediately processed from
dispatcher office. In case during dumping, any significant displacement higher than 1500 mm/day were identified, then the dumping shall be terminated and allow a
certain amount of time for the dump to settle and the soft clay foundation to consolidate until allowable displacement is reached.
(2) Rainfall monitoring. Some previous failure events provide indication that there is correlation of the rainfall with dump stability. Therefore, accurate rainfall monitoring
is essential to provide early warning of potential slope failure. Criteria was developed that if rainfall monitoring at Kaimana station indicated a value higher than 20
mm/day for 5 days consecutively, then necessary actions need to be made for possible slope failure.
(3) Monitoring on rate of dumping. Rate of dumping need to be controlled in such a way not to allow undrained failure or increase of pore water pressure of the soft
clay foundation. This condition could initiate toe failure and could result in further dump failure. Therefore, limit of maximum dumping rate was made.
(4) Monitoring on volume of basin. Water and mud volume within the basin is monitored to estimate the volume of mud that could flow out of the basin in case of
possible failure of the dump. The volume is estimated from the current surface area of the basin combined with subsurface contour.
In addition to the above monitoring, early warning system using sensors has also been installed at location approximately 2 km downstream of the dump. This system
will be active when there is an increase in water reaching a sensor box.
5 CONCLUSIONS
(1) The stability of Wanagon OB dump is essential to the mine operation and is one of the key factors in the mine planning at Grasberg.
(2) The dump is considered to be stable under its angle of repose, yet it is having slope failure potential. Therefore, slope failure mitigation actions have been developed
and emergency plans have been prepared. Various slope stability analyses using limit equilibrium and finite element stressdeformation methods have been conducted
under various slope conditions. The stability analysis of the dump should consider seismic hazard for its longterm stability.
(3) To maintain throughflow of the water recharge to the dump, design and construction of drainage system is one of the essential requirement that control the short
term and longterm stability of the dump. Therefore, coarse material dumping has been maintained at the stage necessary to satisfy drainage criteria.
(4) Due to the nature topographical and drainage nature of the dump, to maintain stability post failure of the dump, the mine plan has to consider continuous
coordination between production and drainage and dump construction. Performance of the dump requires proper mine planning integrating proper design, control,
and supervision of the dump and drainage system.
REFERENCES
Abramson, L.W. et al. 1996. Slope Stability and Stabilization Method, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Bosscher, P.J. 1999. WinSTABL Slope Stability Computer Program, University of WisconsinMadisonUSA.
Call & Nicholas, Inc. 1999. Lake Wanagon Overburden Stockpile Summary of 1998 Stability Evaluation, Prepared for PT. Freeport Indonesia.
Page 96
Dawson, R.F., Morgenstern, N.R., and Stokes, A.W. 1998. Liquefaction Flowslides in Rocky Mountain Coal Mine Waste Dumps, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Volume
35, Number 2.
Rai, M.A. and Sengara, IW. 2000. Preliminary Report on the Evaluation of Wanagon Overburden Stockpile Slope Failure,prepared by Bandung Institute of Technolo PT.
Freeport Indonesia.
PLAXIS. 1998. Finite Element Code for Soil and Rock Analyses, Plaxis B.V.
SLOPE/W. 1991. Slope Stability Analysis, GeoSlope International.
Page 97
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Study on floor heave mechanical principle of underground roadways with the
action of abutment pressure
X.H.Li, Q.D.Qu & Z.J.Wan
China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
F.Q.He
Shizuishan No. 2 Colliery of Ningxia Coal Group Company, Shizuishan, Ningxia, China
ABSTRACT: The generation and development course of the floor heave of the roadways with dynamic pressure is studied in this paper. It is
presented that the mechanical characteristic of the floor strata is one of the factors leading to heave. However, the abutment pressure is the main
factor. The mechanical principle of the floor strata and coal sides’ deformation and failure leading to heave of the roadway is discussed. The
conclusion shows that the floor heave of roadways with dynamic pressure is the result of the synthetic effect of these factors.
Observation in site makes it clear that abutment pressure is the main reason factor causing floor heave in a roadway with the influence of dynamic pressure. According
to the document, when a roadway is influenced by dynamic abutment pressure, transmitting to a floor across the roadway and leading to sides’ movement and the floor
destruction, it makes heave come into being (Kang 1993). The factors causing the heave under the abutment is discussed in the article that also describes the
mechanical principle of the process leading to the floor heave in the roadway under the dynamic pressure.
1 INFLUENCE OF ABUTMENT PRESSURE ON BEND STIFFNESS OF FLOOR STRATA
Bedded strata which form floor strata have slight bending strength controlled by an interlayer weakness plane, so bed separation occurs in the floor strata because of
the dynamic pressure and the bending stiffness is reduced largely.
Bedded rock mass under the abutment pressure can be shown in a diagram, as following in Figure 1. Considering the bedded strata as a whole and suppose the
thickness is L and the longitudinal modulus of elasticity is expressed by EL, the longitudinal strain of every layer under the macrolongitudinal stress σL should be (Tan
1994):
(1)
where σt1, σt2, σti, σtn=the stresses in every layer; E1, E2, Ei, En =indicating elastic modulus of layers; and t 1, t 2, ti, tn =individual thickness.
The layers are binding firmly as a whole without the influence of the dynamic pressure, the thickness can be expressed by L, and the longitudinal modulus of elasticity
by EL. Taking into account the affection of the macrostress σL on the floor strata, the following conclusion should be drawn:
(2)
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of bedded rock mass under longitudinal stress.
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When the relation between stress and strain is considered, bending stiffness of the floor layers is given by:
(3)
However, the floor strata show the bed separation and are no longer as a whole with the influence of the dynamic pressure, and the individual bending stiffness should
be:
(4)
Obviously, the bending stiffness of a single layer is much less than that of the whole floor strata, and as a result, the floor strata are easily deformed and destroyed under
horizontal stress with the influence of the dynamic pressure.
2 BEND OF FLOOR STRATA
While the abutment pressure is transmitting to the floor across the roadway’s sides, stress and deformation in the sides are heavily influenced. A socalled “the second
horizontal” appears under the abutment pressure, which gives the floor strata a movement loading processes, and leads to a bend of the relatively integrated floor strata.
Figure 2 is showing the occurrence state of the floor strata. Extraction in the roadway, the abutment pressure and primary joint crack in the floor are the factors that
wreck the intact floor strata. Suppose the floor is simply formed by rectangular sheets destroyed around, the computing model for the bend of the layer t 1 can be given
as in Figure 3 (a, b, express the length and the width; and px, αpx, the stress).
Moreover, the differential equation of the bend of the sheet is:
(5)
Figure 2. Occurrence state of floor strata.
where Nx, Ny=internal forces on the intermediate surface in directions represented by x and y; and Nxy=shearing force.
The internal force on the intermediate surface can be expressed by:
N
x=−px, Ny=−αpx, Nxy=0
(6)
The deflection is given by:
(7)
With the use of the differential equation and the above relations, the condition of the bend of the floor should be calculated by the following formula:
(8)
In addition, the bigger the figure m and n are, the bigger Px is. Suppose m=n=1, while evaluating the critical loading, the above formula can be simplified tobe:
(9)
where D=bending stiffness.
It is clear that the bend critical loading is determined by the layer thickness, which is t, the modulus of elasticity, which is E, and the sheet’s length and width. The
critical loading will increase when the modulus of elasticity increases.
When the second horizontal stress meets the formula, the bend of the floor comes into being,
Figure 3. Model of floor strata fractured along all round.
and the bigger stress, which is reaching the yield limit, creates folding.
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3 INFLUENCE OF SIDES MOVEMENT ON FLOOR HEAVE
The bend of floor strata under the abutment pressure is the cause of the movement of surrounding rocks into the roadway. Because every point in the limit balance
district is in the plastic and soften state with a volume strain being 0, it can be considered that the area squeezed into the roadway is the same as the area S which is
reduced by the coal subsiding from the floor, that is:
(10)
where uy=roof subsidence.
According to the document (Ma 1995),
(11)
where M=strata thickness; A=coefficient of lateral pressure; xo=wideness of limit balance district beside a roadway, m; φ0=internal friction angle; ε0=strain
corresponding to residual strength of strata; and εc=strain corresponding to limit strength and the following is obtained:
(12)
In that case, the average movement of the roadway’s sides from outside to inside is:
(13)
and M′=M(1−ε0)
Hence:
(14)
Based on the investigation in the site, the floor heave in the roadway with the action of the dynamic pressure reaches its maximum in the middle of floor.
Figure 4. The model of floor strata bending.
Suppose the bend of the floor strata happens in the middle of the strata, the bend of the floor strata can be estimated with the help of Figure 4.
The movement can be obtained through the following:
(15)
where uz=floor strata bending movement; ux1, ux2=horizontal movement of the sides; and b=roadway’s width.
4 FLOOR HEAVE PROCESS AND MECHANICAL PRINCIPLE OF ROADWAY WITH THE ACTION OF
DYNAMIC PRESSURE
Under the influence of the abutment pressure, the floor strata under a certain depth from the roadway endure the tension strain, and the floor under that certain depth
endures the compression strain. The depth is connected with the degree of the abutment pressure and roadway’s width. The heavier the pressure is, the deeper the
tension strain occurs.
Controlled by the weakness plane included in the bedded stratum, the horizontal bending strength of the floor strata is slight. For this reason, the strata are easily
destroyed into parts with the less bending stiffness under the tension strain and the bed separation is the main destruction form. Then, the outside strata are squeezed to
sink and move into the roadway with the second horizontal stress appearing. Floor strata’s bend destruction led by the second horizontal stress results in the floor
heave. The second horizontal stress is the decisive factor leading to the heave, which also concerns the sides’ movement, while the sides’ movement is decided on by
the compression it bears, which is determined by mechanical characteristics of its own and the above stratum. The bigger the elasticity modulus of the main and
immediate roofs is, in direct proportion to the strain the sides can endure, the wider the limit balance district is, the more violent the movement from outside to inside
and the heave are. On the counting, the greater the strata strength is, the less
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deeper the floor declines, the less the strata moves into the roadway and the less slighter the heave bulges out inside the roadway.
In brief, because of the abutment pressure imposing upon the roadway, the floor strata are destroyed under the tension strain and bulge out inside the roadway, being
squeezed by the sides.
REFERENCES
Kang, H.P. 1993. Mechanism of Roadway Heave in Soft Rock and its Control. Beijing: Press of Coal Industry.
Ma, N.J. & Hou, C.J. 1995. Theory of Strata Behaviors in Gateway and its Application. Beijing: Press of Coal Industry.
Tan, X.F. et al. 1994. Theory of Composite Rock Mechanics and its APPlication. Beijing: Press of Coal Industry.
Page 101
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The effect of simulation method and distribution shape on the selection of
iteration frequency in rock engineering risk analysis
P.A.Lilly
Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University of Technology, Australia
K.Oageng
Former student of the Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University of Technology, Australia
ABSTRACT: The use of purely deterministic analysis methods in rock engineering analysis has been shown to be flawed to the extent that risk cannot
be properly quantified when such techniques are used. Consequently, the use of quantitative risk assessment (QRA) methodologies (particularly
Monte Carlo and Latin Hypercube simulations) has, in recent years, provided engineers with practical risk analysis tools for excavation design.
However, very large numbers of simulations are apparently required when using these QRA techniques. In addition, the influence of the shapes of the
input distributions on the number of simulations required is not well understood in pragmatic engineering terms. It is simply not practical to run the
number of simulations that theoretical statistical considerations suggest are necessary. The question is, therefore, how many simulations are sufficient
for the levels of reliability required for conventional mine design? The paper presents a study that attempts to resolve this question. Monte Carlo and
Latin Hypercube analyses are undertaken using, as a basis, a rock slope stability algorithm comprising between one and eight independent variables.
The number of simulations is increased from 100 to 500000 for each combination of input variables and the level of accuracy (relative to the case of
500000 simulations) is assessed for the output (factor of safety) distribution in terms of mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum and probability
of failure. Recommendations are made in relation to the number of simulations required for practical rock engineering analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION
In mining geotechnical engineering, conventional deterministic outcomes (such as factor of safety estimation) are usually calculated using the mean values of the input
parameters of a system. However, the deterministic approach does not take into consideration the complexity of geological materials, the lack of full knowledge of
material properties and their variability in both space and time, as well as the complexity of forces acting on the system. The value of factor of safety calculated using
mean values of input parameters is not likely to be correct either most of the time or in most of the rock mass, and a system with an apparently acceptable value of
factor of safety may still fail (Lilly, 2003). Therefore, factor of safety alone does not provide the engineer with an assessment of failure risk.
To cater for these limitations, the deterministic approach is often supplemented by the use of probabilistic methods. Probabilistic analysis acknowledges that a
number of different outcomes is possible in the estimation of factor of safety and concentrates on estimating the likelihood of failure from the factor of safety distribution.
The probabilistic (or reliability) approach to mining geotechnical engineering has been in use for well over 20 years; however, it is only in recent years that its use has
become more widely adopted (Lilly and Li, 2000).
It is important to understand risk before calculating probability of failure and trying to quantify it. Ho, Leroi and Roberds (2000) have defined risk as the product of
the probability of unfavourable scenarios occurring and the likely damage they can cause. It is assessed through focused examination of how factors can interact, what
failure can result, and what damage the failure can cause. Chowdhury (1994) has stated that risk may be assessed either on a qualitative or quantitative basis. He
further states that, even if the final assessment is expressed in qualitative terms, quantitative studies may be carried out as part of the assessment process. Thus, in order
to assess risk associated with a system, there is a need to know what unwanted events (or hazards) can occur, the
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likelihood of their occurring and their consequences if they should occur.
In mining geomechanics a number of hazards are possible, each of which is capable of having, as its consequence, injury to personnel, loss of life or economic loss
(for example, equipment damage, loss of production, loss of ore reserves, etc). Some of these potential hazards are listed below:
• Pit wall (slope) failure.
• Hangingwall failure in underground mine slopes.Rockfalls.
• Seismicity.
• Pillar failures and support failures.
All of these hazards need to be assessed and managed so that probabilities of occurrence and/or consequences are reduced, and mining safety and efficiency improved.
2 QUANTITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS METHODS
In conventional limit equilibrium analysis, a factor of safety (F) of less than unity denotes failure. The probability of failure (Pf) of an excavation is therefore defined as
the probability that F is less than unity. One of the key aims of stochastic simulation, therefore, is to estimate the distribution of F so that probability of failure can be
obtained. It is important to note that obtaining Pf from the distribution of F requires a good understanding of the potential failure mechanism(s), an ability to model the
mechanism mathematically and knowledge of the statistical moments of the input variables (Lilly, 2003).
The most commonly used tools for quantitative risk assessment are:
• precedence data (correlations between cause and effect data);
• fault tree techniques (used to display and analyse logical structure of events which can combine to lead to failures);
• probabilistic modelling and simulation; and
• direct subjective assessment.
In this paper, two probabilistic (or stochastic) simulation techniques are examined, namely:
• Monte Carlo simulation; and
• Latin Hypercube simulation.
Monte Carlo simulation repeatedly and randomly samples the frequency distributions of the input variables, places the samples within the algorithm being simulated, and
provides a distribution of the output variable(s) from the algorithm. The method can be a very powerful tool for situations involving multiple variables provided enough
simulation runs are made. However, the level of reliability to be placed on the results determines how many times the distributions are sampled. Harr (1987) has shown
that two random variables would need to be sampled 277 trillion times if the Monte Carlo simulation is not to differ by more than 1% from the estimated value, with
99% confidence. Clearly, such levels of simulation are not practical in routine rock engineering risk analysis.
Latin Hypercube simulation is similar to Monte Carlo simulation except that it stratifies the input probability distributions by dividing the cumulative curve into equal
intervals on the cumulative probability scale (Palisade Corporation, 1990). The sample that is then randomly chosen from each input distribution stratification (or
interval) is forced to represent values of that interval thus recreating a better representation of the input probability distribution. The sampling technique used during Latin
Hypercube is “sampling without replacement” and the sampled values are independent for each situation considered in multivariate analysis. According to Palisade
Corporation (1990), this feature makes Latin Hypercube simulation more efficient and faster in terms of numbers of iterations required when compared with Monte
Carlo simulation.
3 SIMULATION STRATEGY
As noted in section 2, the calculation of trillions of simulations is simply not practical in routine rock engineering. Consequently, it is useful to know approximately how
many simulations are required to provide reasonable results for practical considerations. For the purposes of this study, therefore, this required the selection of a
suitable algorithm (or program), capable of simulating one or more variables, to use as a basis.
SWEDGE (Rocscience Inc., 2004) is widely used in the Australian mining industry for tetrahedral wedge analysis in open pit mine slopes. It evaluates the three
dimensional geometry and stability of rigid wedges defined by two intersecting discontinuity planes and a slope surface. The principal inputs required for SWEDGE
include:
• the dip distributions of each of the two planes;
• the dip direction distributions of each of the two planes; and
• the cohesion and friction angle distributions for of each of the two planes.
Where a tension crack exists as a third structural plane, its dip, dip direction and trace length need to be defined as well. SWEDGE also requires the dip and dip
direction of upper slope and slope face, slope height, unit weight or the rock mass, water pressure
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regime, and seismic or other external forces (if applicable). It is also possible to calculate the effects of rock reinforcement using the program.
SWEDGE runs both Monte Carlo and Latin Hypercube simulations. A base case of 500000 simulations was chosen for the purposes of this study, mainly due to the
limitations of computer memory and run time. From each simulation, the mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum of the factor of safety distribution were
derived, as well as the probability of failure. Subsequent simulations involving fewer iterations were then compared to the base case results. Thus, the following was
undertaken for each simulation technique:
• A single variable scenario was considered and the distribution shape chosen.
• Then the number of iterations was chosen (100, 500, 1000, 2000 and so on, up to 400000) and a simulation performed for each number of iterations.
• For each number of iterations, the values of the mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum, and probability of failure were obtained, quantitatively compared with
those of the base case, and documented as a percentage variation from the base case.
• The distribution shapes were then changed and the same procedure followed to assess the impact of this change on the results.
• The full procedure described above was then again undertaken for four other scenarios; namely, two, four, six and eight variables.
4 RESULTS
As the reader will appreciate, many hundreds of simulations were undertaken involving both symmetrical and asymmetrical distributions, different simulation methods,
different numbers of variables (1, 2, 4, 6 and 8) and different numbers of iterations (from 100 to 500000). The detailed documentation of these results is, therefore,
beyond the restricted capacity of this paper. However, Figure 1 provides an example of the results from some of these analyses.
The results obtained for the two simulation techniques were compared to examine their relative precision. It was noted that both mean and standard deviation
converge relatively quickly. That is, if only an estimate of the mean and standard deviation of the output distribution (F) is required, this can be achieved relatively
quickly. However, this was not the case for Pf.
For both symmetrical and asymmetrical distributions, the results obtained from Latin Hypercube simulation are more precise than those obtained using
Figure 1. Percentage variation (from base case) in Pf with number of iterations for the case of eight symmetrical variables based on
Latin Hypercube simulation.
Monte Carlo simulation. Latin Hypercube simulation also gives a higher estimate of Pf compared to Monte Carlo simulation for the same conditions, which suggests
Latin Hypercube simulation in SWEDGE is more conservative.
For each of the simulation techniques, the results were assessed and the least number of iterations that needs to performed before the values of the mean, standard
deviation and probability of failure start converging to base case values were determined for each number of variables. The number of iterations required using the
Monte Carlo simulation technique is always higher than that of Latin Hypercube simulation, given the same conditions. In some cases, the difference in the number of
iterations is so large that Monte Carlo simulation needs to be sampled about six times more than Latin Hypercube simulation before reasonable results are obtained.
The results obtained using symmetrical and asymmetrical distributions for both Monte Carlo and Latin Hypercube simulations were compared to assess the practical
number of iterations needed to give reasonable estimates of values of mean, standard deviation and probability of failure. For both methods, the practical number of
runs needed using asymmetrical distributions is generally greater than when using the symmetrical distributions. That is, asymmetrical distributions require more
simulation runs than symmetrical distributions to get a reasonable estimate of the mean, standard deviation and probability of failure values.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Both the distribution shape and the simulation type significantly affect the results of the risk analysis and need to be taken into account whenever quantitative risk
assessment is undertaken. If a certain distribution shape is assumed that does not reflect the actual distribution of the variables, the results will be incorrect. Thus, the
generic assumption of normal distributions for input variables, as frequently
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Table 1. Number of Monte Carlo simulation iterations providing practical outcomes for symmetrical distributions.
Number of simulations to estimate
Number of variables Mean Standard deviation Pf
1 500 500 10000
2 2000 20000 10000
4 5000 70000 20000
6 10000 70000 20000
8 10000 70000 60000
Table 2. Number of Latin Hypercube simulation iterations providing practical outcomes for symmetrical distributions.
Number of simulations to estimate
Number of variables Mean Standard deviation Pf
1 100 500 1000
2 100 5000 5000
4 500 40000 5000
6 1000 50000 10000
8 1000 50000 40000
Table 3. Number of Monte Carlo simulation iterations providing practical outcomes for asymmetrical distributions.
Number of simulations to estimate
Number of variables Mean Standard deviation Pf
1 1000 5000 40000
2 2000 10000 50000
4 2000 70000 60000
6 10000 70000 60000
8 20000 70000 60000
happens, can introduce significant errors into the risk assessment.
In addition, different simulation types will give different results depending on how effectively they are used.
The following specific points should be taken into consideration so that the techniques can give some more reliable outcomes:
• For both symmetrical and asymmetrical distributions, the number of iterations or simulation runs needed for estimating the mean, standard deviation and Pf values
using Latin Hypercube simulation is always lower than that for the Monte Carlo method. Therefore, Latin Hypercube simulation is relatively efficient (see Tables 1 to
4).
Table 4. Number of Latin Hypercube simulation iterations providing practical outcomes for asymmetrical distributions.
Number of simulations to estimate
Number of variables Mean Standard deviation Pf
1 100 1000 500
2 100 10000 10000
4 1000 40000 10000
6 5000 50000 20000
8 5000 50000 40000
• For both Monte Carlo and Latin Hypercube simulation techniques, the number of iterations needed for estimating the mean, standard deviation and Pf values, using
asymmetrical input distributions is higher than that needed using symmetrical input distributions, given the same number of variables (see Tables 1 to 4).
• Latin Hypercube simulation is more precise and appears to be more conservative (at least in SWEDGE) compared to Monte Carlo simulation. That is, the probability
of failure values obtained from Latin Hypercube simulation are more closer to each other and greater than the those obtained using Monte Carlo simulation.
REFERENCES
Chowdhury, R.N., 1994. Geotechnical risk assessment different perspectives, Developments in Geotechnical Engineering, Balasubramaniam et al (eds), Balkema, 349–
357.
Harr, M.E., 1987. ReliabilityBased Design in Civil Engineering, McGrawHill, 290 pp.
Ho, K., Leroi, E. & Roberds, B., 2000. Quantitative risk assessment: application, myths and future direction, GeoEng2000, Melbourne, Australia, November.
Lilly, P.A., 2003. Probability and risk in geomechanics, MEngSc course notes, Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University of Technology.
Lilly, P.A. & Li, J., 2000. Estimating excavation reliability from displacement modelling, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 37, 1261–1265.
Palisade Corporation, 1990. @RISK—Risk Analysis and Simulation AddIn for Lotus 1–23, Version 1.55 Users Guide, pp. B8–B10.
Rocscience Inc., 2004. www.rocscience.com.
Rosenblueth, E., 1975. Point estimates for probability moments, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. Mathematics, 72(10), 3812–3814.
Rosenblueth, E., 1981. Point estimates for probability, Applied Mathematical Modelling, 5, 329–335.
Page 105
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Rock pressure regularity of the gobside entry retaining in fully mechanized
coalface with topcoal caving with roadin packing
Ma Liqiang & Zhang Dongsheng
College of Mineral and Energy Resources, China University of Mining and Technology, China
ABSTRACT: Based on the industry test and the moving regulation of the overburden strata, the reasonable mechanic model of surroundingrock
structure for gobside entry retaining in fully mechanized coalface with topcoal caving (GERFCTC) with roadin packing is set up. The key strata
theory is introduced to put forward the corresponding analysis mechanical model. Through the numerical simulation, the influencing effect of the rigidity
of the coal and the working height and the thickness and the rigidity of the immediate roof and the main roof and the compound effect of the key strata
to the gobside entry retaining with roadin packing is systematically investigated. The achievements showed that there are certain regulations between
the overburden strata and the stress distribution and the displacement of the entry roof. It should be rationally used to popularize the GERFCTC with
roadin packing in determining the reasonable filling pattern and filling strength.
1 INTRODUCTION
GERFCTC is the key technique of the mining method without coal pillar to solve the problem of gas accumulation and disallowed concentration in highproductive
andhighefficient fully mechanized coalface with topcoal caving (FCTC) and improve the recovery ratio of coal. The topcoal and the immediate roof & the packing
body of the GERFCTC have to suit the given deformation of the key block (Zhang, 2001). In order to guarantee the stability of the whole entry system, besides the
sufficient rigidity, the packing body is required to have enough antideformation capacity, which also need to match the rigidity and deformation of the topcoal and the
immediate roof (Zhang, 2002). Study on the influencing effect of the rigidity of the coal and the working height and the thickness and the rigidity of the overburden strata
and the compound effect of the strata to GERFCTC is the base of the reasonable support design.
2 ANALYSIS MODEL FOR GERFCTC
Based on the analysis of the break regularity of the main roof especially in the side direction, combined with the key strata theory for mining rock, aimed at the technical
difficulties of GERFCTC, a new technique of entryin packing is adopted (Zhang, 2003). The mechanical model of surroundingrock for GERFCTC is simplified and
shown in figure 1.
The mining conditions of S2–6 FCTC are as follows: The thickness of coal seam is 6.07 m, of which the cutting height is 3.0 m, and the depth of cover is 330 m. The
immediate roof is silestone, whose thickness is 6.56 m. The immediate floor is fine sandstone, whose thickness is 3.59 m. The length of the coalface is 220 m and the
length of the topcoal not caved near the entry in the face end is 6.0 m. Take the property of the ZKD filling material into account, the width of the packing body is 2.5
m and the width of the entry retaining is 4.0 m who se hei gh 3.0 m (Sun, 1993a; b; Li, 2000). The support of the
Figure 1. Structure model of surrounding rock of GERFCTC.
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original entry is 12# Ibeam steel used in mine. The roof of the face end is reinforced with single hydraulic props.
On the practical field condition of the S2−6 coalface, the key strata theory (Qian, 2000) and the numerical analysis software UDEC that is feasible to analyses the
strata breakage and the strata collapse are used to set up the corresponding numerical model (see figure 2). Mechanical parameters in the computer simulation are
depicted in table 1. The rock rigidity is take place of rock elastic modul in the software. The length of the key block (break main roof) is 10 m, and the topcoal
uncaved at the face end is 6 m. This model is applied to instruct the S2–6 GERFCTC industry test and get success. Figure 3 shows the relevant numerical simulation
result of the S2–6 GERFCTC, which on the whole accord with the test results. Form this achievement, the overburden strata influence to the stress and the deformation
of the roof of GERFCTC are carefully analyzed in the follow text.
3 ANALYSIS OF ROCK PRESSURE REGULARITY
3.1 The analysis of the rigidity of the coal seam
As GERFCTC is concerned, the roof the entry is also coal seam, so its rigidity is the most immediate factor. If the top coal collapsed before packing, the packing body
can’t pass the support resistance to the immediate roof, which will lead to the rotation and subsidence of the main roof severely, and cause the
Figure 2. Numerical model for GERFCTC.
caving of the top coal and the falling of entry’s side (Wang, 1991). On the contrary, the bigger rigidity of the coal seam can make the break location of the main roof in
the coal seam near the coal side, which will low the deformation of the entry. Figure 4 shows the different results of the vertical displacement and vertical stress of the
roof with different coal seam rigidity.
The horizontal axis represents the entry roof in the graph, and vertical axis represents the vertical displacement or the vertical stress. The coordinate original is the
entry roof corner near the coal side. It can be seen apparently that as the high of the coal rigidity became high, the subsidence of the entry and the packing body
gradually became low. The pressure diffuse to the both sides of the entry, so the pressure
Figure 3. Status of surroundingrock for GERFCTC.
Figure 4. Analysis of rigidity of the coal.
Table 1. Mechanical parameter of the coal seam and stratas in the UDEC.
on the entry is low, but it is contrary on the packing body.
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3.2 The analysis of the working height
For the GERFCTC, the big working height will cause the overburden strata move severally although several support near the face end do not cave the topcoal. Which
will bring fatal influence to the GERFCTC inevitably. Figure 5 shows the different vertical displacement and vertical stress of the roof with different working height.
The result shows that when working height is 6 m, contrasted with the working height with 8 m or 10 m, the former has lower displacement and lower stress. At the
same time, the stress result demonstrates that the stress on both entry sides is more even in the case of 6 m working height than 8 m or 10 m.
3.3 The analysis of the thickness of the immediate roof
According to the moving regularity of the surroundingrock for GERFCTC, the immediate roof with certain thickness break and expand can make the main roof rotate
and touch it form the selfstable bearing structure. Figure 6 is the different results of the vertical displacement and vertical stress of the roof with the thickness of the
immediate roof 2 m, 4 m & 6 m respective.
The result shows that when the thickness of the immediate roof is 2 m, contrasted with the thickness
Figure 5. Analysis of working height.
Figure 6. Analysis of the thickness of the immediate roof.
is 6 m, the packing body is more stable and the roof subsidence & the roof stress of the former entry are lower than those of the later.
3.4 The analysis of the rigidity the immediate roof
The rigidity of the immediate roof has the great influence on GERFCTC. The high the rigidity of the immediate roof, the form of the mechanical structure became more
easy. Which can pass the stress on the roof of the entry to the deep of the coal side, as a result, the stress and the deformation of the entry are reduced. Figure 7 shows
the different results of the vertical displacement and vertical stress of the roof with different immediate roof rigidity.
The result shows that the roof subsidence and the roof stress of the entry which immediate roof elastic modul is 2.5 Mpa are apparently bigger than those of the entry
which immediate roof elastic modul is 4.5 Mpa.
3.5 The analysis of the rigidity of the main roof
The rigidity of the main roof and is of significance to its break location and the length of the key block that is its form after breakage. The break location and the size of
the key block is the base of the stable structure that overburden strata form. At the same time it is the fundamental of the mechanical model of GERFCTC. Along with
the distance of the break location of the main roof become bigger, the condition of the entry retaining become worse. Of course, the too long cantilever in the gob area
is also not good. Figure 8 shows the different results of the vertical displacement and vertical stress of the roof with different main roof rigidity.
As it can be seen form the above figure, the higher rigidity of the main roof, the smaller the subsidence of the entry roof. It should be noticed that the certain rigidity of
the main roof is helpful to the formation of the mechanical balance structure above the entry. But when the rigidity big than the certain limit, it will be reverse. Especially
when the coal seam is
Figure 7. Analysis of the rigidity of the immediate roof.
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Figure 8. Analysis of the rigidity of the main roof.
comparatively soft and or its carry capacity is comparatively low so the packing body cannot amputate the enough strata to fill up the gob, which only leave the packing
body and the coal seam to support the roof, once the rotation angle of the key break exceed the deformation limit which the coal seam or the packing body can endure,
the whole entry support system will be ruined completely.
3.6 The analysis of the compound effect of the key strata
The comparatively small distance between the two hard strata will bring the structure effect like compound plate or compound beam, that is, have influence on the
whole process of mining rock deformation and its breakage & move. This phenomenon that the near two key strata can add the carrying capacity remarkably is called
the compound effect of the key strata.
3.6.1 The analysis of the distance between the two hard strata
Figure 9 shows the different results of the vertical displacement and vertical stress of the roof with different distance between the two hard strata, which is 15 m, 35 m
or 55 m respectively.
The result shows that when distance is 55 m, contrasted with the distance is 35 m or 15 m, the former has apparent lower displacement and lower stress.
3.6.2 The analysis of the thickness ratio of the two hard strata
The thickness ratio of the two hard strata is evaluated 1, 2 or 3 respectively, which means the multiple of the above hard rock to the main roof. Figure 10 shows the
different results of the vertical displacement and vertical stress of the roof with different thickness ratio.
The result shows that when thickness ratio is 3, contrasted with the thickness ratio is 35 m or 15 m, the former has apparent lower displacement and lower stress.
To conclude, the entry retaining may get better result when the compound effect of the key strata
Figure 9. Analysis of the space between the two key strata.
Figure 10. Analysis of the thickness ratio the two key strata.
exists. When there is no compound effect of the key strata in the overburden strata, the top stress of the entry roof is about 13 Mpa. on the other hand, it is 11 MPa,
and the roof subsidence is also reduced.
4 CONCLUSIONS
(1) Mechanical model and corresponding numerical model of surrounding rock structure for GERFCTC with roadin packing, which is established according to the
key strata theory, is reasonable in analyzing the stress and the deformation of the packing body.
(2) Under the certain condition, the lower of the working height and the higher rigidity & thickness of the overburden strata, the smaller the subsidence & the pressure
of the entry roof.
(3) The carrying capacity of the packing body is bigger than the broken coal body, and the roof subsidence is apparent not symmetry.
(4) The compound effect of the key strata can reduce the roof subsidence and pressure by form 1/7 to 1/6, which is good to the entry retaining.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (50374065), NSFC for extinguished scholars (50225414).
Page 109
REFERENCES
Li, H.M. 2000. Control design of roof rock for gobside entry. Journal of Jiaozuo industry college 19(5):651–654.
Qian, M.G. & Miao, X.X. 2000. Key strata theory in ground control. Xuzhou: China university of mining and technology press.
Sun, H.H. 1993. Theory and practice of gob side entry retaining. Beijing: China coal industry publishing house.
Wang, Y.J. & Xing, J.B. 1991. Distinct unit method used in geotechnical mechanics. Shenyang: Northeast industry college press.
Zhang, D.S. & Miao, X.X. 2001. Simulation analysis of roof behave regularity for gobside entry retaining in fully mechanized coalface with topcoal caving, Journal of
china university of minin g & technolo gy 30(3):261–264.
Zhang, D.S. & Mao, X.B. 2002. Testing study on deformation features of surrounding rocks of gobside entry retaining in fully mechanized coal face with topcoal caving.
Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering 21(3):331–334.
Zhang, D.S. & Miao, X.X. 2003. Stability control of packing body for gobside entry retaining in fully mechanized coalface with topcoal caving, Journal of china
university of mining & technology 32(3):232–235.
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Page 111
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Vital role of instrumentation & rock mechanics for manganese underground
mines of Manganese Ore (India) Limited (MOIL) for introduction of Rapid
Mining Technology (RMT)
G.G.Manekar
MOIL, Chikla Mine
P.M.Reddy
MOIL, Nagpur
ABSTRACT: Manganese Ore (India) Limited (MOIL), one of the pioneer in the manganese mines, operates 10 mines in Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra states, out of which 6 mines are underground having access through inclines or by vertical shafts and 4 mines are opencast mines, making
bed and dump mining activities for the production of high grade and medium grade of manganese ore. This paper deals with the gradual changes in the
mining system by the introduction of various rapid mining technologies (RMT) in the underground mines in different phases.
1 INTRODUCTION
In today’s world of mining, layout and roof support are designed so that pillar and entry safety factor are only a little above the critical point of failure. Under varying
conditions, the amount and type of roof support may greatly affect the stability. Instruments have been used increasingly in mines to measure deformations, stress, strain,
and load. Such measurements serve two purposes.
– First, they provide quantitative information that can be useful in determining the mechanics of stability and in aiding engineering decisions.
– Second, they can be useful in verifying and tuning mining methods.
In this era of globalization & environmental friendly mining activities are associated with rapid mining technologies & this could be achieved only with the help of
scientific evaluation of RMT with the help of instrumentation and interpretation of data with rock mechanics investigations.
2 INSTRUMENTATION PLANNING
Design and implementation of a successful instrumentation plan requires careful consideration of the following factors:
– A fundamental understanding of the overall rock mechanics, geology, and general site conditions;
– Identification of the critical mechanisms or geotechnical parameters that needs to be measured;
– Clearly defined objectives for each of the measurements to be taken;
– Estimates of the magnitude or anticipated range for each of these measurements;
– Selection of instruments, transducers, and data acquisition equipment appropriate for the desired measurements and site conditions;
– Availability of experienced personnel to install, troubleshoot, and monitor the instruments; and
– Established procedures for data collection, analysis, and reporting.
3 EVALUATION OF SUPPORTING SYSTEMS
For introduction of various RMT in the underground mines of MOIL in phased manner, Mine management had first study the limitations of the various supporting
systems that have been used in the underground mines. Various supporting methods that have been tried in the underground mines of
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MOIL are:
1 Timber square set,
2 Pack pillar,
3 Post pillar,
4 Sill pillar.
These systems were discontinued. Limitations of this system is briefly are as follows:
Limitations of square set support Limitations of pack pillar support
More of art than science Cannot prevent joint openings in the roof
Requires lot of handling and transport of timber
Cumbersome requires transport of building materials
Cannot support heavy loads
No mechanization possible Verticality of the pack pillar is in doubt
Cannot take care of side movement Inefficient against side pressure
Quality timber not available Restrict room for mechanization
Demand for highly skilled manpower
Figure 1. Plan of Pack Pillar System.
Figure 2. Section of Pack Pillar System.
4 INTRODUCTION OF RMT & ROCK MECHANIC STUDIES
Due to the above constraints of these supporting system in underground mining operations the company made an attempt to change over to new systems of supporting
involving pre mining reinforcement of stope back & wall rocks by cable bolting and rock bolting. To start the RMT for supporting system, MOIL has done various
geotechnical studies taking help of rock mechanics with instrumentation for confirmation of the system. With this scenario, MOIL has experimented and established the
‘Cable Bolting Techniques’ for obtaining improved ground conditions in all the under ground mines.
4.1 Rock mechanic studies
For the stability of underground structures following standard rock mass classification systems have been referred:
1 Terzaghi’s Classification (1946),
2 Lauffer’s Classification (1958),
3 Deere’s Rock Mass Classification (1963)—RQD,
4 Wickham’s Classifiaction System (1972)—RSR,
5 Bieniawski’s Geomechanics Classification (1973/ 1979)—RMR,
6 Barton’s Rock Mass Quality (1974)—Q.
Estimation of rock load in stopes and in cross cuts by using Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Barton’s Rock Quality—Q has been done in all the underground mines &
accordingly the selection of support system for each location has been found out.
Support load determined from the geomechanics classification as (Unal, 1983):
where P is the support load,
ht is the Rock Load Height in Meters,
RMR is Rock Mass Rating,
B is tunnel width,
ρ is density of rock, kg/m3.
The max. span (unsupported)=2 (ESR)•Q0,4
ESR is Excavation Support Ratio, Q is Barton’s
Rock Quality
Permanent Support Pressure
Correlation between RMR & Q values:
RMR=9ln Q+44, RMR=13.5 log Q+43 (standard deviation=9.4)
RSR=0.77 RMR+12.4 (standard dev.=8.9)
RSR=13.3 log Q+46.5 (standard dev.=7.0)
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Calculated Q values & RMR of Balaghat mine with geotechnical parameters
4.2 Instrumentation for estimation of support system
The different parameters of the stope for instrumentation may be distinctly categories as follows;
1 Constant parameters,
2 Variable parameters.
In general, constant parameters are not to be monitored continuously. While assessing the RMR & Q this parameters have found out. The variable parameters however
are of such importance and required to be measured and monitored regularly and continuously to acquire knowledge about the trend and nature of variation and the
limiting values to take preventive measures.
The critical parameters that have been monitored during the stopping operation in the company with various instruments are listed below:
1 Roof Fall parameters (MultiPoint Bore Hole Extensometers)
2 (Bed separation, Sagging & deflection) (MPBX and Tape Extensometer)
3 Load on support (Load Cells)
4 Pillar Strain (Strain Bars)
5 Pillar Concentration (Strain bars/Stress Capsules).
5 INSTRUMENTATION
The use of the cable bolting technique has found wider applications in relatively stronger and fairly rock masses. Its effectiveness in relatively more jointed and weaker
ore body and rock mass is being tried and tested for the first time in India at the Balaghat mine of the company.
5.1 Monitoring during experimental stage
Multipoint Bore Hole Extensometers (MPBX) and Load Cells (LC) were installed for performance monitoring of the cable bolts in the experimental panel. It is to be
noted that in the experimental stage there were cable bolt at 2 m×2 m in a grid pattern as a reinforcing element whereas the stope back is supported with conventional
passive temporary timber support, timber chocks at a distance of 3 m×3 m from center to center and timber props.
It was planned that instruments should be installed to monitor the deformation of the hangwall in the cable bolt supported experimental panel and measurement of
load in the temporary chock supports. For this purpose, 5 MPBX and 8 load cells were installed as detailed in the below mentioned tables 1 & 2;
5.2 Observations of MPBX
a) The effect of the mining operations is likely to be noticed by MP1 and subsequently by MP2.
b) The relative displacement of anchors MP1 & MP2 reaches max. of 0.8 mm. It indicates that the cable bolted overlying ore and hangwall is stable and that the cable
bolts are effective.
c) In MP3 shows that the max. displacement is 0.53 mm. This also confirms that the support is adequate.
d) The relative displacements of anchors of MP4 & MP5 are less than 0.1 mm, which is negligible.
From the above analysis it is confirm that the cable bolt are adequate.
5.3 Observation of load cells
Mechanical Load Cells of 10 T capacity was installed under the timber chocks in the cable bolted stopes. Each load cell experienced the load varying between 0.4 to
11. The spacing of the chocks being 3 m center to center, the support pressure works out in the range of 0.03 to 0.044 kg/cm2. This pressure is negligible and it is
confirmed that the immediate roof is not affected by mining and cable bolts are adequate.
From the above analysis of the different instrumentation programs, it is indicated that the relative displacement of the various anchors of MPBX after about 100 days
(3 months) that too while raising the lift upward from manway/ore passes has been observed. The relative displacement is also found negligible. It is also confirm that
with earlier supporting system for mining of one slice it had taken about 300 days (10months). Rate of mining per stope has
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Table 1. Details of Multipoint Borehole Extensometers.
Table 2. Details of load cell installed in cable bolted station.
been increased considerable & hence this system referred as a RMT.
6 INTRODUCTION OF OTHER RMT IN THE UNDERGROUND MINES
6.1
Increased rate of mining per stope created a problem for the availability of working spaces for mining due to manual back filling of lumpy filling in the stopes, which itself
has been a slow process and requires more time for mining—filling cycle. The hydraulic stowing of river sand was also taken up during 1993–94 at Balaghat mine. This
RMT for filling has been quite well developed and has been extensively adopted in all the underground mines of the company.
Cross cuts of this sand stowed stopes subjected to have hydraulic pressure and hence, instrument for convergence between roof & floor & both the sides of the
walls has been measured at a regular interval at preselected locations.
6.2
Geometry of stope has been change for mechanical handling of ROM in the stopes. Where the stope back is supported with cable bolts of 12 m length in a grid pattern
of 2 m×2 m with on roof bolt of 1.5m in length, 20 mm dia. of steel in between the cable bolt. The stope design consist of insitu Rib pillar of 8 m wide extending from
hangwall to footwall across the strike and a insitu post pillar of 5 m×5 m at a distance of 15 m along the strike.
Instrumentation was done for the stopes at Balaghat mine, spring anchor type multi point extensometers were installed at roof back to monitored the condition of
strata from the stope itself, while mining the stope in upward direction. The results indicated a maximum movement of the stope back of about 1 mm and the rate of
movement was 0.1 mm per month. Most of the movement took place during the first 30 days from the start of mining and after this period the back stabilized. The
movements recorded are within the safe limits of the total movement of 3 mm and a rate/month of 0.3 mm.
6.3
For mechanical handling of ROM in stopes, the new RMT has been introduced in the year 2003 by deployment of SDL in the stopes at Balaghat mine. A panel of 3
stopes, having a length 180 has been chosen for mining, supporting & filling cycle. Face OMS has been increased from 3 to 7.51 in the year 2003–2004 and may go
up to 101 in this year at Balaghat mine.
6.4
With continuous rock mechanics studies & instrumentation, new mining method sub level with post mining—filling has been started on experimental basis in poor to fair
rock mass quality at Chikla underground mine of the company. After the successful implementation, this method may be deployed in other underground mines of the
company after fair study of geomining conditions of the rock mass.
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7 CONCLUSION
Introduction of various RMT in the underground mines of the company, stope productivity has been increased from 3 to 7.51 and may reach up to 10t. Moreover,
safety standard has also been increased as less man are exposed in risk. Due to Rapid mining in the stopes no deformation of the roof back has been observed so far.
Scope for future RMT has also been considered since the mining activities are interlinked like development & production drilling etc.
7.1 Achievements
The satisfactory observed outcome at this stage by the above listed RMT in the underground mines of the company are mentioned below:
– Face OMS has improved from 31 to 6.51, this may further reach up to 10
– Reduction in the manpower in the stopes for production.
– Increase in safety standard.
In total, with rock mechanics studies, instrumentation & scientific evaluation of RMT, production, productivity and safety have been increased due to this mechanised
operation.
REFERENCES
Barton N. & E.Grimstd—The Q system following 20 years of application NMT support selection, IndoNorwegian workshop on rock mechanics, KGF, India (1997) pp
1–9.
Central Board of Irrigation & Power (May, 1988)—Manual on Rock Mechanics, New Delhi, India, pp 151–154.
Hoek E. & Brown E.T. (1997), Practical estimates of rock mass strength, Int. J, rock mech, Mining series, vol. 34.
Manganese Ore (India) Limited, Internal reports (1992, CMRI), (1993, NIRM), (July, 2001—CMRI).
Mahadik N.K. (Jan., 2000), SGAT bulletin, Vol.2, India.
Stillborg B (1986), Professional users handbook for rock bolting—Trans tech publication.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Characterization of pillar burst in deep underground mines
H.S.Mitri & X.Y.Yun
Department of Mining, Metals and Materials Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
ABSTRACT: The paper examines through model parametric studies three methods for studying the stability of crown pillars in burst prone cutandfill
mining operations. The energybased approach called the Burst Potential Index or BPI, which has been recently developed by the author is presented
and compared with the conventional stress approach and the wellknown energy release rate method (ERR).
1 INTRODUCTION
Rockburst phenomena in deep underground hard rock mines are generally classified as faultslip (due to sudden slip of a fault or a major discontinuity) or strainburst.
The latter is characterized by a sudden release of energy in a volume of highly stressed rock, which, more often than not, causes a local violent failure of the rock mass
around the mine opening. Although strainbursts generally involve small amounts of rock and relatively smallsize seismic events, they account for the great majority of
rockburst accidents in underground mines. Examples of such phenomena are sill and crown pillar bursts associated with cutandfill mining, abutment pillar failure in a
blockcaving production level and face bursts in relatively flat tabular ore deposits at great depth. The paper focuses on the characterization of horizontal pillars
associated with overhand cutandfill mining.
Cutandfill mining method was for many years the most common method in metal mines until blasthole mining methods came about and used to mine large, thick ore
bodies. However, for narrow vein ore deposits, the overhand cutandfill method continues to be a first choice as it offers the ability to do selective mining, which is
achieved by leaving instope (blasted or not) uneconomic ore. Moreover, it provides for excellent ore dilution control due to the limited wall height exposed after each
production blasting round. It is also particularly suited for both irregularly shaped and plunging ore bodies. Other advantages of cutandfill method are (Waterland,
1982): it permits continuous ore sampling as the stope is being mined out; only little development is required to prepare the stope for production; equipment investment
is relatively modest. On the other hand, the method has lower productivity than bulk methods such as blasthole mining, as it is laborintensive and ore production is
limited by the mining cycle. Also, it requires comprehensive ground control measures to ensure the safety of mine workers under freshly blasted backs. For highgrade
ore deposits, overhand cutandfill method can be considered feasible and economical.
To start a cutandfill stope, the development of an access level above the stope is required to serve as an access to mine workers, equipment and supplies to the
stope area. It also requires the development of a production level at the bottom of the stope and an ore pass through the stope sill as shown in Figure 1. The stope
height is typically in the range of 40 to 50 m and the sill is in the range of 10 to 14 m. Unless an access
Figure 1. Typical cutandfill stope arrangement.
ramp is driven in the footwall, an access raise will be driven from the production level to the access level. Mining proceeds upwards by drilling and blasting slices of the
ore, which can vary in thickness from 1.5 to 3.6 m depending on ground conditions. Economical backfill is used to fill the stope and serves basically as the working
floor for the next slice in addition to providing some degree of confinement to the stope walls. Rockbolting (and sometimes cable bolting) is used extensively to support
the stope back immediately after blasting the slice, and before mucking away the broken ore.
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2 PILLAR BURST PROBLEMS IN CUTANDFILL MINING
As mining progresses upwards, the thickness of the overlying crown pillar decreases. When the pillar thickness becomes relatively small, the mininginduced stress level
rises in the pillar and the potential for an onshift rockburst becomes imminent. While the prediction of rockburst potential remains to be a challenging problem to many
researchers, there are however, some simple, yet practical warning signals of potential rockburst incidence. They are:
– Rock noise heard by the operators during the shift
– Difficult handheld (jackleg) drilling causing slow penetration rate
– Rock spitting during drilling
– Occasional rock bumps.
2.1 Pillar burst characterization methods
The use of a portable microseismic network offers the advantage of monitoring seismic activities. This can help assess the risk as well as the location of rockbursts.
Compression and shear waves are produced by sudden slips in the rock mass and when they encounter a boundary, they are partly reflected, refracted and
transmitted, breaking up into different types of other waves. Travel times depend on the wave velocity changes as they pass through rocks of different elastic
properties.
In mine planning situations or back analysis of rockburst incidences, numerical modeling proved to give good indications. In this paper, the following methods are
used to examine the problem of crown pillar burst using numerical modeling.
1 Determine the magnitude and location of maximum pillar stress. Higher pillar stress is indicative of higher risk of rockburst potential
2 Determine Energy release rate (ERR) associated with each mining slice. Higher levels of ERR reflects increased likelihood of triggering a seismic event with the mining
of a slice.
3 Determine Burst Potential Index (BPI) in the pillar. Increased BPI values imply elevated level of energy stored in the pillar and the potential of a violent failure.
The first method is the most common and has been in use for quite some time (e.g. Blake, 1972, Mitri et al., 1988). Basically, comparing the mininginduced stresses
with the rock mass strength is used as a basis for assessing rock failure. At the boundary of mine openings, the major principal stress, σ1, is parallel to the opening
boundary, whereas σ3, the stress perpendicular to the opening boundary is naturally zero. One can estimate the potential for stress failure PSF as
PSF=(σ1 /UCSrm)∙100%
(1)
where σ1 is the boundary stress due to mining and UCSrm is the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock mass.
One way to determine UCSrm is by using HoekBrown’s criterion for the case of σ3 =0, which gives
(2)
The difficulty with Equation 2 is that the parameter s (from HoekBrown criterion) must be known. Most rock mass characterization studies lead to Bieniawski’s rock
mass rating parameter Bieniawski’s RMR (or Barton’s Q rating). As an alternative to Equation 2, the authors suggest the following empirical formula.
UCSrm=½ UCS [1−COS π (RMR/100)]
(3)
The drawback of the stress or PSF method is that it does not distinguish between static and dynamic or violent failure. Also, the effect of rock mass stiffness, which
plays an important role in bursttype failures, is absent.
The second method of the energy release rate or ERR was initially developed in South Africa (Cook et al., 1966). The ERR method became one of the most used
parameters for stope design in deep underground South African mines (Spottiswoode, 1990). It serves as a tool for the estimation of the maximum permissible mining
slice that can be extracted without causing seismically induced boundary failure of the mine opening. It can be shown that ERR can be calculated from
ERR=½∫ΔσijΔεijdV
(4)
where Δσij and Δεij are the incremental changes in the state of stress and strain due to a mining step or a mining slice.
Although the ERR has gained wide acceptance in South Africa, Salamon (1993) pointed out that it can be only of limited value in combating the rockburst hazard,
because ERR alone is unable to recognize
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failure. The latter reason has been a motivating factor for the recent development of a new theory for the calculation of the socalled Burst Potential Index (BPI), based
on energy considerations, which is described in detail in the paper by Mitri et al. (1999).
The BPI method has been developed to assess the potential of pillar or face burst (of the strainburst type) on the basis of the amount of strain energy stored in the
rock due to mining activities. In this method, the energy storage rate ESR accumulated in the rock mass due to mining is compared with the maximum strain energy
Emax that the rock mass can sustain before it fails. The burst potential index BPI is thus estimated from
BPI=(ESR/Emax)100%
(5)
where by ESR is computed from
ESR=½∫σij εijdV
(6)
and Emax is given by
Emax=∫(σij−σij º)dV
(7)
where is the in situ stress vector.
The advantage of the BPI method is that it provides an indicator of rock failure based on the combined effect of stress and stiffness (or strain), whereas the
conventional stress approach relies on stress only.
3 CROWN PILLAR MODEL
3.1 Input parameters
Model input parameters should be selected on the basis of laboratory tests and in situ rock mass characterization investigation. The model reliability is directly
proportional with the quality of the input data. Previous studies have shown that backfill has little or no influence on the stresses in the crown pillar and can therefore be
ignored for modeling purposes.
The abovementioned pillar characterization methods will be demonstrated through the numerical modeling of a characteristic case. Let us take for example, a case
of a stiff, steeply dipping, narrow vein orebody, which is 3 mwide with a dip angle of 70°. The rock mass rating RMR of the ore and host rocks is 80, while the
Young’s modulus of the intact rock is 66GPa with a Poisson’s ratio v of 0.2. The stope block height is equal to 50 m. For simplicity, all rocks will be assumed to have
the same unit weight of 0.028 MN/m3.
The material model is assumed to be isotropic, linear elastic. The rock mass modulus, Erm can be estimated from the modulus of elasticity of the intact rock, Ei, and
RMR as follows (Mitri et al., 1996)
Erm=½ Ei [1−COS π (RMR/100)]
(8)
Furthermore, the uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock, UCS=275 MPa. In order to obtain the corresponding value for the rock mass, the authors suggest
the use of the following formula:
The application of equations (3) and (8) to the input data yields the following results.
UCSrm=250 MPa
Erm=60 GPa, and
The analysis will consider a stope block 750m below surface. The crown pillar thickness is initially 12 m, and the crown pillar thickness is reduced as the mining
progresses upwards from 12 to 3 m in mining steps of 3 m each. The analysis is carried out for a horizontaltovertical stress ratio, K=2, and then repeated for stope
depths of 1000 m, 1250 m and 1500 m. At depths greater than 1500 m (5000 feet), the pillar stresses are so high that the use of traditional cutandfill method could
become unfeasible. Other mining methods are used at great depths, e.g. undercut and fill and blasthole stoping.
The model in situ (premining) stresses are calculated from
σv °=γh, σh °=Kγh
(9)
3.2 Finite element model
The finite element analysis was conducted with the software ez tools developed by the first author (Mitri, 2004). A finit e eleme nt m es h of quadrilateral isoparametric
elements was constructed to model the crown pillar extraction in three mining steps of 3 m each. Several other meshes of different densities were tested before the
mesh design was finalized. Thus, the pillar, which is initially 12 m thick, is reduced in thickness to 3 m in three mining steps. Figure 2 shows a zoomin view of the crown
pillar mesh and the mining steps. The element thickness in the crown pillar zone is only 1m. In the modeling software, stress and energy parameters are calculated at the
element centre. Thus for the first row of elements representing the stope back (pillar skin), the location of computed stresses and energy quantities is only 0.5 m from
the pillar skin.
Both stress and energy results are computed after each mining step. It is found that the elements at the skin of the crown pillar (stope back) have the highest major
principal stresses, which are oriented nearly horizontal, i.e. parallel to the stope boundary. Furthermore, the highest skin stress is found on the footwall corner (131
MPa) with the hanging wall corner being the second highest (129 MPa); see locations of these elements in Figure 3.
These observations suggest that a) failure, if any, would be initiated from the immediate stope back, and b) that the footwall corner is the hotspot stress,
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Figure 2. FE mesh of the crown pillar showing mining sequences.
Figure 3. Locations of elements of highest computed stress and energy quantities.
i.e. it is the first location to likely trigger a burst event. For this reason, the results will be presented with reference to the footwall corner element shown in Figure 3.
3.3 Stress results
The stress results are presented in Figure 4 in terms of the principal stress in the footwall corner and its variation with crown pillar thickness. As expected, the stress
increases as the crown pillar decreases from 12 m to 3 m. The analysis is repeated for deeper mine stopes at depths of 1000 m, 1250 and 1500 m. Since
Figure 4. Crown pillar stress results.
the uniaxial compressive strength of the ore vein rock mass in this case is 250 MPa, then by referring to the dotted line on Figure 4, it can be said that the footwall
corner (and perhaps the entire stope back) is likely to fail for mine stopes that are deeper than 1000 m. The Potential of Stress Failure or PSF (Equation 1) ranges from
124% (12 m pillar thickness at 1250 m depth) to 180% (3 m pillar thickness at 1500 m depth)
Thus, a simple analysis such as this can serve to shed light on the possibility of crown pillar failure for a given stope depth and in situ stress conditions.
3.4 ERR results
The application of Equation 4 to the computed stresses and strains leads to the calculation of ERR values in the finite element model. The first result is obtained for the
crown pillar when mined in equal steps of 3 m each. Figure 5 presents this result for different depths of 750 m, 1000 m, 1250 m and 1500 m (step size= 3 m), whereby
ERR is calculated in MJ/m3.
In order to demonstrate the benefit of the ERR parameter in mine design, a hypothetical scenario of larger mining steps of 6 m and 9 m was considered. As can be
seen from the results depicted in Figure 5, the energy release rate increases substantially as the size of the mining step increases. This is particularly true for deeper
mines (note the slope of the lines is steepest for 1500 m depth).
An increase in ERR suggests increased kinetic or seismic energy during the mining process. Coupled with the prevalent high stress condition, this condition could lead
to rockburst. The appropriate, or maximum permissible, mining step size is site specific and can only be determined by experimentation and with the help of a seismic
monitoring system in the mining area.
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Figure 5. Variation of ERR with mining step size.
Figure 6. Energy Storage Rate (ESR) results.
3.5 ESR and BPI results
The energy stored in the rock mass is computed in accordance with Equation (6); it represents the total amount of strain energy so far stored in the rock mass due to
mining activities. From the results presented in Figure 6, it is evident that (a) ESR increases as the crown pillar thickness is reduced, and (b) ESR increases with the
mining depth.
In order to assess energybased failure, the maximum energy capacity of the rock mass Emax is computed according to Equation [7] and is plotted
Figure 7. Variation of the maximum energy capacity with mine depth.
Table 1. %BPI results—Hanging wall corner.
Mining depth (m)
Pillar Thickness (m) 750 1000 1250 1500
12 24.8 91.8 150.5 227.8
9 25.2 94.3 153.7 233.1
6 27.4 102.6 167.8 253.4
3 32.5 121.2 198.8 300.9
against the mining depth as shown in Figure 7 for a range of UCSrm of 200 MPa to 300 MPa.
It is interesting to note that Emax decreases with depth. This observation suggests that the same type of rock would be more burst prone when mined at greater
depth. This is because the potential energy stored in the rock mass prior to mining increases with depth by nature, which leaves less room for mininginduced energy to
be stored.
Finally, the Burst Potential Index BPI is calculated as a percentage simply by applying Equation 5. The results are summarized in Tables 1 and 2 and for the hanging
wall and footwall corner elements, respectively. The following observations can be made in light of the reported results
– The BPI is directly proportional with mining depth.
– As the pillar thickness is reduced the pillar’s BPI increases.
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Table 2. %BPI results—Footwall corner.
Mining depth (m)
Pillar Thickness (m) 750 1000 1250 1500
12 25.6 95.9 156.9 237.1
9 26.1 97.5 160.1 242.5
6 28.8 107.7 176.7 267.4
3 38.0 142.2 233.6 353.8
– The BPI values at the footwall corner are consistently higher than those at the hanging wall suggesting that failure would initiate from the footwall corner first.
– At depths greater than 1000 m, the BPI values suggest imminent pillar failure with values ranging from 150% (for pillar thickness=12 m at 1250 m) to 354% (for
pillar thickness of 3 m at a depth of 1500 m).
Furthermore, for the crown pillar case analyzed in this study, it appears that the BPI values are higher than their PSF counterparts, i.e. for the same mining depth and
pillar thickness. This suggests that BPI method is likely to be more conservative for mine design purposes.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents a detailed case study of crown pillar stability in a cutandfill stope. The effects of pillar thickness, mining sequences and mining depth on the
potential failure of the crown pillar are examined by three different methods namely, stress, energy release rate (ERR) and energy storage rate (ESR). The stress
method or the socalled potential stress failure (PSF) predicts failure based on rock mass strength (Equation 1). In this regard, the authors propose a new empirical
formula (Equation 3) for the evaluation of the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock mass. The ERR results demonstrate the importance of selecting the mining step
size and how it could affect the seismic energy released and hence seismically induced failure. ERR parameter however does not recognize failure. The third method
based on ESR leads to the calculation of the burst potential index or BPI. It has the advantage of combining mining depth, rock mass stiffness and rock mass strength
into one failure criterion. The BPI appears to give higher values of potential failure indices than the PSF or stress method, suggesting that it is more conservative.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was financially supported by a grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council. The authors are grateful for their support.
REFERENCES
Blake, W., 1972. Destressing test at the Galena Mine, Wallace, Idaho, Trans. Soc. Min. Eng., AIME, Vol. 252, pp. 294–299
Cook, N.G.W., Hoek, E., Pretorius, J.P.G., Ortlepp, W.D., & Salamon, M.D.G., 1966. Rock mechanics applied to the study of rockbursts, J.S.Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., Vol.
66, pp. 435–528.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Dependence of pillar strength on excavation depth in Estonian oil shale mines
Oleg Nikitin
Estonian OilShale Company—AS Eesti Polevkivi, Jõhvi, Estonia
Tallinn Technical University, Department of Mining, Tallinn, Estonia
ABSTRACT: Practical experience evidences that some Estonian oilshale bed parameters are not constant and vary depending on the depth and
geological conditions. Proving the dependence of systematically increase of rock/pillar strength on oil shale depth by available data is the main aim of
this paper. The elaborated method of pillar strength determination can help to exactly calculate the rate of current rock strength and thereby to
decrease loses in pillars by 10–18%. The values received by statistical analysis of the parameters of 258 boreholes are very close to the data
determined in Institute of Mining Surveying (IMS) in St. Petersburg by laboratory testing. By these calculations, the relative uncertainty of the method
of rock strength increase does not exceed 19% at the 95% confidence level.
1 INTRODUCTION
At present there are boreholes, in which in 1950–60s basic physicandmechanical parameters of commercially important oilshale bed have been determined, in
practically all parts of Estonia oilshale deposit. The subjects in question were discussed in a great number of works and reports (Seleznev et al., 1959; Bakinov et al.,
1964; Allik, 1964; Aruküla, 1966–68).
In late 1970s basic lithologic laws had been formulated for Estonia oilshale deposit by V.Talve in cooperation with A.Rejer (Talve, 1978; Talve, 1980). Many
researches on oilshale mines were done by geologist V.Kattaj (Kattaj, 1981).
Practical experience evidences that some oilshale bed parameters are not constant and vary depending on the depth and geological conditions (Allik, 1960; Misnik,
1966; Kripsaar, 1987). V.Kirsanov was the first to point to the fact of rock compressive strength increase depending on depth in 1974 in his report (Kirsanov, 1974);
and in 1983 V.Talve observed it (Talve, 1983).
Proving the dependence of systematically increase of rock/pillar strength on oil shale depth by available data is the main aim of this paper.
2 GEOLOGY
The commercially important oil shale bed is situated in the northeastern part of Estonia. It stretches from west to east for 200 km, and from north to south for 30 km.
The oil shale bed lays in the form of a flat bed having a small inclination in southern direction. Its depth varies from 5 to 150 m. The oil shale reserves in Estonia are
estimated to be approximately four billion tons.
The oil shale seams occur among the limestone seams in the Kukruse Regional Stage of the Middle Ordovician. The commercial oil shale bed and immediate roof
consist of oil shale and limestone seams. The main roof consists of carbonate rocks of various thicknesses. The characteristics of certain oil shale and limestone seams
are quite different. The compressive strength of oil shale is 20–40 and that of limestone—40–80 MPa. The strength of the rocks increases in the southward direction.
Their volume density is 1.5–1.8 and 2.2–2.6 Mg/m3, respectively. The calorific value of dry oil shale is about 7.5–18.8 MJ/kg depending on the seam and location in
the deposit.
3 METHODS AND FORMULAS FOR DETERMINATION OF PILLAR STRENGTH
Classic approach assumes that “pillars will fail when the applied load reaches the compressive strength of the pillars” and that “the loadbearing capacity of the pillar
reduces to zero the moment the ultimate strength is exceeded” (Bieniawski, 1992).
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In South Africa and the USA the following empirical methods for the prediction of coal pillar strength are used: the power formula of Salamon & Munro (1967) and
the linear equation of Bieniawski (1968). Bieniawski formula is based on in situ tests of large coal specimens (largescale tests) and SalamonMunro formula, on a
statistical analysis of failed and stable pillar cases.
The strength of a pillar is a function of its dimensions, namely, width and height for a square pillar, and a constant that is related to the strength of the pillar material.
According to Salamon and Munro (1967), the strength is
where k f is pillar scale factor; x is pillar width; h is pillar height; and a is constant related to material strength. Parameters a and β are independent.
The linear formula of Bieniawski (1968) is
(2)
Estonian and Russian roomandpillar mining has also adopted an interpretation of Bieniawski formula whose interdependent parameters were mainly determined for
different geological conditions at the Institute of Mining Surveying (IMS) in St. Petersburg.
In each of these “classic” cases, the pillar strength was estimated as a function of two variables—the pillar widthtoheight (x/h) ratio and the seam strength (σ). For
many years these classic formulas performed reasonably well for roomandpillar mining under relatively shallow cover. Being closely linked to reality and easy to use
were key advantages of these empirical formulas whereas their greatest disadvantage was incapability to be easily extended beyond their original database and
providing little direct insight into pillar mechanics.
Recently, powerful design methods have emerged from analysis of large databases of realworld pillar successes and failures. These include the Analysis of Retreat
Mining Pillar Stability (ARMPS), the Analysis of Longwall Pillar Stability (ALPS), the MarkBieniawski rectangular pillar strength formula, and guidelines for preventing
massive pillar collapses. To provide better estimates of pillar load through the numerical modelling finite element models to assess the LAMODEL boundary element
code are also usable today (Keith et al., 1999).
Layers that are inhomogeneous on strength or contain plastic intercalations combine mineral seams quite often. As weak layers or clay intercalations reduce bearing
capacity of pillars, to define quantitative dependence of pillars strength on their width and height, oilshale layers strength and on a number of weak and plastic layers,
researches on models
Figure 1. Pillar models made of equivalent materials: 1—containing weak layer; 2—containing plastic interlayer; 3—containing both
weak layer and plastic interlayer.
made of equivalent materials have been executed in IMS. Models composed of both weak layers and plastic interlayers were prepared and tested as well (Bublik,
1968).
Strength analysis for inhomogeneous pillars containing weak layers has shown that strength of a cubic pillar depends on the relationship between strengths of strong
and weak layers and on their thickness. The more thickness of a weak layer and the less its strength, the greater extent of pillar bearing capacity reduction. Thus, the
location of a weak layer does not influence the pillar strength. Strength of a pillar containing small amounts of weak layers can be characterized by the strength of the
weakest one. For the conditions of Estonia oilshale deposit the first pillar model, i.e. pillar with weak layers, is applicable (Figure 1,1).
In 1969 S.Zarkov suggested the formula for calculation of strength of an inhomogeneous pillar (pillar containing weak layers) based on experience results (Zarkov,
1969):
(3)
where R is compressive strength (cube strength) of inhomogeneous pillar, MPa; R1 and R2 are strengths of the strongest and weakest pillar layers, respectively, MPa;
h2 is thickness of the weakest layer, m; h is pillar height, m.
To convert laminated strata to a homogeneous stratum R.Dashko and J.Kuznetsov (Dashko, 1969) suggested a dependence that looks like an exponential function:
σ =σi exp(−1.25 m)
(4)
where σ is basic strength of an inhomogeneous pillar, MPa; σ1 is compressive strength (breaking point) of limestone, MPa; m is ratio of total thickness of oilshale
layers to pillar height h, m (m=Σhoil/h).
To apply these formulas, data on compressive strength of all oil shale and limestone pillar seams are needed (Table 18). In addition, one must keep in mind that for
rock massive (in situ) conditions pillar strength σ is less than σ0 obtained at laboratory
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Table 1. Compressive strength of some oilshale layers located in different depths (Kripsaar, 1987).
Borehole numbers and their depth H
Basic compressive strength of rocks, MPa
Layer index 8502–8510 H=54 m 9910–9934 H=91 m 9980–9905 H=94 m Variation, %
C 13.7 11.2 9.7 73
D/C 52.4 53.4 55.2 27
F 2
11.6 12.7 17.4 47
Table 2. Crosssectional view of oilshale bed (h=2.8 m, excavation depth H=65 m) of Estonia mine field and compressive strength σ of its layers (Levin,
1986).
Formula (29), σII=R0 31
testing. For example, the strength of Kuznetsk Basin (Russia) coal seam is 2–5 times less (σ=3.2σ0 at the average) as shown by laboratory test (Bublik, 1968). For
Estonia oilshale deposit pillar strength is (Kuznetsov, 1969; Erzanov, 1973).
Taking into account the deviations
3.1 An Example of pillar strength determination
For illustrating pillar strength determination Estonia mine and No. 2 mine were taken (Tables 2 and 3).
By Formulas (3) and (4):
• for Estonia mine (excavation depth H=65m, pillar height h=2.8m) compressive strength of a pillar is σI=27.3 and σII=31.4MPa, respectively
• for No. 2 mine (H=22m, h=2.8 m) compressive strength of a pillar is σI=18.5 and σII=23.3 MPa, respectively
Table 3. Crosssectional view of oilshale bed (h=2.8 m, excavation depth H=22 m) of mine No. 2 field and compressive strength s of its layers
(Seleznyov, 1959).
Formula (29), σu=R0 23
It is seen that pillar strength can increase for different excavation depths from 1.3 to 1.5 times.
Practical proof by available data of systematically increase of rock strength to depend on oil shale depth is very complicated because of wide deviation of strength
values within each minefield and the whole of deposit. However, the above examples evidence that the dependence under discussion is not a theory only, but it should
exist.
4 DEPENDENCE OF PILLAR STRENGTH ON CALORIFIC VALUE AND DEPTH
The commercial oilshale bed and immediate roof consist of oil shale and limestone seams and the main roof consists of carbonate rocks of various thicknesses.
Qualitative indices of various oil shale and limestone seams are quite different compressive strength being 20–40 and 40–80 MPa, and volume density 1.5–1.8 and
2.2–2.6 Mg/m3, respectively. Dry oil shale calorific value is about 7.5–18.8 MJ/kg.
Pillar strength σ increases southward with depth increase. The probable reason for that is increase in the thickness of limestone intercalation in this direction. Because
of that the calorific value Q of commercially important oilshale bed decreases depending on the deposit seam properties and area.
For the reasons stated above a dependence a=R=f(Q) must exist. To find it the data on the strength of oilshale layers and their calorific value are needed. The
averaged data characterizing different parts of the deposit were used, some of them presented in Tables 20 and 21.
For Rmax=60 MPa (Figure 2) the average compressive strength of limestone intercalation D/C was
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Figure 2. Compressive strength dependence (relative units) on the calorific value Q, kcal/kg.
taken. As a result, by the technique of least squares dependence σ=σ1+A exp (−BQ) has been received, where σ1=10 MPa is minimum oil shale compressive
strength, MPa; A and B are dimensipnless factors; Q is calorific value of the given layer, kcal/kg.
Next, if we know the calorific value of a layer, its compressive strength is easy to calculate by the following formula:
R=σ1+A exp(−BQ)=10+50exp(−0.00043Q)
(5)
For the subsequent calculations one can use the available calorific value data for different depths for each oilshale bed layer.
In this study the data on 258 boreholes of Estonia oilshale deposit was analysed and “cubic” pillar compressive strength (x=h=1.8 m) calculated by Formulae (5)
and (6) (Nikitin, 2003).
For calculation of strength of an inhomogeneous pillar the next formula is applicable:
(6)
where R0 is “cubic” strength (k f=1) of inhomogeneous pillar; R1 and R2 are strengths of the strongest and the weakest pillar layers, respectively, determined by Formula
(5).
Taking into consideration the 95% confidence level, southward R increase is about 1.35±0.25 times and can be described by following dependence:
k H=0.0068H+0.72
(7)
where k H≥1 is rate of rock strength increase (for the depth H≤40m k H=1) and deviations are 15–28% for the whole of Estonia oilshale deposit.
The results obtained were presented as isolines of rock strength increase rate k H on a deposit map (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Isolines of dependence of rock strength increase rate on the depth calculated for central part of Estonian oilshale deposit
(Pulkovo5 coordinate system is used).
5 PRACTICAL USE OF THE DATA ON ROCK STRENGTH INCREASE RATE
In practice usage of these data it is possible to define more exactly the rate of current rock strength.
For example, by Reinsalu formula (Reinsalu, 2001):
(8)
where R0 is basic rock strength calculated by Formula (6).
For different parts of deposit using Formula (6) as an express method, basic rock strength is R0=16 k H, current rock strength for the shorttime pillar design (t=24
months) Rt=83 k H and current rock strength for the longtime pillar design (t≥60 months) Rt=R∞ =7 k H estimation is possible.
Statistical analysis of the data on 258 boreholes (Table 4) gives average basic rock strength R0 = 15.4 MPa for commercial oilshale bed, and for
the whole of Estonia deposit. The received volumes are very close to the data determined by IMS.
By IMS investigation it was found out that because of rock weakening pillarbearing capacity can decrease 13–16% in 24months: from Rt=8.3 MPa (an average
value for Estonia oilshale deposit determined by laboratory testing) down to R∞= 7 MPa. At the same time in some spots basic strength of the rock exceeds the
average one. For example, for the whole of oilshale deposit maximum value of current rock strength is (see Table 4). Consequently, when using
average Rt value a pillar is calculated with even greater safety factor than necessary. Therefore, adequate and professional usage of this calculation method can
decrease loses in pillars by 10–18%.
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Table 4. Comparison of statistical parameters (258 boreholes) calculated using different formulae.
Rt for shorttime pillar design, MPa
R0, MPa By Reinsalu formula By IMS formula
Statistical parameters Mean 15.4 8.5 8.3
Standard error 0.10 0.05 0.05
Median 15.4 8.5 8.2
Standard deviation 1.57 0.85 0.82
Sample variance 2.48 0.71 0.67
Kurtosis −0.55 −0.40 −0.40
Skewness 0.28 0.43 0.43
Range 7.32 3.70 3.57
Minimum 12.4 7.1 6.8
Maximum 19.7 10.8 10.4
Confidence level (95.0%) 0.19 0.10 0.10
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
As proving systematically increase of rock strength to depend on oil shale depth is complicated by wide deviation of strength values within each minefield and the whole
of deposit, the elaborated method of pillar strength determination can help to exactly calculate it and thereby to decrease loses in pillars by 10–18%.
To provide successful practical application of the method suggested additional researches are needed.
The values received by statistical analysis of the parameters of 258 boreholes are very close to the data determined in IMS by laboratory testing. By these
calculations, the relative uncertainty of the method of rock strength increase does not exceed 19% at the 95% confidence level.
Finally, it is necessary to point out a case of rock strength decrease (not increase) with depth (Levin, 1978). It concerns the rocks of Kukruse Horizon located
above the commercially important oilshale bed along the mining fields eastward and out of karst zones. This phenomenon is possible to explain by the increase of
extent of dolomitization of covering rocks as they reach the surface.
Estonian Science Foundation Grant No. 5164, 2002–2005 supported some parts of the research.
REFERENCES
Allik, A.M. 1960. The blasting works organization in Estonian oilshale mines. In: Blasting works, vol. 44, no. 1 [in Russian].
Allik, A.M. 1964. Roof bolting in oilshale mines. Moscow: Nedra [in Russian].
Aruküla, H.H. 1968. The research of physical parameters for the Estonian oil shale deposit: Rotaprint/TPI. Tallinn [in Russian].
Bakinov, G.P., Bezkaravajnij, V.G. 1964. About the intraroom pillars stability.In: Oil Shale and Chemical Industry, vol. 3. Tallinn [in Russianj.
Bieniawski, Z.T. 1968. In situ strength and deformation characteristics of coal. In: Eng. Geol., vol. 2, p. 325–340.
Bieniawski, Z.T. 1992. A method revisited: coal pillar strength formula based on field investigations. In: Proc. Workshop on Coal Pillar Mechanics and Design.
Pittsburgh, PA: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, IC 9315, p. 158–165.
Bublik, F.P. 1968. The heterogeneous pillars bearing capacity estimation, IMS, In: Problems of Estonian oil shale industry. Leningrad: Nedra, p. 39–43 [in Russia
Dashko, R.E., Kuznetsov, J.F. 1969. The mechanical parameters for the roof with complicated structure in Leningrad oil shale deposit. In: LGI, vol. IYII, no. 1, p. 45 [in
Russian].
Erzanov, Ž.S. 1973. Pillars loadings calculation, AlmaAta: Nauka, [in Russian].
Kattaj, B. 1981. The basic mechanism of the main parameters changes for commercial oilshale bed of Estonia deposit. In: The Surveyor Questions in Oil Shale Mines.
Tallinn: Valgus [in Russian].
Keith, A.Heasley, Gregory, J.Chekan. 1999. Practical boundaryelement modelling for mine planning. In: Proc. 2nd Intern. Workshop on Coal Pillar Mechanics and
Design, Pittsburgh, PA, 1999.
Kirsanov, V. 1974. Analysis of mining block parameters and mechanic of the spontaneous collapses: Diploma project. Tallinn: TPI [in Russian].
Kripsaar, E.A. 1987. The research of the practical using of physicalandtechnical parameters of the rock of Estonia oilshale deposit to solve a problem of engineering, In:
TPI, vol 635, Tallinn [in Russian].
Levin, A.S., Reinsalu, E. 1978. Specification of the basic geological conditions for Estonian potential mining fields. In: report, IMS (Skochinski A.A.), Estoinian filial
KohtlaJarve [in Russian].
Levin, A.S. 1986. The integration physicalandgeology test as a basis of the physical modelling of the rock massive, IMS (Skochinski A.A.), Estoinian filial, KohtlaJarve
[in Russian].
Misnik, J.M., Reinsalu, E. 1966. The research of the physicomechanical rock parameters for Estonia oilshale deposit. In: reports of the LGI, vol LII1 [in Russain].
Nikitin, O. 2003. Optimization of the RoomandPillar mining Technology for OilShale Mines. In: Theses of Tallinn Technical University, ISSN 1406–474X ISBN
9985–59–396–0. Tallinn, Estonia (www.staff.ttu.ee/ ~oleg).
Reinsalu, E. 2001. Posttechnological processes in minedout areas/Estonian Science Foundation, Grant No. 3403. Tallinn.
Salamon, M.D.G., Munro, A.H. 1967. A study of the strength of coal pillars, J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall, p. 55–67.
Seleznev, N.I., Zarkov, S.N. 1959. Results of the rock pressure research in Estonia oilshale deposit. In: Technical bulletin, vol. 5. Est. SSR NGTO, Jõhvi, p. 72 [in
Estonian].
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Talve, L.G. 1978. The real parameters control for roomandpillar mining in Estonian oilshale mines. In: TPI reports, vol. 451, p. 23–35 [in Russian].
Talve, L.G. 1980. Methodology of control and analysis of the technological parameters of the roomandpillar mining system by the streaks of mining semiblocks. In: TPI
reports, vol. 493, p. 11–19 [in Russian].
Talve, L.G. 1983. The research of rooftofloor convergence main characteristics for roomandpillar mining in Estonian oilshale mines. In: TPI, Tallinn [in Russian].
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The strength asymmetry effect in laminar rocklike materials on crack
propagation
J.Podgórski, J.Jonak & P.Jaremek
Lublin University of Technology, Poland
ABSTRACT: In this paper an analysis has been presented concerning the influence of strength in laminar rocklike materials on the crack propagation
mechanism when a destructive load is applied to the sample. Finite Element Method was applied to stress analysis as well as the lost element method
being applied to the simulation of crack propagation. The analysis used PJ failure criterion (Podgórski 1985, 2002) which was used for the description
of a material which has properties close to the rock or concrete.
1 INTRODUCTION
The cracking of laminar elasticbrittle materials is the subject of testing in a number of branches of today’s engineering. It is connected with the fact that these materials
are commonly used for various kinds of technical ceramics, composites or in manufacturing technologies. A separate group of issues concerns structural mechanics
including underground engineering structures.
The issues of the influence of strength asymmetry (f c≠ft, compression strength not equal to tensile strength) in the materials discussed in this paper on their properties
(including crack propagation) has not been fully understood so far. And for example it has been found in experiments carried out only recently that for the same rock
categories (e.g. limestone) the change of fc/ft ratio defining the asymmetry degree of their strength has a decisive importance for the generation of the load exerted on
heading machine cutters. It has been believed so far that compression strength determines mainly the energy consumption of the mining process and the load exerted on
the mining cutting tool blade.
Other factors which have a decisive importance for the strength of rock media include lamination, crack quality, moisture content and a number of others. The aim of
the analysis carried out in this research was the definition of the influence of the volume of strength asymmetry of “inclusion” layers which have a lower strength than the
basic rock material, on crack propagation in elasticbrittle material.
2 METHOD OF TESTING
The finite elements model applied in the analysis is illustrated in Fig. 1.
As Fig.1 shows, the analysis assumes that the layers of the tested material are parallel to the direction of tensile load (p). The thickness (a) of the basic material layers
is 12 mm. The thickness (b) of the “weaker” material layers is 4 mm. The load acts on the side of a sample the height of which is 100 mm. The other dimensions are
shown in Fig. 1b.
A part of rock sill, h=11 mm rests on a permanent support which prevents the sample from displacement in accord with the load applied to the sample.
The Finite Elements Method has been applied to this analysis (for the analysis of stresses) as well as the “lost elements” method being applied to the crack
propagation analysis (cf. Podgorski 2003, Pogorski et al. 2003).
PJ Failure criterion proposed in the paper (Podgorski 1985) the practical application of which has been described in paper (Podgorski 2002) has also been used to
analyze the issue discussed in this paper and therefore it does not need to be discussed in further detail.
Material characteristics have been assumed as follows (cf. Podgorski 1985, 2002):
• For basic material (for thicker layer)—compression strength in the uniaxial state is ƒc=20 MPa, and in the biaxial status f cc=22 MPa, f 0c=25 MPa
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Figure 1. Scheme FEM model and the load applied to laminar elasticbrittle material.
and tensile strength f t=2 MPa. Young’s modulus E=2×104 MPa, Poisson’s ratio v=0.2.
• For the material of the “weaker layers” (the dark layers in Fig. 1a) creating e.g. inclusion (interlayers, etc.) two cases of strength have been taken into consideration:
a) f c=10 MPa, f cc=11 MPa, f 0c=12.5 MPa, and tensile strength f t=1 MPa. Young’s modulus E= 1×104 MPa, Poisson’s ratio v=0.22,
b) f c=5 MPa, ƒcc=5.5 MPa, f 0c=6.25 MPa, and tensile strength f t=0.5 MPa. Young’s modulus E=1×104 MPa, Poisson’s ratio v=0.22.
3 ANALYSIS OF TESTING RESULTS
As a result of the analysis carried out by the authors of this paper interesting regularities were found in
crack propagation. It transpired e.g. that if for the “weaker” material layers a tearing strength two times lower than the strength of the layers of the basic material was
assumed, then crack propagation progressed according to the diagram shown in Fig. 2. It can be noticed that in the initial phase of the crack development, the material
cracks at the base of the sill at ca 45 degrees in relation to the direction of the load applied to the sample (Fig. 2a) till the moment it reaches a weaker layer situated
below and it goes up to its bottom boundary. When the load applied
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increases the crack starts to propagate only along the boundary of the above mentioned layer.
In the case of the analysis concerning material with a greater strength asymmetry (Fig. 3) it appeared that, similar to the previous analysis, the crack starts to
penetrate from the sill base in the material layer with a greater strength, at the angle near 45° in relation to the direction of the load (Fig. 3a). However, this crack does
not reach the bottom surface of this layer as at a certain depth it stops to propagate. At the same moment another crack appears in a lower “weaker” layer of the
material which in the first phase develops almost orthogonally to this layer. In the subsequent steps of the application of load to the material, the crack starts to develop
to two opposite directions, along the upper and lower boundaries of the destroyed layer (Fig. 3a).
4 CONCLUSIONS
The Finite Elements Method analysis showed explicitly that in the case of laminar brittle materials the mechanics of the crack development process depends strictly on
the volume of strength asymmetry in the layers of the material. Greater layer strength asymmetry causes the material in its “weaker” layer to be more easily destroyed.
As a result of this the whole laminar material is delaminated faster. In the case of “inclusion” layers in which the strength difference in relation to the basic layer in the
initial stage when the load increases, the laminar material cracks orthogonally to the direction of the layers.
In order to understand the whole destruction cycle of the material including the “exit” of the crack onto the surface, further simulations are required in which the finite
elements mesh area will be enlarged.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper has been prepared within the framework of a grant of the Polish Scientific Research Committee No 5 T12A 015 23 and 8 T12A 064 21.
REFERENCES
Podgórski J. (1985), General Failure Criterion for Isotropic Media. Journal of Engineering Mechanics ASCE, 111 2, 188–201.
Podgórski J. (2002), Influence Exerted by Strength Criterion on Direction of Crack Propagation in the ElasticBrittle Material. Journal of Mining Science 38 (4); 374–380,
JulyAugust, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Podgórski J. (2003, in press), The Influence Of The Layer Direction In ElasticBrittle Material On The Progress Of Crack Propagation, Journal of Mining Science, Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Podgórski J., Jonak J., Jaremek P. (2003, in press), The Influence Of The Boundary Conditions Of A Model On The Direction Of Crack Propagation In Laminar Elastic
Brittle Material, Journal of Mining Science, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Study of rockstrata pressure on the base of ant colony optimization algorithm
X.H.Zhao, X.F.Wang & D.J.Tan
China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
ABSTRACT: Rockstrata pressure is an important factor that influences safe production in mine. Through collecting the data of roadway and working
face, and analyzing the data by expert system to find out the regularity of rock movement about roadway and working face, and pointing out the
method of ensuring roadway stabilization and safe production about working face is an important method of safe production in mine. Therefore, it is
very important to optimize the data of rockstrata pressure. This paper gives the basis theory of ant colony optimization algorithm at the beginning. The
paper optimizes the data of rockstrata pressure and gives the optimization algorithm about it to provide more punctual and precise information for safe
production in mine.
1 INTRODUCTION
Roof management and rockstrata pressure control of coal mine face is the most important and difficult area of rockstrata pressure investigation. Each coal mining
country all over the world has made great efforts about this. With the development of technology, some advanced coal mining countries such as America, Australia,
England, Germany, South Africa and former Russia etc, have evolved the system of rockstrata pressure monitor and automation of coal mine face in order to solve the
problem of rockstrata pressure and improve the reliability of fully mechanized mining equipments. For example, in the early of 1980’s England had made the system of
MRD with tape record and data restoring and France had made the system of SYALEB that could alarm in real time for roof’s moving speed by sound and light. In the
later of 1980’s England had used system of INSITE to monitor the hydraulic pressure brackets. In 1990’s, the advanced coal mining countries above had used the
PM4 control system that made by the company of DBT in Germany. The practice of advanced coal mining countries has represented that rockstrata pressure monitor
and automation of coal mine face was the reliable measure to realize high production and high efficiency mining.
In this paper, we mainly introduce the pressure monitor about the roof of coal face. First we introduce the rockstrata pressure monitor application of brackets. With
a lot of datum which are got, how to find the datum which are useful is necessary. So we introduce the algorithm on the base of ant colony optimization and outlier
mining to find out the outlier and necessary datum. At last, we make the experiment with the datum that gathered from the monitor application to identify the algorithm
and give the expectation.
2 ROCKSTRATA PRESSURE MONITOR APPLICATION OF BRACKETS
The system of coal face’s roof pressure monitor is built on the base of right choice about hydraulic pressure bracket’s parameters and types. Its main purpose is to
increase bracket’s practice working resistance for improving the relationship about brackets and rocks. Its main parameter is bracket’s stake.
The monitor unit of bracket pressure is mainly made up of microprocessor, A/D convertor, separate electrocircuit, LCD, LBD, signal pretreatment electrocircuit,
watchdog, RS485 communication interface, DCDC convertor and three pressure sensors. The following is its diagram (Fig. 1).
The monitor unit is intelligent and it is worked by the microprocessor. The pressure sensors transfer the datum that is gathered into the microprocessor. The
microprocessor deals with datum and transfer the datum to the LCD to display the value of brackets’ pressure about the front post, back post and front
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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of monitor unit of support pressure.
girder. So the units finish monitoring the brackets’ Pressure. The unit also manages the datum to be transferred and received. The datum that the processor gathers may
transfer to center station (computer) by RS485.
3 CONCEPT OF OUTLIER DATA
From the monitor units, we can get a lot of datum. Perhaps some datum are no use to we so how to find the datum which are useful from large numbers of datum is
necessary. In this paper, we call this data as outlier data.
What is the outlier data? The definition of Hawkins discloses the essence of it: “An outlier is an observation that deviates so much from other observations as to
arouse suspicions that it was generated by different mechanism”. In general outlier data is the data subclass that not accord with the character of the whole data set.
That’s to say, consider that there has the data points of N in p dimension space. The aim of outlier mining is to find a data subclass in the data of N which is obviously
different from the other datum. The following we give the detailed description:
Consider
D is the set of sample.
Y={y1, y2,…yn }
is called outlier and adapt to the following condition:
E^[Y−E^X]≥ε
ε is the threshold of outlier, E^ is the whole sample set or operator of classificatory character.
So how to mine the outlier from the whole datum may include three aspects: 1. the definition of whole datum character, 2. the definition of outlier data, 3. find out
outlier data with effective algorithm.
In this paper, we use ant colony optimization algorithm on outlier mining.
4 INTRODUCTION OF ANT ALGORITHM
Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) is a recently developed, populationbased approach which has been successfully applied to several NPhard combinatorial
optimization problems. As the name suggests, ACO has been inspired by the behavior of real ant colonies, in particular, by their foraging behavior. One of its main
ideas is the indirect communication among the individuals of a colony of agents, called (artificial) ants, based on an analogy with trails of a chemical substance, called
pheromone, which real ants use for communication. The (artificial) pheromone trails are a kind of distributed numeric information (called stigmergic information) which is
modified by the ants to reflect their experience accumulated while solving a particular problem. Recently, the ACO metaheuristic has been proposed to provide a
unifying framework for most applications of ant algorithms to combinatorial optimization problems. Algorithms which actually are instantiations of the ACO
metaheuristic will be called ACO algorithms in the following.
The first ACO algorithm, called Ant System (AS), was applied to the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP). It gave encouraging results, yet its performance was not
competitive with stateoftheart algorithms the TSP. Therefore, one important focus of research on ACO algorithms has been the introduction of algorithmic
improvements to achieve a much better performance. Typically, these improved algorithms have been tested again on the TSP. While they differ mainly in specific
aspects of the search control; all these ACO algorithms are based on a stronger exploitation of the search history to direct the ants’ search process. Recent research on
the search space characteristics of some combinatorial optimization problems has shown that for many problems there exists a correlation between the solution quality
and the distance from very good or optimal solutions. Hence, it seems reasonable to assume that the concentration of the search around the best solutions found during
the search is the key aspect that led to the improved performance shown by the modified ACO algorithms.
5 ROCKSTRATA PRESSURE ANALYSE ON THE BASE OF ANT ALGORITM
With the analyse as above, we divide the problem of outlier mining about rockstrata pressure datum on the base of ant colony optimization algorithm into three sub
problem. One is to confirm the classificatory character on the base of ant colony optimization algorithm and to establish the standard of the normal datum cluster. The
second is to make sure of outlier data according to rockstrata pressure datum and the measurement standard of outlier. At last is to find out the outlier data which is
different from cluster.
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5.1 Clustering method on the base of an algorithm
In the analyse of outlier mining on the base of ant colony optimization algorithm, the data is regarded as different attribute ant and the clustering center is regarded as the
“food source” that the ants want to find. So the process of clustering may be regarded as the process of ants to find food.
Consider
X={Xi|Xi=(xi1,xi2,…,x im)}
is the set that should be analyzed. And consider (Yang 2003):
dij is the Euclid distance about Xi and Xj. P is the operator. Consider r is the radius of clustering, ε is the statistic error, τij(t) is the remainder pheromone of the road
between data Xi and Xj at the moment of t. At the initial moment the pheromone of each road is zero, namely τij(0)= 0. So the pheromone of road ij may be expressed
as follows:
Whether Xi is combined to Xj is decided by the next formula:
If pij(t)≥ p0, then Xi is combined to the neighboring area of Xj.
Consider
Cj={Xk |dkj≤r,k =1,2,…,J}
Cj is the data muster that should be combined to the neighboring area of Xj. So we may get the clustering center by use the following formula (Randall, M. 2002):
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of experiment result.
5.2 Method of outlier mining
Consider if Xi is the outlier data, it should fit the condition as follows:
q is the standard of outlier. The detail method of outlier mining is:
Step 1: Use the ant colony clustering algorithm to confirm the sort of state set.
Step 2: Compute the distance dabout Xi and all the clustering center.
Step 3: If the condition of
is fit, then Xi is the outlier data.
The following is the experiment of the data that gathered from the monitor units of rockstrata pressure. The result of experiment is as follows (Fig. 2). We can see
that some datum that differ from the other standard datum are separated. We call this datum as outlier.
6 CONCLUSION
In this paper, we used ant colony optimization algorithm to find the outlier from the datum of rockstrata pressure. The next work that we should do is to use these
datum to analyse the trend of rockstrata pressure by relevant knowledge of rockstrata pressure. In this paper we should not expatiate it anymore.
REFERENCES
Randall, M. 2002. A Parallel Implementation of Ant Colony Optimization. Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing 62.1421–1432.
Yang, X.B., Sun, J.G. & Huang, D. 2003. Research on Fault Diagnosis Based on Outlier Mining. The Engineering and Application of Compute 9. 12–14.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Research of a geological hole state in rock massif with mining work
M.A.Zhuravkov & S.I.Bogdan
Belarus State University, Minsk, Belarus
O.V.Stagurova
Vistgroup, Moscow, Russia
ABSTRACT: In the report the results of the executed researches on study of a state of a prospecting hole located in a potash rock massif with mining
work are described. The purpose of researches was the study of a geomechanical state of a rock massif in area of a prospecting hole in view of a real
situation of mining work with the purpose of forecasting the geometrical sizes and extent of area of probable development of cracking and infringement
of massif continua in area of a hole. The basic criterion of stability is the performance of conditions not infringements of rock massif continua in area of
waterproof layers. For study of stressstrain state of a massif in area of a geological hole the complex researches based the various approaches and
methods were executed.
1 INTRODUCTION
Recently by excavation of mine fields of PA “Belaruskali” more often the problems on excavation of areas of mine fields with underworking of the exploratory geologic
holes arise. This problem is urgent in connection with the construction of new mine, as in the borders of this new mine there is a large quantity of holes. Therefore the
cutting of the mine field by a technology schemes which takes into account the leaving of protective pillars around of holes is as complicated and inconvenient from the
technical point of view, as it is economically high expense.
That’s why the study of possibility of safety excavation of the mine field areas with underworking of the exploratory geologic holes is important problem.
For the solution of that problem it is necessary to fulfill complex largescale investigations. One of a priority geomechanics task in these researches is the problem of
the reliable forecast of the stressstrain state of the massif from developed horizons up to the surface.
In the problem of investigation of a stressstrain state of rock massif in the areas of the exploratory geologic holes, the basic problem is the reliable forecast of
deformation processes, as a fina l a should be the possibility to forecast the occurrence of the jointing zones or discontinuity along the hole.
One of the most important problems at forecasting the character of the deformation processes in the massif is the construction of the massif models most adequately
defining its state and behaviour according to the final aims of investigations . At the same time the problem of taking into account the variability of stresses in time in
connection with major variety of influential factors is very complicated. The nonuniform block structure of a massif causes the basic difficulty.
Presence of the original hierarchical structure in the massif caused by the availability surfaces and zones of the geologic discontinuities (tectonic fractures, joints of
different level and boundary zones of block structures, etc.), determines the complicated deformation processes taking place in block structure massifs in result as the
natural geophysical processes, and as the result of impacts of the technogenic character, and makes the problem of taking into account the structural inhomogeneities
very difficult.
2 BUILDING UP OF CALCULATION MODEL
The major factors which are necessary to take into account while defining the geomechanical model for the study of massif state are:
–Structuralgeologic regional features of rock mass;
– Effective physicsmechanical properties of rock mass;
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– Characteristics of the technogenic impact;
– The original and seconds stress state of the massif;
– The typical zones of the stressstrain state in the underworking massif, selected by type of the strain or stress state.
The typical zones of the stressstrain state are: destroing zone around of cavity, zone of jointing, zone of the smoothly deflection, increased rock pressure zone, zone of
unloading.
2.1 Chose of model tasks and calculation schemes
The choice of the computation area and the definition of boundary conditions is the important while modeling the geomechanical processes, as mechanical processes in
the rock mass, caused by mine workings in it, are actively implemented only in some restricted area of the massif in the neighbourhood of cavities. Therefore at
definition of the computation algorithm not all massif, but its some area, which exterior borders chose such, that investigated mechanical processes in their
neighbourhood practically damp, and rock massif is in the original state.
According to the conditions of initial problem while defining the computer model for the research of considered geomechanical processes “direct” statement of
problem (or “global”) is used. In other words the computation area represents the “infinite” (in mathematical concept) part of the rock massif containing the investigated
area of the massif, with excavation. The boundary conditions are formulated for a whole region of rock massif taking into account the mass forces, distributed on all
volume.
Direct statement of the problems is used while solving the problems of surface geomechanics and at study of the stressstrain state of large areas of the massif.
The sequence of the solution of model computer problems looks as follows:
– At the first stage the problem about definition of the initial stressstrain state of the investigated area is solved according to its structuralgeologic features.
Thus, the first stage represents definition of stressstrain state in rock mass depending on the presence of the geologic discontinuities, geologic structure of the massif,
geologic holes etc.
– At the second stage the problem about change of the stressstrain state in investigated area owing to mining operations is solved.
So the second stage is a problem of definition of the “directed” (additional) stressstrain state owing to underground mining operations. As large expansions of rock
massif are considered to take into account geometry of concrete single cavity there is no necessity. At the given stage it is possible to inject into reviewing concept
“block of excavation”.
The first and second stages of the problems are solved under the circumscribed calculation algorithm in “global” setting.
– At the third stage of problem solution it is necessary to consider a problem of allocation of the typical zones of underworking massifs of a rock mass (under the
stressstrain state).
First of all it is necessary to define areas of destruction in a neighbourhood of cavity (the block of excavation).
On the following step the areas of destruction “added” to excavation and new problem for area of rock mass with new geometry of technological destruction of
massif and with new boundary conditions is solved. This stage is the iterative procedure: the failure condition is verified on each new step of a solution and the new area
of destruction is taken into account on a consequent step of a solution.
Improvement of the third stage is detection, besides area of destruction, area of possible development of slip lines (area of potential jointing). Then at definition of the
iterative scheme of a solution it is necessary to take into account presence not only areas of immediate destruction, but also area of possible jointing. This improvement
of the third stage requires change of a computation mechanicmathematical model of behaviour of massif in the areas of possible jointing on each iterative step.
Detection of area of possible development of lines of slides puts a new problem about formation of a block structure in massif from fixed area of destruction down to
surface.
The given problem is very complicated and multiface and can be considered in several approximations.
At first, in connection with that the block structure in the majority (if there are no large strains or dynamic breakdown) behaves as a solid body, a precise
establishment of topology of a block structure it is not required. It is possible to consider an effective model continuum and to define zones of possible discontinuity
(according to selected criteria’s).
At an establishment of topology of a block structure of massif according to its structuralgeologic singularities the solution of a problem about a deforming of the
received block structure is necessary.
At simulation of strains of a block structure it is possible to select some classes of problems, and first of all it is necessary to consider a deforming of a block
structure as a whole as solid rigid deformable structure with different interior connections between elements. Thus for the given problem elements are separate blocks,
and connections are interblock gaps.
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The essential moment at simulation is the select of blocks behaviour and interblock space. Blocks can be selected as rigid bodies, or as elastic. The interblock space
can be considered also as rigid or elastic cohesion between adjacent blocks. In this connection, the important meaning has knowledge of properties of interblock gaps
with the purpose of forecasting values of coefficient of frictions at the possible shears calling irreversible deformations of the massif.
Thus, for definition of deformation processes of the massif taking into account the block structure it is necessary to know in addition:
1 Physicsmechanical properties of separate elements (structural blocks);
2 Physicsmechanical properties of interblock gaps;
3 Requirements static (or dynamic) balance of a system of blocks at the given loading;
4 The order of loads applying not only in each boundary point of a set of blocks, but also inside block structure on interblock gaps.
It is obvious, that alternatives of movement of block structure and interaction of blocks in this structure can be very much.
2.2 Definition of typical zones of massif with mining work.
At definition of the typical zones in the underworking massif, it is necessary to mark, that the zone of destruction and zone of jointing correspond to area an ultimate
strain. Zone of destruction is area of the massif immediately above an excavation which will be arouse, as a rule, due to the bond liftoff of the massif on contacts of
layers. The zone of jointing is area of the massif above zone of destruction. In this zone the discontinuity can happen as due to exfoliation, as shear.
Based on supposed character of appearance of jointing zones and a breakingdown, definition of these zones to be carried out according to the type of the stress
state and to strength criteria appropriated to the given type of the stress state:
(1)
(2)
where σc is limit stress at an axial compression.
2.3 Definition of scheme of a solution
The scheme of a solution described above by definition a stressstrain state of the underworking massif at its realization with the help of finite elements can be
circumscribed in the following way.
On the first step for the accepted elastic parameters of the massif the problem of the theory of elasticity is solved. The stresses obtained in everyone finite element are
remembered and used for the representation of the original tension for the following step of a solution, but in the finite elements related to excavation area we should set
original stress state to zero.
On the second step of a solution of the theory of elasticity the additional stress field from cavities is modelled. Modelling will be carried out by means of deactivation
of finit e elemen ts correspond in simulated excavation. A deactivated element remains in the model but contributes a nearzero stiffness value to the stiffness matrix
Deactivated elements contribute nothing to the mass matrix. Analogously to the first step of a solution obtained stress should be wrote and used on the following step of
a solution.
Note: In the followings steps of a solution we should set original stress state to zero in the finit elements where Ψi= <1 according to (3) or (4).
After getting elastic solution on the second step, the third step of a solution carried out. On the given step computed stress on each finite element are compared to the
limiting for the given massif, for example, using expressions (1) or (3).
As a result of definition of “areas with critical stage of a deforming”, it is possible to carry out correction for the further solutions. Namely, for each finite element the
following values are calculated:
For a strength condition (1):
(3)
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or for the strength condition (2):
(4)
where Ψi is coefficient, computed for ith finite element on the basis of which to be carried out variation by an elastic modulus of it ith finite element.
After the second step of a solution, in a roof and in a floor of modelling cavity, zones with a stress state Ω2 will be obtained.
These zones add to excavation area. For finite elements of the obtained new area the following elastic properties are set:
(5)
where n is quantity of the finite element belong to added zones or Ω2; n0—quantity of finite elements belong to excavation area; Ei, ρi, υi,—Young modulus, density
and Poisson’s ratio of ith finite element; Vi is volume (area) of ith finite element belong to added zones or Ω2; is volume (area) of ith finite element belong to
excavation area.
For finite elements, which belong to Ω1 or Ω2, the elastic modulus is recalculated as follows:
(6)
where is the coefficient calculated on (3) or (4) for ith finite element on jth step of a solution.
Having carried out these changes the third step of a solution carried out. From this step at realization in finite elements (1) or (2) elastic modulus in them is
recalculated according to (6) and (3) or (6) and (4) correspondingly. The iterative process is carried out until in each finite element will not be fulfilled a strength
condition selected for computation (i.e. (1) or (2)). At iterating stress in finite element obtained on kth iterations are used as initial stress on (k+1)th iterations.
Stresses are obtained as a result of calculation are real stresses in the massif with underground mining
Figure 1. Zones of the different stress state around excavation after second step of a solution: 1, 2–Ω1 one; 3, 4–Ω2 zone.
Figure 2. Zone of discontinuity according to conditions (1) and (3), on the second step of a solution. The values from 0 to 1 are level of
discontinuity of the massif.
Figure 3. Zone of discontinuity according to conditions (2) and (4), on the second step of a solution. The values from 0 to 1 are level of
discontinuity of the massif.
operations. Finding sum of the displacements from the second step of a solution to the last iteration, we shall receive real displacements in the massif.
At definition of the typical zones on a strength condition (1) it is possible to enter the following supposition, concerning coefficient of cohesion C. Coefficient of
cohesion equates to zero in finite elements where the criteria (1) is fulfilled and in further during a solution in these finite elements it is not taken into account.
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Figure 4. The new area discontinuity as result of joining of Ω2 zone and excavation.
Figure 5. Example of the discontinuity zone expansion during iteration process.
2.4 Example of final calculations
In this chapter some results of one test example for uniform isotropic massif with excavation are represented. In the test example the following elastic parameters were
accepted for massif. Young Modulus—17.5 GPa, density—2125 kg/m3, Poisson’s ratio—0.375. The geometry of the excavation was described by its depth—550
m, length—150 m, height—3 m. For the massif depth and width were accepted as following, depth—1200 m, height—2000 m. The stress limits were equal 19.5 MPa
for compression and 1.14 MPa for tension. The coefficient of cohesion and friction angle were calculated according to:
(7)
Figure 6. Example of the finite element model of the geologic hole and excavation.
3 SUMMARY
In the paper the solution scheme of defining the stressstrain state of the massif from developed horizons up to the surface and its possible algorithm realization in terms
of finite elements is described. While solving the problem we aimed at compose the modelling scheme of the stressstrain state in the area of the exploratory geologic
holes with the possibility to forecast their underworking.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Applied theory of cracks behavior in rock massifs
M.A.Zhuravkov & S.V.Pavlov
Belarus State University, Minsk, Belarus
AboIzreik Amjed
AlZaytoonah Jordanian University, Amman, Jordan
ABSTRACT: In this paper is described the applied theory and its computer realization of estimation of cracks behavior in rock massifs in regions of
macro and micro disturbances acting. The model of cracks system spread and various scenarios of this spread are considered in the paper.
1 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important branches of modern geomechanics, from point of view of approaches and methods of deformed rigid body mechanics, is the investigation of
the processes of destroying the rock massifs in the environment of the underground structures, realized in the form of development of marodefects. The creating of
methods, which adequately describe such processes, will make it possible to estimate the time of “life” of concrete underground structure.
As base theory for this investigation the linear mechanic of fracture was used. For providing of investigation correctness and for possibility to remain in bounds of the
continuous media theory the following assumptions was suggested (Zhuravkov 2002):
– zone of failure is small region in the environment of the crack;
–surface, which divide the zone of failure from the not destroyed material, was considered as crack surface;
– thickness of the zone of failure is negligible in comparison with the macroscopic dimensions of body and the length of crack.
These assumptions make possible to use methods and results of the linear mechanics of fracture for constructing the equations of the cracks behavior in the rock
massifs.
2 DETERMINATION OF THE MECHANISM OF THE FAILURE
It is possible to determine four basic classes of geomechanics problems, which can be solved only with using of methods and approaches of the fracture mechanics.
At the moment of designing the underground structure most interesting task is task about the position of probable crack, its sizes and orientation (and its influence on
the strength properties of massif).
The approach for this investigation proposed in the work is based on following assumption: during the first stage for describing the influence of the large number of
small cracks on the strength of body (until the formation of cracks of finite dimension) the approaches of the mechanics of continuous defectiveness (in sense
(Kachanov 1958)) are used. For describing further process of deformation the approaches of the fracture mechanics are used, since the influence of the limited number
of cracks of larger size is considered.
During solution of this task it is possible to detach two basic stages. In the first stage the type of the stress state is determined. For example, if the region of rock
massif is under tension conditions and massif materials are inclined to creep, then position and the orientation of possible crack can be obtained using approaches of the
theory of defectiveness (assuming microcracks as continuous defectiveness of rock massif). In the following stage, for evaluating the size of possible crack the
generalized criterion of Griffith is used (by comparison of the energy, necessary for the creation of crack (free surface of crack), with the energy, accumulated in the
part of the massif, unloaded during failure).
As a testexample was considered the state of materials in the roofing of the mine with length of 100 m and with the section dimensions of 10 m× 10 m, which is
located on depth 1000 m, massif
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consists of sandstone (E=7.8∙1010Pa, fracture toughness=1,66∙106 Pa∙m½ ).
During analysis of the already formed crack state, taking into account strength properties of geomaterials (tendency of the failure according to the brittle or viscous
mechanism), type of the stress state and its level with respect to the strength parameters of geomaterials is determined the most optimum criterion of failure. The type of
the stressstrained state and the level of the stressed state are important factors for the selection of the corresponding criterion (with respect to the limits of the strength
of the considered geomaterials).
The comparative analysis of the modern theories of the failure of bodies with the cracks was performed in accordance with these factors. It was obtained that
analyzing the possible ways of loading on the plane of the parameters stress intensity factor—stress, it is possible to determine either material will be destroyed by the
development of microcracks (brittle mechanism of destruction) or as a result of reaching by stress of the limit of strength (fluidity) and to respectively select the most
suitable criterion of failure (by other words to draw the depicting line of loading on the following diagram), (figure 1). There are σT—yield point, σB—strength limit,
KIc—fracture toughness in figure 1.
Curves in the figure 1 are numbered in the following order: 1—linear fracture mechanics, (curve 1); 2—correction of Irwin for the size of plastic zone, (curve 2); 3—
biparametric criterion of Morozov, (curve 3); 4—biparametric criterion, (curve 4); 5—interpolation criterion, (curve 5); 6—calculated curve (it is obtained with the
exponential approximation of the diagram of deformation), (curve 6).
Figure 1. Critical parameters of the force loading of wide plate with the central crack, calculated on different criteria.
3 CRACK UNDER THE CONDITIONS OF THE COMBINED LOADING
The second class of the tasks about the state of rock massif with the crack appears during the detection of cracks (with specific sizes and orientation) in the
environment of underground structures. It should be noted that the task about the propagation of crack in the field of uniform stress is a special case of general task.
The macrofissures, which provide the danger to the underground structures, are located under the action of the fairly complicated stress state, which includes not only
the stresses, referred to infinity, but also local variations in the stressstrained state, caused by performing underground work, in the complex with the stresses, applied
on the edges of crack. With such conditions it is important to consider not only conditions, with which the crack can reach nonstationary state, but also scenario
(stable or unstable) on which mobile crack will be developed.
The general scheme of solution of this problem is formulated as follows.
The criterion of destruction in the general case takes the form:
Since the stress intensity factors (Ki) depend only on the parameters of loading and geometry of body, this equation describes a certain surface (S) in the space of
loading parameters (l, p1, p2, p3…pn ). This surface describing the passage of crack from static state to mobile. The equation of stability is written in the form:
This one mathematically describes the surface, which divides (S) in the space of loading parameters into the zones of the stable and unstable development of crack.
The appearing of the representative point in space of loading parameters in zone of stability, during increasing of external loading, will cause the passage of crack into
the mobile state. During further increasing of loading the crack will stably grow up or remain fixed with the constant loading. Otherwise, when the representative point
appears in the zone of instability, transfer of crack into the mobile state begins its avalanchetype increasing. It should be noted that appearing of crack in the zone of
unstable development may be caused not only an increasing of external loading, but also unloading the considered region.
The investigation of the state of single crack in the environment of the round section mine is executed as
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the applied problem in paper. The conditions of this model task correspond to the study of large (commensurate with the relative sizes of underground structures)
crack, which is located under the action of the general compressive or shear stresses, which act in the rock massif, and simultaneously under the action of local
disturbances, as a result of conducting of underground works. Furthermore, this model task describes so the state of crack taking into account internal pressure (for
example, as a result of water/ gas saturation) and friction between its edges.
The results of the simulation of the stressstrained state showed that near free surface of cracks there are unloaded zones, which are practically strainless, and if we
consider the block structure of rock massif it is possible to assume that they are moved as solid body. Performing underground work leads to the distortion of the
massif stress/displacements behavior. Moreover the influence of any local variations in the stressstrained state to the crack can be considered as the relative
displacement of the zones of unloading, which adjoin the edges of crack. In the work was proposed the method of the calculation of a local variation in the
displacement field by arrangement of forces on the edges of the crack. Applying these fictitious forces to edges of the crack the principal scheme of solution was
obtained.
The stress intensity factors in the case of three types of loading have the following form:
—the crack of the longitudinal
shear,
—the crack of flat shear,
—the crack of the normal detachment,
where τ1 and Q1 respectively shearing stress on infinity and the value of the forces, applied on the edges of crack in the case of antiplane deformation; τ2 and Q2 the
same in the case of plane strain, q and P respectively tensile stress on infinity and the wedging force, applied on the edges of crack in the case of plane strain.
The condition of the beginning of the crack growth may be written in the following form:
(1)
Here:
Solving equation (1) relative to l, we have:
(2)
The analysis of equation (2) shows that in the loading parameters space surface l, which describes the passage of crack into the mobile state consists of two
branches:—lj and l2.
The condition for a stable growth of the crack, in this case takes the form:
During the work also the formulas and the methods of calculation of the mentioned effective forces and the scenario of the development of crack in dependence on their
relationship was obtained.
The following conclusions were made on the basis of this solution:
– the passage of crack into the mobile state does not mean that the region of the rock massif loses the bearing capacity. Taking into account that with some conditions
the unstable development of crack can be changed into steady, for the definition of the danger of the considered region failure both possible methods of load and
unloading methods should be considered.
– during the solution of similar problems it is necessary to consider the relative sizes of the cracks, considered region and disturbances in the massif, caused by mining
operations.
The passage of cracks into the mobile state under the action of local disturbances (under otherwise equal conditions) cannot cause the avalanchetype failure of the
considered region, since crack will be in the state of stable development. However, crack opening under the action of local disturbances and respectively spasmodic
increase of stress intensity factors can cause an unstable increasing of the crack.
4 SYSTEM OF CRACKS BEHAVIOR
Taking into account the presence of the developed methods of describing the single crack in the deformed rock massifs, this model is strongly idealized. Since in
actuality failure is developed via an increase not in the single crack, but system of cracks.
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In certain cases the examination of separate crack is acceptable simplification, however, in the rock massifs containing developed system cracks (natural or artificial
origin) it is necessary to consider the reciprocal effect of cracks to each other (as well as taking into account the general state of massif and disturbances from the side
of underground structures).
In paper the approach for evaluating the behavior of the systems of cracks, based on the method of sections, was proposed. Its correctness and effectiveness proves
(Zhuravkov 2002).
General expression for stress intensity factor was obtained in following form:
Here p—the stress, applied on the boundary of the considered region, F—dimensionless function describing the influence of the cracks of system on each other, sa —
average distance between tips of crack, ca —average distance between center of crack, la —the average length of the cracks, which belong to system, ρ is parameter
which describes the influence of cracks system on general stressstrained behavior of considered body.
For the introduction of this parameter it is possible to list following reasons. Let’s consider a fissured body under singleaxis stress. If considered body contains
developed system of cracks, average stress on boundary of any isolated areas equals to value of stress on boundary of all body (in this case ρ equals 1). In case of
developed cracks system, this one begins essentially to influence on stress behavior and accordingly load not transmitted through a surface of each crack will decrease
(Zhuravkov 2002) (due to increasing of ρ). Also it is necessary to mark, that parameter ρ (socalled effective parameter of cracking) depends not only on number of
cracks in a unit volume, and also this one depends on average length of cracks, orientation of cracks in space (concerning directions of external loading) and positional
relationship of cracks. However main value (assuming, that density of cracks is constant) influential on this parameter is average length of cracks. So, for further
reasoning we assume this parameter in following form:
(3)
Here n is constant, which depends on structure of a considered system of cracks.
Thus condition of cracks system in each time moment is described by three parameters la , p and fracture toughness (Kc), which also generally depends on time (due
to external factors—effect of atmosphere, rheological processes etc.). Depending on a ratio of these parameters the system can be in noncritical (Kc>K) or
equilibrium state.
Considering the system of cracks in the massif of the rocks as the defectiveness (in sense (Zhuravkov 2003)) and after connecting increasing of defectiveness not
with an increase in the number of defects, but with an increasing of occupied by them volume, in paper it is obtained formula for determining the length of the cracks of
system in the course of time. This formula takes this form (according to the (Zhuravkov 2002)):
(4)
Function W depends on Vd (la)/Vt and some other variable, which are essential to considered process. However, in the elementary case, the process of fracturing first
of all depends on a level of stresses (that is characteristic for geomaterials). Then (4) it is possible to copy by the way:
(5)
where A and k are scaling factors experimentally determined.
Solving (5) for la we can get relation of length from time. However it is necessary to mark, that the equation (5) is meaningful either for noncritical state of cracks
system or in case of stable growth of cracks system.
Let’s assume, that in some time moment current condition of considered area loading essentially changes. Also system of cracks begins to grow. The following
scenarios of its growth are possible:
1 At constant oneaxis stress and ρ=1 (the system consists of the small dispersed cracks) system develops according to an equation (5). If equation KC=K would be
hold due to growth of average length of cracks, then avalanche failure of considered body happens.
2 The analogical result can be got even at small stress and practically fixed system of cracks, as a result of lowering effective fracture toughness (Kc).
3 Let’s assume, that the fracture toughness is constant, and the external load is small enough, in such conditions the system of cracks can develop (according to the
equation (5)), not reaching critical values of stress intensity factor, down to that moment, when parameter ρ becomes more 1. In this case even the increase of an
external load will not cause avalanche failure (after reaching equilibrium states system of cracks will develop stable down to division of a body on a part.
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As an example of analysis of the systems of cracks in rock massif the following applied problem was considered. We investigated the state of the main roofing of mine
after the appearing in it system of cracks.
Notice. The net of cracks can be oriented in the direction of natural fracture, and appear as a result of the stratification in the directions of natural stratification or
formation of the zones of slippage on the slip lines.
The geomechanical scheme of this task is formulated as follows: the state of the rock massif in the main roofing of the extensive mine in the case of the presence in
roofing of the net of the cracks of the stratification is investigated.
Performing the numerical calculations for the cases of different values of tensile stresses in the roofing of mine following surfaces were obtained, which allow to carry
out the estimations of the average length of cracks and stress intensity factor during time.
5 CONCLUSIONS
1. As a result of the executed researches the major factors influencing on process of destruction of rock massif with macrocracks are allocated and systematized. The
possible scripts of destruction of rock massifs owing to development of cracks are described.
The approaches to an estimation of destruction of rock massifs, owing to development of macrodefects are determined. The way of calculation of a place and time
of macrocracks occurrence and its linear sizes is offered on the basis of the analysis of accumulation of damages in geomaterials.
2. The approach to study of a condition of rock massif with single cracks in conditions of the complex stress condition is developed. Is shown, that at the solution of
tasks on destruction of geomaterials with cracks, the task about conditions of a beginning of growth of a crack is minor, paramount is the task about allocation in space
of loading parameters of areas of stability and instability.
Besides is proved, that the hit of a representing point in area of steady development does not remove a question on global destruction of a body at not increased
loading. As not the account of possible ways of unloading results in an opportunity of hit of a representing point in area of unstable development, that accordingly will
result in global destruction.
As a result of the executed researches on study of distribution of cracks in rock massif in conditions of the complex stress condition is established, that: the transition
of a crack in a mobileequilibrium state does not mean yet, that the examined area of a massif loses bearing ability; under some conditions the unstable development of
a crack can be replaced steady, for definition of danger of destruction of examined area it is necessary to consider both probable ways of loading, and unloading.
3. The approaches to study of a state of rock massif with cracks in a vicinity of underground structures are offered. Is shown, that at the solution of tasks of the given
class it is necessary to take into account the mutual sizes and topology an arrangement in space of underground structures and cracks. So, in a case of the rather small
size of a crack, it can be considered as the crack, which is taking place in a field of a homogeneous stress state. Otherwise distortion of the stressstrain state in a
vicinity of a underground structure should be considered as local indignation in a global field of stress of a rock massif in relation to a crack.
On the basis of the executed calculations the conclusion is received that the transition of cracks in a mobileequilibrium state under action of local insurrections (under
all other equal conditions) can not cause avalanche destruction of examined area, as the crack will be in a state of steady development. However disclosing of a crack
under action of local insurrections and accordingly spasmodic increase of stress intensity coefficient can cause unstable growth of a crack.
4. The approach of an estimation of a condition of rock massif with irregular system of cracks is offered and reasonable. On the basis of a method of sections and
approaches of the theory of damage the equations describing behaviour of irregular spatial system of cracks under action of a complex intense condition are received.
On the basis of the executed researches the basic laws of cracks systems development under action of the complex stress state are formulated. These laws consist in
the following:
– Speed and character of cracks system development are defined by external influences on transition of cracks system in a mobileequilibrium state can be caused by
the following three reasons: by achievement of a critical level of a stress state; reduction of coefficient of viscosity of destruction under action of external influence;
slow before critical development of cracks system.
– The danger of avalanche destruction of examined area of a rock massif can be appreciated at any stage of development of cracks system by the analysis of its
geometry. And, the poorly advanced system of cracks represents the large threat of avalanche development, while the advanced system of cracks can steady
develop even at increase of external loading.
– Among measures preventing process of avalanche destruction, is possible to allocate the following: the coordination of intensity and character of
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development of cracks system with increase of intensity of external loading (for example, regulation of moving speed of underground works); artificial acceleration of
development of system of cracks (for translation her(it) in area of steady development); the control of reduction of stability properties of a examined massif
(reduction of viscosity coefficient of destruction).
5. On the basis of the developed approaches the researches are executed and the numerous model and applied tasks are solved.
The tasks about distribution of macrocracks in conditions of the complex stress state in massif of potash breeds are solved. The considered model examples
correspond to applied tasks about stability of massif of potach breeds with a crack in a vicinity of underground structures. By results of the executed researches the
recommendations for prevention of destruction of underground structures owing to distribution of cracks near to a contour of cavities are given.
REFERENCES
M.A.Zhuravkov, S.V.Pavlov and O.L.Konovalov, 2002, Modeling of spread of macrocracks in rock massif. Proceedings of the Fifth World Congress on
Computational Mechanics (WCCM V), 2002, Vienna, Austria, Editors: Mang, H.A.; Rammerstorfer, F.G.; Eberhardsteiner, J., Publisher: Vienna University of
Technology, Austria, 2002.
L.M.Kachanov, 1958, About time of fracture at afterflow conditions, News of USSR SA OTN,8.
V.A.Zhuravkov, S.V.Pavlov, 2003, Modelling and Estimation of Macro Disturbances on Crack Behavior in Rock Massif. Proceedings of the Int. Conf. of Applied
Mechanics and Materials (ICAMM 2003, Durban). Eds. S.Adali, E.V.Morozov, V.V.Verijenko. Durban, 2003.
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Mining and processing methods
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Production preparation, control and storing process in an open pit Silver Mine in
Turkey
Hamdi Akçakoca
Dumlupinar University, Kütahya, Turkey
Hürriyet Akdaş
Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
Önder Uysal
Dumlupinar University, Kütahya, Turkey
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the problems with respect to moisture content of the ores, which are fed to ore preparing plant in the Eti Silver Mine, have
been investigated. This plant was projected and established so that ores with 6.5–7% moisture could be processed. In other side, run of mine ores
contain ores with 15–30% moisture ratios. These high values may decrease the performance and the efficiency of the crusher. The problems with
respect to high moisture ratios, solving suggestions and the application results of these suggestions have been investigated. In this regard, prior to feed
to plant, drying and storing processes have been examined for providing low moisture ratios, leading high performance of the plant. The stores made
up for drying processes and some information related to feeding of these stores have been given in detail. In summary, the increases in the efficiencies
provided by these applications have been investigated.
1 INTRODUCTION
Ore reserve and grade estimation in Silver Deposit mined by Eti Silver Mine was resulted in 1983. Silver ore is constitution with a 194 g/ton average grade, having
approximately 19,200,000 tones of geological reserve. Besides, with the help of representative samples taken out of various types of silver ore, the humidity ratio of
ore was determined as 6.5%. According obtained data, it has been planned to treat 1,000,000 tones/year run of mine ore. As a result of this operation, it has been
aimed to produce 122 tones of metal silver with a purity of 99.9% per year.
Eti Silver Mine was started to operate in 1987. But during the production process, it was found out that the humidity ratio of ore was higher than expected humidity
ratio. High humidity ratio of run of mine ore created problems at the crushingscreening processes and it prevented reaching the planned capacity. In order to eliminate
this problem and attain the planned capacity, the humidity ratio of the ore must be decreased. As a conclusion of all research studies, before feeding to the preparation
plant, it should be dried by spreading the ore over the stock area so as to decrease the humidity ratio of ore. By this way, the potential problem occurring in crushing
machines because of high humidity ratio of ore has been solved and the efficiency of the plant has increased and it has been reached planned capacity.
After the drying process of ore in the stock area, some portion of it is fed to the plant and the rest should be stocked by drying in the summer time for using during
winter time when open pit stopped operation in winter season. These stocks, which are prepared for future use in the plant, should be covered with a wrap. Owing to
this, the dried ore can be protected from outside atmosphere. For this purpose, at first canvas, later a thick plastic covering is used. However, due to same
inconveniences of this application, this method was abandoned, and instead of it, a schist layer of 15–20 cm, which is a footwall of ore, was used to cover the stocks.
Although this application has some inconveniences as well, it has been seen that, it was more advantageous compared to plastic covering.
2 INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY AREA
Study area is located in the west of Kütahya in Turkey and is situated on KütahyaTavsanli road. It is on the
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transition zone between dry land climate and Aegean climate. It has an average rainfall of 49.052 kg/m2 per year and average temperature of 10.34°C rainfall
percentages according to seasons are 33% in winter, 29% in spring, 5% in summer and 31% in autumn. Regional climate statistics of the last 4 years are as follows
(State Institution Statistics, 2001):
Average temperature per year: 10.6°C,
Highest temperature: 38.8°C,
Average humidity 67%,
Rainfall (height): 564.7 mm,
Number of rainy days (per year): 117.3,
Number of snowy days (per day): 30.8,
Number of the days with a temperature below zero (per year): 92.
The Deposit operated by Eti Silver Mine with open pit is a complex sulfide mineralization. In this deposit, there are also other minerals along with silver such as: lead,
zinc, copper, antimuan, arsenic, sulfides and high rate of barite. As a result of previous researches studies conducted on the mining area, five different type of
mineralization including silver was found out (Vicil, 1981). Mining activities in the Gümüşköy region started at about 2000 BC (Before Christ). Mineralogical studies
showed that silver ore does not have a direct relationship with lead minerals but that it was disseminated separately in the tuff and that it does not belong to the same
mineralization phase with lead. The dimensions of mineralization are 500 m to the west 1000 m to southwest and its long shows axis north 15° west direction in an
ellipsoidal appearance. Average grade in this formation is 133.47 g/ton Ag. The minimum thickness level of the ore bed is 2.5 m whereas maximum thickness level is
approximately 41 m. Minimum grade of the ore bed is 55 g/ton while maximum grade is about 300 g/ton (Singec, 1991).
3 DRYING PROCESSES
The average humidity ratio of the mine is about 15–30%. In LmMn zones, this ratio locally increases to 35%. This ratio, however, must be reduced below 10% when
the produced ore is fed to the plant. In order to decrease the humidity rate, run of mine ore is spread out on special stock area and tilted by the bulldozer. These
processes are called “drying”. The drying period of LmMn zones is longer than other zones. Therefore, when the larger portion of the production is provided from
LmMn zones, it is possible to face difficulties in terms of the time needed to reach certain values in the yearly production program. So, the production provided from
LmMn zones is to be under 15%.
Depending on the suitability of climate conditions the production can be carried out for six months (from May to October). If climate is suitable, production period
can increase to 6.5 or 7 months (from April to October). Since it is only the hottest June and September, the drying process cab easily is carried out during these four
months.
For drying process, first damp are produced from mine is poured to the special stock area in scattered groups. Second these heaps are graded and, made thinner by
bulldozer. Later this thin line of ore is shaped like long triangle prisms by the help of the blade of the bulldozer. This process is called as “tilt process”. The tilted ore,
which is approximately 30cm, according to its humidity ratio, is dried 1–3 days and than collected. This time period depends on the thickness of the ore and the effect
of the sun. The thicker the ore is, the more times it is tilted. More specifically, the ore is tilted once when the ore thickness is approximately 30 cm, whereas it is tilted
twice when the thickness is 40 cm or higher. If vertical lines to the first one carry out the second tilting process, larger amount of ore can be changed location. The wet
ore in one hundred trucks can be graded in two hours by one bulldozer. This graded ore is tilted in two hours. The ore is later dried for one day. It is tilted again on the
next day in two hours. Drying process totally takes 7.5 hours for 2600 tons of wet ore. Extra drying time is needed in case it rains on the spread out ore.
In order to avoid possible problems with regard to the humidity of the dried ore in winter time, it has been thought to be convenient to cover the ore. A hammock
was used to cover the ore. However, due to the increased humidity level as a result of the fact that the ore had not been dried yet, the covering process did not reach
its objective. Then, plastic was used to cover the ore in stock.
The dimensions and the characteristics of the plastic that is used:
Thickness: 3 mm
Width: 4 m,
Double width: 8 m,
Weight: 1200 g/m2,
Roller length: 75 m,
Roller weight: 90 kg.
After one year experience, it has decided not to cover plastic because of some problems. Next year, schist which is the footwall of the ore deposit was used to cover
the stocks in 20 cm thickness. The disadvantages of plastic compared with schist cover;
1. The isolation is weak when nylon is used. Nylon could not keep the humidity level at the same level. There has been on 1–2% increase in the humidity level. The
apparent reason for this is the
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possible tear that occurs as the result of the use of stones when the plastic is being placed over the stock, and the air and water into the stock.
2. It takes longer time to cover the plastic over the stock and, moreover, some difficulties during covering plastic.
3. Plastic is costlier. The average operation cost of plastic is approximately 1 $/m2, whereas, schist is only about 0.7 $/m2.
Because of these disadvantages of plastic, the schist 15–20 cm in thickness, which is low in liquid permeability, was used to cover the dried ore.
The advantages of schist, therefore, are as follows;
1. There is no additional cost since the schist is already as a footwall of ore deposits. There is only the cost of transport it from mine to the stock and spreading it over
the stock.
2. No extra drying is needed since the schist has already a humidity level of 15%. In additional, since the schist is covered over the ore, its current level of humidity
further decreases by means of its contact to the air.
3. The schist is transported from the mine to the stock by trucks and spread over the stock by bulldozer. This covering process is easier than plastic cover process.
Schist is carried from a distance of 1,200–1,500 m from the stock. 20,000 tones schist is used in a season.
Since schist is footwall, it contains varying degrees of silver grade, which spans between 0–20 g/ton. In this case, when the large amount of schist is mixed with the
other run of mine ore, the amount of grade of the ore may considerably decrease.
4 STOCK PROCESS
An increase in the mixing capacity has been perceived when the ore was blended with the schist at the correct proportion. Studies, therefore, have been conducted to
produce schist with the exact amount at grade inside, and, for the first time, a schist stock was formed. In addition to the mixed ore stock, there was also formed a
mixture comprised of schist and waste ore. In the stock there is one layer of waste and one layer of schist, one over another. Waste constitutes 55% at the mixture and
schist constituted 45% of the mixture. Although the waste ore is on the floor, the schist covers the uppermost layer. Feeding schist and the waste ore by mixing not only
speeds up the transition process in the crushers but this kind of a feeding also helps to provide the desired balance of grade since the grade of the schist is considerably
low. This implementation, however, was relinquished because it disturbed the grade equilibrium of mine.
It has been perceived that feeding the produced ore after drying increased crushingsieving productivity. Also, It has been determined that it was possible to increase
the silver production capacity by means of this kind of a feeding system. In accordance with the increase in the production, the stock area needed for drying process
was enlarged. In short, as well as feeding the ore to the plant by drying, the grade balance also stands as on important considerably.
The following items must be considered when choosing a stock area:
• The stock area and the production area must be as close as possible in order to ensure easier transportation. The bench roads in the production area and the
secondary roads in the stock area are connected to each other by the main mine road. The distance between the secondary roads and the main road is shortened.
Further, the main road is designed and opened in such a way that two mine trucks can safely pass by each other.
• Stock area is located at the nearest spot to the processing plant and a horizontal ground. The stocks are at most 200 m far from the first unit, crushingsieving unit 1st
bunker. The stock area is being in the same level with the first crusher and first bunker, and its being in a short distance provides regularity in the feeding process in
short periods.
• The chosen stock area should not contain and keep water. The surface of the stock area must be dry because the run of mine ore can only be feed to the plant after
its humidity level is pulled down through the drying process.
• Stock area should be so large as to embody both the area needed to spread the produced wet ore and the area needed to stock the dried ore. Moreover, in this
stock area trucks, loaders and bulldozers should be able to work and movement easily. While the dried ore is fed from the stock to crushers by one loader and two
trucks, at the same time, freshly produced ore from open pit is carried to the open spaces in the stock area by trucks and the remaining heaps of ore between the
dried ore groups is spread out. Within this area, the ore which is dried as a consequence of tilting and thinning processes is collected by bulldozer. Overall, in order
to be able to perform all these activities 60,000–80,000 m2 areas is sufficient.
Under normal circumstances the average humidity ratio of run of mine ore is 15–30%; however, this humidity level in ore is not over 10% when the ore is fed to the
plant. This suggests that the run of mine ore can only be fed to the plant after it is dried. During each section of production, for the purpose of controlling humidity level
and the grade, production samples ore collected from the heaps that have been
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Figure 1. Humidity variations in stock A.
spread out on the stock area through the coning and quartering method. There are two production shifts in a day. For each day the geometric averages are calculated
by the number of trucks and humidity levels in order to determine the average daily humidity level. In winter time two covered stocks are prepared. Stock A (190×50
m and 6–9 m at height) stock B (300×50 m and 6–15 m at height). Totally, 253000 tons dried ore is prepared. Drillmaster (DM25) is used over the stocks at 10m
intervals to control grade and humidity analysis of the samples are done. Furthermore, when the ore is being fed to the crushers from the stocks, samples are collected
for each shift from first bunker. In this case, it is possible to talk about three different types of samples used to control humidity level;
1. The production sample representing the run of mine ore,
2. DM25 sample representing the dried ore,
3. The sample of the ore that is fed to the crushers.
The variations of humidity level have been investigated for each of the three phases, which start with drying and stocking process and end up with the feeding process.
Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate the humidity values of DM25 and crusher samples belonging to the production on different dates.
As clearly shown in the figures, the humidity levels of production samples are relatively higher than the others. Although crusherfeeding studies are done in
wintertime, 1 or 2 points difference has been observed in the humidity levels of DM and the crusher. As a result of all those operations, in short, it has been determined
that the schist covered and dried stocks are not probable to produce any problems in regard to the humidity level and that by feeding the ore to the plant the
productivity is increased.
4.1 Studies of grad e balan
When stocking, the average grade of the stock must be adjusted as 190g/ton Ag, which is the average required by leaching unit. It is obvious that ore grade gives great
differences even at short distances in the
Figure 2. Humidity variations in stock B.
samples taken from the three different benches. Owing to this reason, 22 holes were drilled at 10m intervals on stock A by the DM 25. From each hole once in 5 m, 2
or 3 samples were collected to measure grade level. Three samples from the 12 m hole (5, 5, 2 m) and two samples from 6m hole (3, 3 m). Average grade for each
hole was calculated.
For convenience in calculation of average grade of the stock, stock A was separated into 15 different zones, which are 10 m away from each other (Table 1). The
fifteenth zone is the entrance of the stock and there is a ramp (loadingplatform) for trucks and a hole was made on an even surface where the ramp comes to an end.
And since the first zone is the end (output) of the stock, two zones are at least 25 m far from the other zones. Since the holes are in zigzag in plan view, it is possible to
encounter drill master one hole in a zone and two holes in other zone. In this case, when there is one single grade value for one zone, this ratio accepted as the grade
value of this region (e.g. zone 1). On the other hand, if one zone has more than one grade value and if the holes are at equal distances to crosssection, then
mathematical calculation is needed (e.g. zone 1). If, however, one zone receives more than one grade value while the holes are at varying distances to crosssection,
then average grade is geometrically calculated (e.g. zone 6). Sixth zone is in between 11th and 12th sections and it embodies the 9th and 10th drillmaster holes.
In this table, since only the grade values of zone 3rd and 4th are over the desired level (190 g/ton Ag), no grade balance was made with previous production waste.
For the balance of the other zones, however, previous production waste with 460g/ton Ag grade level was used. The average grade value for the first zone is 128.83
g/ton Ag and because this average is less than desired level, grade balance with the former production waste is necessary. An example calculation for zone 1 is given as
following;
M=V*d
where V: the volume of zone 1 (m3)
d: average density (ton/m3)
M: weight of zone 1 (ton)
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Table 1. The zones and average grades.
Table 2. Sizes of the 18 sections.
To be able to escalate average grade of zone 1 to 190 g/ton Ag, the below equation is formulated:
where, x is weight of the former production waste (ton) for grade balance of zone 1.
This calculation is done for the other zones, and thus grade balance of stock area for all zones is eventually achieved.
4.2 Calculating of stock size
18 sections were taken from the stock A map, which has 1/500 scale, and the dimensions of these sections were calculated by planimeter. The results are presented on
Table 2.
The volume was calculated by multiplying the distance between two sections by the average of areas of two sections.
where S1: 1st section area (m2),
S : 2nd section area (m2),
2
h: Distance between section S1 and S2.
All of the volumes among sections were calculated with above formula.
5 CONCLUSIONS
High productivity was obtained in feeding the produced ore by drying and stocking. This is because reducing humidity level of the ore by drying process increased both
the amount of ore passing from crushingscreening and the annual production of silver. In order to extend the implementation and operation of this method, the research
and work in this field was intensified and conducted with special attention. Some part of the dried ore is fed to the plant, and the rest is kept at the stocks, which were
prepared for winter time.
Spreading in stocks, the help of a bulldozer does airing and drying, and this facilitates the process. The necessity of using bulldozer in stocks is inevitably suggested.
Therefore, drilling and blasting method should be used to loose up the ore instead of bulldozer in open pit. In addition, more ore can be prepared for production in
short time by bulldozer.
Stocks are planned for ores with maximum humidity levels of 10% at most and with 190 g/ton grade. Selective mining implementation is not preferred because of
high process capacity.
In addition to the drying area, the drying is also done on the benches. This prevents the congestion in drying area during production.
The dimensions of the stocks are so large as to allow for enough space to cover the ore by schist. Forming the stocks at certain intervals and parallel to each other
prevents the closure of roads which link stocks to each other is spread out between stock heaps.
By means of a simple elect system which separates fine grain ore from ore included large grain rock, the introduction of blocks to the stock area is prevented and
thus drying area will not be narrowed.
Stock dimensions such as 150–200 m in length, 50 m at most in width and 12 m at most in height should be preferred for simplest of covering by schist only.
REFERENCES
DİE, 1993, Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry State Institute of Statistics Publications (SIS), Eskişehir.
Kafkas, M.A., 1990, Ore Microscopy Course Notes, January 8–22, Eti Silver Mine, Kütahya.
Singeç, M, Günay, H., Kayhan, İ.K., Alpergun, G., Özyazgan, Z., Kafkas, A. & Karacaoğlu, F., 1991, Etibank Silver Mine Aktepe Deposit Rezerv Estimation and Open Pit
Project, Ankara.
Vicil, M., 1981, Mineralogy of Aktepe District, Ph D Thesis. University of Anatolia, Eskişehir, Turkey.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Changing from gallery blasting to bench blasting method in a quarry
H.Akçakoca, B.Elevli, O.Uysal & I.G.Ediz
Dumlupinar University, Mining Engineering Department, Kutahya, Turkey
ABSTRACT: The production method of Kirdar Quarry, in Kütahya, Turkey, had been gallery blasting. The quarry is very close to buildings as well as
surrounding villages. Gallery blasting method is not environmentally sensitive and it has many operational disadvantages. Due to disadvantages and
increasing complaints of surrounding villages, production method had needed to be replaced with environmentally sensitive method. The first stage of
replacement is to give up “gallery blasting” and to utilize “bench blasting” method. The second stage is to design a drilling and blasting pattern that will
reduce ground vibration, noise, dust and flying rocks. Within the scope of this study, bench geometry has been estimated and on the basis of these
parameters drilling and blasting pattern have been determined and implied. The results of implementation have shown that the bench blasting method is
environmentally sensitive and more economical. Initial evaluation provided that electricity savings is about 2/5 of previous consumption, and reduction
of fuel oil consumption is about 30%.
1 INTRODUCTION
Kirdar Quarry which is being operated by Kirdar Hazir Beton (Kirdar Quarry) is within DPU campus area. The quarry is approximately 2km away from the nearest
building. The production method had been realized with “gallery blasting”. In this method, a gallery having a height of 1 m and width of 0.7–0.8 m was driven
horizontally. The length of gallery was about 12 m. After that two more galleries had been driven in the left and right directions from the end of the first gallery (Figure
1). The ends of galleries were filled with ANFO and blasted. The amount of ANFO used was about 10 tons with 27kg of dynamite per blasting. The charge of gallery
blasting is also given in Figure 1.
There are a lot of inconveniences of gallery blasting in terms of economical, technical, environmental and safety. These are;
• The excessive amount of explosive used in each time can cause some unwanted situations such as ground vibration, air shock, flaying rock etc. These unwanted
effects can damage some structures such as; buildings, roads, electrical and telephone lines etc. in the environment.
• This type of blasting results in bad fragmentation. It is very possible to have oversize materials which requires secondary blasting and/or breaking intensively in the
quarry. The secondary blasting can cause some hazards raised from flying rocks and also can prevent the lateral operations and increases costs.
• Bad fragmented material shortens the crusher lining life and results in high electrical consumption.
• The equipment has to work under quite high (minimum 30–40 m) and uncontrolled slope. This situation creates serious security problems (Picture 1).
Figure 1. Gallery blasting model.
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Picture 1. The forming of the slope with gallery blasting.
• Quality of limestone varies in quarry. But, selective mining is not possible and whole material mixed. In this respect, the more effective production of reserve with
selective mining is being prevented.
• There is also untidiness in quarry.
All these negative situations counted above results in cost increase and constitute some environmental and safety problems. By changing the production method, it is
possible to produce different quality products with low cost and to prevent and/or reduce the environmental problems.
2 BENCH DESIGN
The bench height depends on different factors. In this case, the diameter of driller was the main factor taken into account. On the basis of drillhole diameter, bench
height is estimated using formulas given in Pugliese (1978). It was decided to organize 7 m benches upward starting at level 1070 m due to the current topography and
previous production area. The drillhole diameter is 111.4 mm. After that the basic drilling & blasting parameters such as burden, spacing, length of drillhole, stemming,
has been estimated. The summary of resulting drilling parameters are given in Table 1.
At the initial stages of production, drill holes had to have different length because of original topography. In this case, the burden, spacing and ANFO charge
decreased linearly. This procedure continued until systematic benches were created.
Charge calculation has been carried out and results are given in Table 2.
Picture 2 represents east part of the quarry and Picture 3 represents west part of the quarry.
To determine environmentally sensitive operating parameters, the ground vibration and sound effects of
Table 1. Drilling pattern.
Definitio Dimension (m)
Burden 3
Spacing 3,5
Drillhole length 7,8
Stemming 2
Subdrilling length 0,8
Bench height 7
Charge length by explosive 5,8
Table 2. The explosive type and amount.
Explosive type Explosive amount
Explosive (ANFO) 50kg/drillhole
Priming (Powergeldynamite) 1 unit/drillhole
Igniter 1 unit/drillhole
Picture 2. East part of the quarry
Picture 3. West part of the quarry.
the blasting operation have been recorded. The measurements were made approximately 300 m. distance to the blasting points. The results showed that the vibration
values were below the limits stated by ASRM.
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3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The production was started with “slope excavation” method at Kirdar Quarry. The project preparation and application of this method was made by DPU Mining
Engineering Department. The starting benches were formed. The bench height was 7 m and 1070, 1077, 1084, 1091 and 1098 elevations are bench elevations. The
advantages of new “hillside mining” method are given as follows;
1. Environmentally problems such as, ground vibrations, sound effects and flying rock etc. do not exist anymore. The operation is completely sensitive to the
environment.
2. Better fragmentation has been obtained, and as a result of this loading and haulage productivity have been increased and the crushing costs have been decreased.
3. Due to suitable size distribution of fragmented material, there is no need to the secondary breaking in the quarry.
4. It is possible to apply selective mining. This will result in production of different quality product. Different chemical specified products can be produced according to
demand.
5. The initial evaluation has presented that electricity savings is about 2/5 of previous consumption, and reduction in fuel oil consumption is about 30%.
With the applied production method, the productivity has increased and general production costs have decreased. On the basis of these studies following suggestions
have been made in order to obtain productive and environmentally sensitive operation.
1. The bench and drillingblasting parameters should not be changed.
2. The explosive amounts used in blasting should not exceed 200 kg. Delay time with a total amount of explosive shouldn’t pass 1500 kg.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank to the managers of Kirdar Quarry for their financial support.
REFERENCES
Bellairs, P.G. 1995. Optimum Drill and Blast an Ever Changing Target, International Society of Explosive EngineersProceedings of the TwentyFirst Annual
Conference.
Erdil, M. & Erkoc, O.Y. 1995. Patlatma sonrasi parçalanan malzemenin tane dağihmim belirlemeye yönelik modelleme çahşmalama bir yaklaşim, Turkiye 14. Madencilik
Kongresi, pp. 89–95.
Konak, G. et al. 1999. Taşocaklarmdaki patlatmalarm çevresel etkilerinin ölçümü ve değerlendirilmesi, 2. Ulusal Kirmataş Sempozyumu, pp. 241–255.
Ozkahraman, H.T. &, Ciftci, H. 2002. Sayisal Fotoğraf Yontemiyle Göltaş Çimento Fabrikasi Taş Ocaği Patlatmalarin in Değerlendirilmesi ve İyileştiril, Madencilik
Dergisi, Haziran, pp. 3–10.
Persson, P., Holmberg, R. & Lee, J. 1994. “Rock blasting and explosives engineering”, CRC Press, New York.
Pugliese J.M., 1978, “Designing Blast Patterns Using Empirical Formulas”, US Bureau of Mines, Informal Circular 8550.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Means for optimizing of coal dressing at Coroesti Coal Processing Plant in Valea
Jiului
S.Arad
Assoc. Prof., Petrosani University, Romania
S.Cierpisz
Prof., Silesian University of Technology, Poland Mintech Ltd., Poland
N.Craciun
Eng. Coroesti processing Plant, Romania
ABSTRACT: The modernized technological process at the Coroesti Coal Processing Plant includes an automated monitoring system, which provides
information on the functional state of equipment and ensures its safe and efficient operation. A system of centralized monitoring with local control
closed loops and control of several specific parameters in an online system, managed by a PC server, has been developed and installed. As a
performance index of the plant we have considered the maximal value of the final product of the required quality.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the process of raw coal dressing we obtain washed coal used to produce coke for metallurgy and washed energetic coal for power plants.
Due to its constitution, the coal from Valea Jiului basin is considered to have a high content of ash; the increasing ash content accompanies an increase in coal winning
mechanization. The quality of coal from Valea Jiului basin sent to Paroseni Combined Heat & Power Plant is presented in Table 1.
This situation makes it desirable for the coal preparation plant to cope with the continuous growth of heavy fractions and small size classes which worsen the quality
of the merchandise output and increases the loss of the concentrate with refuse.
Table 1. Approximate analysis of coal quality.
Within the Joint ItochuKopex Project for reengineering of the mining and energy sector in Valea Jiului, one of the three existing coal washing plants together with the
classification and water treatment unit has been modernized in the Coroesti Processing Plant.
Meanwhile, taking into consideration the CE requirements regarding the use of coal for burning in electric plants, it was necessary to improve the quality of coal
burned in the Paroseni Electric Power Plant.
In order to improve the coal processing characteristics in the Jiu Valley it was necessary to come up with a new approach to the management of natural resources,
obtaining higher economic benefits and respecting ecological requirements.
Because the Project included an industrial water closed circuit, the use of water from the Jiu River has been eliminated.
In coal preparation plants, the coal gravitational washing processes are the most important, and of these, washing in jigs is widely spread. During the dressing
process of the coal from Valea Jiului basin, a large amount of dressed coal is subjected to washing in jigs
Coal preparation plants are focusing their attention on improving the quality of dressed coal and on coal washing in jigs in particular.
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2 AUTOMATED CONTROL SYSTEM IN COROESTI PROCESSING PLANT
As the technology of minicomputers and microprocessorbased systems rapidly progressed, it was recognised that the potential benefits to be derived from computer
control of plants would be considerable. Computer systems can perform both simple logic control of hardwired systems and also can be programmed to make
decisions between alternatives taking into account a wider range of circumstances. The value of the decision made will depend on the validity of the data used and of
logic programmed into the computer.
Microprocessorbased technology allowed developing and implementing new sophisticated measuring systems such as coal quality monitors, accurate mass flow
meters and slurry analysers. It was also possible, due to computer control systems, to introduce more complex control strategies such as: process modelling, predictive
control, adaptive control, optimisation control, fuzzy control, etc.
Last year, the Coroesti Coal Preparation Plant located in the Valea Jiului basin was modernized within the joint Itochu Kopex Project. Within this project, the
control system of the plant was designed and delivered by a Polish company, Mintech Ltd.
Computerized monitoring and control system at the Coroesti Plant has been designed and implemented to perform the following functions:
• control of electric drives operation in interlocking,
• visualization of unit operation on VDU’s screens,
• registration of signals from measuring units (level indicators, belt scales, ash monitors),
• generation of alarm signals,
• registration of effective time of drive operation,
• communication with local control systems (jig control, filter press control, slurry circuit).
The basic structure of the central computer control system is presented in Figure 1.
The system consists of the following equipment:
• Database server and visualization station with 2 LCD monitors,
• Ethernet hub and UPS power supply unit,
• Plant manager work station (PC),
• 13 control cabinets with CPU’s and interface units located in switching stations (compartments),
• Signal transmission from measuring devices (level indicators, belt scales, ash monitors, etc.).
The modernized washing plant presented in Figure 2 is integrated with the overall plant control and computer based monitoring system. The modernized technological
process is supplied with an automated monitoring system, which provides information on the functional state of equipment and ensures its safe and efficient operation.
3 THE OPTIMAL CONTROL OF A JIG
Coal washing in jigs is essentially a process of mechanical separation based on the density difference under the action of pulsatory water current,
Figure 1. Central monitoring and control system.
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Figure 2. The washing unit control system.
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Figure 3. Block diagram of jig washer.
attended by the continuous removal of separation products from the machine. Coal preparation plants in the Valea Jiului are equipped with jigs.
An analysis of coal washing in jigs shows that this process could technically and economically benefit from automatic control. Using simulation and numerical methods
we can describe the process by mathematical modelling more accurately.
The automatic control of a jig requires a closedloop regulation of the determining parameters. It is a dynamic process influenced by a large number of parametres.
Pointing out the input and output in the jigging process, we can present the jig washer in the form of a block diagram shown in Figure 3.
The adjustment of jig operation involves such parameters as air pressure, water flow, coal bed height, etc.
Regardless of the adjusted value, all present automatic systems try to stabilize the load of the jig, which provides stable functioning.
Coal washing in jigs can be optimized by measuring the product quality (ash in concentrate) by online monitors used for feedback control oft he jig operation.
Steps required to develop the optimal algorithm are rendered in flow chart in Figure 4.
The maximum value of the final product of the required quality is taken as performance index:
IP=max ∫qi ∙pi ∙{100−ki ∙[c(t)cº(t)]}dt
(1)
where:
qi—jig washer productivity, (t/h)
pi—final product price, (unit monetary/t)
c(t)—current ash in concentrate, (%)
c0(t)—desired ash content in the final product (%)
ki—discount or penalty coefficient in the concentrate price;
T—time period, (h)
The efficiency of the technological installation is usually described by the general imperfection index
Figure 4. Flow chart for the selection of the performance index.
of the separation processes. The efficiency index can be also accepted as the ratio of theoretical yield of the concentrate for ideal separation process and yield of the
concentrate for a real process with a given imperfection.
The optimization of the production process is limited with a constrain for desired ash content in the product (2):
(2)
where
c0—ash content of the imposed concentrate according to the plan, (%)
ηi—organic yield, depending on the concentrate ash content, (%).
Index “i” shows the time index for each period T.
Usually, in the jigging process, there does not occur a complete separation of the coal from dirt.
Thus, for a more correct modelling of the jigging process it is necessary to impose technological restrictios, which refer to limiting the clean coal losses in the refuse,
respectively refuse in the coal. At the same time, limiting the ash content in refuse is the imposed restriction.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The benefits from the computer control of a coal preparation plant are as follows:
– more efficient utilisation of existing manpower,
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– improved plant performance and efficiency resulting from better control,
– improved plant availability, giving higher productivity and more time available for maintenance,
– improved information for management on overall plant performance,
– improved quality control resulting in increased sales revenue,
– greater systems flexibility for possible future alterations or expansions.
For optimizing the technological process it is necessary to work out and put into practice the algorithm of control which ensures the extreme value of the performance
index.
The performance index suggested together with constrains on the process, combines technical criteria as well as economic ones, control of the quantity and quality of
the final product.
REFERENCES
Arad, S., 1995. Optimizing of the coal preparation by jigging. Orientul Latin Publisher, ISBN 973–96407–45 Brasov. Romania
Arad, S., 1996. Process modeling and identification in the view of dynamic jigging machine optimization. Research Project with Research and Technology Ministry,
no. 1007 A2/1996
Arad, S., et al. 1997. Optimal control algorithm of coal dressing process by jigging. Proc. Of International Symposium APCOM’97, pg. 278–281, Moscow, Russia
Cierpisz, S. 2003. Komputerowe modele symulacyjne przebiegu procesow wzbogacania wegla. Monografia. ISBN 83–7335–103–5, Gliwice, Poland
Cierpisz, S. 2003. Automation of coal preparation plants in Poland, Mintech Ltd, Katowice, Poland
Cierpisz, S. 2003. Simulation models of coal preparation process. International Symposium Universitaria ROPET, pg. 81–87, ISBN 973–8260–37x, Petrosani, Romania
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Probabilistic model of the blasting process from the Turcoaia—Iglicioara open
pit
V.Arad, S.Arad & C.Danciu
Petrosani University, Romania
V.Partnoi
ISTPM Tulcea, Romania
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the research carried out at the Petrosani University, geotechnical Laboratory with a view to establishing the optimum
explosive consumption depending on the rock characteristics determined by dynamic stresses. The rock mechanical and elastic characteristics have
been determined to dynamic stresses function of the elastic wave propagation velocity through different rock types: granites, basalts, etc. Finally, the
specific explosive consumption has been determined in accordance with the standard specific consumption and several other parameters depending on
the rock, on the working face and the type of explosive used.
1 INTRODUCTION
With a view to mining the granites from the quarries Izvoarele Vii, Turcoaia and Iglicioara, respectively to eliminating oversize and additional fissuring of blocks it is
necessary to establish the specific explosive consumption depending on the rock geomechanical characteristics.
In order to carry out correct and efficient drillingblasting operations it is essential to design them realistically, both as far as the choice of explosive material and the
optimum explosive consumption are concerned.
The most important geomechanical characteristics involved in the cutting process are: volumetric weight, resistance to compression, tensile strength, the mechanical
and elastic rock characteristics, assessed statistically and dynamically.
2 THE GRANITE GEOMECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
For the granites in the quarries Izvoarele Vii Măcin, Turcoaia and Iglicioara the geomechanical characteristics involved in the rock ramming process have been
determined.
These characteristics have been shown in Table 1.
3 ESTABLISHING THE OPTIMUM EXPLOSIVE CONSUMPTION
It is important to establish the optimum explosive consumption both from a technical viewpoint and from the viewpoint of environmental protection.
Determining the specific explosive consumption is a complex function due to the fact that the rock mass fissuring phenomenon is a dynamic process, dependent on
the natural perturbing and technical factors of the procedure.
Establishing the optimum specific explosive consumption contributes significantly to obtaining the desider granulation and to doing away with oversizes or to
diminishing them.
In order to approach the phenomenon in a general manner, taking into account preestablished conditions we resorted to equations in speciality literature.
The research undertaken in Romania and abroad has made evident the dependence between the specific explosive consumption and the rock geomechanical
characteristics.
The specific explosive consumption has been calculated according to the ralation:
q=(0,182+0,235 f)eTNT[kg/m3]
(1)
in which eTNT is the trotyl equivalent of the explosive.
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Table 1. Geomechanical parameters influencing the specific explosive consumption.
Specific explosive
Sample Tensile breaking strength Breaking strength to Strength Dynamic elasticity module consumption
no. Sample name [daN/cm2] compression [daN/cm2] coefficient F [daN/cm2] Relation 1 Relation 2
1 Cataclasized gneissic 132 1203 12 912290 1,195 1,316
granite
2 Massive feldspathic— 90 1280 13 44040 1,24 1,128
biotitic granite
3 Gneissic porphyroid 80 585 6 322390 0,822 0,852
granite
4 Gneissic feldspatic— 68 744 7,5 486679 0,916 0,89
biotitic granite
5 Feldspatic—biotitic granite 137 1245 12,5 733960 1,22 1,284
6 Cataclasized gneissic 56 1447 14,5 702080 1,342 1,667
granite
7 Feldspathic—biotitic 68 640 6,4 272080 0,854 0,869
granite
8 Porphiroid—gneissic 91 846 8,5 764850 0,978 1,28
granite
9 Porphiroid—gneissic 128 1175 12 629870 1,178 1,28
granite
10 Porphiroid—gneissic 127 1052 10 559110 1,105 1,263
granite
The specific explosive consumption values determined according to relation (1) are rendered in Table 1.
On the basin of the geomechanical characteristics determined dynamically the specific explosive consumption has been established according to relation (2):
(2)
The values of the specific explosive consumption obtained according to relation (2) are rendered in Table 1.
4 ESTABLISHING THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE ROCK GEOMECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
AND THE SPECIFIC EXPLOSIVE CONSUMPTION
Setting out from the geomechanical test, the results obtained a series of correlations between the geomechanical parameters and the specific explosive consumption
have been established. Thus the correlations between the tensile strength and the specific explosive consumption have been found. The correlation diagram between the
tensile strength and the explosive consumption is shown in Figure 1. Here is given one equation of the 8500 which approximate this correlation, an equation with a
coefficient r2=0.666.
In Figure 2 is rendered the correlation number 6308, between the breaking strength to mono axial compression and the specific explosive consumption. This
equation has a coefficient r2=0.999.
This correlation diagram can be used in practice as the breaking strength to compression is easy to be assessed practically.
Figure 1. Correlation between the specific explosive consumption qr and the tensile breaking strength, σrt.
Figure 2. The correlation between the specific explosive consumption qr and the breaking strength to compression σrc.
Further on we analysed the correlation between the specific explosive consumption and Protodiakonov hardness coefficient (Fig.3). Equation 6003 has a coefficient
r2=0.996 and therefore a high degree of approximation.
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Figure 3. Correlation between the specific explosive consumption qr and the hardness coefficient f.
Figure 4. Correlation between the specific explosive consumption qr and the dynamic elasticity modulus, E.
The correlation between the elasticity modulus determined dynamically and the specific explosive consumption is shown in Figure 4. The equation log—normal 5005—
has a lower coefficient correlation r2=0.449.
Figure 5 presents the correlation between the resistance to monoaxial compression and the specific explosive consumption determined on the basis of geomechanical
parameters determined by dynamical stresses.
The correlation equation has a coefficient r2=0.831 considered to be good enough.
Figure 5. The correlation between the specific explosive consumption, qr and the breaking strength to compression σrc.
5CONCLUSIONS
– The correlation diagrams can easily be utilized in practice.
– Thus, on the basis of these correaltions, we suggest that the diagrams in Figures 2 and 5 should be utilized in practice.
– By using these monograms the correct choice of specific explosive consumption will be made and the oversizes which now account for 10–20 per cent of the entire
output will be eliminated.
– Consistency of style is very important. Note the spacing, punctuation and caps in all the examples below.
REFERENCES
Arad, V. 1995. Mining geotechnics, Bucharest, Technical Publishing House.
Arad, V. 2004. Rock mechanics. Didactic and Pedagogical Publisher Hause, Bucharest.
Arad, V. 2001. Determining Specific Explosive Consumption function of the Geomechanical Characteristics rock from S.C.Casial S.A.Research Project no.9/2001,
Petroşani University.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Improvement of coal quality fed to power plant by using selective excavation
method at Seyitömer Coal Mines
H.Aykul
Dumlupinar University, Mining Engineering Department, Kütahya,Turkey
E.Yalçin
Dokuz Eylül University, Mining Engineering Department, İzmir, Turkey
ABSTRACT: Seyitömer Lignite Enterprise (SLE) is the one of the biggest coal production areas in Turkey. In the enterprise a large mount of
produced coal has been fed to power plant with capacity of 4×150 MW blocks. The most important factor affecting the quality of coal at SLE is the
geology of massive coal and interburdens. These interburdens formed in different thickness in the coal seams have affected the quality of run of mine
coal directly. The separation of coal from its waste rock and consequently to increase the heat content of coal by means of decreasing the ash content
of coal by wet washing techniques is not possible because of the high moisture content of coal. This case force enterprise to produce upper level coals
(B1, B2), which is in reality market qualified, for power plant and leave to lower level coals (63) which is power plant qualified pit insite. To enrich the
quality of coal for power plant, these coal and clay have to be separated from each other in the best way.
In this study, quality planning studies was performed for SLE. In this coverage, by considering the quality of coal reserves and consumer’s demands
the selective excavation methods which can be applicable at the enterprise were determined to increase the coal quality and to obtain balanced pit
development. It was found that hydraulic excavator+Wheel loader and Wirtgen Surface Miner+Wheel loader combinations can be used at the B3 level
for selective excavation economically. Hydraulic excavator+Wheel loader combination has minimum overall production cost. The overall annually
production cost of Wirtgen Surface Miner+Wheel loader alternative is approximately 5% higher than hydraulic excavator+wheel loader alternative, but
the selectivity of this alternative is better than other alternative.
1 INTRODUCTION
Seyitömer Lignite Enterprise (SLE) in Turkey supplies coal to the power plant with capacity of 4×150 MW and to market with the demanded quality as possible as.
The heat content of produced coal varies from area to area and also from level to level. This heat content variation and lack of feeding quality coal demanded
specification to the power plant causes to loss in energy production and problems during the burning. Therefore, the heat content of coal fed to the power plant has to
be adjusted that is suitable to the design of the power plant’s blocks.
The most important factor affecting the quality of coal at SLE is the geology of massive coal and interburdens. These interburdens, which were formed in different
thicknesses in the coal seam affects the quality of run of mine coal. The quality is also directly related with production method and equipment used. Rope shovel
excavators with the capacity of 10 yd3 used at the coal excavation excavate the coal face by peeling from footwall to hangingwall. This operation style doesn’t allow the
layers be separated selectively.
If the coal is produced from the section where the interburdens are intensive, the clay liberated with the coal in the preparation plant causes to decrease the quality of
fine coal which is dispatched to power plant. This situation has either decreased production yield of electricity or harmed the furnace system. In order to overcome this
problem, the enterprise has been leaving the low quality coal insitu without producing. This circumstance has been causing the unbalanced mine development and
planning problems. There have been three million tons of low quality coal stock which couldn’t be fed to power plant and there have been twenty million tons of
stripped coal which is present for a production. Studies on the wet washing techniques have showed that, it is impossible to remove waste rock from the
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coal because of high moisture content of the coal and it’s weak resistance against water. To improve the quality of coal for power plant, it is necessary to separate the
clay from coal in the best way., (DEU, 1989). Besides, close physical similarities between coal and different type of waste rocks that appear during excavation
decreases the efficiency of separation of these waste rocks from the coal with physical methods.
In this study, it was aimed to form quality planning for enterprise providing balanced pit development in the mine with production of low quality coals without leaving
in situ while achieving the coal feeding to Seyitömer power plant and market in demanded quality from the Seyitömer lignite mine. This quality planning includes
following works; 1. Determination and of ore specification demanded by customer, 2. Determination of Coal Reserves and Quality (Modeling of ore bed and
producable ore quality features, Salability Features of coal, Production Strategies) 3.Process Design Meeting Specifications (Quality Improvement Strategies, Selective
Mining Planning, Selection of Production Method & MachineEquipment and Production Planning, Seyitömer Application Plan of selective mining, Comparison of
Unselective and Selective Excavation Conditions and Cost Evaluation).
2 DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA AND GENERAL INFORMATION
The mining activities in Seyitömer lignite basin is carried out by Seyitömer Lignites Enterprise (SLE). The SLE establishment is located at the northwest of Kütahya city.
Seyitömer coal district consists of three different regions called Seyitömer (SeyitömerEast, SeyitömerWest, Dragline fields), Aslanli and Ayvali, as shown in Figure 1.
(Beder, 1996). So far, There have not been any production in Ayvali region.
The coal produced in Seyitömer lignite basin with the moisture contents varying between 33 and 39% are in class between soft lignite and mat lignite.
In Seyitömer basin, in the coal seam called B, the interlayer and coal layers are in sequence whose thickness varies from 10 cm to 2 m. The number of interlayer has
been increased straight to deep of B seam and number of layers occurring depending on sequencing of clay and coal layers. The thickness of B seam changes between
2 and 30 m and the average thickness is 20 m. The average quality of B seam shows differences according to working fields. The B seam consists of 3 different
sublevels from top to the base of seam as B1, B2, B3 and their calorific values decrease towards seam base because of increasing of the coal—interburden sequencing.
The coals produced from B1 and B2 levels which have high
Figure 1. Reserve boundaries and production fields in SeyitömerAslanli region.
heating contents have been feeding to market. The B3 coal which has low heat content (+100 mm) and the fine coals (−200 mm) coming from sorting plant has been
feeding to power plant.
After the loosening of overburden that thickness varies between 35 and 60 m, it has been excavated as 10 m thickness slices by excavators having 10 yd3 bucket
capacity and then transported to old production. Besides, Since June 1988, dragline stripping method has been carried out in the south of Seyitömer region.
The coal opened by stripping method has been excavated and transported to the coal preparation plants by excavatortruck and loadertruck methods. Also for
coal transporting, the coal trucks which have 65–85 stons capacities have been used.
In recent years, the necessity to increase the Run of mine coal quality according to power plant’s demand forced the enterprise to apply certain degree of selective
excavation up to 0.5 m with dozers and loaders as possible as.
In the enterprise, preparation only consists of sieving, crushing and sorting with low yield. There are three plants working for power plant and three plants working
for market at the enterprise.
3 QUALITY PLANNING
3.1 Ore specifications demanded by customer
Two main sector of the coal produced in Seyitömer Lignite Enterprise are the market (%12) and the power plant (%88).The coal quality specifications of the power
plant blocks and the actual coal characteristics for the power plant under nominal load conditions are given in Table 1. If market specifications are presented in Table 2.
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Table 1. Coal specifications of power plant units.
Coal specifications
Power plant units Base heat content (kcal/kg) Average ash content (%) Average moisture content (%) Grain size (mm)
1. Unit 1750±100 35 40 0–200
2. Unit 1750±100 35 40 0–200
3. Unit 1750±100 35 40 0–200
4. Unit 1600±100 45 40 0–200
Table 2. Market specifications.
3.2 Coal reserve and quality of Seyitömer region
The second important step in quality planning of mining is to determine quality features of raw product (ore) in order to see whether there is need to quality
improvement or not. Geostatistical modeling technique was used to determine the coal reserve and quality distribition of Seyitomer region.
The statistical and Geostatistical analysis were done by using 790 drill hole data and the computer package program Geoeas and Wmsurf. All the analyses were
carried out for coal thickness, original heat content, corrected heat content and interburden thickness. In geostatistical analyses after determining the average
(theoritical) and directional variograms’ parameters, estimated values were assigned to 7227 two dimensional blocks with 50×50 m grid size for all variables by using
kriging method in SeyitomerAslanli region. Coal reserve was obtained by multiplication of block area, block coal thickness and block density calculated by developed
formula connected with heat content. Figures 2, 3 show coal thickness, corrected heat content in the field, respectively.
This reserve amounts in composed base was also calculated in B1, B2 and B3 levels base by developing model based on levels’ thicknesses and qualities in order to
determine salability features of region’s coal. Reserve distribution according to regions and levels are shown m Table 3. In the region, There are some fields whose
upper level coals (B1, B2) was extracted and lower level coals were left without producing. In Table 3, this circumstance was taken in consideration.
3.2.1 Salability features of coal
As noted earlier, coal produced from SLE has been fed to power plant for the electricity (−200 mm), an to market for heating purpose (+ 100 mm). In SLE only the
B1 and B2 level’s coal have been able to fed to market because of their massive structure. While
Figure 2. Coal thickness distribution in SeyitömerAslanli region.
Figure 3. Corrected heat content distribution in SeyitomerAslanh region.
31% of each ton of this coal transported to sorting plant (oversieve coal, +100 mm) meets the market quality specification, 63% of this coal passing undersieve have
been fed to power plant. Average 6% of this coal has been sorted at the sorting plant as a waste. Generally the B3 level coals containing dense parting and undersieve
coal produced from B1 and B2 levels, sometimes B2 level coals as run of mine in case of unsufficiency of quality have been fed to power plant. In these available
conditions, the distribution of the salability of coals in the basins according to consumption sectors based region/fields and levels is presented Table 4.
3.3 Production strategies
Production strategies express evaluation of production alternatives for customer and determination of
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Table 3. Reserve distribution according to levels in Seyitömer region.
Seyitömer field (103 ton)
Levels S.ömerAslanli field
S.ömer D.layn S.ömer East S.ömer West Aslanl field 103
B1 103ton 4.050 6.622 17.031 13.072 40.775
field field field ton
B2 4.722 14.960 24.960 27.892 72.534
Table 4. Salability of coals in Seyitömer region.
Customer
Market B1 (+100) Seyitömer field (103 ton) Aslanli field (103 ton) Seyitömer—Aslanl field (103 ton) 8.588 4.052 12.640
quality improvement needs for these alternatives in a along term. In SLE, There are three production alternatives in the enterprise for the customers.
1. The production plan based on feeding of coal maximum time to market: In order to realize this alternative, it is necessary for the enterprise to produce B1 and B2
levels’ +100 mm coals only for the market. As for fine coal (−100 mm) of B1 and B2 levels’ and the 63 levels’ coals will be fed to power plant. As a result of these
assumptions, it was determined that for this alternative, available quality improvement capabilities of process is not adequate.
2. The production plan based on feeding of coal certain time to market: This alternative means apart market quality coals are consumed for the power plant. Realizing
this kind of production planning depends on the only B1 level coals to be produced for the market. Fine coals of B1 level coals and B2, B3 levels coals as run of mine
will be fed to power plant. It was determined that in this available conditions quality improvement capabilities of process is not adequate. But, m this alternative,
quality improvement need is lower than the first alternative.
3. The production plan based on feeding of coal to only for power plant: With the application of this alternative, the enterprise will consume all the coal reserve for the
power plant. Thus, levels B1, B2 and B3 will be homogenized and fed to the power plant. In this circumstances, Quality values which the power plant demands will
be easily achieved by SLE. Finally, In this alternative, quality improvement capabilities of process is adequate.
All evaluation for alternatives above were realized according to reserve and demand features.
3.4 Process design meeting specifications
3.4.1 Quality improvement strategies
The most important result that is obtained with the evaluation of the production alternatives about the future of the enterprise is that; if coal is to be fed to the market in
the coming years and maximum time and the quality features that power plant requires are to be met, then the quality improvement capability of present production
process need to be developed.
The classical improvement techniques which can be applied to this soft lignite coal in the basin are wet washing techniques and physical sorting. As mentioned before,
studies on the wet washing techniques have showed that, it is impossible to remove waste rock from the coal because of high moisture content of the coal and it’s weak
resistance against water. Coal quality improvement through sorting already have been applied to coal produced for both power plant and market. But it’s capacity and
yield (6%) is very low to provide quality improvement need. Therefore, the only approach for quality improvement is based on the thought of not to allow these waste
rocks (parting) to enter the process, in other words, application of selective mining. Besides, the ore bodies whose their quality is variable like Seyitömer coal bed,
blending and homogenizing are also vital quality operation for achieving the short term quality targets after obtaining necessary quality improvement. Application of
feasibility of selective mining approach was examined in forward parts.
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3.4.2 Selective excavation planning at B3 level
Before performing the usage of selective excavation, selective excavation planning should be done. First step in selective excavation is to determine the structural
properties (thickness, heat content) of in situ layers in working pano worked. Second step is determining the quality of coal to be achieved from the coal face to be
excavated. As this criteria shows the coal quality targeted with selective excavation, it will be the base for the optimization of selective excavation parameters. In third
step, various selective excavation configuration which is formed by considering various selective excavation criteria are evaluated and then the most suitable one among
them that enables targeted quality value is selected. While achieving each selective excavation configuration, first; composite coal configuration upon a certain thickness
and heat content is obtained from in situ coal configuration. Compositing process is performed for coal layers bigger than thickness criteria & smaller than thickness
criteria and for interburden layers bigger than thickness criteria & smaller than thickness criteria. As a Second; Run of mine coal configuration is obtained from
composite coal by considering mining losses and dilutions occuring at the top and bottom of layers.
3.4.3 Selection of production method & machineequipment and production planning
The quality improvement by using the selective excavation method is directly related with the selection of the suitable machine and production method. Because
achievement of selective excavation methods depends on the minimum separation thickness and separation accuracy of the used machine. If it is considered that the
alternative of feeding the coal to market maximum time and the fact that the rate of B3 quality coal in the seam will rise in panos forthcoming years, it is important to
select suitable machine equipment & method and plan that would both meet the quality and the capacity demand productively at the enterprise. There are two
alternative selective excavation method which can provide both of them and possible to apply B3. These are hydraulic excavatortruck and Continuous Surface Miner
(CSM)—Truck methods. Among the CSMs, use of Wirtgen Surface Miner taken in consideration because of it’s high selective digging ability and high operation
capacity. Besides dozers and loaders are the machines which should be selected as auxiliary equipment, whatever mining method is chosen in SLE. Because these
machines could be easily adopted to selective mining conditions in terms of their working patterns. Production planning performed for both of alternative methods will
be examined by considering the maximum selectivity requirement. (production for maximum time to market).
At the enterprise, the subseam which selective excavation is needed is B3 seam. That is, the method & machine to be selected will be applied to B3. As levels B1 and
B2 have a more massif structure, machines to be used in those levels doesn’t need to be worked with high selectivity. In this respect, the use of rope shoveltruck
method which are already at operation and use of loaders by depending on the level thickness will be appropriate choice. The use of 3 rope shovels of 10 yd3 and 1
wheel loader which are present at the machinery park will be sufficient to meet production amount for market whatever method is chosen at B3 level.
Planning of selective mining of B3 level is performed according to following conditions for both alternatives. Annually, 6,500,000 tons coal which has to average heat
content of 1711kcal/kg and −200 mm particle size has to be fed to the 4 units of power plant. 2,032,258 tons of this amount will come from the sorting plants as fine
(−100 mm) and its heat content will vary between 1600–1718 kcal/kg depending on the rate of production from B1 and B2 levels. The rest of the amount which is
4,467,742 tons of coal will be produced from B3 level. The required heat content of this amount which is produced from B3 will change between 1707 and 1761
kcal/kg on annual basis depending on the heat content of the fine coal which comes from the sorting plants. In other words, in order to obtain balanced pit
development, heat content of the coal produced from B3 level should be raised from 1462 kcal/kg to 1761 kcal/kg. For to achieve this, 4,467,742 tons of coal must be
produced and 3,032,443 tons of gang material (1,251,374 m3 of interburden) has to be separated per year.
In the region, the waste rock consists of white clay, gray clay, black clay, sandy clay, bituminous marn and silexit. The geomechanical properties of the coal and the
waste rocks in Seyitömer coal basin were determined. It was found that, the densities of the coal and the waste rock vary from 1 to 1.60 gr/cm3 and 1.7–3 gr/cm3,
respectively, (ODTU, 1996). The moisture content of coal varies between 20–45% (average 30%). Moisture content of the waste rock varies between 0–45% (DEU,
1989). The compressive and the tensile strength of the coal are 13.4MPa and 2.18MPa, respectively. The strength values of waste rock subject to selective digging
vary from 0.83 to 25MPa. This values was taken in consideration in planning studies of applicable methods.
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3.4.3.1 Hydraulic excavatortruck method
At B3 level, the excavation will be maintained through hydraulic excavatorloader combination, while the separated gang material is being transported to the insite
dumping field, the produced coal will be sent to the preparation plants or power plant directly by trucks of 85 short tons. Excavation mechanics of hydraulic excavator
is very suitable for selective mining. Because this machine’s bucket can move free from bucket boom and the machine’s main boom is not fixed to machine body. These
features make the horizontal motion capability (paralel crowding) of bucket higher (Yaman, 1995).The selectivity of the hydraulic excavator is directly related with the
bucket capacity selected. Generally, low bucket capacity increases the selective working ability and the filling factor of the bucket. However, it is also the fact that the
use of a machine with a low bucket capacity reduces the work output and efficiency (Vogt & Strunk, 1996)
The required machine number was calculated according to the hydraulic excavators of 6yd3 and 10yd3 bucket capacities. It was taken into consideration that, the
loaders will operate in excavating the layers whose thicknesses varying between 20 and 30cm and mainly at the auxiliary works for hydraulic excavators at clay layers.
The values of working parameters used in calculations and numbers of machine required were given in Table 5. In Table 5 required number of hydraulic excavators was
found for 6yd3and 10yd3 alternatives. In addition to these machines, dozers for auxiliary works and mobile illumination equipment for night selective operation should
be selected as same number as selected excavator.
3.4.3.2 Continuous surface miner (Wirtgen Surface Miner)—truck method
Wirtgen Surface Miner (WSM) has a continuous excavation system and the excavation is done with the movement along to the horizontal axis of the layer whereas in
classic machines, the production is done with the movement along to the vertical axis of the layer. This horizontal movement of the Wirtgen Surface Miner on the layer
increases the selectivity and therefore, it becomes best among all the excavation machines about the selectivity. WSM combines mining, crushing and loading in one
machine.
Table 5. The working parameter values and required machine numbers.
Hydraulic excavator Wheel loader with 10yd3
6yd3 10yd3
Daily working hour 18 18 18
Annually working hour (300 days) 5400 5400 5400
Bucket period (Sec.) 26 28 42
Bucket efficiency 0.85 0.75 0.80
6 10 10
Bucket capacity (yd3)
Truck capacity (st) 85 85 85
Working efficiency for coal 0.80 0.80 0.80
Working efficiency for interburden 0.75 0.70 0.75
Working time per hour (min/h) 50 50 50
3 3 1.35 2.5 1.35 2.5 1.35 2.5
Coal density (t/m ) Interburden density (t/m )
Swell factor for coal 1.40 1.40 1.40
Swell factor for interburden (clay) 1.45 1.45 1.45
Coal amount to be produced 4.467.742 4.467.742
Interburden amount to be separated annually (t/y) 3.032.443 3.032.443 3.032.443
Number of required machine 4 3 2
The working parameters of WSM 4200 model of Wirtgen Surface Miner at the B3 level are given in Table 6. The two factors that affect the Wirtgen Surface Miner
productivity in excavation are the cutting length and the cutting depth. The productivity and the capacity increase as the cutting length increases. Cutting depth is a
criteria determined by a coalclay sequencing and the selectivity requirement. In places where the selectivity requirement is high, the only way to increase the
productivity is to increase the length of cut. In Table 7, the effective capacities are calculated for various lengths of cut depending on the high selectivity condition (0.2m
for coal and 0.2m for clay) and low selectivity condition (0.7m for coal and 0.5m for clay).
In the same table, the annually required working hours to excavate 4,467,742 tons of coal and 3,032,443 tons of clay from the B3 seam in the selective conditions
are also given. As shown in the table, the required excavation time decreases as the cutting length increases.
The annual operation time of WSM is 5400h/y, so, one Wirtgen Surface Miner with a cutting length of approximately 200m is sufficient to perform the annual
demand under low selectivity condition. But,
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Table 6. Working parameters of WSM 4200 model at B3 level.
Mine data
Daily working hour 13
Annually working day 300
Annually working hour 5400
Material data
Material Coal Clay
3 1.35 2.5
Density, δ, (t/m )
Abrasiveness None Low
Compressive strength (Mpa) 15 20
Tensile strength (Mpa) 2.18 3
Length of cut, L, (m) 50 50
Width for operation 60 60
Truck capacity, T, (st) S5 85
Truck filling factor, F, (%) 100 100
Selected machine data
Widthofcut, W, (m) 4 4
Depth of cut, D, (m) 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.2
Forward speed, S, (m/min) 14 18 6 10
Production data
2352 864 720 480
Teo. cutting performance (W×D×S×60), m3/h
Truckloads (N) per cut W×D×L×δ/T×F 2.45 0.70 3.24 1.29
Truck exchange time, e, (sec) 20 20 20 20
Total exchange per cut (E) e/60×(N−1),(min) 0.48 0 0.74 0.09
Maneuver time, M, (min) 888
Operator efficiency, O, (%) 90 90 90 90
627.3 200.5 317.0 165
W×D×L×60× Effective production O/CL/S+M+E), (m3/h)
Effective tonnage (Eff. prod.×δ), (ton/h) 846.8 270.6 792.5 412.5
Table 7. Effective production capacity of WSM 4200 and required excavation time at different cutting lengths.
Low selectivity High selectivity
Production capacity (ton/h) Production capacity (ton/h)
Length of cut (m) Coal Clay Required excavation time (h) Coal Clay Required excavation time (h)
50 847 792 9102 271 412 23861
100 1240 1022 6570 425 583 15086
200 1621 1195 5293 592 725 11735
300 1805 1263 4874 681 805 10327
400 1914 1304 4661 736 845 9667
500 1982 1329 4537 772 872 9286
for high selectivity condition, the necessary cutting length to perform the required coal amount is too high to apply to Seyitömer field (approximately 2000–2500 m).
So, annual targeting amounts
Figure 4. Application of WSMTruck method at the Aslanli region.
determined for coal and clay will no be produced with the use of only one WSM. However, if these extreme conditions are considered, it will be possible to meet the
power plant’s demand in required quality at reasonable cutting length of WSM (400–500 m) by using two loaders with 10 yd3 supporting WSM. In SLE, in order to
eliminate organization, dumping and quality problems which can be occuring the future, adapting tandem production which will be facilitate the organization and will
provide balanced pit development has a vital importance.
If WSMTruck application is considered in the region, Figure 4 shows the representative production planning of WSMTruck combination at the Aslanl region.
3.4.4 Comparison of unselective and selective excavation conditions and cost evaluation
The selective excavation applied in the enterprise will affect the whole process of SLE Power plant by means of technical and economical point of view. The
comparison of selective and unselective excavations at the 63 level in the point of view of excavated coal amount and quality is shown in Table 8. The densities of coal
and waste rock are taken as 1.55 t/m3 and 2.5 t/m3, respectively. For balanced pit development, the composite heat content of B3 level coal which is given to power
plant has to be 1900 kcal/kg in order to reach 1761 kcal/kg ROM quality coal. For to reach this value, 1,192,623 m3 waste material will be removed from the
excavated coal.
The effects of selective excavation on quality improvement and production cost are examined by investigating the present working conditions and
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Table 8. Comparison of unselective and selective excavation conditions at B3 seam.
Excavation conditions
Unselective Selective
Average seam thickness (m) 12 12
Total (composite) coal thickness (m) 7.3 7.3
Total (composite) parting thickness (m) 4.7 4.7
4.338.402 4.338.402
Total excavated volume (m3/y)
2.957.779 1900
Composite lignite volume (m3/y)
Heating value of composite lignite (kcal/kg) 2.957.779 1900
1.380.622 1.380.622
Composite partings volume (m3/y)
Heating value of composite partings (kcal/kg) 100 100
Partings volume in situ 1.321.872 1.321.872
Selective mining No Yes
Total coal loss (m) 0 0.2
Total dilution (m) 4.5 0.44
Total coal thickness (m) 7.5 7.5
Total parting thickness (m) 4.5 4.5
3 1.321.872 129.249
Waste dilution amount (m /y)
4.338.402 3.087.028
Mined ROM lignite (m3/y)
Mined ROM lignite (ton/y) 7.500.185 4.467.742
Heating value of ROM lignite (kcal/kg) 1049 1761
Table 9. Cost of selective excavation alternatives.
Excavation cost ($/t)
Alternatives Excavation machine Coal Clay Annual operation cost ($/y)
WSM+loader WSM 0.30 0.40 1,987,555.28
Wheel loader 0.18 0.11
Hydraulic excavator at B1 and B2 levels Hydraulic excavator 0.17 0.13 1,146,666.67
selective working conditions for balanced pit development.
Costs of selective excavation alternatives at B3 level were calculated for the coal and clay excavation and given in Table 9. Selective excavation alternatives are
hydraulic excavator with 6 yd3 bucket capacity and Wirtgen Surface Miner (4200 model) with the wheel loader. In the case of unselective excavation, shovel with 10
yd3 will be used. In B3 level, 7,500,185 tons of material (coal+interburden) will be excavated and 3,087,029 tons of material will be separated as a waste. Rest
(4,467,742 tons) will be dispatched to power plant as ROM coal. It is assumed that Wirtgen Surface Miner will be worked 5400 hours in a year with its average
production capacity of 10,209 t/h and it will excavate 4,467,742 tons of coal and 969,000 tons of interburden. 2,118,028 tons of interburden will be excavated by the
Wheel loader with 10 yd3.
The general cost evaluation for the SLE was also done by considering excavations all levels, coal and interburden transportation and coal processing. At the B1 and
B2 levels, 3,225,806 tons of coal and 1,706,669 tons of interburden will be produced by shovel. The unit production costs of coal and clay excavated with shovel are
0.14 and 0.08 $/t, respectively. The unit stripping cost for overburden was taken as 0.19 $/m3. The overall cost values for different operations are given in Table 10.
In this cost evaluation, the penalty costs occured because of poor quality coal in present selectivity conditions in SLE, and big costs such as labor, maintenance, fuel
oil, dumping and low capacity costs occuring in power plant process was not taken in consideration. So, the ideal selective mining application will provide considerable
savings more than calculated values in Table 10.
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Table 10. General production cost evaluation at different selective excavation conditions.
Present condition, ($/y) Selective production Cost ($/y)
Production stage Shovel, hyd. excavator+loader Shovel, hyd. excavator +loader Shovel, WSM+loader
Coal excavation B1–B2 618666 618666 618666
4 CONCLUSION
The coal quality improvement at SLE is necessary and it can only be done by the application of selective excavation. The geotechnical studies of the coal seam and clay
showed that the formation is suitable to excavate with the continuous miners. In the region, selective excavation with high productivity will be possible only with the use
of Hydraulic excavator or Wirtgen Surface Miner and Wheel loader at the B3 level. The excavation at B1 and B2 levels will be done by Shovels and the excavated
material will be transported by Trucks.
When the whole mining processes are taken into consideration, it was found the production cost of selective excavation will be lower than the present production
cost. Among the selective mining alternatives, the Shovel+Hydraulic excavator+Loader alternative is the minimum production cost alternative and its production cost is
5% lower than Shovel+Wirtgen Surface Miner+Wheel loader alternative. But it is obvious that, WSM system has more flexibility to adjust the formation conditions and
the selectivity of this machine is higher than other systems.
REFERENCES
Beder, H.A., 1996, “Seyitomer kömür havzasmm jeoloji ve rezerv hesabi” M.Sc. Thesis, Dumlupinar University.
Brealey, S.C., Bailey, J. & Rickus, J.E. (1983). Surface mining and quarrying. The institution of mining and metallurgy. (Ed), Mineral quality determination and control
in stratified deposits.
DEU, 1989, Seyitomer bölgesi kriblaj tesislerinin optimizasyonu ve kapasite artirabilme imkanlarin in etü dü. Dokuz Eylul University, Eng. Fak. Mining Eng. Dept.
ODTÜ, 1996, Killerin ekonomik değerlendirilmesinde yöntem geliştirilmesi, Project No. ABP03–09DPT95K120497, Middle East Technical University, Geological
Eng. Dept.
Vogt, W. & Strunk, S. (1996). Proceedings of the ’96 International Symposium on Mining Science and Technology. In G. Yuguang & T.S. Golosinski (Eds), Effects of
selective mining on coalfiredpower stations. Rotterdam.
Wirtgen GmbH. (…). Wirtgen general information, catalogues and job reports. Hohner strabe 2 D53578 Windhagen—Germany.
Yaman, S. (1995). Seyitomer Linyitleri İþletmesi arakesmeli kömür damarlarýnda üretimde uygulanabilecek selektif madencilik yöntemlerinin ve uygun
ekipmanlarin seçiminin araşturilmasi, Lisans Tezi, Istanbul: İstanbul Teknik Ūniversitesi.
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Page 181
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Development of a direct rippability assessment method
H.Basarir
Inonu University, Mining Engineering Dept., Malatya, Turkey
C.Karpuz & T.Bozdag
Middle East Technical University, Mining Engineering Dept., Ankara, Turkey
ABSTRACT: Due to environmental constrains and limitations in open pit mining, overburden loosening by ripping operation becomes more preferable
than drilling and blasting operation. Moreover due to the technological advancements in dozer manufacturing techniques, more powerful dozer types
are available today. Nowadays, rock units, which had been classified as nonrippable, become rippable with today’s dozer. Thus, more reliable
rippability classification system is needed in mining sector.
This paper presents the development of a direct rippability classification system. Direct ripping trials were conducted on different panels to obtain
the hourly production values and to assess the rippabilities of those panels. During direct ripping trials; ripping length, ripping depth, ripping width,
ripping and maneuvering time were all measured and recorded. The necessary laboratory and field studies were also conducted, during direct runs, to
classify studied panels with existing indirect rippability classification systems. The yielded ease of ripping class of each panel by the application of
existing indirect rippability assessment methods were compared with obtained direct ripping classes. By means of numerical modeling a link has been
established between productions of D8 type dozers and the different types of dozers. Finally, the suggested classification system provides the easiness
of ripping as well as their hourly production values for different dozer types.
1 INTRODUCTION
Ripping, digging and drilling&blasting are the three widely used methods for breaking and loosening the overburden. Rippers have been used since 1950’s in road
construction, excavation of foundations, excavating materials in small quarries and in overburden stripping operations in open pit mining.
As tractor size, weight and horsepower have been improved the utilization of rippers becomes more popular method for ground loosening. With the developing
technology and improvement in dozer manufacturing, a reliable rippability assessment method is strongly needed in mining sector.
Six case studies are included in this paper. The necessary field and laboratory studies were all completed. Then the existing rippability assessment methods and their
applications were reviewed. The results of existing methods were compared with the case studies. Finally, the existing rippability assessment methods were reviewed,
based on site observations, ripper depth percentage and direct ripping productions, a new direct rippability classification method is developed for CATD8N type dozer
and by means of numerical modeling developed model was extended for heavier types of dozer.
2 RIPPABILITY ASSESSMENT METHODS
For long years, many researchers have been worked to develop a rippability classification system. Developed classification systems are mainly divided into two groups;
these are direct and indirect rippability classifications systems.
In cases where a conclusive determination of rippability is difficult by using available rock mass and material data or where equipment for trial test is readily available,
a direct trial ripping may more appropriately decide the issue: such trial ripping can be used to obtain good estimates of ripping production. If such trial ripping runs
can’t be conducted in site, then indirect rippability classification systems become more useful in most case.
2.1 Direct methods
In direct methods, actual dozers carry out trial ripping runs. This is the most valuable method to obtain the rippability classes and ripping production. Having the hourly
production the cost of ripping and blasting were compared and the economical way of loosening ground was selected. There are three general methods of estimating
ripper production (Anon, 1994).
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2.1.1 Volume by weight
The best method is to record the spent time, after removing the ripped material to weigh it. The hourly production is found by dividing the ripped material weight to
spent time. In this method, to weigh only the ripped material is crucial.
2.1.2 Volume by cross sectioning
Another method is cross sectioning the area. In this method the area is first crosssectioned, then ripping time spent during ripping is recorded. After removing the
ripped material, the ripped area is crosssectioned again and the volume of ripped material is calculated. By taking the ratio of ripping time to ripped volume the hourly
production is found for per minute or per hour.
2.1.3 Volume by length
In this method, time spent for ripping over a measures distance is recorded. This method is valuable for quick estimation. Average cycle time is determined from the
number of cycles. In this time turn around and back up times must be included. Average ripping length, width, distance and penetration depth are measured by
observing the ripper tyne behind the dozer. These data reveal the volume per cycle from which the production in bank cubic yards can be calculated.
In this paper, the last method was utilized to calculate the direct ripping production.
2.2 Indirect classification methods
In situations where there is not any dozer to conduct trial ripping and all necessary rock mass and material properties are known, indirect methods are utilized. In these
methods, most of rock mass and material properties are taken into account. Indirect classification methods can be divided into three main groups.
2.2.1 Seismic velocity based methods
These methods are purely based on seismic Pwave velocities of rock mass. One of dozer Manufacturer Company, Caterpillar Tractor Co., introduced charts for
different types of dozers based on Pwave velocities of rock. Then, other researchers proposed different classification systems in order to determine rippability classes
of rocks based on their seismic velocities. Some of these methods are:
– Atkinson(1971)
– Bailey (1975)
– Church(1981)
– Komatsu (Anon 1987)
– Caterpillar(1990)
2.2.2 Graphical Methods
For these methods, detailed field and laboratory experiments are not needed. There are only two parameters required for rippability classification of rock. These
parameters are point load strength index, IS(50) and joint spacing, If. Thus, these methods are useful especially for quick estimation of rippability class of rock is needed.
The pioneer of these methods is Franklin (1971). Since then different authors have modified his method. These methods are:
– Franklin (1971)
– Bozdag (1988)
– Pettifer & Fookes (1994)
2.2.3 Grading methods
In such methods, different rock mass and material properties are graded separately. These methods are mainly based on the rock mass classification systems. The
former of these methods is Weaver’s (1975) method, his parameters and grades were similar to parameters and grades used in RMR rock mass classification system
apart from ground water conditions. By summing up the grades belonging to different parameters, total grade is found and with respect to this total grade, the rippability
class of rock is determined. These grading methods are:
– Weaver (1975)
– Muftuoglu (1984)
– Smith (1986)
– Singh et al. (1987)
– Karpuz (1990)
– Kirsten (1982)
– MacGregor et al. (1992)
Strength of rock and Pwave velocities of rock mass are two dominant parameters used in most of the grading methods. Smith (1986) informed that uniaxial
compressive strength should be used as criteria for massive and weak rock whereas seismic velocity should be used for highly fractured and high strength rocks.
All classification systems mentioned above were used in this paper to determine the rippability classes of each studied panels.
3 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES
Laboratory studies and geotechnical descriptions of rock mass were completed in accordance with ISRM (Brown, 1983) in six different open pit mines. In
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studied sites, the main rock type was marl. Conducted laboratory and field studies are tabulated in Table 1.
Rock mass and material properties of studied panels are given in Table 2 and Table 3 and Table 4. By using the determined rock properties, panels will be classified
with respect to their rippabilities.
4 DIRECT RIPPING RUNS
Direct ripping runs are very important for determining the easiness of ripping, measurement of hourly production. The observations and measurement of ripper depth
during direct ripping trial plays an important role in assessment of the ease of ripping.
In this study as a direct rippability assessment method volume by length method is utilized for being consistent in the measurements. Also, it is hard to provide all
necessary equipments in field for utilizing other methods.
Table 1. Conducted laboratory and field studies.
Laboratory tests Field studies
Unit weight, γ Seismic velocity, SV
Uniaxial compressive strength, UCS Degree of weathering
Point load strength index, I Discontinuity spacing, If
s(50)
Brazillian test, BT Bed separation, BS
Schmidt hardness, SHV
Number of disc. sets
Table 2. Rock material properties of studied panels.
Table 3. Rock mass properties of studied panels.
Caterpillar D8 and its equivalent Komatsu D155 type dozers were utilized during direct trials in all studied panels. Their weights and horsepowers of these dozers are
close to each other. Hence, it was assumed that their production capacities are equal to each other. The measured and recorded parameters during trial ripping are:
– Tr: Ripping time, s
– Tm: Maneuvering time, s
– L: Ripping length, m
– W: Ripping width, m
– D: Ripping depth, m
Ripping time and maneuvering times were recorded during direct ripping trial. Ripping length is chosen as 50 meters for all studied panels. Ripping width is measured
after direct ripping trial to calculate the volume of ripped material. The direction of ripping is very important in calculating the direct ripping production, in this study the
direction of ripping was selected as perpendicular to the strike of main discontinuity set. To measure the width of ripping, the ripped material is removed by dozer blade
and the distance between the cracks due to ripping is measured. To measure ripper depth ripper tyne is continuously observed during direct ripping trial throughout the
profile. For easy measurement of depth of tyne, tyne is painted with different color in every 10 centimeters.
During direct ripping trial, by continuously observing the depth of ripper shank, ease and efficiency of ripper is decided. The measured and recorded
Table 4. Measured and recorded parameters during direct ripping trials.
parameters during direct trial ripping is presented in Table 4.
The simple sketch regarding the ripper geometry and ripping parameters is shown in Figure 1. The shape of crosssectional area mainly depends on the rock type
going to be ripped. For marl type rocks this area was observed as triangular in the field. Additionally, the study carried out by Bozdağ (1988) at similar coal measure
rocks indicated that the dominant ripping shape is triangular.
The hourly production of ripper is found by using the following formula (After Bozdag, 1988).
where:
Qr: Hourly production, bank m3/h
qr: Production in a cycle, bank m3/cycle
Cr: Cycle time, min
Er: Effficiency of ripping, %
Cr=tr+tm
where:
tr: Ripping time, min
tt: Maneuvering time, min
Production in a cycle is found by multiplying the cross sectional area and the ripping length.
qr=Ac×L
where:
qr: Production in a cycle, bank m3/cycle
Ac: Crossectional area, m2
L: Ripping length, m
where:
D: Ripper depth, m
W: Ripping width, m
The calculated production values are presented in Table 5.
Figure 1. The geometry of ripped material.
5 RIPPABILITY CLASSIFICATION OF STUDIED PANELS
5.1. Classification of sites by indirect rippability assessment methods
Franklin (1971), Bozdag (1988) and Pettifer and Fookes (1994) classification methods were all utilized to classify the sites. The rippability classes of each site
according to the used graphical methods and weighted rippability classes of sites obtained by averaging results from all methods are seen in Table 6.
Among all grading methods Weaver (1975), Muftuoglu (1983), Smith (1986), Singh et al. (1987) and Karpuz (1990) methods were used and both classes and
weighted classes of sites are given in Table 12.
All of the seismic velocity based methods, mentioned before, utilized and sites were classified according to each method. The results of each method and the
weighted rippability classes of sites according to seismic velocity based methods are tabulated in Table 13.
Table 5. The calculated direct ripping production values.
Table 6. Rippability classes of rock using graphical methods.
The weighted classes of sites with respect to main groups of indirect rippability methods and the assessed classes of panels, by using descriptive terms, are presented
in Table 7.
As it can be seen from the Table 7, there is slight difference among the weighted and assessed classes of the main existing rippability assessment methods. The
differences can be sourced from the inadequacies of existing rippability assessment methods or difference in grading systems.
5.2 Classification of studied panels by ripper depth percentage, production and site observations
Ripper depth percentages give useful clues about the easiness of ripping. Ripper depth percentages, hourly production values and corresponding assessed classes of
studied panel are given in Table 8.
Based on the proposed ripper production and seismic velocity charts proposed by Caterpillar (Anon, 1990) for the best conditions maximum production for CAT
D8N type dozer is around 1500 m3/h. The direct ripping runs carried out in this study also support this maximum production
Table 7. Assessed rippability classes of rock units with respect to different indirect rippability assessment methods.
Weighted classes based on indirect rippability methods
Panel Seismic velocity based methods Graphical methods Grading methods Assessed class
34 Makina Difficult Difficult Difficult Difficult
Omerler Very difficult Very difficult Very difficult Very difficult
18 PH Difficult Moderate Moderate Moderate
Kuspinar Difficult Moderate Moderate Moderate
305 Very easy Very easy Easy Very easy
310 Difficult Difficult Difficult Difficult
Table 8. Ripper penetration percentages of panels and classes of studied panels.
value. By combining this production values and site observations the studied sites were classified with respect to their productions and ripper penetration percentages as
follows: based on this evaluation of The rock unit marl at 305 and 18 PH panels are evaluated as the very easily and easily rippable rocks when ripper penetration
percentage and hourly production was regarded as criteria for the ease of ripping. Ripping depths and productions of 305 and 18 PH panels are 1.11 m & 0.90 m, and
1350, 1000 m3/h respectively. Thus, ripper penetration percentages for 305 and 18 PH panels were 93% and 75% of maximum digging depth of ripper tyne,
respectively, which could be considered as the highest ripping depth and hourly production values. The ripper depth percentage and production values for Kuspinar are
67% and 855 m /h, respectively. Kuspinar is considered as moderately rippable panel.
310 and 34 Makina panels, ripper penetrations were lower than the other two panels. Ripper penetration percentage and hourly productions are 54% and 63% of
maximum digging depth of ripper tyne and 330, 356 m3/h. These panels are assessed as difficult rippable sites. Omerler panel has the minimum ripping width and ripper
depth among all panels due to relatively high bedding and discontinuity spacing. Furthermore, its hourly production is the lowest production value among studied panels.
Thus Omerler panel is evaluated as very difficult rippable panel.
6 DEVELOPMENT OF A DIRECT RIPPABILITY SYSTEM
For D8 or equivalent type dozers final classes of worked sites are decided by combining the assessed classes of sites based on indirect rippability assessment methods
and rippability classes of sites based on
Table 9. Final assessed rippability classes of rock units with respect to different rippability assessment methods.
ripper depth percentage and productions. The final classes of worked panels are given in Table 9.
Direct rippability classification system is proposed. Initially, this system was proposed just for CATD8N or its equivalent types of dozers. Bu to develop a direct
rippability classification system it is necessary to propose the ripper productions of other types of dozers.
Since in field all types of dozers were not available numerical modeling was utilized. The numerical
Table 10. 3DEC and direct ripping productions for CATD8N type dozer.
Figure 2. 3DEC calculated production versus direct ripping run productions.
modeling program called C3DE, distinct element code by Itasca (Anon, 1998), was utilized to simulate the direct ripping operation in three dimensional environment
and the ripping mechanisms and production values for different types of dozers have been obtained (Basarir, 2002). Rock mass and material properties were input to a
3DEC. The productions from direct ripping runs and numerical modeling were compared and it was seen that the results of direct ripping runs were consistent. The
productions of 3DEC and direct ripping productions for studied panels are presented in Table 10. The graph showing the relationship between direct ripping and
numerical modeling productions is given in Figure 2. Then by means of numerical modeling, system was extended for heavier types of dozers.In the modeling ground
going to be ripped, composed of blocks. All practical block sizes starting from the smallest to average discontinuity spacing were tried in the model.
To draw the upper and lower boundaries of different classes for developed system, the fina assessed classes of studied panels were utilized. By means of this
developed direct ripping classification system shown in Table 11, the ease of ripping was both qualitatively and quantitatively assessed based on ripper depth
percentage.
7 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
A direct rippability classification system was developed which based on some rock mass and material properties. It provides both ease of ripping and the
corresponding productions for different dozer types, as well as it suggests the ripper tyne penetration percentages. Conversly, it is also possible to find ease of ripping if
the penetrating percentage of tyne is known. The suggested assessment system is quicker and easier than the existing direct rippability assessment systems. Since it is a
quantitative system, even inexperienced engineers can use it.
Table 11. The suggested production, ripper depth percentages for the assessment of ease of rippability.
With CATD8N type dozer Direct ripping production, m3/h
Ripper depth penetration, % Descriptive terms D8 D9 D10 D11
<50 Very difficult 0–250 0–285 0–600 0–800
50–65 Difficult 250–400 285–450 1200–1900 2000–3000
65–75 Moderate 400–900 450–1000 1900–4300 3000–7000
75–90 Easy 900–1300 1000–1500 4300–6000 7000–10000
>90 Very easy >1300 >1500 >6000 >10000
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Table 12. Rippability classes of panels according to seismic velocity based methods.
Caterpillar Komatsu
System panel Rock type D8 D9 D10 D11 D155* D355 D375 D455 Bailey Church Weighted class
34 Makina Marl Marginal Marginal Rippable Rippable Marginal Rippable Rippable Rippable Very difficult Blasting Difficult
Omerler Marl Nonrippable Nonrippable Marginal Rippable Marginal Rippable Rippable Rippable Extremely difficult Blasting Very difficult
18 PH Marl Marginal Rippable Rippable Rippable Rippable Rippable Rippable Rippable Difficult Very difficult Difficult
Kuspinar Marl Marginal Rippable Rippable Rippable Marginal Rippable Rippable Rippable Difficult Very difficult Difficult
305 Marl Rippable Rippable Rippable Rippable Rippable Rippable Rippable Rippable Easy Easy Very easy
310 Marl Marginal Marginal Rippable Rippable Marginal Rippable Rippable Rippable Very difficult Blasting Difficult
*Komatsu D155 type dozer corresponds to Caterpillar D8 type dozer.
Table 13. Grading systems and rippability classes of panels.
Method
Method panal Weaver’s class Muftuoglu’s class Smith’s class Singh’s class Karpuz’s class Weighted class
34 Makina Extremely hard ripping blasting Marginal without blasting Extremely hard ripping blasting Difficult Difficult Difficult
Omerler Extremely hard ripping blasting Marginal without blasting Extremely hard ripping blasting Marginal Difficult Very difficult
18 PH Very hard ripping Difficult Very hard ripping Moderate Moderate Modarate
Kuspinar Very hard ripping Very difficult Very hard ripping Difficult Moderate Moderate
305 Hard ripping Difficult Hard ripping Moderate Medium Easy
310 Extremely hard ripping blasting Very difficult Extremely hard ripping blasting Moderate Difficult Difficult
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REFERENCES
Anon, 1987, Speciflcations and application handbook. Komatsu Ltd., 10 th edition, Akasaka, Minatoku, Tokyo, Japan.
Anon, 1990, Handbook of ripping, Caterpillar Tractor Co., 7th edition, Peoria, Ilinois, USA.
Anon, 1994, Caterpillar performance handbook. Caterpillar Inc., 25 th edition, Peoria, Illinois, USA.
Anon, 1998. 3DEC User Manual. Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. Minniapolis, Minnesota, USA.
Atkinson, T., 1971. Selection of open pit excavating and loading equipment. Trans. Ins. of Mining and Metallurgy, vol: 80, pp A.101–129.
Bailey, A.D., 1975, Rock types and seismic velocity versus rippability, Highway Geology Symposium Proceeding, No: 26, pp. 135–142.
Basarir, H., 2002. Development of a new rippability assessment method based on Specific energy concept and numerical modeling., Ph. D. Thesis, METU, Ankara,
September, 2002, pp. 166 (Unpublished).
Bozdag, T., 1988. Indirect rippability assessment of coal measure rocks, Ms. Thesis, METU, Ankara, Turkey, 86 p.
Braybrooke, J.C., 1988. The state of the art of rock cuttability and rippability prediction. Fifth AustraliaNew Zeeland Conference on Geomechanics, Sydney, 22–23
August.
Brown, E.T., 1987. Rock characterization testing & monitoring, ISRM Suggested Methods, Pergamon Press, NewYork,pp. 211.
Church, H.K., 1981. Excavation handbook, McGrawHill, NY, USA.
Franklin, J.A., Broch, E. and Walton, G., 1971. Logging the mechanical character of rock, Trans. Inst. of Mining and Metallurgy, Vol. 80, pp. A1–9.
Karpuz, C., 1990. A classification system for excavation of surface coal measures. Min. Sci. Technol., 11:157–163.
Kirsten, H.A.D., 1982. Efficient use on construction of tractor mounted rippers, The Civil Engineer in South Africa, May issue.
MacGregor, F., Fell, R., Mostyn, G.R., Hocking, G. and McNally, G., 1994. The estimation of rock rippability, Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 27, 123–144.
Muftuoglu, Y.V., 1983. A study of factors affecting diggability in British surface coal mines, PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham, England.
Pettifer, G.S. And Fookes, P.G., 1994. A revision of the graphical method for assessing the excavatability of rock. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 27, 145–
164.
Singh, R.N., Denby, B., Egretli, I., 1987. Development of new rippability index for coal measures excavations, Proc. 28 th US Symp. on Rock Mech., Tuscon, pp. 935–943.
Smith, H.J., 1986, Estimating rippability of rock mass classification, , Proc. 27th US Symp. on Rock Mech., University of Alabama, pp. 443–448
Weaver, J.M., 1975, Geological factors significant in the assessment of rippability, Civil Eng. in South Africa, Vol: 17, 131–136.
Page 189
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Mechanical excavation of hard rocks
R.Ciccu, B.Grosso & C.Loddo
Dipartimento di Geoingegneria e Tecnologie Ambientali, Universitd di Cagliari, Italy
J.Vašek
Institute Geonics Czech Academy of Sciences, Ostrava Czech Republic
A.Bortolussi
Istituto di Geologia Ambientale e Geoingegneria CNR, Italy
ABSTRACT: In the case of hard rocks the problems arising with the use of mechanical tools consist chiefly in a slow advance rate accompanied by an
intensive wear due to the toughness and abrasiveness of the rock. In order to allow the further extension of mechanical excavation beyond the limits of
presently available technology two possible ways can be followed:
– using special tips made of polycrystalline diamond for longer duration;
– availing of the assistance of waterjet for better performance.
Both solutions are being developed in the case of picks or disks applied to roadheaders and fullfacers. The paper illustrates the results obtained at
the DIGITA laboratories of the University of Cagliari on a mediumhard rock using a carrouseltype testing machine capable of reproducing the
conditions of rocktool interaction encountered in the industrial practice and discusses the prospects of the technological advances under development.
1 FOREWORD
Interest is growing today regarding the development of a suitable technology for the excavation of hard rocks as an alternative to the use of explosive. In fact, although
blasting can be applied successfully for winning a great variety of rocks and geologic situations, a number of drawbacks are often encountered such as overbreak,
noise, airblast, flyrock and vibration.
Moreover, the lack of accuracy in tunnelling may render the support and concrete finishing more expensive, thus upsetting the economic advantage of a cheaper
excavation. Finally the D&B tunnelling cost increases gradually with length, when mucking and ventilation become critical.
Aiming at a better understanding of the rocktool interactions in hard rock cutting a research programme has been started at the DIGITA laboratories under a co
operation agreement with the Czech Academy of Sciences.
Experiments are being carried on using a special testing apparatus designed and built for studying the excavation mechanism of a variety of tools (picks of different
shape, disks and rollers) on circular rocks samples. A waterjet can be added in a suitable position for assisting the work of the mechanical instrument.
The experimental apparatus is characterised by a high degree of flexibility allowing to investigate the influence on the technical results of the chief operational variables
(radius of the circular path, vertical load and rotation speed) according to a plan of systematic tests.
This paper deals with the results so far obtained on a hard volcanic rock using flat picks with polycrystalline diamond tip.
Results have been expressed in terms of:
– Depth of grooves
– Size distribution of cuttings
– Drag force on the tool
– Wear rate
– Volume removed per metre of groove length
– Volume removed per unit time
– Specific energy.
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Correlations linking these parameters to the operational variables have also been sought, aiming at finding the optimum conditions.
2 EQUIPMENT
The concept followed in the design and the development of the testing apparatus installed at the DIGITA laboratories was that of reproducing the tool/rock interaction
in the case of tunnel boring machines, where a continuous contact with constant penetration takes place under a steady normal force along circular paths with variable
radius.
However instead of moving the tool (either a pick, a disc or a roller) against a fixed workpiece, the relative motion is obtained by rotating a cylindrical sample of
rock and pushing the tool onto its upper planar surface. The drag force is determined by the torque applied to the shaft.
The rotation power is supplied by means of an electric motor provided with an adjustable mechanical gearbox, while the vertical load is provided by a hydraulic
piston actuated by a pump through an accurate control system (oil pressure and flowrate).
2.1 Testing apparatus
The main components of the apparatus are shown in Figure 1.
The electric motor (2), with a nominal power of 7.5 kW, rotates the vertical shaft (3) rigidly connected at its top end to a 80 cm diameter platform (4) supported at
the bottom by a set of spherical bearers (5). The maximum speed is about 60 rpm.
The cylindrical sample of rock (see fig. 5) is fastened onto the holder platform by means of a central screw with the help of three metal pins matching corresponding
holes in the rock.
The position of the tool along the platform diameter is set by means of a 0.37 kW secondary motor that drives the cutting head, guided by horizontal rods and axial
bearings (12), by means of snail/thread couplings.
The cutting head (Fig. 2) consists of an inner fixture (10) inside which the tool (16) is fastened, pushed downwards by the hydraulic piston (24) and guided by a pair
of vertical rods (13) through sets of axial bearings.
These rods are rigidly connected to an intermediate box (12), to the vertical walls of which two rods are applied at each sides, allowing the horizontal backwards
movement of the fixture again through sets of axial bearings (not visibile in the figure). All the above devices are hosted inside an outer box (9) that is moved sideways
for positioning the tool on the selected trajectory, as already described.
Figure 1. The experimental apparatus.
Figure 2. Detailed view of the cutting head.
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The reaction force transmitted to the piston is discharged on a pair of horizontal beams (11) at the top of the frame through spherical bearings allowing the lateral
displacement of the tool under load.
During a test, the free motion of the tool in the vertical direction is controlled by the resistance of the rock to penetration under the load applied by the hydraulic
piston, while in the horizontal direction the backward displacement is limited by a traverse beam rigidly connected to the main frame, against which the drag force is
discharged through a spherical bearing.
The variation of the vertical load and of the drag force around the average values set by the oil pressure through an arrangement of electronically controlled valves
(21, 22 and 23) and by the torque applied to the rotating platform are directly measured by means of piezoelectric transducers, the first placed between the end of the
piston stem and the fixture and the second between the inner box and the contrast beam.
The cutting head has been designed for mounting different tools including conical and PCD picks hosted inside a sleeve in the tool holder. The angle of the pick can
be adjusted continuously from 30 to 60° with respect to the horizontal plane.
2.2 Control and data acquisition system
The control system includes four inverters for the independent driving of the different motors, the console with the timers and the computer setting of electric parameters
(torque, speed, power) and other auxiliary devices.
The data acquisition system consists of a set of transducers (two for the horizontal and vertical displacements and two for the horizontal and vertical forces), a signal
amplifier, a “WorkMate” data acquisition board, the WorkBench PC software and an infrared Flir Systems thermocamera.
2.3 Cutting tool
The pick is mounted into a cylindrical sleeve inside the holder body, as shown in Figure 3 where the attack angle α and the clearance angle β are indicated. Rotation is
hindered by means of a toothnotch coupling and axial movement is controlled by a multipledisk spring located at the bottom of the sleeve in order to absorb the
dynamic impacts transmitted by the rock.
The position of the pick holder can be adjusted in order to modify the angle of attack.
The pick has the shape of conventional conical tools but the tip is cut flat so that its frontal face is a semicircle with a diameter of 12 mm, entirely covered with a 0.8
mm thick layer of polycrystalline diamond.
Figure 3. The diamond tipped tool used for the experiments.
3 EXPERIMENTS
3.1 Factorial plan
In this first stage of the research, 27 single groove tests have been carried out according to a factorial plan resulting from the combination of:
– three vertical loads: 2000, 3000 and 4200 N;
– three rotation speeds: 30.30, 42.42, and 60.60 rpm (corresponding to 50, 70 and 100% of the maximum speed provided by the gearbox);
– three values of the trajectory radius: 0.15, 0.25 and 0.35 m.
The testing plan is summarized in Table 1.
In addition to this, some tests have been done under a 5000 N load at convenient radius and rotation speed, in order to get further data enabling to compare the
results at equal peripheral velocity.
3.2 Rock tested
The material used for the experiments is a volcanic rock classified as rhyolite or dacite outcropping in Sardinia near the village of Serrenti from which it takes the name.
It is a mediumhard rock (σc variable from 37 MPa to 80 MPa according to source), the microscope analysis of which evidences the presence
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Table 1. Test plan.
Figure 4. Fabric features of the “Serrenti stone”.
of plagioclase phenocrysts into a microcrystalline seldom vitreous matrix. Secondary components are biotite and horneblende. Some opaque minerals identified as
metal sulphides are also found (Fig. 4).
The fabric is very tight maybe due to the high temperature of the erupting lava. The volumic mass is 2,277 kg/m3.
Table 2. Characteristics of the rock samples used for the grooving tests.
Characteristics Serrenti stone
3 2,277
Bulk specific gravity [kg/m ]
Compressive strength [MPa] 78.4
After 20 freezing cycles [MPa] 64.6
Figure 5. The rock sample plaved onto the rotating platform.
3.3 Experimental procedure
The tool is positioned at the starting point of the selected trajectory about 10mm above the rock sample placed onto the rotating platform and the setting parameters
are carefully controlled. After a convenient number of revolutions of the sample until reaching the final velocity, the pick is pushed against the target by the automatic
opening of the pressure valve and the full load is applied. On completion of a revolution the tool is automatically raised and the rotation speed reduced to zero.
During the test both the drag and the normal forces and the rotation speed are recorded in real time and the data stored in a computer file for further statistical
processing. The electric data of the driving motor are also measured for a crossed checking of the drag force.
All the cuttings are collected and sieved for obtaining the particle size distribution and the larger chips are examined for assessing the shape features (length, width
and thickness).
The depth of cut is measured at intervals by means of a high accuracy digital comparator, whereas the removed quantity of rock is determined by pouring a classified
dry sand of known specific gravity into the groove and weighting the material filling the excavated volume (Fig. 5).
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Technical performance
A first analysis of the experimental data is made on the basis of the removed volume of rock per unit length of groove Vu [cm3/m].
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Figure 6. Results of excavation tests at 2.0 kN applied load (top) and corresponding size analysis of the cuttings.
The results at 2kN applied normal load (tests 1 to 9) are reported in Figure 6. It appears that Vu increases as the radius of the circular trajectory decreases, the more
at higher rotation speed (except for tests P4 and P6).
Sieve analysis for each test shows that under a small load the top size of the cuttings is always below 10mm, the predominant size classes being those between 0.50
mm and 0.106 mm.
The subsequent series of tests at 3 kN applied normal load (tests 22 to 30, Fig. 7) confirms with even more evidence the fact that the excavated volume per metre
increases as the radius decreases. However the influence of rotation speed is here different since Vu decreases as speed increases at equal radius, as expected.
Size distribution shows the presence of cuttings larger than 10mm for the tests at the shortest radius of curvature especially those at low speed (tests 24 and 27) for
which the proportion of coarse fragments is quite high (more than 30%).
Finally for the tests at 4.2 kN applied load (tests 10 to 18 Fig. 8) the influence of the curvature is again confirmed.
However the rotation speed is not in full agreement with the expected trend since Vu first decreases at increasing speed as before and then it recovers for the highest
speed, like in the case of the 2.0 kN load. The central values appear too low.
Concerning the size analysis, a further shifting of the distribution towards the coarser sizes is evident, confirming what could have been predicted on
Figure 7. Results of excavation tests at 3.0 kN applied load (top) and corresponding size analysis of the cuttings.
Figure 8. Results of excavation tests at 4.2 kN applied load (top) and corresponding size analysis of the cuttings.
theoretical grounds: larger load means deeper penetration and thence coarser fragment sizes.
Comparing the values of Vu obtained in all the 27 tests, it ensues that:
– At a given rotation speed and applied load, the volume excavated per metre of groove always
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decreases as the radius increases. This outcome can be explained by considering the fact that the peripheral velocity increases with the radius, thus reducing the
penetration depth, especially if the pick works with a negative attack angle like in the case at hand. Moreover the curvature of the trajectory affects the scaling
mechanism, due to the increase of stress at the inner side of the groove, as confirmed by the study of its contour.
At a given radius and applied load, the effect of the rotation speed appears controversial because of some semingly anomalous outcomes like those of tests 13, 14
and 15 (the values of Vu are too small with respect to the general trend) maybe due to some local increase in the rock strength (the three tests are done on the same
sample). However the predominant trend observed suggests that the removed volume Vu decreases as velocity increases especially in the field of higher loads (>3
kN) where the cutting process is fully developed. Also the tests at higher speed and 2.0 kN load (tests 7, 8 and 9) show higher values of Vu than expected but in
this case the results can be explained assuming that a contribution to the excavation process might have been produced by some dynamic action of the pick.
– For the 2 kN load the excavated volume per metre Vu is very small: this fact, associated with the result of the size analysis of cuttings, characterised by abundant fine
classes, seems to indicate that the removal process is dominated by a plasticization effect. This conclusion is corroborated by the smooth features of the groove, the
section of which matches closely the contour of the pick’s tip.
– Compared to the results at 2 kN, a considerable increase of Vu is achieved if the load is increased to 3.0 kN, whereas a further increase to 4.2 kN does not
produce a consistent effect except for the highest speed. This suggests that the cutting mechanism changes considerably between 2 and 3 kN passing through a
critical point beyond which the chipping mode becomes predominant over the plasticization mode. This is confirmed by the size distribution of fragments as well as
by the appearance of the groove, the cross section of which is very irregular and much larger than the pick’s tip.
The experimental results have been compared also on the basis of the excavated volume per unit time Vs [cm3/s] the values of which are shown superimposed to the
values of Vu in Figures 6 to 8.
This is a more interesting parameter to evaluate since it gives a better idea of the excavation rate achievable with the tunneling machine, in which all the tools work
with the same penetration depth and with the same rotation speed.
Figure 9. Excavation results at equal rotation speed.
The following points are worth noting:
– The effect of the radius is somewhat smoothened since the lower volume excavated per metre is compensated by a higher velocity.
– The least favoured picks are those at the periphery of the cutting head of the tunneling machine and therefore they would need either an assistance (for instance by
applying a water jet to each of them) and/or by increasing the number of picks, i.e. by decreasing the radial spacing of trajectories, so as to promote a form of co
operation among the tools.
The above considerations are reflected also in the curves of Figure 9 where the values of Vu are given as a function of the radius of the circular grooves for each load at
different rotation speed.
It is interesting to note that, as the radius increases, all the curves converge on a common asymptote the level of which progressivel y ris es w ith the app lied after a
jump at the critical point between 2 and 3 kN.
Some further series of tests have been carried out enabling to explore the influence of the variables at constant peripheral velocity.
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Figure 10. Tool’s temperature raise measured with the thermocamera (top) at different experimental conditions.
It can be observed that, for a given peripheral velocity (the highest velocity of 1.1 m/s is only reached for the larger radius), the removed volume per metre Vu increases
almost linearly with the applied load. If the results are compared at equal load and radius (for instance 4.2 kN and 0.25 m), after a sharp drop when passing from 0.47
to 0.79 m/s, Vu tends towards a more stable value around 15 cm3/m.
4.2 Heat transfer
Immediately after the end of each test (one full revolution), the temperature at the tip of the pick was measured by taking a series of pictures at a frequency of 7 frames
per second, using an infrared photocamera (see Fig. 10).
For the sake of a correct comparison among all the tests, the duration of which varies according to speed and trajectory, the average temperature gradient has been
considered (final temperature divided by the duration time).
Results are given in Figure 10 showing the outstanding effect of peripheral velocity on heat generation at constant load of 3.0 kN.
Since the temperature affects the toughness of the material (especially the polycrystalline diamond) the problem of heat accumulation at the tool’s end is very
important. It can be solved through an efficient cooling, using a water jet, for instance.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The results of experimental tests show that:
• the performance of the testing apparatus is satisfactory, since it allows to reproduce the operating conditions (forces, velocity) typical of commercial machines for
small tunnels;
• regarding the influence of process variables, interesting relationships have been found between some relevant performance parameters (excavated volume per metre
of groove and excavated volume per second) and the applied load to the pick. The effect of the radius of the circular path and of the rotation speed is also
highlighted.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Work carried out in the feame of a joint research agreement between CNR of Italy and the Academy of Sciences of the Czech republic.
REFERENCES
Vašek, J., “Problems of cutting picks hard rock disintegration,” Proceedings of the 5th Int. Symp. On Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Balkema, Rotterdam
1996, 445–449.
Deketh, H.J.R., “Wear of Rock Cutting Tools—Laboratory of rock cutting tool s,” Balkema, Rotterdam, 1995, 1–144.
Field, E.J., “The Properties of Natural and Synthetic Diamond,” Academic Press, London, 1992, 1–710.
Fowell, J.R., Tecen, O., “Studies in Water Jet Assisted Drag Tool Excavation,” Proc. of the 5th Int. Congress on Rock Mechanics, Melbourne, Australia, 1983.
Hood, M., Nordlund, R, Thimons, D.E. “A Study of Rock Erosion Using HighPressure Water Jets,” Int. J. of Roc Mech. Min. Sci. and Geomech. Abstr, 1990, 77–86.
Ciccu R, Grosso B., Ortu G., Agus M., Bortolussi A, Vasek J., Jekl, P.: Rock Disintegration using waterjetassisted Diamond tools, Proc. 10th AWJC, (Hashish Ed.) WTA
Houston 199, 465–477
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 9376
Use of hydraulic backhoe excavator in Vietnam open pit coal mines
X.N.Bui
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Hanoi, Vietnam
C.Drebenstedt
Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, Freiberg, Germany
ABSTRACT: Vietnam is present on the way of industrialization, and therefore, the coal mining industry has important role in the task. In annual coal
output produced in the country, the output of the open pit mining has been contributing a considerable portion. However, the open pit coal mines are
facing difficulties in technology, equipment and environment. These require suitable mining equipment and technologies, especially for loading
operation. The use of hydraulic backhoe excavator for selective mining and deepening pit bottom in open pit coal mines in Vietnam is completely
appropriate and effective.
1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ON COAL MINING SITUATION IN VIETNAM
1.1 Coal potential of Vietnam
Vietnam has large anthracite resources with the largest coal fields located in the north part of the country (Quangninh, Thainguyen, Backan provinces). There are also
lignite reserves (Red River, Na Duong) and a small amount of bituminous coal (North part, Da and Ca rivers) which is exploited in a small scale (Fig. 1).
Coal is mainly in the Quangninh coal basin with economic reserves of 2.1 billion tonnes, and estimated resource of 6.5 billion tonnes [1].
Coal quality of open pit mines in Quangninh coal basin is quite good (Table 1). They can meet all standards for export and domestic consumption. Main familiar
consumers of the coal sector are power plants, cement plants, fertilizer plants, etc.
1.2 Role of surface mining in the coal mining industry of Vietnam
To go along with economic development, demand for coal in Vietnam is increasing considerably, from 9.4 Mt (1995) to 29 Mt (2020). In which, the output of the
surface mining method always occupies a considerable position not only now but also in the future (from 74% in 1995 down to 50% in 2020) [4]. However, the open
pit coal mines in Vietnam are not large. In the total number of 19 exploiting mines, there are only 6 mines having the designed output of over 1.0 Mt/year (16%), 3
mines of 0.5–1.0 Mt/year (32%), and 10 mines of 0.2–0.5 Mt/year (52%). The open pit mines in Cam Pha and Hon Gai coal fields (Quangninh) always play the most
important role in the surface coal mining in Vietnam.
2 CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN PIT COAL MINES IN VIETNAM
2.1 General characteristics
Quangninh coal basin in Vietnam locates at the region having complex geological structure. Most of the open pit mines usually lie under many overburden rock layers.
Beside that, the influence of weather, climate, and hydrogeology conditions also affects considerably production process of the mines. All of the natural features have
made specific characteristics for exploitation process in the open pit coal mines of Vietnam.
2.2 Characteristic on geological structure
Quangninh coal basin belongs to the tectonic Mezozoic, band Duyen Hai. In this area, there is a complex geological structure with many faults and folds. The mineral
deposits comprise a number of coal seams of different thickness alternating numerous waste partings of variable thicknesses. The seam structure varies from place to
place, and the dip angle of these coal seams changes very variously (Fig. 2).
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Figure 1. Coal reserves located in provinces of Vietnam [1] (1—Quangninh, 2—Thainguyen, 3—Bakcan, 4—North part, 5—Da river,
6—Ca river, 7—Red river, 8—Naduong).
Table 1. Runofmine coal quality in Quangninh, Vietnam.
Quality factor Open pit mines
Ash, % 2.24–40
Inherent moisture, % 0.35–14.2
Volatile matter, % 2.82–24.51
Sulftir (natural), % 0.01–2.72
Heat content, KJ/kg 25.79–39.31
1.37–1.5
Density, tonnes/m3
Source: Hanoi University of Mining and Geology.
Figure 2. A typical geological section of open pit coal mines in Vietnam [1].
Table 2. Loss and dilution in some open pit mines in Quangninh in 2002.
Values
Mine Loss, % Dilution, %
Coc Sau 8.6–13.0 15.77–18.35
Cao Son 8.64–23.72 10.15–20.9
Deo Nai 9.4–18.26 14.18–23.37
Ha Tu 3.07–9.4 12.67–20.01
Nui Beo 5.3–11.5 24.1–33.3
Source: ViNaCoal Corp.
These are the reasons, which have caused the considerable loss of natural resources in exploitation process at the open pit coal mines in Quangninh last few years
(Table 2).
2.3 Characteristic on weather, climate and hydrogeology
Quangninh coal basin belongs to the region, which has a typical severe tropical climate with rainy and dry seasons. The rainy season begins from May to October and
the dry season from November to next April. Average annual rainfall is approximately 2000 mm. It is normally highest rainfall in July and August, and it could reach
700–1000 mm. There could be several days with the heavy rains of from 150–180 mm. Average temperature in the year is about 25°C which varies from 5°–35°C.
Besides surface water resources due to rains and streams, coal deposits in this region normally consist of two watercontaining aquifers. The upper aquifer’s
thickness varies from 50–100 m with unstable water table. The lower aquifer has variable thickness of from 50–80 m. The main source of water of the lower aquifer is
underground water while surface water is main source of water for the upper aquifer. Due to mine site specifics, each mine uses two separated drainage systems. Water
above the natural level of
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Table 3. Bottom pit level of some large open pit mines in Quangninh in 2002.
drainage (the lowest surface above sea level) is drained by systems of canals and channels. Water below the level is normally pumped through systems of pipes and
drainage drives.
Presently, most of the mines are exploiting under the natural drainage level (Table 3), thus, they must face many difficulties such as mining in wetmuddy and narrow
pit bottom conditions, unstable pit slope, and disadvantage mining operations, etc.
2.4 Characteristic on equipment
In most open pit mines in Quangninh coal basin, waste rock is drilled and blasted while coal is excavated without blasting because of the low toughness that varies
around 4 (according to Mohr classification). In case of higher coal toughness, coal is ripped to enhance the excavation process. Drilling operation is carried out by
rotary drills CBS250, CBU160 (former USSR) and Tamrock drills (Finland), and used explosive materials are mainly Anfo, Zecno, TNT, etc.
Because of complex geological condition and multiple seams with variable dip angle, so the usage of dragline for loading is unfeasible. In addition, the insufficient
room for internal waste disposal may exclude any continuous stripping equipment from the use. Thus, a combination of excavators and trucks is most commonly used
for the open pit coal mines. Waste rocks are located mainly by shovels EKG8I, EKG5A and sometimes by hydraulic loading shovel. Coal is usually excavated by
newly invested hydraulic backhoe excavators and power shovels EKG4B. The haulage from rock mining faces to the dumps is conducted by types of 27–501 dump
trucks such as Belaz (former USSR), HD320, Komatsu 777C (Japan), and CAT 769C (USA), etc. Coal haulage is carried out by 10–30 payload trucks of Russia,
Japan, and Sweden, etc.
Generally, mining equipment of open pit coal mines in Vietnam in general and in Quangninh in paticular is still backward and old, especially loading
Table 4. Comparison of working characteristics between hydraulic excavator and power shovel.
equipment. The investment of new and modern loading equipment as well as mining equipment is completely necessary and imperative. A typical example for the
effective investment is that hydraulic backhoe excavators newly invested for open pit mines in Quangninh have promoted well their working capabilities for selective
mining and deepening pit bottom in these open pit mines.
In comparison with the power shovel, hydraulic backhoe excavator and hydraulic loading shovel have more good points (Table 4).
3 APPLICATIONS OF HYDRAULIC BACKHOE EXCAVATOR FOR SELECTIVE MINING AND DEEPENING
PIT BOTTOM IN OPEN PIT COAL MINES IN VIETNAM
3.1 Selective mining schemes for open pit coal mines in Vietnam
In open pit coal mines in Vietnam, hydraulic backhoe excavators can be used effectively in selective mining. They can be employed to load overburden and extract coal
for coal seams having dip angle less than 25° with the support of bulldozer like in Fig. 3 (Figure 3a shows the working order on the whole bench height and Figure 3b
presents the equipment used on a subbench height).
Besides working as main loading equipment, hydraulic backhoe excavator can also be utilised as a supporting equipment for other loading equipment when mining
selectively coal seams having dip angle more than 25° (Fig. 4).
In this scheme, hydraulic backhoe excavator has task of digging the advance trench at the hanging wall of the coal seam with the purpose of decreasing the selective
excavating height for power shovel when the machine digs the working trench.
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Figure 3. Selective mining scheme of backhoe excavator for coal seams having dip angle less than 25° [2]. (1—hydraulic backhoe
excavators, 2—dump trucks, 3—bulldozer; (1),…(6)—working order).
In the case of working at the footwall of the coal seam, hydraulic backhoe excavator is also used similarly.
With the support of hydraulic backhoe excavator, coal dilution and loss factors in open pit coal mines in Quangninh having seam dip angles more than 25° have been
considerably decreased.
3.2 Scheme of deepening pit bottom for deep open pit coal mines in Vietnam
Deep and not large open pit mines are usually impacted so much by the weatherclimate and hydrogeology conditions, the work of deepening pit bottom in these mines
is really a noticeable problem. The open pit coal mines in Quangninh are typical examples for the kind of mine. Actual experience in Vietnam has proved that the
technological scheme of twolevel pit bottom is quite appropriate for deepen ing pit bottom in these mines [3].
Main characteristic of the scheme is that the pit bottom of open pit mine is divided into two parts in length, the upper part and lower part. On the upper part, deposited
mud is dry meanwhile the slime and water are contained in the lower part. The height between these levels in this case equals a half of the bench height (Fig. 5). After
the end of rainy season, the deep digging process will be carried out at the upper part, and this work allows the time for drying mud at the lower part to be prolonged.
With the pit bottom, it is possible to increase the productivity for excavator and decrease the time for new bench preparation.
In the scheme in Figure 5a, both upper and lower parts are deepened with the same bench height
Figure 4. Selective mining scheme of backhoe and other equipment for coal seams more than 25° [2]. (1—hydraulic backhoe excavator,
2—power shovel, 3—hydraulic loading shovel or power shovel, 4—trucks).
Figure 5. General scheme of twolevel pit bottom in open pit mines in Quangninh [3]. (1,…, 4—working order for digging the twolevel pit
bottom).
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(15 m), thus, it is used more popularly for open pit coal mines in Vietnam.
Because of the working limitations, the power shovels have been completely replaced by hydraulic backhoe excavators for deepening pit bottom in open pit mines in
Quangninh. Figure 6 illustrates the working order of hydraulic backhoe excavator when deepening twolevel pit bottom at Coc Sau mine.
In this scheme, the jobs of hydraulic backhoe excavator consist of digging the water deposit pond for depositing water (1, 1′, 1″), digging the advance trench at the
hanging wall of coal seam to reduce the coal dilution, extracting coal seam (2,…, 7). The subbench height in this case usually equals onethird of the bench height
because it needs to be suited the maximum digging depth of the used excavator. The deepening process is repeated for the next lower levels.
Figure 6. Working order for deepening twolevel pit bottom with backhoe excavator in open pit mines in Quangninh [3]. (1, 1′, 1″, 2,…,
7—working order for digging the twolevel pit bottom).
Beside hydraulic backhoe excavator, there are also some other equipment utilised for the working scheme (Fig. 7).
4 CONCLUSIONS
Hydraulic backhoe excavator is a kind of multipurpose excavating equipment. It has a wide working scope, and can be employed effectively with many working
locations, excavating schemes, especially, schemes of selective mining and deepening pit bottom for open pit mines having the same conditions like in Vietnam. The
investment of hydraulic backhoe excavator as well as other mining equipment is completely essential for Vietnamese open pit mines now and future. However, to
promote well working capabilities, enhance productivity and prolong the life for the kind of loading equipment, the open pit coal mines in Vietnam need to resolve well
the following problems:
– Catch comprehensively the basic technical parameters of hydraulic backhoe excavators that have considerable influences on working process in open pit mine, and
the characteristics of materials which can be excavated by the excavator.
– Distinguish clearly the typical technological characteristics of hydraulic backhoe excavators in comparison with the technological characteristics of other singlebucket
loading equipment kinds when working in open pit mine.
Figure 7. Equipment used in the scheme of deepening twolevel pit bottom in Quangninh, Vietnam [3]. (1—power shovel or hydraulic
loading shovel, 2—hydraulic backhoe excavator, 3—dump truck).
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– Research on suitable methodology of determining bench height and cut width for used hydraulic backhoe excavator in connection with specific conditions of
excavated material and matched truck.
– Determine suitable excavating technological schemes for hydraulic backhoe excavator when working in the open pit coal mines in Quangninh coal basin.
REFERENCES
[1] Bui, X.N., Ho, S.G., C.Drebenstedt. 2004. Situation of surface coal mines in Vietnam and the future development. Mining World Journal (in prep.).
[2] Ho S.G. 1997. Research on suitable method of selective mining for Coc Sau coal mine. Vietnam National Coal Corporation. 80 pages (in Vietnamese).
[3] Le D.P. 1996. Research on method of deepening pit bottom for surface coal mines exploiting under the natural drainage level with hydraulic backhoe excavator.
Master thesis. Hanoi University of Mining and Geology. 75 pages (in Vietnamese).
[4] Master Plan of Coal Sector in Vietnam to 2020. 2001. Company for Mining and Industrial Consultant and Investment—Vietnam National Coal Corporation. 328
pages (in Vietnamese).
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Method of regulation of regime of mining operations at open cast
D.G.Bukeikhanov & R.K.Shakirtova
“National Centre of the Republic of Kazakhstan Complex Processing of Mineral Raw Materials” RSE. Almaty, the Republic of Kazakhstan
O.S.Isachenko
JSC “SSGPO” Rudnyi, the Republic of Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the method of the mininggeometrical analysis of openpit fields for studying the regime of mining operations. In the
process of the mininggeometrical analysis, the dependence of stagebystage extracted volumes of overburden and useful minerals as a function of the
position of mining operations at the open cast at separate stages is studied. For this purpose, boundaries of the open cast are determined and the
technology of deposit mining is assigned. Calculated geological profiles and bylevel plans were used to carry out the mininggeometrical analysis of
Kurzhunkulskiy deposit of magnetite ores, situated in Kustanai oblast of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Miningandgeological conditions and annual
capacity of the Kurzhunkulskiy open cast are the causes for the use of the road transport. Forming the front of a bench is carried out by the position of
the lines in the constructive elements of blocks—sectors.
1 INTRODUCTION
JSC “SokolovskoSarbaiskoye miningandprocessing industrial unit” (SSMPIU) is a leading company in the ironore mining and processing industry of the Republic
of Kazakhstan. It includes the Sarbaiskiy, Sokolovskiy, Katcharskiy, Kurzhunkulskiy ironore open casts, the Alekseyevskiy dolomite open cast and the Kyzyl
Zharskiy limestone open cast. In our country, under modern economic conditions an important attention is paid to the choice of the rational direction and the intensity of
mining development, and to the improvement of the procedures, methods and technologies for regulating the regime of the mining operations.
The rational regime and calendar plans of the mining operations are closely connected with the distribution of useful mineral deposits in an open cast space, their
solidqualitative characteristics and the overburden as well. Moreover, they must be coordinated with the strategy of the industrialeconomic operation of an enterprise
and insure the increase of the competitive production, income, current and perspective operational profit. In addition, they should decrease the total and perunit costs
and in the end, insure the stability of economic efficiency and viability of open casts under the conditions of the stern world competition (Trubetskoi K.N. and the
others. 2001; Rzhevskiy V.V. 1975).
In the world practice, using the following methods and procedures regulates the regime of mining operations, including stripping operations:
– studying the rational direction and intensity of the development of mining operations, in a plane and to a depth, which allows forming the calendar schedule with the
average stripping ratio of minimum value, from the beginning of mining at every stage of the openpit field mining,
– taken in turn involving districts of a deposit with the minimum stripping ratio in mining,
– deposit’s mining by steep layers with the increase of the slope angels of pit walls in operation,
– using the technologies of mining operations with the use of working banks on blasted rock mass,
– using the temporary out of operating pit walls at open casts.
One of the most effective instruments for the regulation of the regime of mining operations, insuring the substantial decrease of peak volumes of the overburden and the
transfer of these volumes or a part of them to the later period, is the technology of mining with the use of the temporary out of operating pit walls.
The temporary out of operating pit wall is an intermediate contour of the pit wall, which is formed inside the openpit field for the conservation of certain volumes of
rock mass in the temporary pillar.
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There is a temporary boundary, up to which the mining operations are carried out in the periods of the exploitation, established in the design or perspective plans of the
mining operations. It is transferred or abandoned partially or fully in correspondence with the design or planned solutions when the stable tendency of decrease the
volumes of stripping operations and shortening the front of winning operations takes place. The time of forming, staying without operating, resuming the mining
operations and abandoning the temporary out of operating and full extracting of the pillar is determined by specific calculations during the technicaleconomic
justifications of constructing and (or) designing of an open cast and (or) longterm (perspective) planning of mining operations.
In some cases, as a pit wall, which is temporarily out of operating, the open cast’s pit wall or its separate part is used, formed as a final pit wall in correspondence
with the design operating for a moment. The wall, by virtue of the new solutions taken in the new design, falls within new boundaries of the open pit field.
The angles of inclinations of the temporary out of operating pit wall and separate benches must provide longterm stability for the calculated time of the pit wall life.
They also should insure technological effectiveness of the wall and bench constructions, and the mine safety during their forming, movement and abandonment. The
stability and effectiveness are established based on the evaluation of natural and technological factors and parameters, which represent:
– geological and engineeringhydrogeological behaviors of a deposit, structure and physicalmechanical properties of the rock mass, within which the temporary out of
operating pit walls will be formed,
– indexes, which determine stable constructive elements of the temporary out of operating pit walls and benches and their choice with due account of such important
factors and parameters as cohesion and angles of internal friction (in samples, in mass and by fractures), rocks’ density, limits of compression strength, tensile
strength, elasticity modulus Poison’s coefficient, moisture content and so on,
– mininggeometrical, geomechanical and technicaleconomical models and calculated methods, allowing justification and determination of effective and safe
constructions of the temporary out of operating pit walls and their separated parts with due account of technology of their forming and support during the period of
their life, movements and abandonment.
As a result of numerous scientific research, design, exploration and experimental works in open casts of JSC “SSMPIU” carried out by Russian and Kazakhstan
institutions together with specialists of JSC “SMPIU”, geologicalstructural behaviors of the rock mass of the Sokolovskiy, Sarbaiskiy and Katcharskiy open casts
(table 1) and the others were
Table 1. Physicalchemical properties of rocks.
studied. Moreover, open castanalogues and their physicalchemical properties, used at different stages of the calculations of stability of the pit walls and temporary out
of operating pit walls were investigated.
Near pit walls rock mass at the temporary out of operating pit walls of the Katcharskiy open cast experiences mainly elastic deformations, when the coefficient of the
reserve of the stability of the pit walls is 1.3 and more. When the depth of the open casts is more than 100 m and the coefficient of the reserve of the stability of the pit
walls is 1.3–1.2, attenuated in time displacements in rock mass take place, and the microfractures up to 200–300 mm appear. Near pit walls rock mass experiences
substantial deformations, when the coefficient of the reserve of the stability of the pit walls is in limits 1.2–1.1, and visible breaks and fractures appear on the rock mass
surface and also the displacements of the rock mass in the limits of creep take place. The deformations attenuate in time. Decreasing coefficient of the reserve of the
stability of the pit walls up to 1.05 and less causes the pit wall to break in the course of time.
For the purpose of bringing to light the possible initial processes of forming the creeps, their development in time and preventing the pit walls from breaking, mine
surveying instrumental observations of deformations of slopes and surface, bordering on pit walls are carried out.
Determination of the limiting parameters of slopes was carried out using the different methods as follows: with characteristics of the shearing strength on graph of the
plane slope VNIMI for homogeneous and quasihomogeneous rocks; with the graphical and graphicalanalytical methods using the polygon of forces when the abrupt
fracture of displacement is taking place, which promotes the division of prism breaking into blocks at the angles of dip βa1 and βa2. The width of safety terms was
determined by the standards of the technological design and was revised by the results of testing the rocks’ physicalmechanical properties.
Maximum permissible angles of the inclination of the pit walls of Katcharskiy open cast, determined by calculating method with due account of the geological
behaviors and physicalmechanical properties of rocks of the new parts of the pit walls are the following (Solutions on using of out of operating… 2000):
– when the conditions of rocks’ bedding are unfavorable because of the factor of stability, the dip of planes of loosening (fractures, bedding, contacts) and layers to a
side of the workedout space is 15–20°, and sometimes 35–50°when they are humidifying (district I);
– when the conditions of rocks’ bedding are more favorable due to the factor of stability, the planes of loosening are characterized by flat aligning (district II);
– when the conditions of rocks’ bedding are made favorable by the factor of stability of the pit walls, the dip of one system of planes of loosening is to the side of the
massif, and another—to the side of the workedout space (district III), which is presented in table 2.
The constructions, profiles and other parameters of the stable pit walls and benches of the temporary out of operating pit walls must be not less stable, than the pit walls
justified and taken for contouring the openpit fields of SSMPIU boundary in the same mininggeological conditions.
The practice of the regime regulation of the mining operations is presented in (Khokhryakov 1992; Bukeikhanov 1991; Katcharskiy mine group. Solutions…1977;
Justification of expediency of forming of temporary…1986), which provides the mininggeometrical analysis of the open pit field and represents the dynamics of
working zone development by stages of sinking from the beginning of mining operations up to the final depth of the open cast H and mining all reserves of the useful
minerals Q and overburden V. The graph of the regime of the mining operations is constructed f(H)=QV (figure 3). The mininggeometrical analysis, as a rule, is carried
out for the working zone with the minimum permissible working banks Bmin with due account of possible development of the freighttransport system, which connects
the working out levels with the points of the rock mass receiving (dumps, preparation plants, reloading points and so on). The ore volumes Qi, and overburden Vi, the
total length of the front of operations separately by ore Lri and overburden Vvi
Table 2. Maximum permissible angles of inclination of Katcharskiy’s pit walls.
by all stages of the working zone i development are fixed. On the basis of the graph analysis of the regime of the mining operations the annual output of the open cast by
ore Ari and the overburden Vvi, the ore reserves Qi and the overburden Vi, the length of the front of mining operations by the useful mineral , which needs to be
put in xprolonged storage, with due account of the constructions of the temporary out of operating pit walls, and passed to the more later periods of openpit field
mining.
The places of location of the pillars on nonactive front of the stripping operation, which are formed in the open cast by means of banks less than Bmin forming at the
temporary out of operating pit walls. The duration of the moving of the pillars or their liquidation is determined with methods, presented in papers (Bukeikhanov 1991;
Bukeikhanov et al. 2003).
The reserves of this openpit field, when using the temporary out of operating pit walls, may be worked out with the open cast’s output of 1500 thou. tons a year by
ore and 3200 thou. m3 by overburden within 21 years. The rate of sinking will be from 6 m a year to 15 m a year. The period of the opening of the deposit will be 2
years, and the period of the extinction of mining operations—1 year.
For the Katcharskiy open cast, some variants were studied of the bystep mining of the openpit field by means of the temporary out of operating pit walls
Figure 1. Calendar schedule of stripping and winning operations.
Page 207
formed by its perimeter, and their constructive parameters were determined with due account of the formed scheme of openingup the driveways to the working levels
in accordance with the main requirements of the technology for carrying out the mining operations with temporary out of operating pit walls (Rzhevskiy V.V. 1975).
Solitary benches, safety berms and concentrating banks, took the construction of the temporary out of operating pit wall. The width of the safety berms is 10m, the
width of the concentrating banks at levels −45m, −60 m and −90 m is 30 m. The concentrating banks are integrated with technological roads.
Because the engineeringgeological district angles of benches were taken in accordance with the active “Technological regulation…” (VIOGEM, Belgorod, 1989),
the angle of the pit wall of the pillar does not exceed the stable angle and is 29°. The constructions and parameters of the temporary out of the operating pit wall in the
Southern district are presented in Tables 3 and 4 and on Figure 2.
Forming the temporary out of the operating pit wall begins with fixing the top level at the designed position by creating the screen kerf in front of a pillar. In view of
the small cross dimensions of a pillar in plane, pillars’ forming is carried out systematically from top to bottom.
When forming the concentrating banks at the levels −45 m, −60 m and −90 m, the stoneprotective bank is filled 2.5 m in height for protection of the lower berm
from possible falling of rock’s pieces when blasting the top levels. The stoneprotective bank will be worked out together with broken rock when pillar is being
extracted.
The total extent of the benches of the formed temporary out of operating pit wall is 2875 m. The volume of the operations for pit walls mining to the limiting contour
of an open cast in designed boundaries is 49796 m3.
The duration of existing of the formed temporary out of operating pit wall is not more than 5 years.
The movements of the temporary out of operating pit wall in the boundaries of the first stage (mark level +69 to −30 m) begin after finishing the construction of
“Perekhodnyi” post, in accordance with the development of the constant transport scheme, and forming, above it, the working bank not less than 30 m in width.
The step of the movement is from 60 up to 80 m. The extraction of the pillar is carried out with stepbystep mining of benches from top to bottom. The mining of
the top bench begins only after forming a bank at above level not less than 30 m in width. The broken rock mass may be located at the berms of the lower benches,
concentrating at the concentrating banks at the levels of −45 m, −60 m and −90 m. Mining the broken rock mass begins at a level of the blasted bench. A part of the
broken rock mass, fallen to the banks of lower levels, is mined together with these benches only after forming the clean bank above it.
Operating a system of the openingup mine workings in the limits of the mining district of the
Table 3. Construction of temporary out of operating pit wall (TOOPW).
Table 4. The main parameters of temporary out of operating pit wall.
Slope angle of a bench, degree Angle of a bench, degree
Level, m Height of a bench, m designing stable at a limiting contour Berm width, m designing stable at a limiting contour
−45 15 57 60 10 35 36
−60 15 57 60 10
−75 15 57 60 10
−90 15 57 60 30
−105 15 57 60 10
−120 15 15 60 bottom
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Figure 2. Variant of construction of temporary out of operating pit wall at the Southern district of Katcharskiy open cast.
Figure 3. Schedule of regime of mining operations.
temporary out of the operating pit wall (from top level up to the safety berm including the stoneprotective bank) is finished with the beginning of extracting the top level.
All the equipment is removed from the extracted district of the temporary out of the operating pit wall; assessment of servicing staff is prohibited.
The technology and parameters of the temporary out of the operating pit wall in the Northern district of the openpit field are presented in Figure 4.
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Figure 4. Parameters of temporary out of operating pit wall (Katcharskiy mine) (TOOPW).
2 CONCLUSIONS
The worked out methods for regulating the mining operations were used when forming the calendar plans of mining operations at Sarbaiskiy, Sokolovskiy and
Katcharskiy open casts of JSC “SokolovskoSarbaiskiy miningandprocessing industrial union” for the period 2001–2005. The methods were also used for designing
the open mining for the Kurzhunkolskiy ironore deposit and for the Akzhalskiy and Rodnikovyi open casts mining the same polymetallic deposits in Central
Kazakhstan.
The experience of JSC “SSMPIU” open casts’ operating showed high efficiency and technical opportunity of mining the openpit fields in stages and with forming
the temporary out of the operating pit walls. This insured optimal planning of mining operations, saving the resources and rational using the miningtransport equipment.
REFERENCES
Trubetskoi K.N., Krasnyanskiy G.L., Khronin V.V. 2001. Design of open casts. Academy of Mining Sciences Publishing House, Moscow: Vol. 1, 519 p.
Rzhevskiy V.V. 1975. Technology and complex mechanization of open mining operations. Nedra, Moscow: 574 p.
Solutions on using of out of operating pit wall (pillar) of northwest part of Katcharskiy open cast and its following mining (advance). 2000. JSC SSMPIU, Rudnyi.
Khokhryakov V.S. 1992. Design of open casts. Nedra, Moscow: 383 p.
Bukeikhanov D.G. 1991. Determination of open cast boundaries by stages when c complex using of the Earth bowels. Complex using of mineral raw materials: No.2,
p.p. 3–9.
Katcharskiy mine group. Solutions of mining—transport part of the open cast of the 1 stage. 1977: SanktPeterburg, GIPRORUDA, vol. I, book 2, vol. II, book 1.
Justification of expediency of forming of temporary out of operating parts of pit wall and technology of their mining when reconstruction and exploiting deep levels of JSC
“SSMPIU”. 1986, GIPRORUDA, Rudnyi.
Bukeikhanov D.G., Bekmurzayev B. Zh., Dzharlkaganov U.A. 2003. Complex processing of mineral raw materials of Kazakhstan: Astana, Foliant, 400 p.
Technical regulation on parameters of benches and pit walls of open cast of Katcharskiy miningandprocessing enterprise, constant eastern incline and conveyor winder.
1989. Belgorod, VIOGEM.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Roomandpillar mining systems in Polish copper mines
J.Butra & W.Pytel
CBPM Cuprum OBR, Wroctaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: Geological characteristics of the copper ore deposit located in Western Poland between Lubin and Głogów as well as its insitu
conditions, were the main factors influencing changes and progress in the exploitation systems development. Due to a different deposit thickness and its
mineralization, there was a necessity to develop such exploitation systems, which would permit safe excavation and rational deposit management,
particularly within protected pillars where the significant portion of the ore deposit is located. Mining systems utilized in Polish copper mines, from the
older to the newest ones, are presented in the paper.
1 MINING CONDITIONS IN LIGHT OF GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF COPPER DEPOSIT OF THE FORE
SUDETIC MONOCLINE
Since its discovery, economical and safe exploitation of the copper deposit in the LubinGtogów district (ForeSudetic Monocline, Poland), has been largely dependent
on the choice of a mining technique. Due to the overall geological complexity of the deposit, the list of critical characteristics that have to be taken into account while
selecting an optimal technique includes:
• substantial depth of occurrence of the deposit that ranges from 600 m to 1200 m below ground surface;
• diverse lithology;
• substantial aerial extent combined with a low (4° to 6°) angle dip of mineralized strata;
• rock mass competency differences (the strength of main roof strata is 7 to 10 times greater than that of the floor);
• the ability of ore and surrounding rockmass to accumulate, and violently release, elastic strain energy;
• complex tectonic conditions;
• diffused nature of mineralization and the absence of macroscopically identifiable mineralization markers.
The stratiform sulfide copper deposit of the LubinGtogow district is hosted by discolored sandstones of the Red Beds and/or sandstones of the White Beds, copper
bearing shales, and carbonate rocks with dolomite as a dominant rock type. Significant concentrations of copper occur within a 40 meter thick stratum. Six classes of
ore have been identified depending on their location within the lithological profile: dolomites only, shales and sandstones, sandstone roof strata only, exclusively
sandstone strata located below the sandstones of anhydrite binder, sandstones, shales and dolomites typical for the entire mining district, shales and dolomites.
Both the extent and intensity of copper mineralization reflect the natural extend of sulfides deposition. However, none of these features correlates strictly with
lithological divisions of the host rocks. Thickness of the deposit ranges from 0.4 to 26.0 m.
The presence of oreforming minerals in three different lithological units (shale, sandstone, dolomite) combined with uneven thickness and intensity of copper
mineralization produce the complicated picture of the deposit. The cutoff grade is set at 0.7% Cu whereas deposit thickness and copper content variability in individual
mining blocks have been estimated to be 81.5% and 78.3% respectively.
2 MINING METHODS USED DURING THE FIRST PERIOD OF EXPLOITATION
The concept of the copper ore mining in the “Lubin” and “Polkowice” mines from 1964 year assumed the extraction by longwall method known from the “old” basin
(“Konrad”, “Lena”, “Nowy Kościół”). In May 1965 mining operations in experimental panel of the “Lubin” mine two walls (one 40m long and second about 50m long)
were commenced. Appropriate roof control was initially provided by using the dry back fill (barren carbonate and sandstone rock crushed underground), until about
1,5 ha of mined area was
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obtained. Then till finishing the experimental long wall mining (1969) the roof control was based on self—caving or roof fall induced by blasting (about 3, 3.5 m high).
In 1967 the mining field for the roomandpillar system was prepared. The field was cut into large dimension (25′35 m or 25′25 m) pillars by 5 m wide rooms.
Roomandpillar mining based on cutting large pillars into small technological (supporting) pillars having dimensions about 5 by 5 meters. Roof control in the first
experimental field of twophase, roomandpillar mining was based on carrying the bending roof on the supporting pillars and then inducing roof caving through blasting
the remnant pillars (having h the surface of 12 m2) associated with blasting in the roof holes. The roof caving in the roomandpillar methods was widely used during
seventies and eighties. It was used until the early nineties thus over 20 years. This technique of blasting was continuously adjusted to the mining methods, being
permanently modified, and changed very often depending on the geology and rockmass conditions.
Two phase roomandpillar methods with roof caving had been used till 1974 both in “Lubin” and “Polkowice” mines. At the time when those method were applied,
high bumps hazard was noticed because longer pillars were very stiff and behaved as a quasielastic material. During the second phase of extraction, in the course of
cutting those pillars into smaller ones (postfailure) their sudden destruction due to transformation of solid rock from the elastic to the postfailure state, in the working
area frequently took place. In the early seventies, the first methods of bumps and tremors control such as for example so called “limited advance” of the development in
front of the face were introduced for the first time (Fig. 1).
However, this technical modification had not resulted in bump hazard limitation. This in turn caused rejecting the mining methods which produced fists phase stiff
pillars. Presence of single or grouped headings in the solid rock in front of the face created also very dangerous geomechanical condition. Therefore twophase
methods with roof caving, where the solid rockmass was cut into stiff pillars, had been gradually abandoned. One phase roomandpillar methods had been favored
instead (Fig. 2). In this method the ore is mined out by one face consisting of numerous room faces connected by workings with technological pillars securing roof
stability within the working space. Such systems avoid inconveniences which results from initial cut of the deposit into blocks, like in two phase methods, and permits
obtaining much more favorable distribution of mining pressure in the vicinity of the face.
With the growing depth of exploitation and higher variability of rockmass and roof characteristics, the difficulties in using those methods caused by
Figure 1. Diagram of two phase roofandpillar method with limited advance of the first phase mining.
Figure 2. Diagram of one phase roomandpillar mining method.
increasing pressure, had been occurred. Problems with proper adjustment of systems parameters (pillar dimensions, rate of mining face progress etc.) to the given
geology and rockmass conditions, were accoutered. The most important issue was technological pillars size selection providing the roof strata stability without the large
amount of elastic energy stored within the rockmass.
Moreover at the advent of one phase roomandpillar methods, technological pillars were usually located with long axis in parallel to the line of mining face. During
next years, due to the necessity of concentration the possible largest number of room faces along the specific mining face (in order to induce the dynamic effects by
mining blasting) the
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Figure 3. Diagram of two phase roomandpillar mining method with pillars located with longer axis perpendicularly to the mining face.
Figure 4. Diagram of JS roomandpillar method with roof caving.
technological pillars were cut perpendicularly to the face line (Fig. 3).
Increase of the rooms length (advance) by even 30 or more meters presently allows for blasting in the zone of exploitation pressure and obtaining better conditions
for rockmass controlled tremor occurrence. Placing the pillars with their longer axis perpendicularly to the mining face is also favorable from heading roof stability point
of view.
The essential modification concerning mining methods in the early eighties was the development of the method exploiting the technological pillars which slenderness
was calculated based on the deposit thickness. The JS mining system is one of that employs the above mentioned solution (Fig. 4).
The mining of thick deposit have been carried out using roomandpillar method with two layers of hydraulic backfilling. Due to easy roof control in the dolomite
limestone rocks, the upper layer galleries were usually excavated in the first stage of mining. During this phase the stiff, largedimension pillars (25–30′ 30–40 m) were
cut. During the second phase
Figure 5. Diagram of two phase, roomandpillar method.
the pillars had been splitted before the lower layers could be mined. First mining methods using hydraulic backfilling for 7m thick deposit UZG and DP were
developed for the “Lubin” mine. In early eighties the two phase, two layer, roomandpillar method “Rudna 1" was introduced in the “Rudna” mine (Fig. 5). It enabled
mining even up to 10 meters thick deposit. The mining face in this method is divided into three blocks with the following operations: mining the upper layer, mining the
lower layer, backfilling the mined out space.
For the deposit with thickness bigger than 10 meters two phase, two layers methods “Rudna 4", “Rudna 5" and “Lubin 1" were used.
3 NEW SOLUTIONS IN MINING TECHNOLOGY
In seventies and eighties the technological roof caving was exploited the deposit with thickness up to 5 meters located out of the protection pillars. Together with
inducing the caving, the remnant pillars were blasted out. This method of technological caving had not met the requirements because the blasted roof plate with low
loosing factor of the fallen rock had not ensure the appropriate support for upper roof strata. This resulted in periodical stress increase in the solid in front of the mining
face and numerous tremors and pressure relieve caused by emission of elastic energy gathered in the rock mass due to the compressive strength exceeding. The
tremors and decompressions had the total nature and covered the great surface of the mining area. Therefore the intensive investigations on improving the technology of
caving and a search for finding the solutions ensuring the required roof support in the mined out space, were carried out. Since 1994 one phase roomandpillar one
with roof
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Figure 6. Characteristics of the technological pillars behavior in the mining fields.
deflection method is the most often used mining technique. The idea of mining with the roof deflection consists in cutting the ore by the system of rooms and creating
technological pillars of the dimensions allowing for their yielding do to excessive load (Fig. 6).
Yielding pillars working within decreasing branch of stressdeformation characteristics allow for roof deflection in similar way as timber piles or dry backfill do in
classical mining methods. Roof caving takes place far from the mining face front, after partial extraction of the technological pillars. To date experiences confirmed that
the bolted roof, has the tendency to deflection without causing the caving on the mining front. Planar dimensions of pillars and their slenderness are being adjusted
depending on the characteristics of pillar rocks and local rockmass conditions. Positive results of experiments carried out in the deposit of intermediate thickness led to
the widening the usage of this method of roof control also in the thin deposit conditions.
The new variant of the roomandpillar mining called “closing, operational” pillar was developed recently. In this method ore along the whole length of the mining face
is not mined out along its progress. In the mining method with closing operational pillar (Fig. 7) during the mining advance, the full mining (from development to goaf
creation) process is carried out with some delay, except the separated zone (40, 120 m wide) which is treated like barrier pillars, i.e. they are mined out after
completing the development in the entire field.
Figure 7. JUGRPS roomandpillar mining method with roof deflection and closing operational pillar.
Mine workings in the separated operational pillar play the transport and ventilation role. Starting the mining operations depends only on small scale development mining
creating for instance the group of headings from which the mining face will be commenced.
While mining the thick deposit (thicker than 7 m) two phase methods are not presently used. Currently the most modern solution with regard one phase mining (with
hydraulic backfill) of thick deposit are as follows: RG7 for deposits with rock prone to tremors (Fig. 8) and RC/PH for mining the thick deposit outside the protective
pillars. RC/PH method is one phase, two layer with partial liquidation of the mined out space using hydraulic backfill.
It uses the experience obtained during exploitation with roof deflection and hydraulic backfill and combines the both methods of mined out space liquidation.
4 MINING OF BARRIER PILLARS AND ORE RESIDUES
In eighties the experiments were undertaken to extract the resistant pillars being left principal transport and ventilation galleries protection.
When the first pillars in the “Lubin” and “Rudna” mine were mined using already known roomandpillar methods with gobs liquidation behind the face line, tremors
took place. Therefore those methods
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Figure 8. Diagram of RG7 one phase roomandpillar method with hydraulic backfill.
Figure 9. Diagram of ore mining using RUO/FO roomandpillar method with the roof deflection when the resistant pillars are yield and
liquidated.
were replaced with the twophase method characterized as follows:
– during the first phase, the pillar solid on its entire length are yielding through cutting the solid by the
Figure 10. Diagram of RUO/H mining method.
mining face moving in the one direction towards the technological pillars being in the postfailure state (Fig. 9);
– during the second phase the technological pillars were mined out and the liquidation of the mined space was along the face moving towards the opposite direction.
Using the gained experience new one phase method with roof deflection for yielding and liquidation of resistant pillars—RUO/FO was developed.
In complex geological and rockmass conditions occurring in the copper mines, the deposit lot may have such location (residual block, from ten to several hundred
meters wide), that the only possible direction of mining is towards the gobs or space cut by workings (yield zone). Exploitation of the deposit residues towards the gobs
or yield area may be carried out in the cooper mines only under special conditions.
The tests indicated the critical values of the residual solid width, at which the risk of strong seismic events is the biggest. Those are solid widths between 75 and 85 m
and from 50 to 55 m. While mining the residues the RUO/H one phase method with roof deflection designated for regions with extremely difficult rock mass conditions
is used. The method assumes ore mining towards the gobs or yield zones (Fig. 10).
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5 CONCLUSIONS
In onephase roomandpillar methods used in copper ore mines, technological pillars separated on the mining face by headings and rooms, transfer into the postfailure
condition (they are crushed by the exploitation pressure of the rockmass). These pillars of high deformability operate in the mining field revealing postfailure
supportability. Due to the tremor hazard occurring in the copper mines, the behavior of technological pillars (postfailure supportability) must be utilized. In order to
obtain the proper control of stiff roof in the roomandpillar mining methods, very its support during each phase of ore mining is important. The decisive for the proper
support is the crosssection area of the technological and remnant pillars, their slenderness and postfailure strength of the rocks being mined. Those parameters are
selected for the specific conditions of each mining field. When the ore is mined under high hazard caused by dynamic symptoms of the rockmass pressure there is a
possibility to reduce the hazard by leaving barrier, resistant, stiff or yield pillars.
Other factor important for roomandpillar methods development in the copper mining industry are conditions of maintaining of mine workings stability. However
presently it is not possible to find any revolutionary solutions. Roof bolting support (resinbedded and expansive) will still the basic one. When this type of support is
used there is a barrier for widening the workings (width of uncovered roof). It appears that this technological bound has already been reached in the Polish copper ore
mines. In turn it limits the dimension of the underground equipment and machinery used. Other important issue concerns new technological solutions with regard of
mining methods and possibility of considerable reduction of the rockmass deformations by wide usage of flotation tailings and other wastes in the form of hydraulic,
solidified or paste back fill for placement the mined out voids.
REFERENCES
Butra, J., Dębkowski, R. & Pytel, W. 1998: Copper ore exploitation in bump hazard conditions, In Raj K. Singhal (ed.), Mine Planning and Equipment Selection,
Calgary, A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam.
Butra, J. & Kicki, J. 2003: Evolution of mining technology for copper ore deposit in Poland, Library of Underground Mining School, Kraków.
Kłeczek, Z. 1994: Mine geomechanics, Wydawnictwo Techniczne, Katowice.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
An experimental research on diamond cutting tools operation on rocks
M.Cardu
Politecnico di Torino, Georisorse e Territorio Dept., Torino, Italy
IGAGCNR, Torino, Italy
E.Lovera & E.Michelotti
Politecnico di Torino, Georisorse e Territorio Dept., Torino, Italy
G.Montaldo
Mining Engineer, Torino, Italy
ABSTRACT: Rock is a randomcomposite material, and rock cutting diamonds are randomly shaped tools. Based on this, a research program has
been planned, starting from single diamond operation on actual rock specimens. Points to be elucidated are the forms of the mathematical linkages
between cutting force, normal force, cross section of the kerf produced and rock microhardness; the last point, due to obvious scale effects, do not
seem to be reasonably predictable from conventional geomechanical tests and macroscopic scale cutting tests, nor from conventional rock mechanics
theories. Following a synthetic discussion of the problem, the experimental apparatus is described and the results of tests under different conditions are
presented. These tests cover the range of the normal and tangential forces applied by a single diamond of a wire saw bead, on different rock types.
The results are then analysed, and a mathematical model of the single diamond action, in a form suitable to the application to a simulation of the multi
diamond cutting tool, is presented. In the meantime, the most suitable way to characterize the rock in diamond cuttability problems is discussed and, in
particular, the problem of obtaining quantitative microstrength distribution data from conventional mineralogicalpetrographic description is treated.
1 INTRODUCTION
Any attempt aimed to establish a model of diamond wire sawing for rock materials should take into account the following points:
– the medium on which the wire acts is inhomogeneous: the single diamonds “see” the medium as a random sequence of mechanically different elements, having, as a
common feature, only the approximately elasticbrittle behaviour (Fig. 1);
– the elementary tools (the diamonds) are randomly shaped and can be practically modeled only as point like concentrations of forces: the cross sections of the single
incisions can not be usefully put into relationship to the cross sections of the individual diamonds.
The case of metal cutting is entirely different: the cross sections of the single incisions practically coincide in this case with the cross section of the diamonds, due to the
elasticplastic behaviour of the metallic media (Fig. 2);
Figure 1. Scheme of how the single diamonds “see” the rock.
– the elementary tools are organized in small groups forced to follow parallel paths with fixed mutual distance by a rigid body (the bead) on which are mounted. The
total normal force and the total parallel force acting on the group is easily calculated, but the distribution of the forces amongst the single diamonds of the group is
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Figure 2. Above, the case of rock cutting and, below, the case of metal cutting (cross and transverse section).
essentially random, depending on the random distribution of the elements of the medium on which the diamonds act;
– on the other side, the paths of the beads are not determined by a rigid guidance, rather by the balancing of forces, and depend on the amounts of rock removed by
the diamonds instead of being imposed by the feeding mechanism.
An idealized behaviour of the wire is easily described, and our aim is to verify what of the idealized model should be retained and what should be corrected.
The scheme of the forces and the symbols are explained in Figure 3.
The idealized scheme assumes:
1. forces are exchanged between the wire and the rock, only through the contact points between diamonds and rock;
Figure 3. Scheme of the forces acting on the wire, on the bead and on the single diamond, in an idealized (simplified) model. Above the
normal forces; below the tangential (cutting) forces, where 1=wire arc length (m); R=local curvature radius (m); i=bead
interval (m); n=number of active diamonds per bead; T=wire tension (N); ΔT=tension drop along the arc l (N).
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Table 1. Description of the experimental material.
2. the wire lacks of rigidity;
3. a standard average shape of the cross section of the incision can be defined: that means, letting W be the (average) width of the incision produced by a single
diamond, d the (average) depth of the incision, and S the (average) cross section area:
4. the ratio of the normal force N to the tangential force T is a constant (friction coefficient), depending only on the pair of bodies (bead and rock) interacting
(Leonardo’s assumption on friction);
5. the ratio of the tangential (cutting) force T to the cross section of the incision S is a constant, depending only on the rock, the diamond being an ideal rigid body
(Galilei principle of the dependence of the breaking force on the square of the body size);
6. the beads have the same constant (which means not depending on the load) number n of active (working) diamonds and are equally spaced by an interval i along the
wire.
Under these assumptions, and further postulating that, in a cutting path having a stable shape the progression rate of the cut, in a direction orthogonal to the path, is the
same at any point along the cut, it can be easily proved that, for a given homogeneous material:
– the cutting path is an arc of logarithmic spiral (Palmero 1990);
– static microhardness value can be used as indicator of the rock resistance to cutting (Lerda 2001);
– the production rate simply depends on the product of the wire speed by the wire tension drop from the outlet to the entry of the cut, which means on the power
consumed, according to a straight proportionality law, and the specific cutting energy (J/m3) depends only on the rock (this is surely not true).
The latter point is specially important, and can be usefully investigated even through single diamond performance analysis, which is the subject of the present stage of
our research. The points dealt with are 3, 4, 5.
2 EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL
Tests have been performed on polished specimens of 4 rock types, briefly described in Table 1.
3 TESTING SCHEME
Specimens have been tested preliminarily for Knoop microhardness with a Leitz microdurimeter.
A certain number of steel cylinders of the same size of the holder of the Knoop penetrator has been prepared, and a diamond of the same type and size of the ones
used to line the beads of the wire saw has been mounted on each cylinder.
4 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
Both to exert a known normal force on the tested diamond and to measure the microhardness of the stone a “Leitz” microdurimeter has been used. Obviously the
standard penetrator (Knoop) has been used to measure the microhardness, and industrial diamonds of the same type used in the wire beads, mounted on purposely
built cylindrical supports, have been used to produce the incisions in the stone.
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Figure 4. Instrumented diamond holder.
Strain gauges were applied to the supports to measure the horizontal force (Fig. 4) and the readings were recorded by a “Orion” recording apparatus.
Horizontal motion was imparted to the specimen through the specimen translation apparatus of the microdurimeter, at the rate of few mm/s (to be recalled, it is
roughly 4 orders of magnitude lower than the actual speed of the wire). Normal forces tested were 0.5, 1 and 2 N (microhardness was measured at a standard normal
force of 2 N); to be recalled, the normal forces tested are of the same order of magnitude as the average normal forces per diamond in actual operations. The cross
sections of the incisions produced were recorded with a profile meter “Hommel Tester T2000”.
Moreover the width of the incisions was measured with the optical micrometric apparatus of the microdurimeter.
5 TESTING CAMPAIGN
The testing campaign consisted of:
– measuring the microhardness distribution, and the mean microhardness value, of each specimen;
– creating a certain number (usually six) of incisions, under th e abo ve quoted no rmal fo rces, on the of the specimens, and measuring, in the meantime, the tangential
forces acting on the diamond;
– measuring the Knoop microhardness at points close to the incisions, and the local width of the incisions;
– measuring the cross sections of the incisions with the profile meter.
Figure 5. The standard shape of the incision can be assumed triangular.
6 RESULTS
The results obtained on the marble specimen were greatly different from those obtained on silicatic rocks, which suggests a different model should be envisaged for
marbles. In particular, the average section of the incisions seems more affected by diamond shape. We concentrated on the silicatic rocks, for which some
generalizable conclusion can be drawn (Montaldo 2003). Results obtained on marble have been reported too, but are affected by a greater uncertainty.
6.1 Shape of the cross section of the incision
The shape of the single cross sections obviously is irregular. The shape varies along the incision, and can not be related to the shape of the diamond, however a
standard shape of the cross section can be defined, by averaging the cross sections measured along cutting paths lengths of some mm. In the rocks tested the average
W/d ratio is 1/0.07, irrespective of the load per stone, in the range examined (0.5÷2 N / stone), and the standard shape can be assumed triangular (see Fig. 5), which
means, for the silicatic stones tested:
(2)
The same ratio has been assumed for the marble, but in this case is only a rough approximation.
6.2 PD/TD ratio in the single diamond incision
In each test PD was kept constant and TD measured. TD oscillated widely during the test, but the TD values averaged along 1 cm of incision path were quite constant,
allowing to calculate an average PD/TD ratio from each test.
The PD/TD ratio, in the load per stone range examined, depends on the material and on the load per stone (which means, Leonardo’s simplifying assumption does
not hold), but workable correlations linking the ratio to PD have been obtained (Fig. 6).
6.3 TD/S ratio
We recall that the TD/S ratio represents simply the specific cutting energy.
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Figure 6. Correlation between PD/TD ratio and PD.
Figure 7. TD/S, expressed in MPa (or MJ/m3), v/PD correlation.
Tests have shown that the TD/S ratio is not a constant for a given material, but depends on TD (or, due to the TD v/PD correlation, on PD), hence Galilei’s principle
does not hold. However a workable TD/S v/PD correlation (within the experimental PD range) can be indicated for the tested materials (Fig. 7). Attempts have been
made to relate the local width of the incision to the local microhardness value, measured at a very small distance (some ten micrometers) from the incision.
Only rough indications, blurred by a wide dispersion, have been obtained in this way.
The average hardness of the rock is however roughly correlated to the average cross section of the incision obtained under a given diamond load and to the specific
energy (Fig. 8).
The correlation between penetration microhardness (the property we measure, say, the Knoop microhardness) and incision microhardness (measured with the
standard incision diamond) has still to be worked.
Reasonably, the incision hardness depends not only on the strength of the grain to which the load is applied, but also on the strength of the surrounding grains.
Figure 8. T/S (MPa), at 1 and 2 N/stone normal load, v/ HK50 (MPa).
A more suitable indicator should therefore consider both the average penetration hardness and the inhomogeneity of the hardness. The latter could be indicated by the
difference between the quartiles of the microhardness distribution. Our data suggest that a criterion based on this assumption could work, but a wider variety of rock
types should be tested to develop a quantitative criterion.
Needless to say, conventional rock strength tests do not provide useful information.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Wire saw production can be increased by increasing the wire speed or by increasing the tension, which means the pressure. Having the available power an upper limit,
to increase the speed implies a reduction of tension, and vice versa.
Our tests indicate that specific cutting energy in most rocks depends on pressure, and decreases as pressure increases, which suggests that an increase of the tension,
even at the expense of a reduction of the speed, can be fruitful.
This is not, however a general rule.
In granite, probably, due the great inhomogeneity of this rock type, the specific cutting energy is not much affected by pressure.
The measured values of single diamond incision specific energy are of the same order of magnitude of commercial sawing operations (5 to 25 kWh/m2, being the
width of the cut 1 cm, mean 0.0018∙1012 to 0.009∙1012 J/m3), and of the current microhardness values (1000 MPa mean 0.001∙1012 J/m3). The use of the single
diamond incision and of the microhardness test as indicators of the energetic cost of stone sawing seems promising also for this reason (DIGET WG 2003).
But rocks are more often described in terms of mineralogical composition. A quantitative mineralogical analysis can be converted to a microhardness
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frequency distribution, provided that rock forming minerals are grouped in narrow microhardness classes (Mohs scale lacks the required resolving power). A specific
research is underway on this subject
Obviously a greater variety of rock types has to be tested to obtain a general rule.
As to the other doubtful points of the simplified model of wire operation, data should come from tests with an instrumented cutting machine; a test campaign is still
underway.
REFERENCES
Lerda, M. 2001. Indagine teorico sperimentale sul meccanismo di taglio con il filo diamanta to in rocce silicatiche. Degree Thesis: Politecnico di Torino.
DIGET Working Group. 2003. Sviluppo di modelli per l’ottimizzazione e personalizzazione utensili e materiali lapidei. Eureka Project EI 2280 “Innovative Stone
Process Ecological Cutting”. Internal report.
Montaldo, G. 2003 Determinazione sperimentale dell energia specifica di incisione e delle relazioni carico/passata di utensili in diverse rocce. Degree Thesis:
Politecnico di Torino.
Palmero, C. 1990. Applicazione del filo diamanta to per il taglio di rocce carbonatico serpentinose. Degree Thesis: Politecnico di Torino.
Page 223
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Development of alternate roomandpillar mining geometries for improved
extraction and ground control in coal and copper mines
Y.P.Chugh
Mining and Mineral Resources Engineering, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, USA
W.Pytel
CBPM “Cuprum” OBR, Wroctaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: Pillar size and mine geometry selection approaches that provide (a) higher extraction while maintaining an appropriate safety factor
against failure of roof, pillar or floor elements, or (b) lower risk level of instability without reduction in extraction ratio, are presented in the paper.
These desired outcomes are achieved using two different techniques depending on actual and required safety factors for an element or safety margins
within the roof strata such as in noncoal mines. Each technique is illustrated with a case study, the first for an Illinois coal mine in USA and the second
one, from Foresudetic Monocline deep copper mine in Poland.
1 INTRODUCTION
Coal seams in the Illinois coal basin in the USA are generally associated with thick weak floor strata. Weak floor strata associated with coal seams seem to govern the
design of mine layouts down to mining depth of about 200 meters. Roomandpillar mining systems, with about 50% extraction ratio typically result in small amounts of
subsidence in the form of a trough due to settlement of pillars on the weak floor strata. Safety factors against roof failure, pillar failure based on coal strength, and pillar
failure based on floor strength vary across and along a panel for a given mining geometry. Safety factors vary within the panel because stress distribution across a panel
is nonuniform. This paper describes an attempt to develop alternate mining geometries with variable size pillars along and across a panel based on safety factors and
pillar settlement considerations.
The research utilizes the following three technical concepts impacting the mining geometry design: (a) variability of safety factors along and across the panel due to
differential pillar loading and settlements, (b) elasticplastic behavior of coal pillars resulting in the arching effect, and (c) elastoviscoplastic behavior of the weak floor
strata with the load transfer from smaller pillars to the larger pillars and panel barrier pillars. These concepts, developed by the authors (Chugh and Pytel, 1992a), were
analyzed using twodimensional and threedimensional SIU Ground Mechanics Models. The objectives of the optimization procedure were to maximize the coal
recovery while maintaining appropriate pillar safety factors, floor safety factors, and immediate roof stability (Chugh and Pytel, 1992b). The term pillar safety factor
(PSF) refers to failure of pillar based on coal strength, while floor safety factor (FSF) refers to failure of a pillar based on floor strength or foundation failure. Factor of
safety for roof failure in bending or shear failure is considered for roof stability.
Alternative mining geometries with high implementation potential were proposed to the mining industry. One such geometry was demonstrated at a coal mine in
Illinois. Ground conditions were observed over a period of one year through convergence measurements and visual observations both for the current mine geometry as
well as for the alternate mine geometry.
Polish copper mines encounter very different mining and geological conditions than coal mines in Illinois, where bedded ore deposits, overlain by thick and very
strong roof strata, are exploited at depths of about 1000 m below the surface. Typical roomandpillar mining layouts are designed to permit pillar yielding and large
scale load transfer to adjoining more stiff areas. In this case, pillar yield strength and pillar residual strength are the only operational parameters whose selection and
values affect significantly roof/surface deflection and associated safety margins determined immediate above the opening and main roof strata levels. Therefore, with
appropriate yield pillar/s dimensions, it is possible to design a mine layout with nonuniform pillar sizes in a mining layout where roof strata safety factors are higher than
if the pillars were of equal size as currently practiced. The authors here demonstrate through numerical modeling that the proposed alternate geometry approach results
in improved ground control in the field.
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2 DEVELOPMENT OF AN ALTERNATE GEOMETRY FOR AN ILLINOIS COAL MINE
The primary goal of this study was to reduce ground control problems and production costs in Illinois mines. With cooperation from a mine’s engineering group and
operations staff, an alternate mining geometry and an alternate rib support method were developed to reduce ground control and production costs.
Design for Illinois coal mines requires minimum PSF and FSF to be 1.5 and 1.3, respectively. Selection of alternate geometries is based on an optimization
procedure that utilizes computed values of loading and strength of pillars spatially in a mining layout, and load transfer from minedout areas to unmined areas. The
current mining geometry, shown in Figure 1, uses pillars of constant size within a mining area. The mine used 24.4 m×24.4 m pillars (cc) with 6 m wide entries
throughout a panel. This traditional practice suffers from the disadvantage that pillar loading tends to increase from the outside of the panel to the inside, with the pillars
located closest to the geometric center of the panel experiencing the highest stresses. This situation contributes to excessive spalling of the center pillars and could
provide a starting point for a major failure of the mine floor (“squeeze”). Such geometry also leads to higher incidence of roof falls in and around the belt entry.
Historically, the mine had always used some form of traditional mining geometry, never attempting to demonstrate any alternate geometry concepts. The research
staff developed and demonstrated the alternate mining geometry shown in Figure 2. The alternative geometry (ChughPytel geometry) increased pillar sizes in the panel
center to 27.4 m×27.4 m and decreased pillar sizes near the
Figure 1. Present mining geometry.
panel barriers to be 15.2 m×27.4 m. The implemented alternative geometry increased extraction ratio by 2.0% and significantly increased overall ground stability of the
panel. The overall mining cycle times also improved (due to shorter haul distances) to enhance productivity. This lay out provides an increase in pillar and floor stability
in the center portion of the panel where the belt conveyor system is located, while simultaneously increasing the extraction ratio from 41.8% to 43.8%. The pillar and
floor safety factors for the current and alternate geometry are shown in Figures 3 and 4. The developed alternate geometry (ChughPytel geometry) increases the
extraction ratio in a panel and increases both pillar and floor safety factors. This should decrease the number of roof falls occurring in belt entries and potential for
squeeze in a panel.
Figure 2. Alternate mining geometry.
Figure 3. Safety factors—present geometry.
Figure 4. Safety factors—proposed alternate geometry.
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The mine demonstrated the alternate mining geometry in an operating unit. Geotechnical studies included roof to floor convergence, observations on pillar rib spalling,
and floor heave monitoring, which were conducted in both the existing geometry and alternate geometry mining areas for comparison. Based on longterm studies of
one year, it was concluded that the alternate geometry panel layout (ChughPytel geometry) was stabilizing both pillar and floor safety factors. Ground conditions
improved for both pillar and floor strata and ribrash was comparable in both areas. Roof to floor convergence also significantly diminished. This reduces the possibility
of future squeezes in minedout areas. The extraction ratio for the panel was increased by about 2%, which should increase profitability by about 2 million dollars
annually. Furthermore, less time is required to mine the outside edges of the panel because one cut blowthrough are possible between the outer two entries. This
allows more time to be spent in the center of the panel where cycle times are lower and production rates increase. Overall, the development and demonstration of this
alternate geometry was considered a success.
3 DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATE MINE WORKING GEOMETRY IN ONE OF POLISH COPPER MINE
Roomandpillar extraction system is still a dominant mining technology utilized in underground copper mines in Poland. Typical geology of the overburden strata may
be modeled as a multiplate structure with some simplifying assumptions concerning mechanics of bedding contact surfaces (Pytel, 2003), loaddeformation relationship
for hard rock pillars within the postfailure phase, and the value of carried loads (pillar residual strength) based on pillar size and actual extraction ratio. Thus the entire
mining layout safety is determined mainly by strong roof strata behavior. Therefore, the overburden volume (rock mass) and its stressstrain behavior must be
considered utilizing the appropriate strength theories (Butra and Pytel, 2003). They represented the safety through the so called safety margins utilizing the insitu
compressive and tensile strength σcm, and σtm respectively (Hoek and Brown, 1997). They further defined (a) Fr=σ1 −σtm—safety margin based on the maximum
principal stress criterion (tensile mode of failure), (b) Fhm=σhm−σcm—safety margin based on the maximum energy of distortional strain (compression mode of failure),
and (c) Fc=−σcm+(1+ ) σ1−σ3—safety margin based on the maximum shear (shear mode of failure). Safe conditions require safety margins to remain
within the negative values domain. Therefore, a better mining geometry is associated with the lower values of safety margins.
Here a technique of pillar size selection is discussed that employs a phenomenon of pillar yielding common in pillar behavior in deep copper mines in Poland. Spatial
distribution of pillar sizes may be
Figure 5. Current mine workings geometry in the area.
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Figure 6. Overall view of the FEM model.
Figure 7. Mining geometry 1 model.
selected based on their residual strength and their deformation properties resisting rooffloor convergence process. To illustrate the effect of varying pillar size within a
mining panel on roof strata stability, one of “PolkowiceSieroszowice” district’s mine (Figure 3) was modeled using the finite element method in three dimensions
(NE/NASTRAN), see Figure 4. In the area the copper ore deposit, located at the depth of about 837.5 m, is almost flat and is overlain by very thick and stiff main
roof strata consisting of 22 m massive layer of dolomite, 120 m thick strong anhydrite bed and 160 m thick competent sandstone bed. Three different mine workings
geometries were evaluated from safety point of view:
• Mining geometry 1 according to the current (Butra, 1993) method (see Figure 7),
• Mining geometry 2 (see Figure 8),
• Mining geometry 3 (see Figure 9).
Calculated safety margin profiles along crosssection BB (Figure 5) are shown in Figures 10–11. The results indicate that modified mining geometries 2 and 3 are
associated with significantly lower roof deflection curvature (lower probability of roof fall) and, what is most important, with lower values of safety margins within roof
strata. This should result in
Figure 8. Mining geometry 2 model.
Figure 9. Mining geometry 3 model.
reduced bump occurrence hazard and a safer environment. Using several criterions of failure (based on different strength theories) one can perform an optimization
procedure with pillar residual strength as the decisive parameter and determine spatial size distribution of pillars in a mining panel for optimum ground control. Design of
yield pillar size spatially within a panel is of utmost importance. Development of scientific procedures to estimate dimensions of yield pillars spatially in a mining layout
will result in optimum extraction and roof and pillar stability with controlled load transfer.
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The authors have hypothesized that ground control optimization procedures can be developed that will maximize mine stability, extraction ratio, and production. The
hypothesis assumes spatial variation in geometry of pillars in a mining layout based on load distribution, strength distribution, and loaddeformation behavior of roof,
pillar, and floor elements. The developed concepts have been used to develop and demonstrate an alternate coal mining layout in the USA. The concepts have also
been used
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Figure 10. Safety margin profiles calculated along the crosssection BB (see Figure 3) within rock mass at level +6.0 m above
immediate roof surface.
to develop more stable alternate mining geometries for a copper mine in Poland which are worthy of field demonstration. The authors believe that these concepts can
be further developed scientifically to
Figure 11. Safety margin profiles calculated along the crosssection BB (see Figure 3) within rock mass at level +67.0 m above
immediate roof surface.
sequence spatial extraction in a mine to minimize instabilities and hazards associated with sudden energy release phenomena such as bumps and rock bursts.
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REFERENCES
Butra, J. 1993.Reference manual for ore extraction utilizing roof deflection technique in copper mines for conditions located in the Foresudetic Monocline, CBPM
“Cuprum” (Wrocław), Rpt No U118/NG/9 3 (in Polish)
Butra, J. and Pytel, W. 2003. A Plate based numerical model for mine workings design in a Polish copper mine conditions. In M.D.Kuruppu and P.A.Lilly (eds.), Mine
Planning and Equipment Selection; Proc. intern. symp., Kalgoorlie, 23–25 April 2003:553–559, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Chugh, Y.P. and Pytel, W. 1992a. Design of Partial Extraction Coal Mine Layouts for Weak Floor Strata Conditions, Information Circular 9315:32–49, U.S. Bureau of
Mines
Chugh, Y.P.and Pytel, W. 1992b. Analysis of Alternate RoomandPillar Mining Geometries Using the SIU PANEL. 2D Model. In Mine Systems Design and Ground
Control, Proc. Annual Workshop, Generic Mineral Technology Center: 71–82, Moscow, Idaho
Hoek, E. and Brown, E.T. 1997. Practical estimates of rock mass strength. Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. (8): 1165–1186
Pytel, W. 2003. Rock mass—mine workings interaction model for Polish copper mine conditions, Int. J. of Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. (40): 497–526
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora(eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Environmental balance in mining—basics and results
C.Drebenstedt
Technische Universitdt Bergakademie Freiberg, Germany
ABSTRACT: Environmentally friendly mining methods in hard rock quarries are gaining more and more significance. According to the present state of
knowledge it is not yet possible to determine the most environmentally friendly mining method for a deposit taking into account the profitability. Based
on two definitions concerning environmentally friendly mining methods, the main fields of investigation are explained making it possible to select
environmentally friendly extraction systems for the corresponding operating conditions. Extraction systems loosening the hard rock not by blasting but
mechanically (“explosiveless”) still need a comprehensive scientific investigation. In addition to the description of the state of development, main fields
of further investigations are described, too.
1 INTRODUCTION
The utilization of natural solid rock is indispensable for many sectors of the national economy. Thus it is unavoidable to exploit these deposits, mainly in quarries. In
1995 there were approximately 1500 hard rock mining regions in Germany. Consequently, hard rock extraction is an important regional economic factor.
The assessment of the impact of hard rock extraction on the environment as well as the search for possibilities to reduce this impact are gaining more and more
significance with the growing consciousness of man concerning the conservation and improvement of the environment.
2 DEFINITION
Scope and the kind of impact of opencast mining on the environment depend on the technical means applied. The following comments are exclusively focussed on
opencast mining of hard rock and end with the partial operations “primary crushing” and “discharge to the raw material store”. The preparation and, if necessary,
further processing as well as material handling between producer and consumer are disregarded since they are considered to be neutral as regards alternatives.
The component “extraction system” is in the foreground, i.e. the whole chain of equipment for the partial operations of the mining method—loosening, loading,
conveying and primary crushing. The other component of the mining method, i.e. the “mining management”, has a relatively low impact on the environment. Therefore, it
will not be discussed in detail.
Depending on the kind of hard rock loosening, the extraction systems are often subdivided into those using the blasting technology and those exclusively using
mechanical equipment (“explosiveless”). This classification will be maintained hereinafter. Table 1 shows the possible combinations of the successive partial operations
“loosening”, “loading” and “handling”, irrespective of the kind of loosening.
This compilation is restricted to “conventional” extraction systems. Special processes such as gravity haulage (drop shaft conveying), skip hoisting (skip conveying,
trucklift conveying) and others have not been taken into consideration for the sake of clarity. Before discussing in more detail the component “extraction system” and
its impact on the environment there are some remarks on the definition of the generic term “environmentally friendly mining method”. It equally applies to both terms that
the total expenditure required for an environmentally friendly mining method must definitely be economic.
2.1 Environmentally friendly mining method in the narrower sense
In general, the definition given in Table 2 is applied to “environmentally friendly mining method”. This refers to all phases of mining activities, beginning with the
exploration via the exposure, the normal operation up to the rehabilitation. This definition only
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Table 1. Combinations of the partial processes loosening, loading and handling.
Transport to primary crusher or raw material store
Ser. Loosening Loading Heavyduty Heavyduty lorry semimobile Wheel loader semimobile crusher Mobile
No. lorry crusher belt handling belt handling crusher
1 Blasting Wheel loader hydraulic X X X X
excavator
2 Bucket wheel excavator –**) (X) (X)***) X***)
3 hydraulik exc. ****) (vertical –**) X X X
digging)
4a Face miner (sectional cutting –**) (X) (X)***) X***)
machine)
4b Face miner (sectional cutting Wheel loader X (X)***) X***) X***)
machine)
5 Hydraulic hammer Wheel loader hydraulic X X X X
excavator
6a Surface miner (cutting roll) –**) X X***) (X)***)
6b Surface miner (cutting roll) Wheel loader X X***) X***) (X)***)
7 Breaking crawler (horizontal Wheel loader hydraulic X X (X) (X)
digging) excavator
*) also applies to stationary/semimobile crushers.
**) an additional loader is not required.
() terms in brackets mean: only restricted.
***) transfer device instead of crusher.
****) also when using a digging tooth.
Table 2. Definition of the term “environmentally friendly mining method” in the narrower sense.
A. To avoid or minimize
– emission into the atmosphere (waste gas, dust)
– noise
– vibrations
– impaired quality of the ground and surface water
– waste (in particular the portion of unsaleable raw materials)
B. Reduction of
– consumables (fuel, power, explosives, lubricants)
– wear
– temporary land utilization (also by rehabilitation in good time)
– visual impairment of the landscape
– extraction losses (consequently protection of resources)
considers the utilisation of the equipment and the consumption of consumables as well as the impact on the environment during the mining activity proper.
Figure 1 additionally shows the inputoutput relations when mining hard rock.
Figure 1. Inputoutput relation during hard rock mining.
2.2 Environmentally friendly mining method in the wider sense
The definition additionally comprises the phases of manufacturing and disposal of the equipment (loading devices, handling equipment, drills, auxiliary
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equipment such as bulldozers, graders etc.) as well as the production of consumables (power, explosives, lubricants and other things). Not only power and materials
are consumed during these processes of manufacturing and disposal, but also the environment is further interfered with (emissions into the atmosphere, noise, impact on
the landscape and other things).
All these effects must be taken into account additionally for the comprehensive assessment of an extraction process.
The most essential feature of an environmentally friendly process is a low energy consumption. The “accumulated energy expenditure” has been taken as basis for the
assessment. According to the VDI guideline VDI 4600 it should be understood as follows: “The accumulated energy expenditure (KEA) specifies the whole
expenditure of original energy arising in connection with the manufacture, utilization and disposal of an economic object (product or service) or which can be assigned
to it causally. This energy expenditure represents the sum of the accumulated energy expenditure for the manufacture, utilization and disposal of the economic
object…”.
Then, these values must be determined in detail for the loosening, loading and conveying equipment as well as for the primary crushing plants. This assessment is
demonstrated by the example of bauxite mining.
3 STATE OF KNOWLEDGE
The investigations concerning “explosiveless” extraction systems carried out so far have predominantly been focussed on the actual loosening equipment since this is
decisive for the capacity of the whole extraction system. Table 1 shows a survey of the loosening equipment used in “explosiveless” extraction systems. Since the
loosening and loading equipment shown in Table 1 are based on different modes of action (Fig. 2), the properties of rocks decisive for the determination of the
excavatability of the solid rock with the individual types of equipment are not uniform either. This is reflected in the development of indices for the excavatability. For
example, the “excavation index” is proposed for a division between the blasting technology and explosiveless mining, the “rock quality index” for hydraulic excavators,
the “effective cutting resistance” for boom cutters and the “breaking factor” for horizontal and vertical digging.
When evaluating the excavatability, the interaction between the rock and the design of the loosening unit/ system must always be taken into account. Important
influence factors of the rock are:
– rock mechanical parameters such as compressive, tensile and shear strength, toughness,
Figure 2. Principals of action of mechanical extraction.
– geological characteristics such as the structurally defined size of blocks (determined by the existing system of strata and joints), degree of weathering, degree of
separation, joint roughness, position of the main joint set related to the direction of action of the loosening equipment (digging tooth, shovel etc.)
– petrographic properties such as constituent minerals, grain size, grain structure.
There are, in part, great differences of opinion as regards the magnitude and importance of these influence factors. Different methods are used for the quantitative
determination of the individual properties. In addition to laboratory investigations (uniaxial compressive strength, microscopic examinations, abrasion tests etc.) they
comprise field measurements (e.g. point load index, seismic wave velocity, digital image processing, RQD values).
For the time being, the compressive strength and the seismic wave velocity are the most important characteristic values to fix the limits of the individual
“explosiveless” extraction systems, according to which it is possible to estimate roughly the applicability of the individual methods. The milling extraction using centre
plain cutters covers the widest range of application of all methods of explosiveless extraction concerning the compressive strength and correspondingly large outputs.
The limit of applicability of this method is a uniaxial compressive strength of approx. 100 MPa at the moment. This is certainly one reason why this type of equipment is
used all over the world meanwhile. The use of boom plain cutters will certainly not achieve this wide range of application in the future, as opposed to centre plain
cutters, since it will only be possible to use them in rocks with a low compressive strength due to their design.
When using a hydraulic hammer, hydraulic excavator or a digging crawler, a larger equipment weight will be required to achieve the necessary
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loosening capacity, as opposed to “normal” loading or pushing work. It is absolutely necessary to take into account this fact during the economic evaluation.
The future extension of the use of explosiveless extraction systems will be influenced economically to a great degree by the design and dimensioning of the tools, the
amount of wear (material costs) and the loss of efficiency incidental thereto (reduced degree of utilization due to frequent exchange of worn parts).
Generally it must be said that the loosening capacity of hydraulic hammers is the lower limit, compared with other “explosiveless” methods, in spite of indisputable
advantages, e.g. reduced size or even cancellation of the primary crusher, better control of the particle size distribution and other things. The output data vary a lot, in
particular due to the high dependence on the structure of the parting surfaces. It would be possible to increase the hourly quarrying output by increasing the number of
hydraulic hammers operating. However, the limits of economy in operation would soon be reached.
4 ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS REQUIRED FOR “EXPLOSIVELESS” EXTRACTION SYSTEMS
The state of knowledge concerning extraction systems using the blasting technology is higher than that in the relatively new field of application of “explosiveless”
extraction systems. Furthermore, additional investigations are required in the latter field which have to be equipmentoriented and systemoriented. In particular this
refers to the specification of the optimum range of application and the technical limits of “explosiveless” exploitation equipment from the point of view of the properties
of rocks (prediction of the excavatability) with the aim to prepare the corresponding connections for each loosening device according to Figure 3 and to investigate the
technological problems of the application of the individual extraction systems depending on the fundamental mode of extraction (hill/slope extraction, mining into the
depth) regarding:
– attainable output per extraction unit taking into account the raw material quality and mining losses,
– scope of technologically caused idle time,
– required dimension of the working plane,
– mode of operation on the slope shoulder (especially during the slope extraction) as well as on inclined working planes,
– interaction between continuously and discontinuously operating handling equipment.
It is very difficult to predict the attainable loosening capacity (Fig. 3). Perhaps an insitu test with the chosen type of the extraction unit will be
Figure 3. Loosening capacity depending on the rock properties.
indispensable. Since experience has shown that these tests are very expensive, both manufacturers and users have reservations against them, as a rule. However, the
renunciation of insitu tests holds a greater operating risk during the startup of production.
5 MAIN AREAS OF FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS
According to the present state of knowledge it is not yet possible to determine the most environmentally friendly extraction system for a deposit taking into account the
profitability. Extensive investigations are required to achieve this goal. They should be focussed on the following main areas, regardless whether the extraction systems
will apply the blasting technology or whether they will be operated “explosiveless”.
5.1 Compilation of a purely economyoriented order of precedence of all extraction systems depending on the output (t/h)
Thus, the choice of economically reasonable extraction systems can already be narrowed down which subsequently should be investigated concerning their impact on
the environment.
5.2 Quantitative determination of the environmental impact of the individual partial operations
It would just be right to make out an ecobalance sheet of the environmental impacts though the actual task of an ecobalance sheet according to DIN EN ISO 14040 is
“to compile and assess the input and output flows and the potential environmental impacts of a product system during its life”, i.e. reference is made to the life cycle and
the results are more geared towards global and supraregional aspects. As opposed to usual ecobalance sheets, it is necessary for hard rock quarries to extend the
outputs “land utilization”, “oscillations”, “sound” etc. Since the investigations into environmentally friendly extraction systems are only focussed on the module
“extraction” and are not related to any product cycle, it should be called “environmental balancing” in this case to have a clear conceptual separation from ecobalance.
On the initiative of the Bundesverband Baustoffe, Steine & Erden e.V (Federal Association of Building Materials, Rock and Associated Products) guides were
prepared in 1997 and 1999 which can be very helpful when dealing with such balance sheets.
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5.3 Development of new methodical bases
An overall assessment of the individual environmental impacts of the possible extraction systems for a special deposit on a comparable basis is very complicated. For
example, this assessment is made difficult because some environmental impacts of the extraction systems such as noise or vibrations occur only temporarily with certain
technologies, in contrast to others which have a continuous effect. Consequently, the influence of the period of impact should be taken into account. Another task to be
solved in this connection is the comparison of different environmental impacts such as dust combined with vibrations.
In the end economic indices should also be included in a comparative examination in addition to the ecological ones. For this purpose the utility analysis or a
monetarizing of the environmental impacts taking as a basis the assessment of cost avoidance or the method of willingness to pay could be used. Since the individual
extraction systems may lead to different mining and field losses as well as to possibilities to also extract associated raw materials, the environment balance sheets are
related to the raw material output.
After successful development of the above main fields it will then be possible to select environmentally friendly mining methods for the corresponding deposit taking
as a basis the flow chart in Figure 4. First investigations according to this flow chart at the Institut für Bergbau der TU Bergakademie Freiberg (Institute of Mining of the
Freiberg Technical
Figure 4. Flow chart for the selection of environmental friendly mining technology.
University Mining Academy) in a sedimentary deposit with a mean uniaxial comprehensive strength of 40 MPa resulted in the following order of precedence as regards
the environmentally friendly mining methods:
– drilling and blasting technology
– surface miner (centre plain cutter)
– horizontal digging (digging crawler).
This result is not universally applicable and only applies to the deposit investigated in this case. It was surprising that a mining method using the drilling and blasting
technology clearly came first.
6 FINAL REMARKS
It is necessary to use environmentally friendly methods also in hard rock quarries to protect the natural living conditions. This requires a lot of scientific investigations of
all mining methods economically justifiable regarding a quantification of the environmental impact and its evaluation. Further developments of the loosening equipment
concerning its design and materials as well as detailed technological investigations are necessary for the still relatively undeveloped field of the “explosiveless” mining
methods. The whole extraction system including its operations “loosening/loading”, “handling” and “preliminary crushing” must always be taken into account during all
investigations as well as additionally the mining management as regards its environmental impact as further contributory effect.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Considerations upon extraction technology influence on quality production
Dumitru Fodor & Lazăr Maria
University of Petrosani, Romania
Vulpe Ion
Director general S.N.L. Oltenia, Tg. Jiu, Romania
ABSTRACT: Any mineral resources and therefore coal are not practically renewable matter, which means that the coal reserves diminish all along
exploitation progress. The unreasonable exploitation drives at definitive and unjustified loss of a large amount of the reserves and to unsatisfactory
quality production. Because of these considerations, the coal reserves require conserving, which means that it is advisable to impose matter
management and optimum capitalization.
1 TAKE UP THE PROBLEM
1.1 Customer’s lignite quality requirements
Mining production quality, generally represents a large frame concept; we will define it only as a function of the imposed requirements and extracted raw material.
Besides quantitative parameters, the qualitative parameters of coal decisively call forth the technical and economical production indicators and move in the annual or
longterm mining enterprise, industrial branch or even whole economy planning.
The main destination of Oltenia’s extracted lignite is the power production in thermoelectric power plants. For this reason, the power equipment design and
construction relate to the value of the coal quality parameters.
Thus, the ash content should be between 22 and 27.7%, and the inferior calorific value between 1600 and 1800 kcal/kg at the 43% referring humidity limited.
Counting the fact that from the extracted to burnt lignite, this fuel passes through many operations (transport, storage), with evident quality deterioration; the coal should
have net superior quality parameters in the extraction stage.
1.2 Quality effects on economic indicators
The quality objectives complain to customer’s requirements in both manufacturers and clients’ admitted total cost. To achieve these objectives, it is necessary to admit
a series of extracost items, referring to the following:
– Market study costs, to identify quality requirements;
– Task costs for research, development and to illustrate superior quality production ability;
– Production planning costs, reported to technical and human potential.
The unsatisfactory quality production may generate greater loss than all the realized economies made at a moment against the quality requirements. The substitution of
the quality for reduced costs is an inefficient solution, because it raises the penalties, diminishing profit and at the same time drives to sales difficulties, important capital
immobilization, with all negatives due results.
Counting the fact that coal power potential is directly influenced by in situ quality of resources, the main way to increase the net coal power in the extraction stage is
the extraction technological and technical improvement. It helps to reduce or even to eliminate the sterile balance in the total amount of extracted production and to
diminish the consumption of specific energetic resources.
1.3 Coal quality influence on environment
As long as combustion in power plants is the main destination of the extracted lignite to produce thermal and electric energy, the lignite quality has a large influence
especially on air pollution, as result of nitro,
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sulfur and carbon oxide emission into the atmosphere. As measured values at power plant Rovinari showed, the following average value of dry air emissions were
registered (Table 1).
Oltenia lignite deposit has a form of a bed coal series, separated from each other by sterile rock strata. Many of the lignite strata there are in a fascicle form; a series
presents oneself like more lignite strata as separated by sterile intercalations. Different variable thickness of the lignite strata or sterile intercalations is right in the same
perimeter there.
Coal deposits on the intern PropCarpatic side are affected by faults, in a large number with a little amplitude; there are sometimes more important tectonic
accidents, too. There are three important aquifers (water bearing in the coal complex and artesian in the bed of the forth strata) in this area. Moreover, the area is
characterized by difficult and very difficult environmental conditions.
2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF LIGNITE DEPOSIT IN OLTENIA
2.1 Location, geology, stratigraphy
Oltenia lignite deposit, where the underground mines and open pits operate, is located in the structural unit of PropCarpatic depression, and in the area situated
between Danube and Olt rivers. Although there is a
Table 1.
Figure 1. Mining basins and perimeters in Oltenia.
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single coal deposit, it is divided into five coal deposits (Fig. 1), in consequence of geologic, geographic and economic criteria, and the open pit and underground
operating perimeters.
Oltenia lignite deposit has a form of a bed coal strata (Fig. 2), separated from each other by sterile rock strata. Many of the lignite strata there are in a fascicle form,
presented as some lignite strata separated by the sterile intercalations. Different variable thickness of the lignite strata or sterile intercalations is right in the same
perimeter there. Among these, there are less thickness strata such as 0.2–1.0 m.
Coal deposits on the intern PropCarpatic side are affected by faults, in a large number with a little amplitude; there are sometimes more important tectonic
accidents, too.
By means of the selective extraction technology, according to excavating equipment characteristics (bucket wheel excavator), the minimum exploitable thickness was
established as 1.0 m. However, the practice demonstrated inconveniences at the thickness between 1.0–1.5 m, referring on the one hand to
Figure 2. Stratigraphic Column.
drastic decrease of the equipment productivity, with consequence of extremely low value of the intensive indicators. On the other hand, extracting less thickness strata
are meeting the negative aspects of coal quality, resulting from the dilution phenomena. Simultaneous coal and sterile extraction from less than 1.0 m strata generates
important raw material loss.
2.2 Insitu lignite quality parameters
The lignite quality is appreciated as composition evaluation under the analysis of some parameters. The most important parameters are as follows:
– Calorific value Q [kcal/kg]—Heat quantity produced as an effect of 1 Kilo coal quantity completely burnt. As a rule, lignite quality is evaluating, in this sense, by
inferior calorific value (Qi), registering values between 1800 and 2300kcal/kg in Oltenia’s reserves.
– Ash content A (%)—refers to inorganic matter, as residuum form obtained through lignite ignition. Anhydrous ash content Aanh has relatively high level, within large
limits for Oltenia’s lignite, about 35–45%
Total humidity Wt (%)—represents total content of water in coal, and depends on hydro geological coal deposit conditions, and on coal grain dimension. Total
humidity records value between 30–47 % Oltenia’s reserves.
3 OPEN PIT TECHNOLOGY
The profile of the lignite reserves in Oltenia needs the selective production technology. The extraction continuous technology is generalized in all open pits, using bucket
wheel excavators of different capacity, conveyor belts for transport, spreaders for sterile dumping and deposit machines for throwing down the coal production (Fig.
3).
Figure 3. Lignite extraction in Oltenia open pits.
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4 QUALITY PARAMETERS CHANGE AFTER EXTRACTION
4.1 Way to determine quality parameters
Coal tests are carried out in all operating processes (prospecting, exploitation, delivery). The tests include coal sampling and preparation, in conformity with a certain
system and methodology. The different locations of sampling (on conveyor belts, wagons, deposits) aim to obtain better information about each coal lot. In the
S.N.L.O. TgJiu framework, there are characteristic situations as follows:
– Receiving at wagon expedition point, situated inside the mining unit, where the elementary sample is collected in common, the initial laboratory sample is obtained,
and the qualitative characteristics are determined in own laboratory analysis (Wt, Aanh, Qi). According to obtained results of both a customer and client, the analysis
results are assessed. If there is a difference exceeding ±50% Kcal/Kg between the customer and client’s results, the sample in question is considered as contest and
a new analysis is made, in common, alternatively, in each laboratory.
– At the power plant reception, the place where elementary samples are directly collected on the conveyor belts coming into the plant; after homogenization, crushing
and breakage the initial laboratory sample is obtained, which respects the same previous procedure.
The knowledge of coal quality characteristics at underground and open pit units is necessary to adopt the correct technology, such as to harmonize the work technology
with client’s quality request.
4.2 Quality characteristic after extraction
Analyzing the qualitative parameters for Oltenia open pits, indicates that:
– Reported anhydrous ash content is the single parameter characterizing the sample, without any dependence on another parameter.
– Total humidity differs, depending on the local conditions and the sample preparation, but not on the sample structure. The total humidity influences both the apparent
density and inferior calorific value.
– Volumetric weight (apparent density) obtained from laboratory analysis correlates with ash quantity determined for the same sample with sample total humidity.
Quality lignite characterization refers to the calorific value, as the base parameter for the mining unit among technicaleconomic indicators.
Lignite quality is established by calculations, according to anhydrous ash content and total referring humidity. Referring elements for the quality calculus are assessed
by laboratory analysis of samples drawn from boreholes and operating works.
Table 2.
Qualitative parameters
In situ After extraction
No. Open pit Number of strata Width [m] Referring humidity [%] Aanh[%] Qinf[Kcal/Kg] W[%] Aanh[%] Qinf[Kcal/Kg]
1 ROŞIA Vinf 2.00 41.25 30.97 2041 43.5 47.8 1375
Vsup 3.00 41.25 28.55 2137 43.0 39.7 1705
VI–VII 4.20 41.25 26.77 2209 42.8 35.1 1885
VIII 3.80 41.25 28.11 2155 43 37.9 1770
IX 2.30 41.25 34.33 1905 49.9 45.5 1230
Xinf 4.00 41.25 30.13 2074 44 50.9 1240
X 41.25 29.22 2111 43.1 37.4 1775
XII 0.70 41.25 34.28 1907 51.1 42.1 1290
TOTAL 20.00 41.25 28.96 2122 44.1 37.39 1753
2 PINOASA VI 2.5 41.6 27.94 2205 44.6 31.4 1945
VII 1.1 41.6 26.45 2286 42.4 32.6 1990
Vlllinf 2.3 41.6 28.93 2165 47 30.3 1875
VIILp 1.3 41.6 26.09 2281 47.5 30.2 2285
Xinf 3.6 41.6 30.45 2105 42.4 32.6 1720
Xgup 1.3 41.6 35.11 1912 47.8 32 1600
XI 1.9 41.6 37.42 1818 48.7 32.7 1660
TOTAL 41.6 30.70 2096 45 31.53 1922
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The reference elements for the quality calculation are determined by analyses in laboratory of samples taken from drillings or exploiting mining works. Table 2 presents
the results of coal quality analysis performed at Rosia and Pinoasa begun operations.
A comparative coal quality presented in operation technicaleconomic studies, put against the current production quality, reveals important differences in the calorific
value, in the sense of a diminished value for achieved production.
4.3 Sterile sources and factors determining coal dilution
Based on the achieved observation, it is noted that sterile dilutes coal in the exploitation process; the sterile rises from the following sources:
– in the bloc excavation the sterile quantity from the roof and bed coal strata results from technology discipline violation;
– dropped sterile during the roof cut out operations, during the front excavation process or from the buckets on coal strata. Waste dropping from the front on the coal
roof influences the dilution only if the sterile drops over active wheel range (Fig. 4).
Dropped sterile from wheel buckets follows the factors depending on:
– Field conditions
– Rocks nature in coal strata roof;
– Sterile humidity in roof.
– Work technology
– Total high of excavating level;
– Lignite strata position against excavator walking level.
– Technological excavating equipment
– Wheel diameter;
– Bucket peripheral speed;
– Charge bucket degree;
– Bucket construction and placement;
– Wheel arm length, regarding the maximum front feed possibility.
Figure 4. Excavation scheme.
5 MEASURES TO AVOID LIGNITE QUALITY DETERIORATION
In lignite extraction operations the following measures to reduce dilution are noted:
– waterbearing strata dewatering and improvement of this operation, to reduce excavated sterile layer humidity at possible maximum level;
– previous knowledge on lignite strata, using quality dewatering holes;
– quality maps elaboration for the whole open pit perimeter, based on registered data from prospecting holes performed in the count phase of coal reserves;
– overburden excavation so operated, as walking level is even the coal layer roof;
– reducing last slice sterile thickness to the limits, where there is the superior increasing of slice dimensions, of cheap deep and the wheel rev for this cheap
extraction is not sensibly affecting the equipment capacity;
– choosing an optimum ratio between wheel diameter and peripheral bucket speed, as that sterile quantity dropped from buckets is sensible reduced, under the
condition that equipment hourly capacity is not substantially affected;
– choosing an optimum ratio between the bank slope angle and pitch height (the trend is to reduce the angle and to increase the pitch height) according to the wheel
arm length;
– bone band in the coal layer selective excavation according to the optimum ratio between each coal and sterile thickness, so that resulting quality can respect the
client’s requirements;
– coal layer cleaning of dropped sterile from the superior layers, or of lignite deteriorated by long exposition to the environmental factors. The long term achieved
practice in the open pits of Oltenia showed that to keep coal quality in limits of clients’ demands it was necessary to respect the following tasks:
– Respect work pitch geometry (bank slope angle 45–50° for coal layers and 30–40° for sterile layers; coal pitch height 5–10 m, and for sterile pitch height 12–
22 m).
– front cleaning performs according to the adopted technology and to the specific front conditions:
– preliminary, using the scarificator in case of relatively low thickness of superior layers and finally using the blade bulldozer;
– using the bucket wheel excavator for a sterile subpitch of the height up to 2 m.
– Sterile bond band excavation:
– selective, for thickness more than 0.40 m;
– in block, for thickness less than 0.40 m.
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Figure 5. Geometry configuration necessary to respect quality.
– Reducing coal dilution using:
– both sterile block excavation and 0.10–0.15 m coal thickness from coal roof;
– coal layer excavation retaining in bed a 0.10–0.15 m coal bank.
– Block dimensioning according to geomechanic rock characteristics, to avoid sterile block detachment from the superior level and leave it on the overburden coal
roof.
– Homogenization and deposit coal technology realized by:
– simultaneous excavation of low calorific value coal with high calorific value coal to obtain a constant quality receipt;
– deposition of coal in successive layers;
– using the bulldozer or compacting cylinder to compact longterm coal deposits;
– Priority delivery for coal stored for more than 30 day and with more than 45 °C temperature.
General valid elements for coal exploitation to obtain the quality characteristics the closest to deposit characteristics are represented in Figure 5.
6 CONCLUSIONS
As long as the lignite quality has effects upon both the technicaleconomical efficiency and the environment, it is necessary to perform the rational extraction to respect
the force standards. This paper analyzed the dilution sources and established the required measures to reduce it, with positive effects both on the mining operations and
the power generation, but especially on air quality in the power plant neighborhood.
REFERENCES
Fodor, D. 1996. Exploatarea zacamintelor de minerale si substante utile. Bucuresti: Editura Tehnica.
Lazar, M. 1998. Valorificarea stratelor subtiri din bazinul Olteniei. Petrosani. Teza de doctorat.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Water as a mining tool
W.T.Hennies, A.Stellin Junior, F.Fujimura & L.Soares
Mining and Petroleum Engineering Department, Polytechnic School, University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil
ABSTRACT: The use of water in the mine as a mining tool was initiated with alluvium gold process concentration. The Russians, who in the beginning
of 19 century had controlled the dynamic force of the fluid leading it through pipelines, gave the most recent technological jump. Thus, the first spout
that could be launched against to plane layers of the sedimentary rocks was created. This technique was intensively used during the gold rush in the
American far west. In the modern industry, water is used as the tool to keep cleanness and to cut any engineering material. This new tool produces a
very thin water jet of high energy and pressure, that pure or mixed with abrasives or additives, can clean, polish or even cut extremely hard materials.
Therefore, materials as metals, glasses, and ceramics and even hard rocks can be cut into the most complex drawing contours. The water cannons
also can substitute explosives in the coal mining. Highpressure water energy is easily transported by pipeline. The main question is what the water will
be able to still propitiate in the near future? What would be the next technological jump? We leave to the reader of this article the challenge of the
answers to these two disturbing questions.
1 INITIAL CONCEPTS
Water is a colorless liquid, without smells or flavor, essential to a life; it freezes at 0°C and it boils at 100°C. Chemically it is the dihydrogen oxide (H2O). Water is also
the liquid part of the globe, assigned as the hydrosphere, being the set of oceans, seas and rivers of the planet, and represents threequarters of its total surface. Thus,
the Earth space view is blue that is why it is given the name of the blue planet.
The water is essential for the survival of the animal and plant specimens, and it is one of the items more important to water resources of the hydrosphere, being a
basic motivation for environmental engineering. The use of the water by the man has evolved from the initial survival function to other uses as a hydro way or in more
advanced and technological applications.
2 ANCIENT USES OF WATER
One can mention the following uses of water in antiquity: natural watercourses and elementary aquatic transport, small irrigations, and rudimentary systems of water
supply to communities.
Thus, in the beginning, in ancient times, the rivers and seas had already been used to transport people and materials on boats. The first canoes developed in
prehistoric times, were crude dugouts laboriously carved from wood trunks, shown in figure 1.
In this way, the fluvial and maritime navigation was one of the first branches of engineering conquest, the Ancient Egyptian carvings reveal that the stones used to
build the pyramids were transported by boat. The Egyptian wall painters and pottery makers depicted sail and paddle boats on their ceramics. By perhaps 3000 B.C.
the Egyptian sailors had navigated as far as Crete, a roundtrip of about 950 km. They brought back cedar wood to construct boats. Egyptian nautical development
occurred along with the invention of woven cloth for sails and twisted rope for rigging.
In the ancient agricultural practice, irrigation may have been practiced as early as 5000 B.C. along the banks of flooding rivers as the Nile, by digging channels to
enlarge the area covered by the flood and by filling up dikes to trap water on the land after the river level had lowered. The development of dam reservoirs and of
waterlifting apparatus permitted of
Figure 1. Crude dugout of primitive man.
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Figure 2. Water supply system build in Samos Island 600 B.C.
the irrigation of lands lying above those normally reached by floodwaters. Ancient remnants of these structures have been found in Egypt, Babylonia, China, Phoenicia,
Peru, Mexico, India, and the United States. Modern irrigation systems are still based on these two key engineering innovations.
The third use of water in the old communities consisted of the construction of systems of fresh water supply and its disposal after using. The tunnel of one of these
systems is reported in old Greece, on the Island of Samos. The project of the first engineer, whose name was Eupalinis de Megara, opened a tunnel of 1,000 meters to
link with a lake, leading the water to the community. Figure 2 shows this ancient engineering project, which dates back to around 600 B.C.
3 WATER IN MINING IN OLD TIMES
The use of water as a mining tool is equally old. The Greeks had used the water channels with certain power of disaggregating in auriferous alluviums, and deviated
water to pass over lambskins to get hold selectively the gold particles.
In Greek mythology, the Golden Fleece was a treasure stolen from a dragon at Colchis by Jason and Medea. After the Argonauts returned, the prize was spread on
the bridal couch of Jason and Medea, sanctifying their royal union.
In this ancient mining technique, the water was the fluid environment for rock disintegrations, transportation, concentration and selective gold extraction. Therefore, at
first, the kinetic energy of dynamic flow was launched against the sediments to disintegrate the grains of the alluvium. Secondly, the formed pulp of water flows along
channels to some places depending on the local declivity. Finally, this pulp flows over sheep fleeces, which catch selectively the gold particles, realizing the process of
ore concentration.
The Romans when extracted the gold in the South of Spain had improved these procedures with construction of reservoirs with a reasonable amount of water, and
released it suddenly on the auriferous alluviums.
The story of Diodorus Siculus in the first century B.C. about gold mining describes the fire setting,
Figure 3. Aquatic transport in flooded gallery in German mining just after the middle age.
which is used to shatter the rock. After heating the cold water was thrown on the rock, which was the rock excavation method by thermal breaking until the Middle
Age.
4 MIDDLE AGE UNTIL XVIII CENTURY AND THE FIRST TECHNOLOGICAL JUMP
At the end of the Middle Age, flooded tunnels of a mine in Germany was used for the ore transport with easily handled barges, as it is illustrated in Figure 3.
The steam machine, perhaps, was the first technological jump at a moment of the invention of the first mobile machine, to substitute the animal or human efforts for
transporting people, materials and weights. Before this, the sophisticated device already existed to take advantage of the falls or water streams, but it was restricted to
the local profits.
Examining the drawings of Agricola’s book of the XVI century, this fact can be evidenced. The steam machine was the first mobile device to transform the energy of
water into mechanical work. This invention is attributed to James Watt, who modified an apparatus of Newcombe in 1760. This machine contributed to establishing the
technological basements of the industrial revolution few years later.
A great curiosity about the water is that almost twenty years after in 1781, Henry Cavedish showed that water could be obtained by the hydrogen combustion. In the
meantime, in 1860, therefore a century after the invention of the steam engine, Stanislau Cannizzaro discovered the actual water composition when he demonstrated
that water could be decomposed eletrolitically in two volumes of the gas hydrogen and a volume of the gas oxygen. At the same time, of the steam engine invention, in
1887, the Scottish ironmaster John Wilkinson invented a boring machine with a hollow cylinder steel bar of
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Figure 4. First water jet used in Russia for gold mining in the Ural Mountains. (Savanick, 1996).
great accuracy, which was fundamental for improving the Watt’s steam engine recently invented.
5 CENTURY XIX AND THE POSTERIOR TECHNOLOGICAL JUMPS
At beginning of the XIX century, more precisely in 1827, in the Urals Mountains, the second technological jump was initiated when the water domain was obtained by
the mechanization of mining activities (Savanick, 1996).
The conduction of water through pipes and its launching against the rocks by nozzles constituted the most important technological advances in the mining. In this way
the technique on fluid domain and its more rational usage was conquered and in fact it was the beginning of hydraulic mining. Soon after, this technology was largely
applied in the gold rush in the west of the United States of America.
The Figure 4 illustrates very well, the main element of the hydraulic system in this mining method, where the proper photograph seems to detach the difficulties in
handling the monitor of ore disintegrator devices by the operator.
In the hydraulical concepts of those days, the hydraulic gradient, or either, the height difference between water reservoir level and the water jet exit point was the
available energy deducting of this the losses in the tubing attrition, curves, nipple and others of the system.
6 THE WATER IN MINING IN XX CENTURY AND THE SUBSEQUENT TECHNOLOGICAL JUMPS
With the industrial revolution, the developments of machines and motion engines have been propitiating or optimizing the production processes, and currently
Figure 5. Modern tunnelboring machines TBM.
there is sophisticated equipment available in the market.
The subsequent technological jumps, had been given in the XX century, when a series of elements contributed to these developments, as follows:
The first one was given around 1960, and it was in the industry of the jewelry store, where hard precious stone as rubies in form of small perforated prisms were
used as clock gear bearings to increase the precision and working of the same ones. In 1968, Norman C.Franz begins to study the use of these jewels or orifices as
nozzles to generate highpressure water jets for cutting soft or friable materials. In 1971, the first patent of this cutting system with water jet was registered in U.S.A.
(Zeng et al., 1992).
On the other hand, in the Soviet Union, the hydraulic equipment (water cannons) was developed to launch the limited or discontinuous highpressure water jet in
place of explosive blasting for coal mining in a nonconventional procedure. In this way the blast holes were opened with water energy and their dismounting was
without the explosive usage, increasing security in the operations of mine production, diminishing still the ventilation necessities to dilute toxic gases of conventional
blasting.
In the beginning of the following decade, an important technological jump had taken place in the underground mining and construction. The tunnel boring machines
had been optimized with mixing of cutting process; associating the highpressure water jets strategically located between the mechanical abrasion disks on the frontal
advancing head of the tunnelboring machine (TBM). Figure 5 shows one of this modern equipment.
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Figure 6. Highpressure water jet and spray in coal cutters.
This procedure allowed getting more coarse rock fragments in front of the boring face, which diminished the input energy for tunnel advancing.
As a result, the performance improved substantially and double advance was attained with equal installed power.
Because of the success reached in the tunnel machine, the mining methods looked at other cutting equipment, like the long wall cut tools to substitute the water
sprays for dust control by highpressure water jets to help as a cutting tool, hoping to get similar results as in the TBM boring machines. However, despite several
researches the results are not very promising.
For this type of using the water jets was called assisted water jet. In Figure 6, there is the idea of this application, which can be seen in a bulletin of the U.S. Bureau
of Mines of U.S.A. (Taylor et al, 1989).
In the middle of the decade of 1980s, the technological jump was the addition of abrasives to the water jet generated by the jewel orifices and the great increasing of
pressure by intensifier pumps in substitution to piston water pumps. This improvement enabled also cutting very hard solid materials as metals (steel, cupper, aluminum,
hard steel), hard ceramics and other variety of any products. At the end of the last decade of the 20th century, systems managed by computers became available such
as XY tables operated by a CAD/CAM controller and cutting sheets of any engineering materials (Lauand et al., 2000). The most sophisticated and efficient assembly
with intensifier pumps can attain a water jet pressure of around 400 MPa or 4,000 bars.
Figure 7. Abrasive water jet drill for hard rocks (Savanick & Krawka, 1989).
An interesting application of this new concept is to hard rock drills, which can be examined in the study of the U.S. Bureau of Mines of U.S.A. (Savanick & Krawza,
1989). Figure 7 shows this drill to cut hard rocks.
Water has converted into a very important tool for exploitation, transporting and dressing the ore in the mineral industries.
Nowadays, there are many examples of this important usage. A conventional hydraulic mining for sand has been presented already, in the near of Sao Paulo city in
Brazil (Hennies et al., 2001). To detach the technological jump that was conquered last century, other two Brazilian examples of water in mining operations are
presented here.
In the Amapá State, Northern Brazilia a pipeline of 5 km with a diameter of 127 mm (5 in) transports by gravity the flow of a suspension under 325# of kaolin slurry.
This pipe begins at about 100 m above sea level. From the mine site Morro do Fellipe, the pipe feeds the ore dressing plant in Monguba, Pará State (Moeri et al.,
1987). In this way, the pipeline has to cross underwater the Jari River. This system has been working since 1976.
Samarco Enterprise of iron ore in Brazil gives another interesting application for the pipeline ore transportation. In 1986 an oreduct was constructed to transport
iron ore slurry concentrate from Station Germano at Iron Ore Quadrangle of Minas Gerais, to the Ponta Umbu Port in the Espirito Santo State. Samarco’s oreduct
the first in Brazil and the largest in the World convey the slurry at a distance of 396 km. Now this pipeline can pump 15.5 million ton
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Table 1. Timetable about water uses in the history.
Date Technical or related fact of advance
5000 B.C. The Egyptians begin irrigating crops.
3000 B.C. Galleys propelled by oars and sails are in use around the Mediterranean.
1600 B.C. The clepsydra, a water clock, is invented in Egypt.
691 B.C. The Assyrians build an early aqueduct, transporting water 34 miles to Nineveh.
600 B.C. Water supply project in Samos Island in Greece.
100 B.C. Gold Mining in Egypt use fire setting to rock shattering.
212 B.C. The mathematician Archimedes is killed during the Roman conquest of Syracuse.
1300 The first mechanical clocks appear in Europe.
1370 The first modern perfume Hungary Water is made for Queen Elizabeth of Hungary.
1556 Agricola’s treatise on mining and metallurgy De Re Mettalica is published.
1619 Spanish artist Diego Velazquez paints The water seller of Seville.
1698 Thomas Savery invents a water pump.
1769 James Watt patents a condenser to improve the performance of steam engines.
1774 John Wilkinson invented a machine for
1781 boring the barrel of cannons. Henry Cavedish showed that water could be got by the hydrogen combustion.
1787 American inventor John Fitch launches a steam.
1804 English engineer Richard Trevithick builds the first steam locomotive.
1814 George Stephenson constructs his first steam locomotive.
1826 American engineer John Stevens builds the first U.S. steam locomotive.
1827 Russian alluvial mining begins to use water jets.
1860 Stanislau Cannizzaro demonstrates the water composition by its electrolysis.
1960 Ruby jewels are beginning to be used in mechanical clocks.
1962 Polish filmmaker Roman Polanski directs his first film Knife in the water.
1967 Water cannons are developed in Soviet Union, for coal mining.
1968 Norman C.Franz begins to study water jet produced through ruby jewels.
1970 Songwriting duo Simon and Garfunkel record bridge over troubled water.
1971 First water jet cutting for cards was granted to Norman C.Franz, in U.S.A.
1976 Jari kaolin oreduct was put on operation in Brazil.
1981 Tunnel boring machinery TBM is developed with water jet cutters.
1983 Abrasive water jet was patented and immediately put to work.
1986 Samarco’s pipeline for iron ore. concentrate transport was invited in Brazil.
1989 Drill for hard rock with abrasive water jet is studied in US Bureau of Mines.
After 1990 More complex systems of water jet cutting are developed around the world.
Figure 8. The Itaipu Dam, on the Parana River between Brazil and Paraguay, generate 12,600 MW, making it the largest operating
power complex on earth, in the moment.
per year of iron ore concentrate without troubles. Several pumping stations compose the system that operates at low costs and high reliability, also with safety and low
environmental risk.
For exploitation of the alluvium or nonconsolidated sedimentary mineral deposits, many experiences confirm that a hydraulic excavation alternative presents more
attractive values for the investment in capital or property, whose values are mostly half lower, when compared with a mechanical one.
7 CONCLUSIONS: WHAT WATER WILL HAVE IN DUE COURSE?
In resume, this paper discussed some history of water used in engineering as a whole, and particularly in the mining sector. The main steps of this technological history
are shown in Table 1.
As a last comment, the falling water is a great source of energy so it can be used as a cheap and environmental friendly hydropower plant. The metropolitan area of
Sao Paulo city is the greatest Industrial Center of the whole South American continent due to its accessibility to cheap hydroelectric energy. In the middle of the 20’s
century the artificial lake Billing reservoir permitted a 600meter high water fall to the Henry Borden hydropower station constructed at sea level.
In Figure 8 there is shown the Itaipu Dam located between Paraguay and Brazil in the Parana River. It is the world’s largest hydroelectric complex, with 18 gian t
turbin es generat in g an ult imate ca pa 12,600 megawatts. Begun in 1975, it cost almost $20 billion and the labor of some 30,000 workers. In 1991 the construction
was finished. So, in Brazil about 90% of electricity is produced by hydropower plants.
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As the conclusion there are two main questions to make: What the water will be able to still propitiate for human being in the future? What would be the next
technological jumps? We leave to the reader of this article the challenge of answering these two disturbing questions.
REFERENCES
Agricola, G. 1556 (Trad. L.H.Hoover) De Re Mettalica.
Hennies, W.T., Soares, L., Fujimura, F., Lauand, C.T., Martin Cortés, G.R. 2001 Water Jet Applications in Mining and Other Fields In: International Symposium on Mine
Planning and Equipment Selection, 10th New Delhi, India, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2001,209–214.
Lauand, C.T., Martin, C, G.R.; Hennies, W.T., Ciccu, R. 2000 The Brazilian Program of High Pressure Water Jet to Cut Ornamental Rocks. In: International Conference
on Environmental Issues and Waste Management in Energy and Mineral Production, 6., Calgary, 2000. Proceedings. Calgari, 711–716.
Meyer, C. 1997 Bir Umm Fawakhir: Insights into Ancient Egyptian Mining JOM The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 49(3) 64–68.
Moeri, E., Hennies W.T., Coura J.F. 1987 Geological model and computer control for planning and operating of the Jari kaolin mine, Morro do Felipe, Brazil. In: WORLD
MINING CONGRESS, 13, Stockholm, Sweden. Improvement of mine productivity and overall economy by modern technology. Balkena, Rotterdam, v. 1, 129–136
(there are Spanish and German versions).
Savanick, G.A. 1997 Hydraulic Mining Section 6. Jet Technology 5th Edition (ed. T.J.Labus & G.A.Savanick) Water Jet Technology Association, Saint Louis, USA, 12 pp.
Savanick, G.A., Krawza, W.G. Abrasive WaterJet Drill for Hard Rocks Report of Investigation 9261 United States, Bureau of Mines, 1989,
Taylor, C.D., Thimons, E.D., Kovscek, P.D. Evaluation of WaterJetAssisted Cutting Capability on Longwall Shearers Report of Investigation 9270 United States, Bureau
of Mines, 1989, 10.
Zeng, J., Kim, T.J., Walace, R.J. 1992 Quantitative evaluation of machinability in abrasive water jet machining. PED—Vol. 58, 169–179.
Page 247
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Dimension stone cut with synthetic abrasive water jet
W.T.Hennies, C.T.Lauand & G.R.Martin Cortés
Mining and Petroleum Engineering Department, Polytechnic School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
L.Curimbaba
Empresa—Elfusa Geral de Eletrofusão Ltda., Brazil
ABSTRACT: This paper deals with some experiences and their results of using artificial brown aluminum oxide as an abrasive in the water jet cut
process of the dimension stone in a conventional system. First, some explanations of the abrasive production process are given, showing detailed
steps, technical characteristics and the chemical composition of the brown aluminum oxide. Afterwards, the generated kerf cut on the equipment is
described. These tests were made on two samples of different Brazilian granites. Comparison with the water jet cut using the same mesh size 80#
garnet is discussed. Finally, by the experience acquired with these tests, it is able to affirm that using a very hard synthetic abrasive makes it possible to
obtain a very good surface finishing. However, the life time of equipment parts is very short, resulting in high costly results. A very rapid destruction of
the nozzle used in the experiments will be discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
The use of various materials as abrasive in the abrasive water jet cut procedure, AWJ, has been the article subject of different papers, because the abrasive
characteristics directly affect the process performance. Ohman (1993) affirms that each abrasive has definitive characteristics that determine its efficiency in the cut
process. He affirms that the characteristics having the influence on the efficiency of the cut process are: hardness, density, particle form, and the degree of purity and
size distribution.
Cortés et al. (2000) determined experimentally the characteristics of some materials (garnet, aluminum oxide and silicon carbide) that can be used as abrasive in the
cut process. Vasek et al. (1993) showed the influence that the mineralogical properties of some groups of garnets (almandine, almandite, spessartite, pyrope, grossular
and andradite) have on the cutting process of some materials, including granite. The authors obtained great differences (above the predicted values) in the depth of cut
of the assayed materials when they used groups of different garnets. They attributed the defects in the grains of the abrasive, zones of plastic deformation and the
absence of homogeneity of the grains to this unexpected behavior. They affirmed that, to get better cut efficiency, it is necessary to eliminate all unfavorable influences
on the stability of abrasive particles.
An important property of the abrasive that must be considered is its hardness. The garnet has hardness of about 6.5 to 7.5 in Mohs scale. The aluminum oxide has
hardness of about 9. Silicon carbide has that greater than 9. The higher the abrasive hardness, the higher is the wear of the equipment mixture tube, diminishing its
lifetime, in some cases drastically. Ness & Zibbel (1996) studied abrasion and erosion in high hardness materials, as tungsten carbide and boron carbide, used to
produce mixture tubes in the nozzle of the AWJ systems.
Taggart et al. (1997), using methods of accelerated wear, showed that the mixture tube is very fast consumed when the used abrasive material is aluminum oxide,
compared with its wear provoked by the garnet. In the present article we will be able to evidence that the consuming of the mixture tube can be, in fact, sped up well.
On the other hand, Agus et al. (1995) affirmed that abrasives of higher hardness are much more efficient in the cut of rocks. In fact, the gotten depths of cut when
using aluminum oxide are significantly superior to depths of cut when using garnet as abrasive. In the previous article (Agus et al., 1994), the influence of some abrasive
materials (garnet, sand, grit and metallic slag, olivine and aluminum oxide) on the granite cut was verified. The aluminum oxide presented the best efficiency of cut.
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Martinec et al. (2002) dealt with the use of the olivine as abrasive, displaying not only the results of experiments, but also the mineral technological characteristics.
Mort (1995) showed the results of a survey carried out in October of 1994 among the AWJ equipment users, which showed that 86% of them used garnet as
abrasive. This group of minerals presents optimal characteristics for use; however, it is necessary to study other materials and their possibilities of exploitation as
abrasive in the cut process for AWJ systems.
2 THE BROWN ALUMINUM OXIDE
The brown electrocasting aluminum oxide is a raw material of great use in the refractory industry, which mainly has the raised point of fusing and chemical stability.
Basically, the brown casting aluminum oxide is composed almost exclusively of the phase aA12O3 or corundum, the only thermodynamically steady form of aluminum
oxide. This brown casting aluminum oxide is commonly named as brown corundum.
Although it occurs in the nature on a small scale, brown corundum is usually obtained from the reducing fusing of bauxites of high purity in electric arc ovens. The first
fusing occurred in France and Germany in the end of the last century. Since 1837, artificial rubies have been produced in laboratories. However, the first person to
conceive an oven for the electrofusing of the bauxite on the industrial scale was Higgins in 1904. Basically, his oven was composed of a base coated with refractory
material and of a steel layer, in the form of a cone with the lesser diameter in the superior part, cooled with water. Figure 1 presents a schematic drawing of the Higgins
oven. Some variants exist, as the dumping oven; however, the process is always the same.
The electric current is conduced to the oven by the graphite electrodes, generally three or two. Initially, great part of the energy is spent to start the fusing of raw
materials. When the system is stabilized, the load is added in the oven in regular periods. The process duration depends logically on the size of the oven, the type of
material being cast and the amount of energy used. After the complete fusing of the material, the layer is removed and the block is left to cool until the moment of its
rupture. In the case of dumping ovens, the material is shed in specific molds for cooling.
In the case of brown aluminum oxide, the basic raw material used is the bauxite, containing 78% to 80% of A12O3. Due to the great humidity in the raw material, it
must pass through calcinations or sintering processes. To raise the content of Al2O3 to 96%, it is necessary to add a reducer, generally coke or anthracite. This reducer
causes the reduction of traces
Figure 1. Schematic drawing of a Higgins type electric arc oven.
of Fe2O3, TiO2 and SiO2 in brown corundum, according to the following equations:
Fe2O3+3C=2Fe+3CO
(1)
SiO2+2C=Si+2CO
(2)
TiO2+2C=Ti+2CO
(3)
The metallic iron, silicon and the titanium are concentrated by gravimetric sink in the deep of the block and at the moment of its rupture they are easily separated. The
easiness of reduction of oxides presented in the equations above is foreseen by the thermodynamics. The TiO2 is more difficult to reduce; the proportion of TiO2 less
than 1% at the final product causes an increase of aluminum oxide reduction in metallic aluminum, and the consequent loss of process efficiency.
After the material fusing, it is cooled and broken by pneumatic weights or drillers. In this stage, a visual separation of the block components parts occurs. The
laterals, composed of halfcasting material, are reused in the subsequent fusing; the inferior part of the block is composed of a metallic league ironsiliceous. The interior
of the block is used for brown corundum production. The rocks of corundum, with diameter of approximately 20 cm, are broken in jaw crushers and later in sequences
of mill of coils or hammers. Due to great abrasiveness of corundum (hardness 9 in the Mohs scale), a great wear of the shatter equipment occurs. The grains are
exposed to a magnetic treatment process, to remove this contaminant. After this stage, the material enters the sieving process. Initially, the grainsized separation occurs
for “thick”, “average” and “fine” grains. Sequences
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Table 1. Abrasive chemical composition.
Oxide %
A12O3 96.7
TiO2 1.29
SiO2 0.85
Fe2O3 0.76
CaO 0.05
MgO 0.24
Na2O 0.04
K2O 0.06
Cristal size (µm) 3000
3.96
Density (g/cm3)
Table 2. Abrasive grain size distributions.
of bolters allow better selecting the refractory grains. The last stage of the process is the packing and the expedition of the material.
The material used in the AWJ system was the brown aluminum oxide of type TB R 80, whose chemical composition is shown in Table 1. Grain size characteristics,
crystal size and density are in Table 2.
3 ROCK TEST SAMPLES
For the accomplishment of the experimental using of synthetic abrasive, rock test samples of the Red Capão Bonito granite and Silver Interlagos granite were assayed.
Tables 3 and 4 present, respectively, some of the more important technological characteristics of the Red Capão Bonito granite (Hennies et al., 1999) and of the Silver
Interlagos granite (Born et al., 1996).
For the execution of the assays, the test samples were prepared for the cut on the Water jet system in the form as shown in Figure 2.
4 OBTAINED RESULTS
The obtained results are shown in a set of figures, beginning with the complete series of cut realized on the red granite. Figure 3 presents upper face of the Red Capão
Bonito granite sample cut by AWJ using
Table 3. Capão Bonito granite technological.
Properties Data
Petrography classification Porphyry Biotitic granite
Mineralogical composition Pertitic Microcline (35%); plagioclase (20–25%); quartz (30%); biotite (10%); zircon, apatite, ores, epidote, carbonates, sericite
(<5%)
Recommended use Covers & internal or external pavements
Dry density
2.625 kg/m3
Apparent porosity 0.68%
Water absorption 0.26%
Amsler wear 0.60 mm
Impact test 51 cm
Axial compression 1 33.0 MPa
Flexion 13.2 MPa
Static young modulo 56,100 MPa
Linear thermal expansion 0.0087–0.0002 mm/m°C
coefficient
Table 4. Technological data of the Silver Interlagos granite.
Properties Data
Dry density
2.625 kg/m3
Apparent porosity 0.78%
Water absorption 0.28%
Amsler wear 0.64 mm
Axial compression 179.0 MPa
Flexion 14.1 MPa
Figure 2. Sample form and its disposition to cut in system.
the synthetic brown aluminum oxide. This surface is the entrance of the water jet.
Figure 4 shows the lower face of the sample in which measures of the smooth cut distance and the total cut depth were made.
Figure 5 shows a graphical comparison of the depths of cut obtained using the synthetic brown aluminum oxide and using normal 80# garnet.
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Figure 3. Upper face view of jet entrance on red granite sample.
Figure 4. Under face view of the jet exit on red granite sample.
Figure 5. Smooth kerf depth differences using garnet and brown aluminum oxide.
It is possible to observe that the use of aluminum oxide as abrasive allows the attainment of very great depths of cut, in comparison to the garnet. However, a
counterpart exists: the drastic reduction of the useful lifetime of the mixture tube (or focal tube) used for the cut. The high hardness of aluminum oxide (9 in the Mohs
scale) caused the destruction of the hard metal (tungsten carbide), as it is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Mixture tube nozzle destroyed by synthetic abrasive.
Figure 7. Upper sample surface of jet entrance in Silver Interlagos granite.
The destruction of the nozzle mixture tube did not allow that the experiment was completed using other materials. During the cut of the Silver Interlagos granite, a
sensible alteration in noise produced by abrasive water jet was perceived when it exited from the highpressure nozzle. The experiment was then interrupted. The
resulting wear caused in this mixture tube can be seen in Figure 6.
The cut in the Silver Interlagos granite was irregular, as it can be observed in Figure 7 (entrance of water jet). It is to be detaching that the kerf width at the sample
upper surface, 2 mm in quality 1 and 2, goes abruptly to 5 mm in the cut of quality 3 (third line of cut).
The depth of cut, as foreseen, after the wear of the mixture tube and the strange noise, diminished brusquely in the kerf cut of quality 3 in ahead, as it can be
observed in Figure 8.
It is interesting to note that Zeng et al. (1992), defining the socalled machinability number, trying to predict the depth of cut, did not introduce, in the experimental
equation, a variable relating to the type of abrasive in use; the equations work only for garnet. However, Kim et. al. (1993) made some experiments using aluminum
oxide as abrasive. They said there was a great difference in the depth of cut when the abrasive is aluminum oxide and the target material to cut is granite or marble, or
other rocklike material. The authors showed figures at about 5 times the depth of cut obtained when the abrasive is garnet. However, when the target material was a
metal or a ductile
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Figure 8. Upper sample surface of jet entrance in Silver Interlagos granite.
material, things did not change; the authors said they found the same depth of cut when using garnet or aluminum oxide as abrasive.
Zeng et al. (1992) said that the difference could be adjusted at the depth of cut formula, multiplying the machinability number by a factor of 3 or 5.
Figure 5 shows the obtained depth of cut almost 2 times the figures obtained when using garnet. It must be noted that we are using synthetic aluminum oxide. Using
natural abrasive, maybe the figures can be different.
5 CONCLUSION
As main conclusion of this research, it can be detached that, despite the best synthetic or artificial abrasive performance obtained, it is not recommended to use powder
as abrasive for water jet systems of highpressure. Although specialists of the area alerted us (verbal communication of Prof. Ciccu), the great aggressiveness and
consuming of the components of the system whose durability is enormously reduced dissuade its use totally.
REFERENCES
Agus, M.; Bortolussi, A.; Ciccu, R.; Kim, W.; Vargiu, A. Abrasive performance in rock cutting with AWJ and ASJ. In: AMERICAN WATER JET CONFERENCE, 8.,
Houston, 1995. Proceedings. Saint Louis, Water Jet Technology Association, 1995. v. 1, p. 31–47.
Born, H.; Soares, L.; Braga, J.M. Caracterização tecnológica dos materiais de construção de jazida localizada em area urbana. Revista da Escola de Engenharia, p. 323–
31, 1996. Número especial.
Cortes, G.R.M.; Lauand, C.T.; Hennies, W.T.; Ciccu, R. Abrasives in water jet cutting systems. In: INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON MINE PLANNING AND
EQUIPMENT SELECTION, 9., Atenas, 2000. Proceedings. Rotterdam, Balkema, 2000. p. 641–5.
Hennies, W.T.; Stellin Jr, A.; Cretelli, C. Jet piercing application for red granite block mining in Sao Paulo, Brazil. In: INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON MINE
PLANNING AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION, 8., Dnipropetrovsk, 1999. Proceedings. s.L., National Mining University of Ukraine, 1999. p. 21–6.
Kim, T.J.; Constantino, H.a; Zeng, J. 1993 Na Experimental Investigation of Nozzle Wear in the Entrainment Abrasive Water jet System, to be submited for publication in
the Proceedings, 7th American Water Jet Conference.
Martinec, P.; Foldyna, J.; Sitek, L.; Bilková, L.; Barcová, K. Olivine as industrial abrasive for high speed water jet technology. In: INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
ON WATER JETTING, 16., AixenProvence, 2002. Proceedings. Bedfordshire, BHR Group Limited, 2002. p. 287–97.
Mort, G. Results of abrasive water jet market survey. In: AMERICAN WATER JET CONFERENCE, 8., Houston, 1995. Proceedings. Saint Louis, Water Jet
Technology Association, 1995. v. 1, p. 259–82.
Ness, E.; Zibbel, R. Abrasion and erosion of hard materials related to wear in the abrasive water jet. Wear, v. 196, n. 1–2, p. 120–5, Aug. 1996.
Ohman, J.L. Abrasives: their characteristics and effect on water jet cutting. In: AMERICAN WATER JET CONFERENCE, 7., Seattle, 1993. Proceedings. Saint Louis,
Water Jet Technology Association, 1993. v. 1, p. 363–74.
Taggart, D.G.; Nanduri, M; Kim, T.J.; Skeele, F.P. Evaluation of an accelerated wear test for AWJ nozzles. In: AMERICAN WATER JET CONFERENCE, 9.,
Dearborn, 1997. Proceedings. Saint Louis, Water Jet Technology Association, 1997. v. 1, p. 239–50.
Vasek, J.; Martinec, P.; Foldyna, J.; Hlavác, L. Influence of properties of garnet on cutting process. In: AMERICAN WATER JET CONFERENCE, 7., Seattle, 1993.
Proceedings. Saint Louis, Water Jet Technology Association, 1993. v. 1, p. 375–87.
Zeng, J.; Kim, T.J.; Wallace, R.J. 1992 Quantitative evaluation of machinability in abrasive waterjet machining. PED—Vol. 58:169–79.
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© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Rock cutting process simulation by dynamic finite element analysis
A.W.Khair & B.Yu
West Virginia University, Morgantown, USA
ABSTRACT: The failure process in continuous miner rock cutting was simulated by dynamic finite element analysis, based on the mechanics of rock
cutting. The cutting drum model using conical bits at West Virginia University Coal & Rock Cutting Laboratory was chosen as the simulation
prototype. The drum’s loading characteristics (i.e. penetration and cutting forces) were calculated at given cutting speed and given rock material. Both
tensile failure and shear failure occurred in the numerical cutting process. The penetration and cutting forces were first calibrated by experimental test
results. Then the applied force ratio between bit tip and bit body was used to evaluate the conical bit geometry. It was found that the penetration and
cutting forces do not depend on the cutting speed, while the mechanical properties of the rock material affect the cutting characteristics significantly.
1 INTRODUCTION
The continuous miner has been utilized since about 1945 (Kegel, 1973). It uses a cylindershaped cutter drum, about 1016 mm in diameter and 3048 mm long. The
rotating drum with conical bits lacing on it can be fed or sumped into the face to cut the coal. The bits on the drum cut the coal in crescent shaped paths. The depth of
cut of a bit varies from zero of depth of cut at the beginning to the maximum depth of cut at the middle of the cutting trace. And then the depth of cut falls back to zero
when the bit loses contact with the coal.
To improve productivity and reduce cost of coal production, manufacturers are supplying heavier, more powerful continuous miners. For example, DBT’s 40 M
series continuous miners weight about 102 tons with 700 horsepower for cutting head (DBT’s webpage). Today the latest continuous miners feature much higher
cutting forces and greater penetration speed. However as the cutting rate increased, it often results in excessive vibration and noise, increasing dust generation, damage
to machine, and decreasing machine useful life. Furthermore, in order to reduce the dust levels in the working area, the manufactures tend to increase bit spacings and
reduce number of bits on the cutting drum. This means fewer bits in contact with the coal face at any given time, which will increase the loading on every single bit. This
will not only increase vibration in the cutting head, but also damage the bits, increase the opportunity of ignition.
A numerical method to simulate the cutting characteristics of a continuous miner is discussed in this paper. The lab model of continuous miner at West Virginia
University was simulated in the computer. Its cutting head and the coal or rock interaction was modeled utilizing dynamic finite element method. The cutting forces
distributed on each bit have been predicted. And by this model the effects of some cutting parameters on the cutting results can be analyzed.
2 NUMERICAL METHOD APPLIED IN THE STUDY
The basic mechanism of continuous miner rock cutting is tools (i.e. bits)—rock interaction. Toolrock interaction has been a subject of study since 1950’s. It is known
now that the rock fragmentation process under tool indentation generally includes the following stages: building up of the stress field, formation of an inelastic
deformation zone or a crushed zone, chipping and crater deformation of surface, and formation of subsurface cracks (Mishnaevsky, 1998).
However the continuous miner rock cutting process is more complex than tool indentation. The drum head of the continuous miner cuts the rock in a fast and
continuous way. The forces which are applied by the bits to the rock are in short periods of time, and change rapidly. The effects must be considered in terms of the
propagation of stress waves. In this study, all the materials, including rock
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and coal, are considered to be isotropic solids. For this kind of material, two types of elastic wave are propagated. These are dilatation waves and distortion waves. In
addition to these two types of wave, Rayleigh waves can be propagated along the surface of the rock, and the disturbances associated with them decay exponentially
with depth (Kolsky, 1963).
The equations governing the above waves in an isotropic elastic medium can be derived from the equations of motion. According to Belytschko et al. (2000), these
equations include:
1 Conservation of mass (or matter)
2 Conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum
3 Conservation of energy, often called the first law of thermodynamics
4 Constitutive equations
5 Straindisplacement equations.
The momentum equation also needs to satisfy the boundary conditions and initial conditions. These partial differential equations are first semidiscretized to ordinary
differential equations in time. Then the explicit method, usually based on central difference formulas are employed to implement time integration.
However, the explicit time integration scheme is conditional stable. It requires that the time step must be below a critical value, otherwise the solution will blow up
due to a numerical instability. In order to simulate the bit tip effect on cutting results, the bit tip needs to be discretized into very small elements. And the time step will be
very small too. This will cost the computer thousands of hours to calculate 1 second cutting. In the following simulation, we first proved hat the cutting speed has little
effect on the toolrock interaction numerically. Then all the rest of the simulations were calculated based on a very fast cutting speed since fast cutting speed can greatly
save CPU time. And in order to do this the cutting drum and bits are considered to be rigid.
During toolrock interaction, some elements are destroyed because of pulverization, a process which is called erosion in numerical simulation. Erosion, incidentally, is
unavoidable in three dimensional toolrock interaction calculations, because it is otherwise almost impossible to create a path for the tool to cut through the rock. A
three dimensional impactpenetration algorithm with erosion developed by Belytschko & Lin (1985) was applied in this study. This algorithm is based on interactions
between slave nodes (tools) and master elements (rock). A key attribute of this interaction algorithm is that it requires no definition or tracking of sliding interfaces, i.e.,
the erosion of an element requires no redefinition of the interface and thus avoids the complexity associated with sliding interfaces in these situations. In this paper two
types of rock failure
Figure 1. The experiment set up of rock/coal cutting.
modes are embedded into the rock material model: one is tensile failure, the other is shear failure.
3 SIMULATION OF LAB MODEL CONTINUOUS MINER
Figure 1a shows the automated rotary cutting simulator system in the Rock & Coal Cutting Lab at West Virginia University. In the experiment a rock block is put in the
confining chamber. Inside dimension is 762 mm by 508 mm by 178 mm. The cutting drum is 229mm in diameter and 305mm in width. And 9 bit blocks were welded
on the drum. The drum can cut into the rock block automatically at required rotation and penetration speeds. Figure 1b shows the monitoring equipments. This system
is used to monitor the penetration and cutting pressure of the frame, cutting depth, amount of respirable dust generated, mass of rock cut product.
The continuous miner model in the lab was simulated using LSDYNA3D, which is a popular finite element package to solve wave equations. By this simulation the
drum’s loading and cutting characteristics were evaluated. The finite element model of this cutting drum is shown in Figure 2.
In order to simulate a large piece of rock, the rock boundary in the FE model was designed to be a quiet boundary. This quiet boundary can absorb waves radiating
toward infinity in a finite computational grid.
The mechanical properties of the rock material are listed in Table 1.
The cutting drum cut into the rock at 836 rotations per second and 10,160 mm per second advancing rate first. After the interaction forces between the bits and
rock were computed both rates were decreased to one half of their previous values and again the computer calculated the interaction forces. Finally averages of the
interaction forces in both cases were compared to each other. As shown in Figure 3 the results of cutting forces in both cases are very close to each other and both of
them are very close to the experimental cutting results (shown in Figure 4). The rotation rate
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Figure 2. The finite element model of cutting drum and rock.
Table 1. The mechanical properties of rock material used both in experimental and numerical studies.
Figure 3. Penetration forces and their average values in cutting at different speeds.
of the automatic rock & coal cutting system used in experimental study is 100 rpm and its advancing rate is 10 mm/sec. This implies that the cutting speeds will not
affect the interaction forces too much. This kind of result actually lies on the algorithm of the erosion of elements. When the cutting speeds increase, the interaction
forces between the rock and bits increase.
Figure 4. Comparison penetration forces between calculated and measured data.
Figure 5. Penetration forces for cutting different material.
However before the interaction forces increase to a very high value, the rock or coal elements which were impacted already were broken. Figure 5 shows the
penetration forces as cutting different materials. The compressive strength of the harder material is 10 MPa, the tensile strength is 3.3 MPa. While the compressive
strength of the softer material is 3.3 MPa, its tensile strength is 0.4 MPa. The straight lines are their averaged value respectively. And their difference is clear. Therefore
interaction forces depend greatly on rock properties other than cutting speed. This speed independent conclusion can only by derived in numerical simulation when the
drum and bit are kept rigid, and can not be extended to reality. The friction between bits and rock and the eccentric forces in the drum at high running speed will
destroy the cutting drum completely.
4 DISCUSSION
It is found from the computer simulation that all loadings are impulse loadings. This means the contact forces increase to peak in a very short time before the rock
elements fail. Then the contact forces decrease to zero very quickly and remain at zero before the bit meets other rock elements. This kind of impulse loadings usually
causes vibration in the drum head.
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After the numerical model of cutting drum is calibrated, the effects of many parameters on rock cutting were studied:
1 The effect of bit geometry: In numerical simulation the bit geometry was modeled in detail. The interaction forces applied on bit tip and bit body were evaluated
respectively. Since the bit tip is much harder and stiffer than the bit body, the bit tip is expected to transfer more cutting forces to the rock or coal. The bit geometry
was evaluated by comparing the forces afforded by bit tips and bit bodies. It was found that for the bit geometry used in the above simulation 9 bit tips applied 68%
total penetration forces and 9 bit bodies afford 32% total penetration forces.
2 The lacing pattern of the drum bits: The lacing pattern of the bits defines the bit spacing, bit attack angle, and the pattern of precutter. All these parameters are
believed to have effects on the cutting results (Khair, 2001). The results of studying these parameters will be discussed in other papers.
5
CONCLUSIONS
Although the numerical simulation of rock cutting process by finite element method is not perfect, because some abnormally high stress insurgent could be found in the
results, it still demonstrates potential for use in estimating the cutting characteristic of a new design drum. When the continuous miner becomes larger and heavier, the
safety issue on continuous miner operation will be more important. Improperly bit lacing can cause high impact forces on single bit when the bit hitting on hard rock. The
broken pieces of bit and rock can hurt the continuous miner operator and cause casualty. This situation can be avoided by studying the characteristic of the cutting force
numerically during the drum design period.
The small time step problem in dynamic finite element method can be overcome by using a faster computer and parallel computation technique.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project is primarily supported by Coal and Energy Research Bureau (CERB) of the state of West Virginia. The authors acknowledge to the help of the state of
West Virginia.
REFERENCES
Belytschko, T. & Lin, J. 1985. A new interaction algorithms with erosion for EPIC3, contract report BRLCR540.
Belytschko, T. & Liu, W.K. & Moran, B. 2000. Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DBT webpage. 2004. http://www.dbt.de.
Kegel, W.G. 1973. Machinery maintenance, elements of practical coal mining, edited by Samuel M.Cassidy, The American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and
Petroleum Engineers, Inc., pp.313.
Khair, A.W. 2001. Research and innovations for continuous miner’s cutting head, for efficient cutting process of rock/ coal. 17th international mining congress and
exhibition of Turkey, pp.45–55.
Kolsky, H. 1963. Stress waves in solids, Dover Publications, Inc., New York.
Mishnaevsky, L. Jr. 1998. Rock fragmentation and optimization of drilling tools. In: Fracture of Rock. Ed. M.H.Aliabadi, Computational Mechanics Publications.
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© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Prediction of fragmentation for ring blasting in largescale sublevel caving
A.Lith
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, USA.
M.Kuchta
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, USA
C.Quinteiro
LKAB, Kiruna, Sweden
ABSTRACT: Fragmentation control is an important aspect of safety and economics in sublevel caving. Bad fragmentation can cause delays in
extraction, dangerous hangups, ore loss and dilution. The search for an optimal blasting layout can start with the use of computer models to simulate
the process of fragmentation. In a later stage, only a few selected blasting layouts can be tried in the mine making this whole process more time and
cost effective. LKAB is currently developing a computer model for predicting the fragmentation for ring blasting in its sublevel caving operations in
northern Sweden. The model is based on the KuzRam approach, which was originally designed to predict the fragmentation of bench blasts. In
contrary to bench blasting, ring blasting is done against a wall of broken rock. This paper discusses the applicability of the KuzRam approach for
predicting fragmentation in ring blasting and presents a comparison between measured and predicted fragmentation values.
1 INTRODUCTION
LKAB is a Swedish mining company located in the province of Norbotten above the Arctic Circle. LKAB owns two mining operations, the Kiruna
Figure 1. Typical ring layout in the Kiruna mine.
Mine and the Malmberget Mine. In both mines iron ore is extracted by sublevel caving. In sublevel caving ore is extracted through the gravity flow of the blasted
material. Today the Kiruna Mine is the second largest underground mine in the word and has a production of 25 to 26 million ton of iron ore per year. Nine sublevels
are being mined between level 775 and level 1045. Each sublevel level has a height of 27.5 meters, the distance between the drifts is 25 meters and the spacing
between the rings in the drifts is 3 meters. Figure 1 shows a typical ring blasting layout in the Kiruna mine.
2 IMPORTANCE OF FRAGMENTATION CONTROL
Fragmentation control is an important issue in a sublevel caving mining operation. Good knowledge of the fragmentation of a ring blast will contribute to a safer and
more economical mining environment. Bad fragmentation can lead to the following problems.
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2.1 Decrease in safety
Bad fragmentation can cause problems during ore extraction. When ore is not caving humans have to solve the problem at the location. Smallscale blasting or
hammering can be a solution, though this means that the miners have to put themselves in an unnecessary potentially dangerous situation.
2.2 Delay in extraction
When a blast produces a poor fragmentation size distribution or when extraction is interrupted, settlement of the ore can occur resulting in compaction of the material
and a delay in extraction. Page and Bull (Page and Bull, 2000) discuss in their paper occurrences of potential problems for smooth ore extraction.
2.3 Dilution
During the caving process not only the ore caves, but the hangingwall will cave as well. As the percentage of extraction increases to a certain point, waste dilution will
enter the draw point. This happens because of mixing of the blasted ore and the waste in the higher zones of the ring. The higher the percentage of extraction, the higher
the dilution entry will be.
A second cause for early dilution entry happens when ore fragments are too large and become stuck in the ring. Waste will flow through the openings between the
ore fragments and into the draw point.
When a blast is designed in a way that it will fragment the ore and compact the waste, there will be less dilution entry and it will start at a later point.
2.4 Ore loss
Poorly fragmented ore can be left behind in the ring when the fragment size is too large or when it is trapped in the passive zone of the gravity flow profile (Rustan,
2000). Ore can also be left behind as ribs, this occurs when a blasthole has not fully exploded.
3 FRAGMENTATION MEASUREMENTS
Since it is impossible to enter a ring after it has been blasted and to measure the fragmentation at different locations in the ring or conduct screening on a complete ring,
a different method needs to be applied. At LKAB’s Kiruna mine fragmentation measurements are done by conducting image analysis on digital photos that are taken
from the surface of scoops that have a capacity of about 25 ton. A computer program called “WipFrag” from “WipWare”, Canada is used to conduct the image
analysis. To measure the fragmentation size distribution of one ring approximately 400 pictures are analyzed.
3.1 Sizedistribution curve
The image analysis program determines for each photo the RosinRammler fragmentationsizedistribution curve. The RosinRammler formula uses two parameters to
describe the sizedistribution of a blast. The characteristic fragmentation size (Xc) which is the size where 63% of the particles are passing a screen and the uniformity
coefficient (N) which determines the distribution of the fragment sizes. The RosinRammler formula is shown in Equation 1.
(1)
According to literature (Chung, 2001) the uniformity coefficient of a blast typically lays between 0,8 and 2,2. Blasts with a uniformity smaller than 0,8 are influenced by
secondary blasting effects and a uniformity greater than 2,2 is too great to be real. To determine the fragmentation size distribution of a complete ring, the average Xc
and N of all images is calculated.
3.2 Limitation of image analysis
The image analysis program determines the outline of rock fragments by color difference. The image analysis uses so called “edgedetection parameters” to do this.
Unfortunately this is not always very accurate, since sometimes color difference exists in a rock fragment or no color difference exists between rock fragments. From a
small study was concluded that image analysis tends to measure fragmentation about 11% more uniform in the fines region (Xc<0,5 m) and about 13% less uniform in
the course region (Xc>0,5 m) and tends to measure the characteristic fragmentation size (Xc) 10% smaller than accurate fragmentation measurements.
A second limitation is that image analysis is carried out on photos that are taken from the surface of a scoop. Large boulders can be located under the surface of the
scoop and as a result they are not measured in the image analysis.
A third limitation of is that it is not known if all ore has caved. It could happen that poor fragmented or compacted ore is still left behind in the ring. As a result part of
the fragmentation of the ring is not being measured, instead waste fragments from a higher sublevel are being measured.
4 FRAGMENTATION PREDICTION
Two types of fragmentation prediction models exist, numerical and empirical models.
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4.1 Numerical models
The numerical models generally simulate the fracture growth induced by pressurized gas or shock waves resulting from the explosion. Two different numerical models
can be distinguished. One are models where it is assumed that the shock waves are the dominant factor in the fragmentation process such as, the SHALE code (Adams
et al., 1983, 1985) and the CAVS code (Barbour et al., 1985). And two are models that assume shock energy is most effective at fracturing rock near the blasthole
and where gas expansion extends the fractures and produces the final fragmentation such as, MDM2D (Michiton, 1996) and PFC3D (Potyondy, 1996). Both types
predict the fragmentation quite well, according to experiments (Me Hugh 1983; Winzer et al., 1985; Brinkmann 1987; Haghighi, 1988; Persson 1990; Aler et al.,
1996; Minchinton, 1996; Potyondy, 1996)
4.2 The KuzRam model
The most known empirical model is the KuzRam model (Cunningham, 1983, 1987). This model does not simulate the fracture growth by gas or waves, but simply
uses blast design and rock factors in an empirical equation to predict the fragmentation size distribution. The fragmentation prediction results show good correlation with
results from numerical models and the KuzRam model is therefore a relative simple and fast fragmentation prediction tool. The KuzRam Equation (equation 2) is
derived from an empirical equation given by Kuznetsov (equation 3) for determining the mean fragmentation size and the RosinRammler formula (equation 1).
(2)
Where, Xc=characteristic fragmentation size [m], =average fragmentation size [m] and N=uniformity coefficient.
(3)
Where, V0=volume broken per blasthole, taken as, burden×spacing×height [m3], Q=mass of the TNT, which is equivalent in energy to that of the explosive charge in
each blasthole [kg] and RF=rock factor, which is a value for the condition of the rock mass.
The formula for the rock condition is given by the empirical equation 4.
RF=0.06∙(JPS+JPA+RDI+HF)
(4)
Where, JPS=value for the vertical joint spacing varying from 10 for 0,1m spacing to 30 for oversize to drilling pattern size spacing, JPA=value for the joint plane angle
varying from 20 for dip from the face to 40 for dip into the face, RDI=value for the density influence determined by Equation 4.1 and HF=hardness factor determined
by Equation 4.2 and 4.3.
RDI=25∙ρ−50
(4.1)
(4.2)
(4.3)
Where, ρ=rock density [t/m3] and UCS=unconfined compressive strength [GPa].
The formula to determine the uniformity is given by an empirical relationship between rock geometry parameters in Equation 5.
(5)
Where, D=diameter of the borehole [mm], B= burden [m], W=standard deviation of drilling accuracy [m], A=spacing to burden ratio, BCL= bottom charge length [m],
CCL=column charge length [m], L=total charge length [m] and H= bench height [m]. Several versions for the uniformity coefficient exist. However, equation 5 is the
latest version described by Cunningham (1987).
4.3 LKBlast
LKBlast is a fragmentation prediction program, which evolved from the program BolBlast, created by the Swedish Software Company “DataPolarna”. LKBlast uses
the KuzRam model for predicting the fragmentation of a blast. The KuzRam model was originally designed to predict the fragmentation size distribution of a complete
bench blast. LKBlast is designed to predict the fragmentation at any location of any given blasting layout. Therefore certain modifications to the KuzRam model
needed to be done and extra formulas needed to be implemented to make LKBlast work. The difference lays in the empirical relationship of the rock condition to
determine the rock factor and the blast geometry parameters to determine the uniformity coefficient. The modified Langefors model (Langefors, 1967) for calculating
the critical distance of the explosion and Hustrulids method (Hutrulid, 1999) for calculating the particle vibration velocity in the rock mass are implemented in the
program.
4.3.1
Rock factor4.3.1
Equation 4 describes the formula for calculating the rock factor, the values given to the rock mass description are changed in LKBlast. JPS=value for
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the vertical joint spacing varying from 10 for smaller than 0,1 m spacing to 80 for greater than 2,0 m spacing, JPA=value for the joint plane angle varying from 10 for
horizontal structures to 40 for dip into the face, RDI=value for the density influence determined by Equation 4.1 and HF=hardness factor determined by Equation 4.2
and 4.3.
An extra formula is applied to change the influence of the joint spacing (JPS) on the rock factor, because the particle vibration velocity in a rock mass changes the
influence of the joint spacing. The higher the particle vibration velocity in the rock mass, the less influence the joint spacing has on the rock factor. The formula was
developed by Hustrulid in 1999 and is given in Equation 6.
(6)
Where, v=particle vibration velocity [m/s], rc= charge radius [m], rh=cylindrical hole radius [m], ρe=density of explosive [kg/m3], ρ=rock density [kg/m3],
vd=detonation velocity [m/s], c=pwave velocity of the rock mass [m/s], R=distance from the charge radius [m] and I=attenuation factor [m−1].
The value for the joint spacing will decrease with a factor varying from 0,8 for a particle vibration velocity greater than 15000 m/s to 1,0 for a particle peak velocity
smaller than 2000 m/s.
4.3.2 Uniformity coefficient
The adjusted uniformity coefficient is given by Equation 7.
(7)
Where, B=the shortest distance from the borehole to a free face [m], D=borehole diameter [m] and S=fragmented surface of a borehole [m2], shown in figure 3.
4.3.3 Langefors
A modified version of the Langefors Model, Equation 8 is used to calculate the maximum distance (=critical distance) of the explosive impact. The Langefors model
also consists of empirical relationship between blasting and rock mass parameters.
(8)
Where, Rc=critical distance of the explosion [m], C0 =value between 1 and 2, D=borehole diameter [m], ρe=density of the explosive [kg/m3], E=relative weight
strength of the explosive and Cr=rock constant, which is the rock factor divided by 20. If the critical distance is equal or greater than
Figure 2. Depicted influence of the Langefors model on the fragmentation.
the distance from the explosive to the “free surface”, the rock mass will explode. If the distance between a borehole section and a free surface is greater than the critical
distance, the rock between the hole and the surface will not fragment during a blast. Figure 2 gives a clear picture of the situation.
4.3.4 Program input
Blasting data is inserted into the program in four stages in. The first stage is definin g t he geome tr the blast. The second stage is to apply the rock properties to the
rock mass. The third stage is to give properties to the borehole and the fourth stage is to set the simulation parameters.
4.3.4.1 Blast geometry
– Distance of the borehole to the free face
– Distance between the boreholes
– Borehole length
– Borehole diameter
– Borehole filling
4.3.4.2 Explosive properties
– Density
– Relative weight strength
– Detonation velocity
– Death pressure
– Explosive triggering
4.3.4.3 Rock mass properties
– Density
– Hardness factor
– Attenuation factor
– Joint spacing
– Joint orientation
– Pwave velocity
4.3.4.4 Simulation parameters
In order to obtain data from the simulation in the way needed, simulation parameters need to be defined. The simulation parameters define how the program should
handle the calculations and sets certain limits. The simulation parameters are:
– Simulation depth
– Number of slices
– Block size
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Figure 3. Horizontal crosssection of a bench blast simulation showing the surfaces fragmented by the boreholes.
– Angle of breakage
– Borehole deviation
– Number of simulations
The simulation depth will be divided by the number of slices starting at a depth of 0meter creating horizontal sections. Fragmented surfaces blasted by each borehole in
the crosssection are calculated and the RosinRammler values, Xc (characteristic fragmentation size) and N (uniformity coefficient) which are determined for the
surfaces. An example of the typical surface created by the blastholes in a crosssection of a bench blast is shown in Figure 3.
4.3.5 Program output
The program gives the output in three different ways.
1 Visual output
2 RosinRammler graphs
3 Notepad file
The visual output is drawn for every section as shown in Figure 3. When selecting one of the fragmented surfaces a RosinRammler graph will appear also giving the
average fragmentation size ( ) the characteristic fragmentation size (Xc) and the uniformity coefficient (N). A RosinRammler graph is also drawn for the slices and the
total blasted volume. Though for these fragmentation curves no Xc and N are given. These size distribution curves are derived by calculating the weighted average of
the fragmented surfaces.
5 FRAGMENTATION COMPARISON
To study the applicability of LKBlast to predict the fragmentation of a ring blast, calibrations were conducted by comparing measured fragmentation data from a blast
with the model predictions. Since the KuzRam theory was originally designed for bench blasting, LKBlast first has to be calibrated with bench blasting data before
LKBlast can be tested to
Table 1. Blasting parameters for fullscale bench blasting in Bårarp granite quarry.
Blast no: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bench geometry
Burden [m] 1,8 1,8 2,7 1,8 1,35 2,3 2,7
Spacing [m] 2,1 2,1 3,4 2,,2 1,65 2,85 3,3
Height [m] 5 5 5 5,2 5,2 5,3 5
Hole properties
Number 6 6 4 6 8 5 4
Diameter [mm] 51 76 76 54 38 64 76
Depth [m] 5, 6 5, 5 5, 5 5, 5 5, 35 5, 6 5, 6
Charge properties
Type* Em Em Em Ke Ke Ke Ke
Stemming L. [m] 1, 4 1, 3 1, 8 1, 3 1, 15 1, 2 1, 4
Filling L [m] 4, 2 4, 2 3, 7 4, 2 4, 2 4, 4 4, 2
Conc. [kg/m] 2, 1 2, 1 5, 2 2, 2 1, 3 3, 5 4, 6
Spec. charge [kg/m] 0, 55 0, 7 0, 55 0, 55 0, 52 0, 55 0, 58
Powder factor [g/ton] 174 174 157 168 176 166 162
* Em=Emulite and Ke=Kemix.
Table 2. Explosive properties for Emulite 100 and Kemix.
its applicability of predicting the fragmentation of a ring blast.
5.1 Bench blasting
The bench blast calibration is done with fullscale bench blasting data from the Bårarp granite dimension stone quarry in the south of Sweden (Moser et al., 2003). The
fragmentation size distribution was obtained by screening of the rock pile. In total 7 blasts were conducted on 5 m high benches. Two different explosives were used
and the spacing, burden and borehole filling length were varied. Table 1 shows the blasting geometry and input parameters for the bench blast calibration, Table 2
shows the properties of the explosives, Table 3 shows the rock properties and Table 4 shows the simulation parameters.
5.1.1 Results
The RosinRammler size distribution curve of the simulation and the measured fragmentation of the bench blast are shown in Figure 4.
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Table 3. Rock properties for granite in Bårarp.
Rock properties Granite
2700
Density [ton/m3]
Attenuation factor 0,09
Pwave velocity [m/s] 5000
Hardness factor 75*
Joint spacing [m] 0
Joint orientation [°] 10
Rock factor
*Is incorrect according to value input, but lower values give a too low rock factor. The rock factor used by the blasting experts is 8.
Table 4. Parameter input for the simulation.
Simulation parameters
No. of slices 12
Simulation depth [m] 6
Block size [0,5] 0,5
Slice height [m] 0,546
Figure 4. Fragmentation size distribution diagram for the measured and simulated fragmentation of the Bårarp bench blasts.
It can be seen from Figure 4 that the size distribution curves are very different. The characteristic fragmentation size (Xc) of the simulated curve is on average 0,27 m,
which is much smaller than the characteristic fragmentation size of the measured curve, which is on average 0,61 m. The uniformity coefficient (N) of the simulated
curve has an average on 2,46, which is much greater than the measured uniformity coefficient which has an average of 0,8.
In a real blast the top of the bench is usually very coarsely fragmented, but in the simulation the top part of the bench partly or not fragmented. Figure 5 shows an
example of the fragmentation in the top part of the bench drawn by LKBlast. This is due to the fact that the program makes horizontal sections of the
Figure 5. Horizontal crosssection of the fragmentation of the top part of a bench drawn by LKBlast.
Figure 6. Fragmentation size distribution diagram for the adjusted and the second fragmentation simulation of the Bårarp bench blasts.
bench and calculates the surface fragmented by a borehole. If no explosive is present in the boreholes of a slice, the Langefors formula determines the critical distance
of the explosive and calculates the fragmented rock volume. Because of the large stemming, LKBlast simulated fragmentation in the top part of the bench unrealistic.
When comparing the order of the fragmentationsizedistribution curves the program predicted quite well. Blasts with almost equal fragmentation size and uniformity
were predicted to have almost equal fragmentation size and uniformity and the order of the curves was also well simulated. Blast 6 differed slightly from the real data,
but was still closely simulated. Only blast 2 was very different, but it can be assumed that this was due to secondary blasting effects (Moser et al., 2003).
In order to make an attempt to compare the values for the fragmentation size and the uniformity of the bench blasts, the effect of an incomplete fragmented bench in
the simulation was removed by performing a second simulation where all boreholes were completely filled with explosives. To be able to compare this simulation with
the real data there needs to be assumed that the coarse fragmentation came from the upper part of the bench. The measured data is than adjusted by eliminating the
largest screening size and taking the remaining fragments as 100% of the fragmented material. Figure 6 shows the fragmentation
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Table 5. Blast geometry of ring layout 1 and 2 blasted in LKAB’s Kiruna mine.
size distribution curves of the second simulation and the adjusted measured data. The predicted fragmentation size distribution is much closer to the measured
fragmentation size distribution. However, the value for the characteristic fragmentation size (Xc) is predicted as 0,27 m and the measured value is 0,35. And the value
for the uniformity coefficient (N) is predicted as 2,37 and the measured value is 1,36.
5.2 Ring blasting
The ring blast calibration is done with fragmentation data from LKAB’s Kiruna mine in Sweden. The fragmentation of the ring was measured by image analysis as
discussed in Chapter 4.
Two different ring layouts were simulated. Of ring layout one, the average fragmentation size distribution of a series of rings blasts was available. However, it is not
known if there were any misfires in the ring blasts. Of one ring, which was blasted in a different area of the mine, it is known that one borehole did not explode and
separate fragmentation data is available. Of ring layout two, the fragmentation size distribution accurately and automatically measured with image analysis of one ring
was available. For this ring the misfires were also known. Table 5 shows the properties of the blast geometry, Table 6 shows the properties of the explosives, Table 7
shows the rock properties and Table 8 shows the simulation parameters.
5.2.1 Results
The RosinRammler sizedistribution curve of the simulation and the measured fragmentation of the ring blasts are shown in Figure 7.
Table 6. Explosive properties for Kr000.
Explosives Kr000
3 1220
Density [kg/m ]
Weight strength [%] 80
Detonation velocity [m/s] 5500
Death pressure [mm/s] 20000
Flashover [mm/s] 30000
Table 7. Rock properties for iron ore at the Kiruna mine.
Rock properties Magnetite
4700
Density [ton/m3]
Attenuation factor 1,4
Pwave velocity [m/s] 4500
Hardness factor 68*
Joint spacing [m] 0
Joint orientation [°] 10
Rock factor 11
*Is incorrect according to value input, but lower values give a too low rock factor. The rock factor used by the blasting experts is 11.
Table 8. Parameter input for the simulation.
Simulation parameters
No. of slices 20
Simulation depth [m] 45
Block size [0,5] 0,5
Slice height [m] 2,36
Figure 7. RosinRammler curves of the measured ring fragmentation and the ring blast simulation of two different ring layouts at
LKAB’s Kiruna mine.
The simulated and the measured RosinRammler curves look very similar for both layout 1 and layout 2. However, the fragmentation of misfire layout 1 is very different
from the other fragmentations. This could be due to course fragments that did not cave
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and therefore are not included in the image analysis. This limitation of measuring ring fragmentation is explained in Chapter 4. Despite of this limitation an interpretation is
made on the difference of the characteristic fragmentation size (Xc) and the uniformity coefficient (N) of the other ring blasts.
The simulation of layout 1 has an Xc of 0,28 m and the average measurements have an Xc of 0,25 m. Since image analysis tends to measure fragmentation more
uniform and with a smaller fragmentation size than in real life, the difference can be neglected. The uniformity coefficient (N) of the simulation was 2,76, which is much
greater than the uniformity coefficient of the measurements which is 1,95.
For the simulation of ring layout 2 the Xc was 0,27 m, the accurately measured Xc was 0,34 m and the automatically measured Xc was 0,27 m. The uniformity
coefficient (N) of the simulation of ring layout 2 was 2,75, the accurately measured uniformity coefficient was 1,69 and the automatically measured uniformity coefficient
was 1,78. The most reliable data are the average fragmentation measurements of ring layout 1 and the accurate fragmentation measurements of ring layout 2. The ratios
of Xc,simulated/Xc,measured are respectively, 1,11 and 0,79, which is an average of 0,95. The ratios of Nsimulated/ Nmeasured are respectively, 1,42 and 1,63, which is
an average of 1,525. This means that for the prediction of fragmentation for ring blasting the fragmentation size is quite closely approximated, but the prediction of the
uniformity is in all cases too high.
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summarizing the results of the research conducted on LKBlast to determine its applicability to predict fragmentation presented in this paper, it is concluded that
LKBlast is not yet ready to be implemented as a tool for predicting the fragmentationsizedistribution of a blast layout. However, it can be used to determine the
relative changes in fragmentation size between blasts.
Many limitations to the program still exist. Nevertheless, as the research continues by continuously adjusting the program and conducting new calibrations to
determine improvements, LKBlast has the potential of becoming an effective tool for determining the optimal ring blasting layout that will result in safer and more
economical ore extraction at LKAB’s sublevel caving mines.
At this stage LKBlast has the following limitations:
– Partly fragmented volumes, due to the absence of explosives in the upper parts of the boreholes
– Impossibly high values for the uniformity of the fragmentation
– Confusion on the meaning of input values for the hardness factor
– Doubts about the correctness of the calculation of the rock factor and
– Minor editing problems.
Currently adjustments are being made to LKBlast to eliminate its limitations. For the calibration of the “new” LKBlast version, the following limitations of the measured
ring fragmentation data need to be considered.
Bench blasting:
– Use data in which screening of the fragmentation was focused on the average fragmentation size
– Use fragmentation measurements of bench blasts with a small stemming.
Ring blasting:
– Representation of the insitu fragmentation by the extracted fragmentation
– Representation of the extracted rock fragments by the fragmentation of the surface of a scoop
– Inaccuracy in the image analysis.
The most representable ring fragmentation measurement are obtained by measuring the fragmentation of multiple rings with the same geometry, explosive and
detonation properties.
The final goal for implementing LKBlast in mine planning is to use it for economical determination of the quality of the fragmentation of different ring geometries. To
achieve this objective, recommendations for further work are the following:
– Continuing the improvement of LKBlast
– Conducting a sensitivity analysis on the blast geometry and borehole filling
– Investigating fragmentation of different blast geometries
– Conduct real blasting on the blast geometries with the best fragmentation.
The most optimal ring blasting geometry is not only the geometry that will improve the economy of the mine, but will also result in greater safety for its employees.
REFERENCES
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international Symposium, Luleå: pp. 361–373
Adams, T.F., Demuth, R B., Keller, C.F., Margolin, L.G. and Nichols, B.D., 1985. Simulation of dynamic rock breakage with the Shale code. Fragmentation by
Blasting, First Edition, Society for Experimental Mechanics: pp. 147–157
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Aler, J. and Mouza, J. du., 1996. Predicting blast fragmentation efficiency using discriminant analysis. Measurement of Blast Fragmentation, Montreal: pp. 203–207
Barbour, T.G., Wahi, K.K. and Maxwell, D.E., 1985. Prediction of fragmentation using CAVS. Fragmentation by Blasting, First Edition, Society for Experimental
Mechanics: pp. 158–172
Brinkmann, J.R., 1987. An experimental study on the effects of shock and gas penetration in blasting. Proceeding of the 3rd International Symposium on
Fragmentation by Blasting, Brisbane: pp. 55–56
Brinkmann, J.R., 1987. Separating shock wave and gas expansion breakage mechanisms. Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Second international Symposium,
Keystone: pp. 6–15
Bull, G. and Page, C.H., 2000. Sublevel Caving—Today’s dependable lowcost ‘ore factory’. MassMinn 2000, Brisbane: pp. 537–556
Chung, S.H. and Katsabanis, P.D., 2001. An integrated approach for estimation of fragmentation. Proceeding the 27th annual conference on explosives and blasting
technique. (ISEE), Vol 1: pp. 247–256
Cunningham, C.V.B., 1983. The KuzRam model for prediction of fragmentation from blasting. Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, First international Symposium, Luleå:
pp. 439–452
Cunningham, C.V.B., 1987. Fragmentation estimations and the KuzRam model four year on. Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Second international Symposium,
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Hustrulid, W.A., 1999. Blasting principles for open pit mining; Theoretical foundations. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema
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simulation of fracture. Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, First international Symposium, Luleå: pp. 347–360
McHugh, S., 1993. Crack extension by internal gas pressur compared with extension caused by tensile stress. International Journal, Fracture, vol. 21: pp. 163–176
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Moser, P., Grasedieck, M., Olsson, M. and Outcherlony, F., 2003. Comparison of the blast fragmentation from labscale and fullscale tests at Borårp. Explosive and
Blasting Technique, Holmberg (ed.): pp. 449–458
Persson, O.A., 1990. Fragmentation mechanics. Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Fragmentation by Blasting, Brisbane: pp. 101–107
Potyondy, D.O. and Cundall P.A., 1996. Modeling of shockand gasdriven fractures induces by a blast using bonded assemblies of spherical particles.
Fragmentation by Blasting, Fragblast5, Montreal: pp. 55–62
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Actual aspects of lignite mining in Mongolia
D.Purevsuren
Mongolian University of Science and Technology, Ulanbator, Mongolia
C.Drebenstedt
Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, Freiberg, Germany
ABSTRACT: Fuel energy is one of important sectors of Mongolian industry, and coal is the major source of domestic energy. Mongolian electric and
warm energy are produced from 93% of brown coal, 6.7% of liquid fuel and 0.3% of other resources. However, almost coal mines have some
technical, technological, environmental and financial problems, especially technological aspects in large brown coal mines.
1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ON MINING IN MONGOLIA
1.1 Last mining situation
Mongolia has substantial deposits of copper, molybdenum, coal, gold, uranium, lead, zinc, zealots, rare earth elements, ferrous metals, fluorspar, phosphate and
precious and semiprecious stones. Several major mining operations (copper, gold, fluorspar, uranium, and coal) were developed before 1989 with the assistance of
the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries. However, due to Mongolia’s long political isolation throughout most of the 20th century and due to a lack of
infrastructure and lack of financing for mineral resource development many mineral deposits with tremendous economic potential remain undeveloped or
underdeveloped.
In order to ensure Mongolia’s competitiveness for international investment in the mineral sector, on July 1, 1997 Mongolia adopted a new minerals law. The 1997
Mineral Law of Mongolia includes strict requirements for the transparent processing of exploration and minin g licen se applicatio ns, and guara ntees tenure and
transfer rights for license holders. With the adoption of the new Minerals Law and growing international recognition of Mongolia’s favourable geological setting, there
has been a large influx of both large and small international mining companies to Mongolia. And in recent years many private mining enterprises have begun operations
in Mongolia. [1]
1.2 Present mining situation
Today the Government of Mongolia has adopted a number of long term programs to explore for and develop promising mineral deposits, especially of gold, silver,
copper, coal, and oil. Foreign investment and direct participation in a wide range of mining related industries are actively encouraged, particularly in connection with the
exploration, extraction, and processing of mineral resources. Mongolia’s national policies concerning its mineral sector are continuously under review to insure that
Mongolia remains favourable for foreign mineral investment and globally competitive with other nations.
The geology of over 93% of the country has been mapped at a scale of 1:200,000, while 18% of the country has been geologically mapped at a scale of 1:50,000.
Various airborne geophysical survey techniques (e.g. gravimetric and magnetic surveys) have been used to map 67% of Mongolia’s national territory at a scale of
1:200,000, and 32% of national territory at a scale of 1:50,000. [2]
Today over 6,000 significant deposits of 80 different minerals have been discovered, and more than 160 of the 400 deposits surveyed in detail have been, or are
now are being developed for production. Another 170 deposits of construction grade materials, such as granite and marble, have also been studied, of which 35 are
presently in production while a further 90 are being developed for production.
The mining sector of Mongolia is the largest industry, accounting to 55% of industrial output and more than 40% of export (Fig. 1).
Presently, Mongolia becomes one of the large producers of several minerals. In 2003 it produces nearly 4.2% of the world’s fluorspar, 0.9% of copper and 1.2% of
molybdenum export, of uranium and gold [1]. Silver, tungsten, tin and precious stones
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Figure 1. Mining production as a percentage of Mongolian overall industrial output.
Figure 2. Gold production in Mongolia.
mines are typically smallscale operations, but some of these are planned for expansion in the future.
Since 1995, gold production has emerged as one of the most dynamic sectors in the Mongolian economy, and is the current focus of many international mining
companies operating in Mongolia. According to the Mineral Resources Authority of Mongolia, there are about 500mining license owners, in which about 120 gold
mining licenses. Gold production has grown tenfold since 1993, and topped 11.4 tonnes in the year 2000 (Fig. 2). Every year more new investments are licensed in
large scale placer and hard rock gold mines, and gold production is expected to continue to increase annually for the foreseeable future.
Mongolia has substantial reserves of coal, significant potential for petroleum exports. It has also operable oil fields in the Gobi and Eastern Steppe regions, especially
preliminary petroleum exploration in eastern and western Mongolia carried out by companies from the USA, Europe, China and Russia. The country is currently
exporting limited amounts of crude oil to China, and plans to increase its exports in the future as new wells and fields are developed.
2 COAL MINING
2.1 Coal potential of Mongolia
Mongolia is known to have rich coal resources. In general terms, the country has a sufficient coal reserve base to cover consumption well in the future. More than 200
coal deposits and occurrences have been discovered in 12 coal basins and 3 regions, which total reserve is estimated in 152 billion tonnes; over 22.3 billion tonnes of
these reserves have been proven. Coal deposits and occurrences are located throughout the country, but most of the coal resources are concentrated in the east,
central and south areas. The coal deposits are irregularly distributed. About 50 coal deposits have been prospected and explored and some of them are under
operation (Table 1 and Fig. 3). Over 90% of total reserves are concentrated in the central economic region. Coal resources were formed during four coalforming
epochs: the Carboniferous (C), Permian (P), Jurassic (J) and Cretaceous (K). The deposition of coal in the Carboniferous and the Permian took place in the
superimposed basins of the post folding development of the region while the Jurassic and the Cretaceous coals were in superimposed basins resulted from tectonic
rejuvenation.
2.2 Present aspects of coal mines
Coal is the major source of domestic energy for power generation plants; it occupies 84% of the total coal produced in Mongolia. There are over 30 surface mines and
2 underground mines in Mongolia, in which, 5 largest mine are: Baganuur, ShiveeOvoo, Sahringol, Adunchuluun and Nalaykh. [3]
The Baganuur brown coal mine was renovated on the credit of World Bank, Asian Development Bank and Japanese government from 1994 to 2002. The Shivee
Ovoo brown coal mine was renovated and extended by the credit of the Japanese government from 1996 to 2003. Carrying out technical technological development
project of the Adunchuluun brown coal mine is based on the credit of the World Development Bank at present.
The Japanese government has invested 5 kinds of equipment with 24 machines for the order of technicaltechnological development project of 5.0 Mil. USD at 10
opencast mines from 2000 to 2001, and thus, overburden removal has increased by 14–57% and open coal reserve by 10–15 % in last year.
In 2003, surface mines in Mongolia has stripped 16.6 Mcm overburden and exploited 5.52 Mt coal, although the plan for overburden was 18.7 Mcm and coal
production was 5.2 Mt. In comparison with the plan, the overburden removal has decreased 2.1 Mcm and the coal production has increased 0.32 Mt. This situation is
quite popular for opencast brown coal
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Table 1. Specification of large lignite coal mines in Mongolia.
Figure 3. Coal resources in Mongolia.
mines below: Baganuur, Sharingol and ShiveeOvoo. Coal production and overburden removal of last 14 years in shown in Figure 4.
2.3 Mining system and equipment
Almost coal mines in Mongolia used Russian equipment, for examples EKG4.6, E5111 (1 m3 bucket), EO (0.4–1.2 m3) for loading, BelAZ (23, 40 t), Kraz, Kamaz
(12–20 t) for transportation and SBR160, BTS150 and SBU for drilling. Last few years, some mines have used new equipment from
Figure 4. Coal production in Mongolia.
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Figure 5. Present overburden removal system in ShiveeOvoo coal mine.
Cat, Komatsu etc. Above mining equipment in usually in small and mediumscale surface mines in Mongolia. The larger surface mines are utilised the different mining
system and equipment. ShiveeOvoo, Baganuur and Sharingol brown coal mines are typical examples for this.
At ShiveeOvoo brown coal mine: overburden was removed by electric rope shovel (5 m3 bucket) and 40 t dump truck before renovation and extension project.
Coal was produced by shovels and trucks. At present overburden is removed by dragline (25 m3 bucket) and shovel (5 m3 bucket) and dump truck (40–80 t). Coal is
excavated by electric shovel (5 m3) and dump truck (40 t).
At Baganuur brown coal mine: in 1990, the whole equipment designed to produce 6 Mt/y of coal was delivered from the former Soviet Union, however,
replacement of deteriorated equipment has been delayed due to financial difficulty. Overburden is removed by dragline (with 15 and 20 m3 bucket) and shovel (with 5
and 8 m3 bucket), and dump truck (with 40 and 80 t). The technicaltechnological renovation is carried out by dragline, electric rope shovel and electric railway
system, and shovel and dump truck (40t) for overburden. Coal is excavated by electric shovel (5 m3), wheelloader (7.5 m3) and dump truck (40 t).
3 PERSPECTIVE OF THE MONGOLIAN COAL INDUSTRY
Scientists of Mongolian University Science and Technology such as P.Ochirbat, Y.Gombosuren, S.Tsedendorj and some other researchers have had the theoretical
and practical grounds for problems about the perspective and development plan of the coal sector in the 21 century in Mongolia as follows:
– Increasing the coal extraction capacity; extending the open cast coal mines; taking into new technology; improving the coal supply for the province and country;
decreasing environmental and coal loss; enhancing coal export.
– Increasing the coal output of mines Baganuur from 3.0–4.0 Mt, ShiveeOvoo from 0.5–2.0 Mt, Adunchuluun from 0.3–0.5 Mt, because according to the coal
investigation, the coal production in Mongolia will be 6.0–8.0 Mt (2005) and 12.0–14.0 Mt (2010) [4].
4 CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE COAL INDUSTRY
Mongolian coal sector produced over 5.0Mt per year, in which nearly 80% from brown coal mines Sharingol, ShiveeOvoo and Baganuur. However, they cannot
work effectively, as well as designed plan. For examples: Sharingol mine works by lock projects, because it can not work economically because of much
backwardness in overburden. The technological processing of this mine isn’t sufficient and incomplete, because the choice and organization of the mechanization
structure isn’t optimal.
There are also serious problems at Baganuur brown coal mine. They are the coal loss, overburden backwardness, equipment choice, and working organization not
optimal. For example: this mine has 13 kinds of loading equipment in the total 24 machines. Thus, it is difficult for organizing the suitable technology with these. On this
reason there are many problems in overburden backwardness and coal loss. All of problems require these mines have new suitable technological concepts.
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Worldwide trend is, that open cast mines should use less and bigger equipment on their mechanization structure.
ShiveeOvoo mine bought and assembled one dragline excavator in 2003, and the coal production has extended from 0.5 Mt to 2.0 Mt. Because of using the direct
dumping technology with dragline. However, the technological schemes and parameters of this mine are not clear and suitable. Until now, there are not any researches
on the optimal and suitable technological parameters and schemes when using draglines for this mine. This situation is imperative actuality at Baganuur mine [5].
With abovementioned problems, it is necessary to develop direct dumping technical technological concepts for use of the direct dumping technology with dragline in
the open cast brown coal mines in Mongolia.
5 THE TOPICALITY AND MEANING OF THE DIRECT DUMPING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE SECTOR
The direct dumping technology can use successfully at the brown coal opencast mines in Mongolia because of the following aspects:
Economy:
– The operating costs getting cheaper because of without transportation system (transportation cost is about 55%—65% of operating costs).
– Can exploit maximally coal reserves.
Management and Organisation:
– Technical technological organization getting simpler because of less equipment used.
– Getting more effectively the mine project, planning, control and organization because of fewer benches.
Environmental protection:
– The opencast mining region gets better ecological condition because the dump stands inside the mine and reclamation will be carried out parallel with extraction
process.
– Reduce environmental pollution for the opencast mine because of less diesel emission and dusty.
Safety work:
– Opencast mine can be worked more safely because of less equipment and more simple organization.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Overburden removal by dragline occupies over 50% in the Mongolian coal mining. But the use of the direct dumping technology is not yet completely in these mines
because of many problems, which are presented above. Therefore, it is necessary to research the following problems:
– Geological description of the bed of coal places to valuate the possible applications of the direct dumping technology in the Mongolian opencast brown coal mines
– Classification of the technological schemes of the
– direct dumping technology with dragline
– Optimization of the technological schemes with the equipment
– Methodology of the choice of dragline
– Observation of the dependences of the extraction work in the technological zones in coal opencast mines with direct dumping technology
– Optimization of the opencast mining parameter and the planning
– Ecological questions and reclamation
– Safety and availability of the complex judgment
– Economic efficiency.
REFERENCES
1. Mongolia. 1999. Investment Climate Statement.
2. Mineral Commodities Summary. 2002. Mining Office of Mineral Resources Authority of Mongolia.
3. Study on comprehensive coal development and utilization in Mongolia. 1995. Ministry of Energy, Geology and Mining Mongolia and Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA).
4. Science and Industry of Mongolian Coal Sector. 2002.
5. Tsedendorj S., Purevsuren D., Dagva M. and other. 2001. Mining planning and organisation of ShiveeOvoo brown coal mine. Research Project.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Extraction of tabular seam of a moderate thickness within areas protecting the
existing development entries in the LGOM copper mines
W.Pytel & R.Dębkowski
CBPM Cuprum OBR, Wrodow, Poland
A.Kosiorowski
Regional Mine Health and Safety Administration, Wroclaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: In the paper, new solutions allowing ore extraction in protective areas, even prior to typical mining panels in the adjacent areas could be
commenced, are presented. These techniques are especially useful in the case of thin ore extraction where rational waste rock management has to be
associated with a selective mining approach. The possibility of maintaining the air and communication entries within the gob area is an important feature
of these technological solutions. Using substitute pillar systems, made of waste rock, stability of these entries may be effectively provided. This
technological approach rationale has been verified through 3D FEM modeling of rock mass behavior within selected districts of “Polkowice
Sieroszowice” mine.
1 INTRODUCTION
Mining within barrier pillars (protective zones) containing the main and/or development entries is one of the most important issues concerned with copper ore
exploitation in the LegnicaGłogów Copper Basin (LGOM). According to the mining technology practiced in the past, those pillars were under service up to the end of
the technical life of surrounding panels, and then they were usually minedout resulting in the area abandonment. Since exploitation within barrier/protective pillars is
performed mostly in complex and tightened conditions, this type of operation characterizes itself as the activity favoring seismic events or even bump occurrences.
Measures applied for bump hazard reduction lead however to lower extraction ratios and therefore higher costs of exploitation.
This problem becomes an issue of extremely high importance in the areas where thin ore is minedout selectively, i.e. where copper ore is minedout with waste rock
which has to be separated later. This technological approach, applied also for main entries development, produces a significant volume of waste rock that should be
rationally distributed somewhere within the area located closely to working faces. This problem concerns operators especially within the “PolkowiceSieroszowice”
mine where about 60 pct. of perspective copper ore has very moderate thickness ranging from 0.4 m to only 2.0 m. Increasing of intensity of mining operations will
result in larger volume of waste rock for intelligent management. The conventional mining systems presently practiced in the “PolkowiceSieroszowice” mine, soon will
not be able to manage rationally the whole amount of waste rock within the areas adjacent to mining faces. This will create cost generating additional operations since
waste rock mass will have to be transported to remote areas or even dumped on the surface.
All programs of copper seam extraction, developed in the past for LGOM copper mines conditions, assumed that the ore located within the protective pillars of
development entries, would be extracted at the final phase of mining in a given mine area. This assumption results in the low intensity of mining operations within these
districts and therefore the cost of extraction in the adjacent locations may be too high to be accepted. Such economic and technological conditions may lead to
extraction abandonment which in turn may result in significant copper ore losses. This affects unfavorably the quality of ore extraction management, whereas the cost of
development had been already paid. This results in shortening of mine active life which may have undesirable outcomes from the social and economic point of view.
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On the other hand thin ore exploitation is associated with better safety conditions since main roof strata are subjected to limited deformations due to lower rooffloor
convergence in minedout voids. Better deformation conditions for main roof strata behavior are also favored by waste rock backfilling resulting in lower roof strata
deflection and more uniform stress distribution profiles.
Taking into account all of the above mentioned issues, a new approach for main entries development with mining in the neighboring single copper seam with waste
rock backfilling, has been proposed. This mining technique will allow the main entries established within backfilled areas to be fully serviceable while the adjacent
copper ore would be completely exploited earlier. This approach may be also applied in typical mining panels exploiting copper ore of intermediate thickness, providing
that the necessary volume of waste rock will be available for using as a backfilling medium.
2 GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN “POLKOWICESIEROSZOWICE” MINE
In the “PolkowiceSieroszowice” mine area, the copper seam is located about 900 m below the surface in the lower portion of sedimentary strata of Zechstein
geological structure (dolomites and shales) as well as within the upper part of “floor” red sandstone measure rocks. The ore copper seam is formed generally as
pseudoseam composed of lithologically different rock mass (see Table 1), and therefore it reveals high variability in thickness and metal content. The average seam
thickness in the area is about 2.0 m.
The “PolkowiceSieroszowice” district contain several zones where tectonic disturbances of high intensity are encountered. The Biedrzychowa fault with throw of
about 20–70 m is the largest one while the Jakubowa fault of limited extension is the second largest fault in the area (throw of about 50–100 m). The tectonically
disturbed areas are generally associated with fractured zones within copper ore volume as well as within the roof dolomite strata.
3 MINING CONDITIONS IN THE AREA GETTING STARTED
Presently, the access and development operations are conducted mining 2entry to 5entry drifts with opening width of about 6.5 m and average opening height up to
3.5 m. The developed long pillars are cut perpendicularly with each 40–70 m of face advance. In the vicinity of main entries the protective pillars of width of 300–500
m are established. They are designated to isolate main entries from any geomechanical effects of mining within the neighboring areas. Depending on ore seam thickness,
conventional extraction may be conducted according to three different techniques (Butra, 2001):
– roomandpillar with roof deflection,
– roomandpillar with roof deflection, addressed tobarrier pillars, and
– roomandpillar mining with floating closing pillar.
In these systems, mining operations are conducted in two consecutive phases. In the first phase, copper seam is cut into so called technological pillars which longer axis
is parallel to working face direction of movement. Such pillar orientation provides earlier pillar yielding as well as creates the possibility of blasting work concentration
what is the basic preventive measure applied for bump hazard reduction. Technological pillar size is determined individually based on rock mass strength parameters as
well as geological and mining related conditions. During the phase II of mining, technological pillars are transformed into smaller so called remnant pillars with a cross
section area of about 12 m2. A smooth line of roof strata deflection is provided by creating at least two rows of technological pillars which are gradually crushed in a
course of opening height decreasing process.
Analyses of thin ore seam and protection pillars mining, with associated difficulties in waste rock management, permitted developing a new technical solution which
offers an effective reduction in a number and a scale of undesired geomechanical phenomena usually associated with conventional methods of mining. Basic schematics
of the developed approach are shown in Figures 1–3.
The newly proposed roomandpillar mining system with dry backfilling is based on the past experiences with roof deflection mining in standard working conditions
as well as within protective or barrier pillars. The basic feature of the proposed approach is the development, and later continuous maintainment in minedout and
backfilled zones, of at least two multientry excavations designated for exploitation basic purposes: ventilation, communication and haulage, access and escape roads
etc. These groups of entries may be located at the panel’s both sides, at one side and in the panel center, or alternatively in the central part only. The entries are
connected through perpendicular cuts made at a distance which depends on technological reasons.
Stability of entries developed within the completely backfilled zones is provided by so called substitute pillars made of waste rock supplemented by technological or
remnant pillars with roof bolted in adjacent openings. Substitute pillar size is determined based on local geological and mining conditions as well as the predicted
function of the entry established within minedout areas. Mining geometry, especially
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Figure 1. Simple example of mine workings developed using the proposed extraction technique.
Figure 2. Multiface mine workings developed using the proposed extraction technique.
Figure 3. Pattern of extraction in accordance with the proposed method rules.
in the areas well behind the working face, is selected in a way which permits smooth and uniform roof deflection line over the active areas including neighboring
structures. An example of the proposed approach is presented in Figure 3.
Mining process according to this solution consists of two operation phases:
– Phase I—the development phase, which includes the technological pillars’ creation and waste rock placement in the openings surrounding these pillars,
– Phase II—the completion phase, which includes copper ore extraction from the technological pillars left within waste rock backfill. In the same time, behind this
“secondary development zone” substitute pillars are formed in a place of minedout technological pillars. Between the secondary entries faces and the completely
backfilled zone, at least one perpendicular access road is maintained.
The proposed approach permits development mining conducted in a larger number of parallel entries and therefore the productivity of the system is not less than that
typical for a standard panel face. The access to any remote areas is therefore also available without establishing in the surrounding area any protective pillars.
This mining technique has been used in the protective zone of the declines E1–4 in the
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Figure 4. Complete scheme of the proposed approach.
Figure 5. Mine workings geometry in G61 district on April 2001
“PolkowiceSieroszowice” mine ( Figures 4–5). Its implementation was supported with FEA for different geological, mining and ground control conditions. The
example of such analysis is shown below.
4 CASE STUDY ON PRESENTED MINING TECHNOLOGY
In order to field validate the presented mining technology, mining in one of the “PolkowiceSieroszowice” Mine districts (Figures 5–6) was
Figure 6. Mine workings geometry in G61 district on November 2003.
Table 1. Average values of rock deformation parameters.
commenced. Based on the actual, in selected time points, geometries of mined out workings, the finite element models of rock mass have been formulated in three
dimensions (NE/NASTRAN).
The copper ore deposit (3 m thick), located at the depth of about 836 m, is locally almost flat and is covered by very thick and stiff main roof strata consisting of a
9.4 m layer of coherent dolomite overlaid by a 50 m thick strong anhydrite plate, 70 m thick salt stone, again anhydrite stratum of 45 m thickness and on the top by
160 m thick competent sandstone stratum. An averaged lithology over the considered area and estimated rock mass parameters are given in Table 1.
The problem was solved by utilizing solid mechanics principles assuming different materials within different rock mass strata, however, no additional horizontal planes
of discontinuity were
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Figure 7. General view of FEM model.
designed within the model (see Figure 7). Finite elements representing overburden and floor solid strata as well as partially extracted copper ore deposits as a mixture
of solid and void space, revealed generally linear elastic behavior, except for materials composing the yielding pillars.
The model boundaries are characterized using the following boundary conditions:
a) bottom→vertical displacements not allowed,
b) side walls→no movement perpendicular to the wall surface permitted.
It was assumed that each finite element located up to z=382.7 m is subjected to gravitational load, while the upmost Tertiary and Quaternary soft deposits are
represented by elemental load q= 12.24 MPa distributed uniformly on the plane z=+382.7 m.
All finite elements except those attributed to technological and remnant pillars were made of linear elastic materials characterized in Tables 1–2. Additionally, pillar
composing materials were characterized by values of pillar peak σp (critical) and residual strength σr, different for different pillar size.
A calculation nonlinear procedure included the following phases:
a) the adjustment iterative phase—with modification of overloaded pillars based on elastic solutions—pillars subjected to load σz>σp , (where σz—pillar vertical load)
are replaced by a uniformly distributed load equal to pillar residual strength σr.
Table 2. Pillar characteristics within G61 area.
b) the final phase—checkout of safety margin within roof strata for the final mine structure obtained in the adjusting phase.
The computational approach has been explained in detail by Pytel (2003).
Two different mine workings geometries in district G61 located within the “PolkowiceSieroszowice” mine were evaluated from the mining induced displacements
point of view:
a) initial phase of mining with mine workings geometry shown in Figure 8—April 2001, and
b) final phase of mining within the same panel, with mine workings geometry shown in Figure 9—November 2003.
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Figure 8. Finite element approximation of starting point of mining (April 2001).
Figure 9. Finite element approximation of ending point of mining (November 2003).
5 CALCULATION RESULTS
The immediate roof strata subsidence profile calculated along the monitoring line AA (see Figure 5) are shown in Figure 10. It has been proved that mining according
to the proposed method is associated with a relatively low roof sag even within completely minedout and later backfilled areas. Unfortunately, the measurement data
from a survey monitoring line established on roof strata at the site (line AA, Figure 5) has been collected between May 2003 and November 2003 only. Due to time
delay a comparison between computed and measured subsidence data is difficult, however, the mutual similarity of both lines is clearly visible. More refined analysis
was impossible since archival mine workings geometry (e.g. for May 2003) was not available.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The access to thin copper ore seam using 3–5 development entries reveals to be an ineffective
Figure 10. FEM calculated and measured profiles of immediate roof strata deflection.
approach due to the necessity of waste rock hauling for a relatively long distance. Furthermore, this approach excludes from exploitation the resources localized within
the area of width of 350 m adjacent to development entries. These resources are planned to be minedout when the district or even the mine closure is commenced.
This results in higher costs and higher level of bump hazard due to tightened mining conditions.
The presently proposed, roomandpillar twophase mining system with dry backfilling, shows high flexibility in practical usage. This concept assumes maintaining
communication and ventilation entries within gob area with roof strata supported by technological or substitute pillars formed using the locally available waste rock
surplus. This approach permits full ore extracting with rational waste rock management, especially in a case where development entries without a protective pillar are
under construction.
Waste rock full backfilling causes better roof strata behavior and lower bump hazard level comparing with mining techniques practiced in the past. The actual panel’s
extremely good performance, reported by visual inspection, survey measurements as well as finite element analysis, is evidence of the appropriateness of the principles
governing the developed approach.
REFERENCES
Butra, J. 2001. Method of mining system selection for the copper deposit panels with unified geological formation, Proc. Inst. Gospodarki Surowcami Mineralnymi i Energią
PAN (Kraków) Monografie 89 (in Polish)
Pytel, W. 2003. Rock mass—mine workings interaction model for Polish copper mine conditions, Int. J. of Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. (40):497–526
Page 279
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Study on paste stowing mining technology in coal mines
Qu Qundi, Zhou Huaqiang, Hou Chaojiong & Li Xuehua
China University of Minin g a nd Technolo gy, Xuz hou, Jia ngsu,
ABSTRACT: In the light of the development of green technique in coal mining and the urgency of coal recovery under villages, the coal mining
technique without moving villages by paste stowing technology is put forward in this paper. Two series of lowcost and high efficiency paste stowing
cementing agents have been researched and developed, and the cheaper stowing materials have been chosen, so the cost of paste stowing method has
been decreased to a great extent. Two technological programs, partial stowing method and full stowing method, which are suitable to extract the coal
under villages in different conditions have also been thought out. The concrete technological process of paste stowing mining technology in a coal mine
has also been introduced. The results of numerical simulation indicate that the paste stowing technology can effectively control the strata movement and
surface deformation and realize nonevillagerelocation coal extraction.
1 INTRODUCTION
Coal mining can bring great benefit for humankind, but the living environment around the coal mine was also severely damaged. In China, there are about 5221 million
tons of coal under villages, and total 8760 million tons under surface structures. Mining under villages is not only a technological problem but also a complicated social
problem that concerns land, environment protection, society stability etc. Only 4% of the coal under villages has been recovered mainly by longwall full caving mining
method after village relocation and the cost used to move villages is as high as 200 thousand yuan per household (Li & Geng 1999). So it is important to develop green
technique in coal mining that can lessen the mininginduced environmental damage and realize nonevillagerelocation coal extraction (Qian et al. 2003).
2 TRADITIONAL NONEVILLAGERELOCATION MINING METHODS
Large numbers of coal under surface structures such as villages not only causes the tremendous waste of coal resources, but also heavily affect the normal production
work. Through scores of years’ hard work, the technology level of mining under villages has a notable improvement. At the present time, the main mining methods that
can realize nonevillagerelocation mining are strip partial extraction and stowing mining, or the combination of above two methods.
Strip partial extraction is one of the most effective methods to control the movement and deformation of the surface. The maximal advantage of this method is that it
can markedly reduce the surface subsidence without changing the current coal winning technology. So part of the coal under surface structures can be recovered by
strip partial extraction where no other better technology or measures can be adopted. The maximal disadvantages of this method are that the recovery ratio of the coal
is very low, coal resources go to waste seriously and the production efficiency is lower (Zhang & Zhao 2000).
Stowing mining is the most effective method to realize nonevillagerelocation mining and improve the coal recovery ratio under surface structures in the available
technology. The most widespread use of stowing mining methods is the hydraulic sand stowing method whose effectiveness to reduce the surface subsidence is also the
best these days. In Poland, 80% of the coal under surface structures was recovered by stowing mining methods especially mainly by the hydraulic sand stowing
method. Many mining areas in China, such as Fushun, Fuxin, Xinwen etc. also have used this method and preferable technical results have been obtained. But the
technique of hydraulic sand stowing is very complicated and not suitable for highefficiency mechanical mining. This method also has some other problems such as low
efficiency, high cost and polluting the coal face (Zhao et al. 1998) etc.
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3 THE FEASIBILITY OF USING PASTE STOWING TECHNOLOGY IN COAL MINES
3.1 Differences of the technology in coal mines
Metal mines have applied the paste stowing technology more than 20 years. After the successful test that was carried out in Bed Grund Lead and Zinc Mine of
Germany in 1979, the paste stowing technology became extensive use in Australia, Austria, Canada, and South Africa etc. But this technology has rarely been applied
in coal mines except Monopol, Walsum and Pascov coal mine where use the technology to dispose solid wastes (Anon 1988, Mez & Schauenburg 1998, Zhou et al.
2004).
The paste stowing technology is one of the most perfect methods to solve the environment problems caused by coal mining especially the urgent problem of none
villagerelocation coal extraction. But there are some evident differences in the usage of this technology between coal mines and metal mines. On the one hand,
surrounding rocks of the working face in metal mine are always much more intact and stable, and the stowing processes are carried out after the whole mining
processes have been finished, so the processes of stowing and mining are not interactional during their operation and there is no special requirement for the early
strength of the stowing body. But the roof of coal seam is generally fragmentized and unstable, in order to availably control the movement and deformation of the rock
strata, the stowing processes must proceed simultaneously and correspond with the mining processes to fill the goaf before the caving of immediate roof. Furthermore,
certain early strength of the stowing body is required to form a support system where the main body is the paste stowing body. On the other hand, the cost of paste
stowing used in metal mines is so expensive that coal mines can not afford it. For example, the cost of paste stowing in Jinchuan Nonferrous Metals Corporation
Limited is 84.8 yuan per cubic meter and the reasonable cost that coal mines can accept is no more than 30 yuan per cubic meter. Therefore, the paste stowing
technology will have the lifeforce in coal mines only if the cost is lowered.
3.2 The ways to lower stowing cost
The main ways to reduce the cost of the paste stowing technology are: (1) Using extensivesource and lowcost solid wastes to reduce the unit cost of the paste
stowing materials. (2) Ascertaining the reasonable stowing quantities and mechanical property requirements for the paste stowing body in nonevillagerelocation coal
extraction based on the theory of key stratum in ground control (Qian et al. 1996) to lessen the amount of stowing materials and to lower the strength requirements for
the paste stowing body.
The authors have recently researched and developed two series of composite cementing agents, which meet the demand for the paste stowing engineering in mines of
different conditions. These composite cementing agents have remarkable characteristics which are listed as follows: (1) Varieties of highclaybearing aggregates can be
normally solidified with the composite cementing agents, so it is very advantageous to utilize all kinds of solid wastes farthest. (2) The early strength of the stowing body
is high and the longterm strength can sustainedly grow even on the condition of using extremely small amount (40~100 kg/m3) of the composite cementing agents. The
relation between strength and setting time of the stowing body where the use level of the composite cementing agents is 50 kg/m3 is shown in Figure 1. The 6 h strength,
1 d strength and 28 d strength of the stowing body are respectively 0.15 MPa, 0.28 MPa and 1.50 MPa. When the same amount of ordinary portland cement is used,
the stowing body has no measurable strength in one day and the longterm strength is also only about onethird of that of using composite cementing agents. (3)
Extensivesource and lowcost raw materials such as limes and gypsums etc. are used to produce the composite cementing agents, so the production cost is as low as
that of ordinary portland cement.
Based on the instances of paste stowing in metal mines, we know that the cost of ordinary portland cement and other stowing materials respectively account for
about 60% and 30% of the total cost. So favorable technical conditions have been created for reducing the cost of paste stowing technology to a great extent by using
extremely small amount of cheap composite cementing agents and a great lot of solid wastes. The authors have designed detailed
Figure 1. The relation between uniaxial compressive strength and setting time of the paste stowing material.
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schemes of the paste stowing engineering for two mines in east China where the population and villages are very dense. The additional costs per ton of mined coal are
respectively 17.87 yuan for partial stowing and 20.72 yuan for full stowing, and are lower than the additional costs for moving villages.
So it is economical to extract the coal under villages by solid waste paste stowing technology, and the technical process can draw on the successful experiences of
the paste stowing technology in metal mines and the hydraulic sand stowing technology in coal mines.
4 TECHNOLOGICAL SCHEME OF THE PASTE STOWING TECHNOLOGY
The authors named the paste stowing technology used in coal mines solid waste paste stowing technology, that is to say, solid wastes around the coal mine such as coal
refuse, fly ash and industrial furnace slag etc. are the main stowing materials. When largelump materials such as coal refuse are used, necessary crushing treatments are
needed for the materials to meet the lumpiness expectations of stowing pump and normal transportation through the stowing pipes. Generally the maximal tolerant size is
25~35 mm. On the other hand, in order to energize the physicochemical activity of fly ash and reduce the dosage of composite cementing agents, ballmilling treatments
sometimes are required for partial or all fly ash. The solid waste paste stowing system is processed on the basis of specified formulations in materials preparing and
metering, blending and producing pumpable pastes, pumping the pastes through the stowing pipes and filling the goaf with precisely defined flow characteristics. The
authors have designed detail technological processes for a certain coal mine in east China, as shown in Figure 2.
The goaf filling requirements are different according to various coal occurrence conditions, so partial stowing method and full stowing method are effective in different
coal mine paste stowing projects.
4.1 Partial stowing methods
Partial stowing method has two different methods which respectively are interval stowing mining in shortwall system and partial stowing in longwall system. The
shortwall interval stowing mining method means that the coal seam under surface buildings is divided into shortwall faces whose widths are generally only several
decameters and the roof control methods used for the shortwall face and the neighboring face are stowing method and caving method respectively, that is to say, the
coal pillar support system in general strip partial mining is replaced with the support system of stowing bodies. It is known that strip partial mining is an effective way to
protect the surface buildings, so the shortwall interval stowing mining method can also achieve the purpose of nonevillagerelocation mining. The longwall partial
stowing mining method means that the coal seam under surface buildings is divided into longwall faces, and the goaf is partially filled by the paste materials before the
caving of immediate roof.
Figure 2. Process flow of paste stowing in coal mine.
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Figure 3. Schematic diagram of longwall partial stowing method.
Several paste stowing strips in certain width are constructed to support the overlying strata, as shown in Figure 3, so the magnitude of surface subsidence is controlled
within the range where surface buildingswill not be damaged and the purpose of nonevillagerelocation mining will be realized.
Partial stowing methods can remarkably reduce the quantity of stowing materials and cut the cost in a greater extent. The theory of key stratum in ground control
provides theoretical fundamental for partial stowing methods. Surface subsidence will be effectively controlled without filling the whole goaf provided that the stowing
bodies can keep stable in long term and the widths of nonestowinggoaf is smaller than the critical rupture span of the key stratum.
4.2 Full stowing method
The paste stowing body is in a favorable triaxial state of stress when the goaf is entirely filled by the paste stowing materials, so the strength requirement of stowing
body in full stowing method is relatively lower compared with the partial stowing methods. Since the consumption of paste stowing materials is really larger, the cost is
relatively higher. So a great deal of cheap stowing materials are needed near the mine. The partial stowing methods may not effectively control the surface subsidence in
some coal occurrence conditions such as shallow buried depth, thin basement rock, extra thickness of coal seam and without a certain key stratum etc. In such
circumstances, full stowing method must be adopted.
5 EFFECT PREDICTION OF PASTE STOWING TECHNOLOGY TO CONTROL SURFACE SUBSIDENCE
In order to ensure the reliability of the paste stowing mining project which will be applied to realize
Table 1. Numerical simulation results of surface subsidence.
nonevillagerelocation mining under dense villages in a certain coal mine, the software of UDEC 3.0 was used to simulate and calculate the effectiveness of subsidence
control of the paste stowing technology.
The thickness and dip angle of the coal seam in the test district are 4.0 m and 0~12° respectively, and buried depth is from 170 m to 264 m. The surface subsidence
was simulated and calculated by using the general longwall mining, strip partial mining and partial stowing method. The results of the simulation schemes are shown in
Table 1.
In the numerical simulation results, when the partial stowing method is applied the surface subsidence, surface tilt, surface deformation and surface curvature etc. are
less than the deformation tolerance of folk houses. So surface buildings above the mining area are safe and nonevillagerelocation extraction can be reliably realized by
paste stowing technology.
6 CONCLUSIONS
It is feasible to adopt the paste stowing mining technology for nonevillagerelocation coal mining. The paste stowing technology not only solves the problem of
extracting the coal under villages, but also breaks a new path to dispose solid wastes such as coal refuse, fly ash and industrial furnace slag etc. So the solid waste paste
stowing technology has tremendous social and economic significance.
Because it is the first time to use the paste stowing technology to realize nonevillagerelocation coal mining, the systemic acquisition and detailed analysis of the test
data during the industrial test and surface subsidence observation after the test are necessary.
REFERENCES
Anon. 1988. Backfilling in German coal mines. Australian Mining 80(10):24–27.
Li, F.M. & Geng, D.Y. 1999. Research status, present problem and develop direction of coal mining under villages in China. Coal Science & Technology 27(1):10–13.
Mez, W. & Schauenburg, W. 1998. Backfilling of cavedin goafs with pastes for disposal of residues. Proceedings of
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the 6th International Symposium on Mining with Backfill: 245–248.
Qian, M.G. et al. 1996. Theoretical study of key stratum in ground control. Journal of China Coal Society 21(3): 225–230.
Qian, M.G. et al. 2003. Green technique in coal mining. Journal of China University of Mining & Technology 32(4):343–348.
Zhang, H.X. & Zhao, Y.X. 2000. Current situation and tendency of stripe mining study. Coal Mining 40:5–7.
Zhao, D.S. et al. 1998. Study and prospect of the control technology for surface subsidence and overlying strata at mining area. China Safety Science Journal 8(3):51–
54.
Zhou, H.Q. et al. 2004. Solid waste paste filling for nonevillagerelocation coal mining. Journal of China University of Mining & Technology 33(2):154–158.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Determination of rules and formulas of blasting engineering by Rough Set theory
Lu Qiuqin, Huang Guangqiu & Zhang Zhixia
Xian University of Architecture & Technology, Xian, Shaanxi, People’s Republic of China
ABSTRACT: To determine rules and formulas of blasting engineering based on complicated conditions, this paper applies the Rough Set theory to put
forward a series of methods such as combination of qualitative and quantitative factors, automatically grouping and determination of relative
importance of control points data, elimination of redundant data and factors. Finally the principles and algorithms of rules and formulas of blasting
engineering are presented. Using these principles and algorithms, rules and formula of blasting engineering under any complicated conditions can be
accurately found out.
1 INTRODUCTION
Experiential rules and formulas of blasting engineering are mostly described by quantitative factors while neglecting qualitative factors because of limitation of theories
and methods. Actually many qualitative factors, though they can be quantified, affect the formula deeply because of sophistication of environments. This paper uses
Rough Set theory to decide experiential rules and formulas of blasting engineering by merging quantitative factors with qualitative factors. Relative importance of factors
is evaluated by Rough Set theory according to its contribution to rules and formulas, some factors are selected to discover rules and formulas while others are deleted
according to their importance.
Large quantity of insite data that are the foundation of discovering rules and formulas can be collected by the selected factors. These data, which can be used in
different condition, has different influence on and different contribution to the determination of rules and formulas. These data can be scientifically grouped by Rough Set
theory according to their contributions to rules and formulas. The appropriate and important data can be determined and more data can be collected near the important
data. Therefore aimlessly collecting data can be avoided.
2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
2.1 Data model of determination experiential rules and formula s of blast ing engineering
According to the specific blasting engineering, some influencing factors of experiential rules and formulas, such as type of blasting operation, climate condition, type and
property of explosives, pattern of distributing blasting hole, charging method and density, operation site, occurrence of ore and rock etc. are chosen, some of them are
quantitative, while others are qualitative and can be collected easily because they are the object record of operation environment. General data structure about these
data can be described as formula (1) and formula (2):
U={O1, O2,…, On }
(1)
Oi={Qi1, Qi2,…, Oir; Ni1, Ni2,…, Nis}
(2)
where U=all set of data object; Qt=data object of i; Qij=the qualitative data; Nij=the quantitative data.
Quantitative and qualitative factors are referred as attributes, which can be described as A={a1, a2,…, ar+s}}.To discover the experiential rules and formulas, some
attributes are chosen as decision attributes and referred as D={D1, D2,…, Dk}. A decision attribute responses to an experiential rule or a formula, others are called
condition attributes and referred as C. Qualitative factors are referred as Q, while quantitative ones referred as N. A Rough Set model of determination experiential
rules and formulas is a hierarchy tree as illustrated in (Fig. 1).
Useless attributes and unimportant data are deleted and a series of different rules and formulas can be acquired by merging quantitative into qualitative data along the
tree. The lowest hierarchy leaf nodes in (Fig.1) are quantitative attributes, by which rules and formulas can be gained by appropriate methods (Huang Guangqiu & Gui
Zhongyue 1997).
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Figure 1. A hierarchy tree of determining experiential rules and formulas based on insite data object.
2.2 The basic principle of determination experiential rules and formulas of blasting engineering
The quantitative and qualitative attributes must be partitioned to form a hierarchy diagram as (Fig.1). Data are merged and classified in the appropriate hierarchy by
merging quantitative factors into qualitative factors. The merging result can be illustrated as decision rules of (Fig. 2). Obviously a series of rules, which have different in
site data object set and quantitative attribute set can be obtained and used under certain condition. The determination of the rules automatically relies on the insite data;
the algorithm conducting by the hierarchy diagram is as follows.
(1) Determinate equivalent class (Liu Tongming, 1997) and group insite data. To the attribute set P, the equivalent class can be calculated by formula (3):
(3)
where U/IND(P)=the equivalent class of P, each contains some insite data object, every attribute in P is similar, error is ε, which is a small positive constant; Oi,
Oj=insite data object; a= attribute; =equivalent relationship function; f(Oi,a)=the data of attribute a.
(2) Calculate the coordination of the decision attribute set D and the condition attribute set C. Decision attribute will be described by condition attributes, the
coordination of the decision attribute vs. condition attributes can be described by formula (4):
(4)
where |∙| =cardinal number.
(3) Generate hierarchy diagram. A hierarchy diagram is formed as follows (Algorithm (1)):
Figure 2. Decision rules.
(a) Choose a decision attribute , k=1, 2,…,|D|;
(b) Calculate every equivalent class set of condition attribute by formula(3): Ei=U/IND({Ci});
(c) Calculate equivalent class of the union of every condition c and decision attribute dk , ;
(d) Calculate coordinate of every condition attribute to decision attribute: CON(ci,dk ) |Fi|/|Ei|;
(e) Choose the maximum coordination from CON (c1 ,dk ), CON(c2 ,dk ),…,CON(c|C|),dk ). Attribute with maximum coordination has high reliance to the
decision attribute, so it’s condition attribute is the first class condition attribute;
(f) Assume the equivalent class set of th e condition attribute , go (b);
(g) Repeat (b)~(f), a hierarchy diagram of the decision attribute under the condition attributes can be formed , the far of the decision attribute condition
attribute, the less reliance of the decision attribute on the condition attribute.
A great hierarchy diagram can be formed after all decision attribute hierarchy has been formed. A decision rule can be formed and showed in (Fig. 2) by traversing the
tree from a decision attribute branch to leaf.
2.3 Basic principle for determination key influence factors on experiential rules and formulas of blasting engineering
To quantitative attribute set Ng of every decision rules, the influence of different attribute on
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experiential rules is different; the principle of calculating the degree of quantitative attribute affecting rules and formulas is as follows:
(1) Calculate Sig(c,C), which is the importance of every condition attribute to condition attribute set C. For every U/IND(C={C1, C2 ,…, Cm} by formula(5). If Sig(c,
C)= 0, condition attribution is redundant and can be deleted. More quantitative factors and qualitative factors can be chosen when collecting insite data to avoid the
loss of some factors that seem unimportant but very important in fact. The Algorithm automatically deletes the unimportant factors;
(5)
(2) Concise attributes. For every attribute of condition contribute set, redundant attributes are deleted by formula (5), an attribute set contained only important attribute
referred as RED(C,D) is left, which is the minimize attribute set or optimal attribute set. The process is as follows:
(a) Calculate distinction matrix:
M(C)=(mij)n×n
(6)
M(C) is the distinction matrix about the condition attribute set to decision attribute set, can by defined by (Liu Tongming, 2001);
(b) Calculate the core by distinction matrix. Core is an element set formed by distinction matrix described by formula (6). The calculation of CORE(C,D) is
as followed;
(7)
(c) Calculate the optimal concise set RED(C,D). The optimal concise set can be calculated easily and effectively on the basis of relationship and importance
of attributes, the algorithm of calculation optimal concise set is as follow (Algorithm 2):
(i) Calculate the core CORE(C,D) by formulas (6), (7);
(ii) R=CORE(C,D);
(iii) If U/IND(R)=U/IND go (vi), else go (iv);
(iv) Calculate all Sig(c,R) value of , where c1 satisfies
(v) , go(iii);
(vi) Output optimal concise set: RED (C,D)=R.
(d) Calculate minimum userdefined attribute set. Some attributes are important but redundant to decision attribute D, should be included in the final
decision rules, the final attribute set is not a concise set but a userdefined attribute set, which has the same distinction ability as the original table. If
userdefined attribute set is UA, the minimum attribute set= .
3 APPLICATION PROCEDURES
(1) Collect concern quantitative and qualitative attributes according to the concrete question, the more attribute the more favorable, determinate decision attributes or
condition attributes;
(2) Collect concerned insite data on the basis of chosen attributes, every group of data is an insite data object;
(3) Concise attribute by Algorithm 2, delete unnecessary attributes to ensure the hierarchy tree appropriately;
(4) Form hierarchy diagram for every decision attributes by using Algorithm 1 on the basis of insite data;
(5) Form decision rules as (Fig. 2) by using the hierarchy diagram, the decision rules contain a logic combination of quantitative and qualitative;
(6) Depart the quantitative attributes of every decision rules from the leaf, then concise every decision rule. The departed quantitative attributes is the basis of
determination of the rules and formula which can’t be included in the decision rules;
(7) Concise quantitative attributes of every decision attribute by Algorithm 2 to decide the optimal attribute set or userdefined attribute set, which is the important
quantitative attributes to the rules and formulas;
(8) Delete the attributes that are not in the optimal attribute set or in the userdefined attribute from insite data object set U. Discover the rules by (Huang Guangqiu,
Gui Zhongyue, 1997).
4 CASE STUDY
An example of the determination experiential rules and formulas of quantities of every deep hole in openpit blasting engineering is given as follows.
The set of qualitative attributes is Ax={pattern of drilling (a1), hole distribution (a2), blastability of the rock (a3), size of broken block (a4), hardness coefficient of
rock and ore (a5), range of explosive consumption (a6), type of explosive (a7), ignition pattern (a8), weather (a9)}; the set of quantitative
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attributes is Ay ={quantity of explosive in a hole (Qkg), diameter of drillbit (d mm) , height of bench (H m), excessive height of the drilled hole to the height of the
bench (h m) , distance between rows (b m), hole spacing (a m), coefficient of charge (τ), length (L m), slope of bench (a), burden (W m), safe distance from the drill
hole center to the top of the slope (B m), temperature (T), coefficient of closeness (m),charge per meter of hole (δg/m)}. The range of explosive consumptionis
presented in qualitative attributes. 832 groups of insite data are collected according to the attributes listed, some of which is listed below:
O1={vertical borehole, single row, difficulty, medium, 3~4, 0.4~0.43, 2# rock explosive, diagonal shortdelay ignition, sunny, 56.9, 150, 6, 1.2, 3.9, 60, 5, 2.4, 30,
0.82, 200};
O2={inclined borehole, single row, medium, medium, 6~8, 0.5~0.53, 2# rock explosive, rows shortdelay ignition, cloudy, 81, 150, 8, 1.5, 3.6, 4.2, 0.75, 4.5, 65,
5.2, 2.5, 25, 0.81, 800};
O3={inclined borehole, the fist row of multiple row, easy, small, 8~10, 0.53~0.56, 2# rock explosive, V type shortdelay ignition, sunny, 109,150,10, 1.8, 3.7, 4.3,
0.8, 5.3, 70, 5.4, 2.45, 28, 0.79, 700};
O4={vertical borehole, single row, difficulty, large, 12~14, 0.6~0.64, 2# rock explosive, cross cut shortdelay ignition, sunny, 175.5, 150, 13, 2.2, 3.9, 4.5, 0.79,
6, 60, 6, 2.43, 29, 1.24, 600};
O5=(vertical borehole, the second row of multiple row, easy, medium, 16~20, 0.67~0.7, ammonium nitratefuel mixture, hole distributed in triangle and V type
shortdelay ignition, cloudy, 114, 150, 12, 2.0, 3.8, 4.4, 0.8, 5.6, 65, 5.6, 2.5, 28, 1.27, 400}.
In order to determine experiential rules and formulas of quantity of every deep hole in openpit blasting engineering, the quantity of explosive in a hole Q is selected
as the decision attribute, that is D= {Q}, others are condition attributes. Algorithms 1 and 2 reduce 832 groups of data to 547 when ε=0.5, p=0.3. Unimportant
attributes are deleted, qualitative and quantitative attributes that relevant to D are left, the former are included in the condition section of experiential rules, the latter can
be used to discover the experiential formulas by the approach presented in the reference (Huang Guangqiu & Gui Zhongyue, 1997). Some experiential rules and
formulas are listed as follows.
If the pattern of drilling is vertical; hole distribution is single row or the first row of multiple rows; hardness coefficient of ore and rock is 3~4, explosives consumed
per unit is 0.4~0.43, then the most relevant quantitative attributes to the quantity of explosives in a hole are: slope angle of bench, height of bench, hardness coefficient
of ore and rock, explosives consumed per unit, safe distance, the quantity of explosives in a hole can be calculated as following formula:
Q=8.27qactg(a) H+2.68B
Else if the borehole is vertical, the second row of multiple rows, hardness coefficient of ore and rock is 6~8, explosives consumed per unit is 0.53~0.56, then the most
relevant quantitative attributes to the quantity of explosive in a hole are: height of bench, distance between rows, hole spacing, hardness coefficient of ore and rock,
explosives consumed per unit. The quantity of explosives in a hole can be calculated as following formula:
Q=1.14qabh+0.78
Else if inclined borehole, single row or the first row of multiple rows, ore and rock hardness coefficient is 6~8, explosives consumed per unit is 0.6~0.64, then the most
relevant quantitative attributes to the quantity of explosives in a hole are: height of bench, diameter of hole, spacing of hole, hardness coefficient of ore and rock,
explosive consumed per unit, charge coefficient, length of stemming. The quantity of explosive in a hole can be calculate as following formula:
Else if inclined borehole, the second row of multiple row, ore and rock hardness coefficient is 6~8, explosives consumed per unit is 0.6~0.64, then the most relevant
quantitative attributes to the quantity of explosive in a hole are: height of bench, diameter of hole, spacing of rows, spacing of borehole, hardness coefficient of ore and
rock, explosive consume per unit, the quantity of explosive in a hole can be calculate as following formula:
Q=2.12qabH+0.33
Other formulas are not listed, the whole discovering process is automatic.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The approach presented in this paper is simple, can give special advantage, such as automatic sort of qualitative factors to decide rules and automatic combination of
quantitative with qualitative factors and automatic classification of insite data, in discovering of experiential rules and formula under sophisticated environment.
This paper is supported by Shaanxi nature science foundation (01JK124,03JK148,2002G07), China.
Page 289
REFERENCES
Guan J W,Bell D A. 1998.Rough computational methods for information systems. Artificial Intelligence, 105:77–103
Huang Guangqiu, Gui Zhongyue 1997. A genetic programming method to determine real experiential formulas in blasting engineering. Engineering Blasting, 3(3):15–22
Liu Tongming 2001. Data miningtechnologies and applications. Bejing: National Defense Industry publishing House
Miao Duoqian, Fan Shidong 2002. The calculation of knowledge granulation and its application. Systems Engineering—Theory & Practice, 22(1):48–56
Pawlak Z. 1991.Rough setstheoretical aspects of reasoning about data. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers
Zhang Wenxiu, Wu Zhiwei, etc. 2001. Rough set theory and methods. Beijing: Science Publishing House
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
New classification of mineral opencast mining systems
B.R.Rakishev
Kazak National Technical University named after K.I. Satpaev, Almaty, Kazakstan
ABSTRACT: Exploitation of the mineral deposit is considered as a system, consisted of four elements: “development of the deposit take”, “stripping
of the deposit”, “minerals mining” and “utilization of a goaf and production waste”. “Minerals mining” is the major, defining element of the “the mineral
deposit exploitation” system, because it pursues the final object of production, obtaining the necessary output of the required quantity and quality. All
the other elements, interacting with the mentioned one, serve it. In turn, “minerals mining” may be considered as the system independent of the
following lower level, consisted of three elements: developing, stripping (cutting) and excavating (cleansing) workings. Taking account of their
interconnections, the definition of mineral opencast mining system and its classification is given.
1 DISCUSSION AND NEW OBSERVATIONS
Let us begin consideration with the most widely used definitions of opencast mining systems. So, prof. E.F.Sheshko understands the system of the deposit mining as
“the safe and efficient methods of realizing of the appointed complex of stripping, trench and excavating works, providing the planned mining of the quarry
field” (Sheshko, 1951).
By acad. V.V.Rzhevsky, “system of the deposit mining means the order and sequence of opencast mining works carryingout within the quarry field or its section. In
general case mining works include excavating, stripping and miningdeveloping works” (Rzhevsky, 1985).
Acad. N.V.Melnikov notes that “mining system is determined by the order of developing and cleansing works realization or by the method of wastes transfer to
heaps and type of the applied miningtransport equipment” (Melnikov, 1985).
By acad. A.I.Arsentyiev, “mining system is the order of the quarry working zone forming in space and time, characterizing by balanced development of mining works
at the benches, form of the faces and direction of their advance” (Arsentyiev, 1994).
Obviously, the adduced definitions of the mining system do not reflect in full measure the essence of the mentioned in them notions “system” (in general scientific
meaning) and “minerals mining”. They are called the deposit mining systems, but in the definition there is not the notion “the deposit stripping”, accompanying its mining.
Meanwhile, the notions “the deposit mining” and “minerals mining” are not identical. They reflect the different state of mining works at the quarry. The first notion is the
broader than the second one. Careful consideration of the numerous original sources indicates it.
So, for example, as long ago, as in the last century, acad. L.D.Shevyakov noticed that before the beginning of cleansing works in either place of the mining field it
was necessary to drive to that place the development workings from the already driven for the deposit stripping permanent workings (Shevyakov, 1953). It follows that
stripping—the component element of the deposit mining—is not a part of cleansing works, i.e. minerals mining.
For the elimination of the mentioned contradictions and bringing of the notion “mining system” to conformity with the generally adopted interpretation of “system”, let
us consider events accompanying the extraction of minerals from the Earth entrails (look at the Fig. 1).
In order to exclude the duplication in names, the term “the minerals deposit mining” has been replaced by its equivalent—“the mineral deposit exploitation”. The
elements of the researched system are interconnected functionally. Their essence is exposed with a help of the mentioned below definitions, formed by the author on the
base of the creative comprehension of the standpoints of the soviet mining science leaders—academics L.D.Shevyakov, N.V.Melnikov, V.V.Rzhevsky,
M.I.Agoshkov, O.A.Baikonurov, K.N.Trubetskoy, professors E.F.Sheshko, A.I.Arsentyiev and others—on this question.
The mineral deposit exploitation is the deposit development by way of its developing for mining,
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Figure 1. Structure of the system “the minerals deposit exploitation”.
Figure 2. Structure of the system “minerals mining”.
stripping, extraction of mining rocks from the Earth entrails by the different methods (opencast mining, underground mining, hole, underwater and
combined ones) and utilization of goaf and production waste.
The development of the deposit take is the realization of works complex for the surface cleaning from natural, artificial obstacles and the drainage of the
quarry fleld.
The deposit stripping is providing the access from the Earth surface to the different parts of the deposit by driving the permanent mining workings, giving
possibility of the development workings driving. By the opencast method, the permanent workings are the stripping sloping trenches, underground workings
and so on, and the development workings are the working trenches, foundation pits.
Mining of minerals is the extraction of mining rocks (minerals, including petroleum, gas, water) from the Earth entrails after the deposit stripping. By the
opencast method, it is realized by carryingout of the working trenches (foundation pits) from the already driven permanent workings, removing of stripping
rocks and minerals excavating.
Mineral opencast mining is the excavation of rock from the Earth entrails by some given complex of the developing, stripping and extracting workings,
which are driven at the quarry field.
The fourth component of the term “the deposit exploitation”—“utilization of goaf and production waste”—does not demand the definition because of clearness and
precision of the set purpose.
By underground, hole or underwater mining, in general, only minerals are extracted from the Earth entrails, but by opencast mining stripping, rocks are excavated in
enough volume, because they are bound strictly with minerals. In principle, stripping rocks are temporary wastes of mining production, because later on they may be
used in other branches of industry.
At this base and for the purpose of keeping the unity of the approaches to the miningtechnical problems solved both by underground and opencast minerals mining
stripping rocks, removing by proper minerals working, should be considered as the last ones (Rakishev, 2003).
“Minerals mining” may be considered also as the system independent of the following lower levels. It assumes the notion of “system”. As it is known, “the system
(from the Greek ‘systema’—the whole, consisted of the parts; combination) is a great number (the whole complex) of the elements, being in relationship and
connections with each other, which form the certain integrity, unity. Since the notion ‘system’ has a very broad area of applying (practically every object may be
considered as the system), its full enough comprehension assumes the construction of the family of the corresponding definitions—both the substantial and formal ones.
Only within such family of definitions it is possible to express the system basic principles: integrity, structure, interdependency of the system and surroundings, hierarchy,
plurality of each system description and so on”.
The system “minerals mining” consists of three elements: developing, stripping (cutting) and excavating (cleansing) workings (look at the Fig. 2). That is why the
mining systems must be constructed, grounded on the base of these notions with taking account of the interconnections of the component elements.
Taking account of the stated and basing on the formed above definition of mineral opencast mining and on the notion “system”, one can give the following reasoned
definition of the opencast mining system.
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The system of mineral opencast mining is the whole complex of interdependent and interconnected with each other the developing, stripping and
excavating workings in the quarry field, intended for excavating the minerals from entrails.
The mining system is the mobile, dynamic object of the quarry because the working trenches (foundation pits), stripping and excavating benches are in the permanent
motion until they receive their limit position envisaged by the project of the deposit mining.
As appears from the definition, the developing, stripping and excavating workings in the quarry field serve as the object for the application of mining work
technologies. The general character of their development at the quarry space is predetermined by mininggeological conditions of mineral bedding. Extraction of rocks
from them is carried out by means of mining work technology. Thus, the mining system is the whole complex of interconnected mining workings, and the technology is
the method of the realization of mining works in the workings.
The proposed notion of the mining system, as every system in the generally accepted meaning, has its own organization, structure, connections and functions.
The organization expresses the complex of properties, characterizing certain regularity of the elements in the system and their interaction. For example, the
developing and cleansing workings cannot be located at the quarry field in arbitrary order. They are placed by the certain norms, on the base of which the system
normal functioning is provided. The level hierarchy is characteristic for every organization. In the considered case the system is “minerals mining system”, and its
elements are the working trenches (foundation pits) and working benches with their working surfaces.
The structure is comprehended as the whole complex of the elements and the methods of their unification in a single whole (it is mechanical connection). In mineral
mining system, the working surfaces are such ones. At all the working benches their dimensions must be not less than their some minimum meanings, determined for
normal work of the system.
The term “connection” in broad meaning is comprehended as such a thing, which joins separate elements into the system. The connections are varied by their form,
meaning, content. Usually the energy, information and material connections are marked out. In our case, the separate elements (the working benches) are joined into the
mineral mining system by material connection. It is the volume of mining mass of the prescribed quality, extracted from each working horizon (bench). This connection is
flexible and changes in the process of the system function.
Figure 3. The bloc scheme of the “minerals mining” system.
Each system fulfils some functions—simply exists, serves as habitat area of other system, serves the system of higher level and so on. The mineral mining system must
provide the stable extraction of mining rocks of the prescribed volume and demanded quality from the Earth entrails. It serves the system of higher level—“the mineral
deposit exploitation”—and at the same time it is a habitat area for other system “technological complexes of extracting and stripping works”.
The mineral mining system as every system can be presented as the structure model, which reflects only construction and organization of the system. This model may
have the form of blocscheme, graphs, matrixes, vectors, and lists and express mutual arrangement of the elements in space.
The structure model of the mining system in form of the blocscheme is adduced at the Fig. 3. Here the elements (the working benches) 1, 2, N form the working
system S, included in the surroundings (the quarry field) Q as the component. In the system S there is the other system T—“technological complexes of mining works”,
which has a large influence on the parameters of the mineral mining system elements.
Thus, in the proposed definition of the mineral opencast mining system the essence of the considered notion of the opencast mining works is revealed in full, all the
basic system’s principles are observed: integrity, hierarchy, structure, interdependency of the system and surroundings and so on. Therefore, in accordance with the
notion “system” in the generally accepted meaning, it reflects the state of the whole complex of interdependent and interconnected mining workings for mineral
extracting from entrails by the opencast method.
As it has been marked above, the mining system is predetermined by the mininggeological conditions of mineral bedding, character and direction of the working
development in the quarry’s space. That is why, the classification of the mineral opencast mining systems must be based on these important
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Figure 4. The opencast mining systems: a—compact, b—deepening, c—combined.
naturaltechnological indications. The addition of supplementary indications, including the indications of technological character, is needless; it only confuses the subject
of research. Many of the different classifications of opencast mining systems, which were analyzed in details in the works (Arsentyiev, 1994; Shevyakov, 1953;
Rakishev, 2003), give the evidence of it.
Among the known classifications, only the opencast mining system classification, given by acad. V.V.Rzhevsky, meets the pointed requirements. It was noticed in
(Rzhevsky), that by working of the horizontal and sloping deposits with the thickness until 50 m after finishing the developing works, the initial front of stripping and
excavating works of the quarry was created. At the period of the deposit exploitation all the points of mining works front, i.e. the working benches of practically
constant total height, move in horizontal planes, they perform planeparallel motion relatively to their initial position. Conditions for forming the internal dumps are
created. Such complex of the stripping and excavating workings forms the compact mining system (Fig. 4a).
By mining of the inclined, steep and also thick gently dipping deposits, the development workings are driven both at the period of building and at the period of the
deposit exploitation for stripping the new horizons and creation of the initial front of stripping and excavating works. In this case all the points of the work front, i.e. the
working benches, also make displacements in horizontal planes, but with regular uneven lowering at the height of the regular stripped horizon. Such complex of the
interconnected with each other developing, stripping and excavating workings presents the deepening mining system (Fig. 4b).
By mining of the deposits, complicated because of the topography and mininggeological conditions, both varieties of the mining workings considering complexes
may be applied within one quarry field at the different periods of exploitation. For example, some part of minerals can be excavated with a help of the deepening mining
system, the rest part—by the compact one (Fig. 4c); or the upper part—by the compact mining system, and lower part—by the deepening one (Fig. 4d).
As a whole, in the given case the deposit exploitation is realized by combination of the compact and deepening mining systems, i.e. by the combined mining system.
Thus, by mininggeological conditions of mineral bedding and general character of development of the given complex of interdependent, interconnected developing,
stripping and excavating workings in the quarry space it is possible to pick out only three opencast mining systems: compact, deepening and combined ones. These
systems by direction of working benches driving relatively axes and the quarry field contour may be divided in accordance with the classification of acad.
V.V.Rzhevsky into subsystems: longitudinal, transversal, fanshaped, circular and additionally into oneboard, twoboard and so on.
On the base of the stated conception, the new classification of mineral opencast mining systems is proposed (look at the Table 1). It meets the formed above
requirements completely. The analysis of the table 1 shows that the new classification differs advantageously by form and structure from the classification of acad.
V.V.Rzhevsky: the new one is clearer, more compact and address than the old one, though by content part they differ not strongly from each other.
In accordance with the aforecited substantiation, the mining system is characterized by the following elements: working trench (foundation pit), working benches
with their working surfaces. In the process of mining work development the working trench (foundation pit) degenerates into the working bench. The other elements in
total form the quarry’s working zone. The last one in a sole person will be the mining system subsequently.
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Table 1. The new classification of opencast mining systems.
Mining systems Mining subsystems
Compact Compact longitudinal oneboard or twoboard
Compact transversal oneboard or twoboard
Compact fanshaped central or dispersed
Compact circular central or peripheral
Deepening Deepening longitudinal oneboard or twoboard
Deepening transversal oneboard or twoboard
Deepening fanshaped dispersed
Deepening circular central
Combined The same, in different combinations
The basic parameters of the mining system elements are: the bench height, the width of the working trench (foundation pit dimensions), angles of slopes, slope’s width,
the width of the working surface, the length of excavating machine block, the length of the excavating and stripping work front at the bench, number of working
benches, the height and width of the working zone, the angle of the quarry’s working board slope, the length of the work front by types in the working zone.
The main indices of the mining system are: the velocity of face advancing; the velocity of work front advancing at the benches; the velocity of deepening mining
works; duration of new laying below the horizon developing; rock volume in the working zone; the quantity of stripped and ready for excavating reserves. The
subsidiary indices are: the quarry output from the unit of ore, rock front length, from the unit of working zone area, operating costs and dilution of minerals.
As appears from the above, mining systems are determined by the given concrete mininggeological conditions of mineral bedding and character of the mining
working development in the quarry space. Formally, they do not depend on technologies and technical means of excavation. However, the last ones have strong
influence on the option of the parameters of the mining system elements, because the technological complexes reside in it.
Parameters of the mining system are determined, proceeding from the form, geometrical dimensions of mineral bedding, physicstechnical properties of ores,
required quality of commodity output and economic indices of the enterprise work.
The substantiation of the mining subsystems envisages the determination of the basic parameters of their elements depending on the enumerated above natural and
technological factors in coordination with the working parameters and technical characteristics of the considered complex of mining and transport equipment. The
chosen subsystem must provide under the concrete mininggeological and miningtechnical conditions the deposit safety, rhythmical, economical and ecological
exploitation with complete extraction of reserves from entrails, and the rational utilization of a goaf and production waste.
REFERENCES
Sheshko E.F. 1951. Opencast mining of the mineral deposits. MKharkov: Ugletekhizdat, 222.
Rzhevsky V.V. 1985. Opencast mining works. P.2, M: Nedra, 550.
Melnikov N.V. 1985. The deposits opencast mining. M: Nauka, 280.
Arsentyiev A.I., Kholodnyakov G.A. 1994. Mining works projecting by the deposits opencast mining. M: Nedra, 336 p.
Shevyakov L.D. 1953. Mining of the minerals deposits. M: Ugletekhizdat, 756.
Rakishev B.R. 2003. Systems and technologies of opencast mining. Almaty: SRC “Gylym”, 328.
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Page 297
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Long hole drilling in narrow vein mining
S.M.Rupprecht
RSG Global, Johanesburg, South Africa
ABSTRACT: Historically, instope long hole drilling was pursued to improve productivity, increase face advance, and to reduce operational costs.
However, recently, the motivation for reevaluating this method has shifted because of the need to exploit marginal, narrow reefs at small tramming
widths, to increase the level of mechanisation in stopes and to improve safety by removing the worker from the stope face.
Long hole stoping is a technology currently being trialed in several South African gold mines. This method has the potential to expand the mineable
reserves in existing South African gold mines by effectively reducing the current paylimits. Thus, previously subeconomic, low grade narrow reefs
would be able to be extracted, through the successful implementation of this new mining method.
Long hole drilling parallel to the face eliminates the need for instope support (a cost advantage), requires no personnel in the stope (a safety
advantage) and extracts the reef channel with little dilution. However, advance development of diagonals, gullys, etc. is required. This paper provides
an overview of the mining layouts/methods and the critical economic factors affecting instope long hole drilling.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Witwatersrand sedimentary basin is a unique geological structure with a size of about 350 km by 160 km. The extremities of the basin are the Evander goldfields in
the north east and the southern Free State goldfield in the south west. Mining has taken place since 1886 when gold bearing conglomerates were discovered in the
Central Rand goldfields thus establishing the city of Johannesburg.
Since its discovery in 1886, the Witwatersrand has produced nearly 50000 tons of gold. However, an estimated 27000 tons of gold are yet to be mined. Although
much of this gold will be derived from future prospects looking at downdip extensions to a number of operating mines, a significant amount of gold is locked up in
subeconomic ore that was left behind by mining in the past. Many of these reefs are typically less than 80 cm in width and with grades as low as 3 grams per ton, which
cannot be mined economically using conventional mining methods (Figure 1), but have excellent potential for long hole stoping.
The challenge for South African gold mines is to be able to mine these narrow low grade areas economically. It has been proposed that longhole drilling technology
may prove to be a suitable alternative, with mining taking place from gullys adjacent to the face.
If successful, the application of long hole stoping offers three particular benefits to the South African gold mining industry as listed below:
1 Long hole stoping can mine subeconomic (marginal) orebodies profitably thereby increasing mining reserves, shaft utilisation in terms of hoisting capacity, the life of
mine, and open up previously uneconomic mine resources.
Figure 1. Conventional stope layout (Brady and Brown, 1985).
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2 Long hole stoping removes stope workers from the panel face and places them in a well supported gully thereby reducing risks of accidents associated with fall of
ground and rock bursts when rock is ejected from unsupported stope faces and/or hangingwall.
3 The method will improve stoping efficiencies with the introduction of mechanised drill rigs to drill parallel long holes, thereby reducing the number of workers in a
stope and enabling them to be reallocated elsewhere in the mine.
The long hole stoping concept will enable the removal of thin marginal reefs, remove workers from the stope face and obviate the need for face support, thereby
reducing costs.
Long hole stoping is a mining method by which long holes are drilled, either on strike or on dip from the predeveloped drilling gullys through to the toe (holing)
gullys. The length of the hole or face varies from 7 m to 22 m, dependant on geotechnical conditions. In comparison, conventional stoping involves drilling 38 mm to 32
mm diameter holes to a depth of 1 m perpendicular to the face and requires personnel in the stope for drilling, support and cleaning. Thus, instope long hole drilling has
a distinct safety advantage over conventional stoping.
2 PREVIOUS APPLICATION
A number of investigations have been conducted in South African gold mines regarding the application of long hole stoping. In the past, long hole stoping was
conducted to increase the rate of face advance and to reduce operational costs. In earlier trials, long hole stoping was considered only for steeply inclined reefs where
the broken rock would fall down the panel into a drive. Failure to progress some of the earlier long hole stoping projects was attributed to the following:
• Geological constraints.
• Inability to drill accurately and cost effectively.
• Poor advance rates.
• Difficulties in removing broken ore out of the stope.
• Long lead times required to develop the stope layout.
• The lack of rock engineering knowledge regarding the effect that large voids have on hangingwall stability.
More recently, with the advent of throw blasting techniques and waterjet cleaning, long hole stoping in less steeply inclined reefs has become possible. Current
investigations wish to mine narrow reefs at a minimum tramming width with the added benefit of removing workers from the stope face, thereby improving stoping
efficiencies and lowering operating costs.
3 GEOLOGY
The success of long hole stoping as a method to mine narrow vein reefs is dependent on, amongst others, several geological and geotechnical considerations. Critical
for the implementation of long hole stoping is the continuity and planarity of the reef.
3.1 Reef continuity
The continuity of the reef is governed by the frequency and displacement of geological discontinuities such as dykes, faults, joints and parting planes. An area dissected
by numerous closely spaced faults and dykes is not suitable for the drilling of long holes. A maximum displacement in which long holes can be adequately drilled is
approximately 50 cm. An acceptable spacing of faults perpendicular to the drilling direction is equal to or greater than the minimum practical drill length of
approximately 10 m to 20 m.
The planarity of the reef surface or the degree of undulation will determine the position and the accuracy of long hole stoping holes. It is also one of the factors that
determines the maximum drill length and hence the block size. The planarity of a reef is a measure of the footwall and hangingwall morphology and the variation in
channel width (Figure 2). A reef is unsuitable for long hole stoping if the reef undulation is such that the blasted drill holes do not remove the entire reef package or
cause the stoping width to be excessive.
Figure 2. Reef channel and well defined parting planes.
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Other inputs to be considered are as follows:
• Reef channel width less than 80 cm.
• Good top and bottom contacts of reef with well defined parting.
• Competent hangingwall and footwall to prevent overbreaking.
• Limited fracturing.
• Dip of reef.
• Grade distribution.
4 DRILLING AND BLASTING
4.1 Drilling
Drilling accuracy determines the stoping width that can be mined, and the length of the hole that can be drilled, and it has a significant effect on the efficacy and
economics of the mining operation. The smallest hole that can be drilled (41 mm to 45 mm) consistent with blasting requirements is the most efficient in terms of drilling
time, power usage, and costs.
Hole deviation is a multidimensional problem dependent on factors such as alignment, collaring, and trajectory deviations. Drilling can be further influenced by
factors such as stress fractures, geological structures and the mechanical aspects of the drilling equipment, such as the type of hammer, inhole guidance, thrust, bit type,
wear of the bit, drill steel and drill string guides.
Thus any long hole stoping system must account for the drilling accuracy. This can be summarised as follows:
• Physically a small drill rig able to operate in typical stope gullys.
• A simple drill rig, easy to operate and maintain with relatively low capital and operating costs.
• Small diameter holes between 41 mm and 51 mm depending on ground conditions and blasting requirements.
• Hole lengths between 10 m and 20 m.
• Hole dips of between +30° and −30° from horizontal.
• Ability to collar within 30 cm from the hangingwall and/or footwall.
• Ease to setup and operate with the ability to accurately position and collar the drill hole with limited deviation.
• Single row drilling.
• Compact and mobile drill rig for easy instope transportation.
The above is not an exhaustive list, but only a guide to some of the considerations required by the mining engineer. Ultimately the drill rig must match the required drilling
method and pattern. Drill rig setup is most important if hole accuracy is to be achieved. Too much freedom will result in a drill rig that is difficult to setup and/or
maintain stability. It must be noted that it is nearly impossible to recover a poorly setup or misaligned hole during drilling. Hence, as few as possible adjustable parts
should be used. The position and direction of the drill feed must be able to be finely adjusted and kept locked in position for the duration of the drilling of the hole.
4.2 Blasting
The rock breaking mechanism in long hole stoping is very different from conventional stoping, as are the objectives of the long hole blast. For example, long hole
stoping desires a worker free stope panel hence there is a need to throw the majority of the rock out of the panel area and into the gully. Ultimately the success of long
hole stoping depends on the blast design and its performance.
Most problems in blasts originate from inaccurate drilling, hence it is critical that long hole stoping crews are aware of the fundamental importance that drilling has on
the overall blast results. The basic difference between conventional narrow reef stoping and long hole stoping is the need to reduce the stoping width from 100 cm–150
cm down to 50 cm–80 cm. The decision to reduce stoping width in long hole stoping requires a reconsideration of the blast hole pattern. The need for two rows
(commonly applied in conventional stoping) is questionable as the explosive energy released by a single hole is sufficient to break the rock out to the required stoping
width. Long holes break the rock in a different method than short holes. Long holes break the rock by tensile fracture (compared to compressive fractures for
conventional stoping), and the tensile stress splits the rock nearly vertically to the first bedding plane above and below the drill hole (see Figure 3). Thus a
Figure 3. An example of a hole breaking in tension. (Point 6 indicates the adjacent drill hole. Point 7 shows the hangingwall parting and
free face vertical to the blast hole barrel.)
measure of control is lost in the stope width control and reemphasising the importance of site selection. Generally, more than one bedding plane exists in the immediate
proximity of the drill hole, and inevitably, a compromise must be found between the burden, and the explosive energy, to optimise the stope width. The interhole delay
between individual blasts (sequentially fired) also influences the breaking out of the bedding planes during blasts. If sequential shots are out of time then negative
pressure waves are created, which can lead to the breaking of the hangingwall beam.
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5 CLEANING
Cleaning plays a fundamental role in longhole stoping as the method depends on the removal of the blasted ore from the panel without requiring workers to enter the
panel. The tonnage handling requirement for cleaning is a function of the hole length, stoping width achieved, and the effective burden. The maximum tonnage for long
hole stoping is lower than the requirements for conventional stoping (i.e. SOtons). During blasting, between a single and four blast holes should be initiated at any one
time, and the blast should not exceed 50tons. Based on these production parameters, the cleaning cycle should not pose a problem.
5.1 Face cleaning
There are two basic methods of blasting a stope panel, defined by the drilling direction. The first long hole stoping layout utilises dip drilling whereby the rock is blasted
into the panel and subsequently removed either by scrapers or by water jets (Figure 4). The second method, involving strike drilling, relies on the explosives to perform
most of the work with a large percentage of the ore being “thrown” into the strike gully as shown in Figure 5.
To date, no face cleaning method has been successful in achieving a worker free face environment. In all trials, stope workers have had to enter the panel to
complete cleaning operations. This has been largely due to the footwall fractures acting as a natural catchments, oversized rocks needing to be removed manually, falls
of ground, and the lifting of the footwall due to blast operations.
6 MINE LAYOUT
Mining is conducted in a “V” shape configuration (as shown in Figure 6) resulting in a face advance rate of
Figure 4. An example of a dip drilling layout utilising a cleaning slusher (Rupprecht and Rapson, 2003).
Figure 5. An example of strike drilling utilising throw blasting (Rupprecht and Rapson, 2003).
1.8 m per day. Blasting is based on utilising a 1:2 mining cycle over 24 working days per month.
To determine the number of achievable blast holes for a double shift system, the drilling parameters of the hydraulic drifter and the mining layout were determined.
Table 1 indicates the drilling (Atlas Copco 1238) and mining parameters utilised to determine the drill cycle time and number of holes in a double shift. For this study,
48 shifts are available per month with an effective face period of six hours. A machine availability of 85% is used and a single shift is required to move the drill rig to
next gully. Drilling takes place over three panels with blasting operations being conducted as soon as the drill rig is operating from a safe position three panels away
from
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Figure 6. Macro layout of long hole drilling (Rupprecht and Rapson, 2003).
Table 1. Drilling (COP 1238) and mining components.
Backlength 176 m
Number of panels on dip 8
Number of panels on strike 6
Percentage discard (unusable drill holes) 20.0%
Hole length 20 m
Stoping width 60 cm
Burden 45 cm
Shift per month (double shift) 48
Machine availability/utilisation (single shift) 85%
Machine availability/utilisation (double shift) 85%
Time to move drill rig to next gully Drill pressure 6 hours 25 Mpa
Machine rating 10.50 kW
Number of rods (1.2 m rods) 17
Collaring time 0.7 mins
Rod changing time 1.0
Each crew starts and completes own drill hole
the blasting activities, i.e. blasting activities always lagging by three panels from drilling.
The macro layout is based on a stoping span of 120 m divided by a 175 m centre raise. The orientation of the panel layout is in a 20 m by 20 m block whereby
drilling is conducted on strike and a 3 m pillar is positioned downdip of the strike gully to contain the “thrown” ore in the strike gully. Drilling is conducted utilising a top
hammer hydraulic drifter, which operates on both day and night shift. A 41 mm drill bit is used to drill five blast holes per shift spaced at 45 cm burdens.
Table 2. Atlas Copco 1238 cycle time for 20 m hole.
Setup time to next adjacent hole 15.0 min
Time to add rods (total) 11.9 min
Collaring time 1.0 min
Rod removal (total) 12.2 min
Actual drilling time (total) 17.2 min
Total time to drill a 20 m hole 57.3 min
Table 3. Stoping costs.
A drill cycle time of 57 minutes is achieved based on the operating parameters of an Atlas Copco 1238 hydraulic drifter (Table 2). A hole discard rate of 20% is
applied which equates to 43 holes required for a 20 m by 20 m stoping block. A onemetre shoulder is mined out on dip during the development of the stope and a 3
m pillar is positioned downdip to contain the “thrown” ore in the strike gully creating an effective face length of 16 m on dip. Based on a drilling rate of five holes per
shift, 1708 m2 per month is achievable for double shift drilling.
By utilising two hydraulic drifters a period of 7.6months is required to mine out a typical stope. Thus, it is concluded that drilling three panels and blasting the panel as
soon as the drilling machine is safely positioned away from the blasting activities provides an optimum solution utilising two hydraulic drifters.
Table 3 summarises the long hole stoping costs. The financia l valuati on indica tes tha t the gr profit is gained using two hydraulic drifters operating at a stoping cost
of R 156 per ton thus resulting in a profit of R 163 per ton with equipment finance repayment costs of R 17.14 per ton over a five year period.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Although still in its infancy, the use of long hole drilling in South African gold mines could be of interest to mines that have marginalgrade, narrow channel width reefs.
In addition, the requirement for drilling accuracy makes it essential that the rock be competent and uniform with minimum stratification. The ability to drill accurate holes
with lengths in the
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region of 10 m to 20 m is critical and it must be stressed that good setup and alignment practices are required. Drilling accuracy determines the stope width and the
length of hole that can be drilled, and thus has a significant effect on the efficacy and economics of the mining operations.
Long hole stoping has the potential to change the South African gold mining industry. However, long hole stoping will require a period of at least 3 years to properly
develop and correctly implement the technology.
REFERENCES
Brady, B.G.H. and Brown, E.T. 1985. Rock Mechanics For Underground Mining. William Clowes Limited, Beccles and London, 308 pp.
Rupprecht, S.M. and Rapson, G.M. 2003. The application of Longhole stoping in South African gold mines. FutureMine Collaborative Research Program, Report
2003–0187.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Improvement of quartz sand quality using attrition cleaning
B.Salopek, I.Sobota, R.Halle & G.Bedeković
Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Croatia
ABSTRACT: To meet high quality requirements defined for specific industrial applications, the raw sand often has to be subjected to extensive
physical and chemical processing. When the impurities occur in the form of oxide coatings on the surfaces of the single sand grains, attriton cleaning is
applied. By reducing the proportion of oxide coatings on the grains, the quality of sand can be improved. The paper presents the results of attrition
cleaning obtained by testing the samples of quartz sand under laboratory conditions. The tests were conducted in a laboratory attrition cell at different
values of operating parameters: suspension density, attrition time and stirrer speed. Indicators of attrition efficiency were the content of the particles
−0.063 mm and content of main impurities (A12O3, Fe2O3) removed through the attrition process.
1 INTRODUCTION
Quartz sand with defined chemical and physical characteristics represents the basic mineral raw material for many industrial applications such as glassmaking (silica is
the major ingredient in virtually all types of glass), foundry work (in foundry moulds), abrasives in sand blasting and polishing, water and petroleum filtration and
applications in chemical, ceramics and construction industries (as fillers, additives, etc).
Different industrial uses of quartz sand are based on either the chemical purity (i.e. a high proportion of silica and limited amounts of certain components such as
alumina and ferric oxide) or physical properties of the sand (such as grain size distribution or grain shape). The most rigid requirements regarding quality are set for sand
used in glassmaking (commonly: SiO2>95%, Fe2O3<0.04%, TiO2< 0.2%, Cr2O3<0.002%). In the production of colourless glass, the requirements for the sand
component are particulary high concerning the content of iron oxide (Fe2O3) as mainly this component leads to more or less pronounced tinting of the glass (Donhauser
& Baumann 2001). Concerning the grain size distribution, quartz sand is usually regarded as a high quality if it contains >90% grains in size class 0.5/0.1 mm. For
foundry sand in addition to requirements for purity (SiO2>94%, impurities <3%) and grain size distribution (grain size range: 0.06 to 0.75 mm) there are defined the
other important quality indicators such as compression strength, shear strength, sintering temperature and gas permeability. Abrasive sands used in sand blasting and
polishing usually require the individual particles to be nearly the same size and somewhat angular with sharp edges. Sands used as fillers in paints, plastics, rubber and
ceramics are commonly in the form of ground sand or silica flour. Requirements for fine ceramics are: SiO2>93%, Fe2O3<0.3%, A12O3<1.5%, TiO2<0.15%,
CaO<1%, MgO< 0.5%, K2O+Na2O<0.5%, moisture content <8%, maximum grain size: 0.6 mm (Croatian standards HRN B.B5.011, HRN B.B5.020 and HRN
B.B5.030).
To meet defined chemical and physical specifications according to intended application, the raw sand often has to be subjected to extensive physical and chemical
processing. This involves comminution, screening, desliming and further adjusting the grain size distribution, together with removing contaminating impurities in the sand
and from the surfaces of the individual quartz grains. In presentday practice the following beneficiation processes are applied for the removal of mineral impurities:
– washing processes for removing clayey and silty impurities,
– flotation, magnetic separation, electrostatic separation and gravity concentration for removing impurities in the form of grains,
– mechanical and chemical attrition cleaning for removing impurities in the form of surface coatings.
The chief processing aims generally are to increase the SiO2 content as well as to reduce any additional unwanted components. The selection of an suitable
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beneficiation procedure for the respective raw material depends mostly on the contents and types of impurities. The main impurities affecting quality (A12O3, Fe2O3,
etc.) are present in quartz sand as clay, feldspar, mica and heavy minerals (limonite, hematite, ilmenite, rutile, titanite). When the impurities occur in the form of oxide
coatings on the surfaces of the single sand grains, attriton cleaning (attrition scrubbing) is applied. By reducing the proportion of oxide coatings on the quartz grains, the
quality of quartz sand can be significantly improved.
The paper presents the results of mechanical attrition cleaning obtained by testing the samples of quartz sand under laboratory conditions. The aim of testing,
conducted within a project of complex technoeconomical valorisation of different sand deposits in Croatia, was to consider the possibility of the removal of oxide
coatings from quartz grains by attrition. The tests were carried out in laboratory attrition cell at different values of operating parameters: suspension density, attrition
duration and stirrer speed. As indicator of attrition efficiency, the content of the particles −0.063 mm formed by abrasion of grain surfaces was determined after each
test. The attrition efficiency was also observed with respect to changes in chemical composition, i.e. reduction of main impurities (Al2O3, Fe2O3).
2 PRINCIPLE OF ATTRITION CLEANING
Attrition cleaning is a process in which impurities adhering to the grain surfaces are removed through abrasion of surfaces caused by intense shear and friction forces i.e.
rubbing between grains. Such intense interaction of grains is achieved by stirring dense water suspension in an attrition cell. The stirring of suspension is effected by
rotation of impeller driven by an electric motor.
The cleaning effect of the attrition process i.e. the removal of surface impurities primarily depends on the properties of the attrited material (grain size distribution,
mineral and chemical composition) and on the chosen combination of the values of operating parameters (suspension density, attrition duration and stirrer speed). The
attrition process is considered to be efficient if impurities (such as Al and Feoxides, heavy metals, mineral oils, etc.) are abraded from grain surfaces without reducing
grain sizes more than necessary (Hankel et al. 1992). In other words, any comminution of the material that might bring about considerable changes of its grain size
distribution is undesirable. In order to avoid such comminution, the attrition unit should operate without impact, largely on the basis of shearing actions. This is ensured
by high solids concentration in the suspension and relatively low stirrer speed. The more dense the suspension, the more particletoparticle attriton contact and the
more efficient the scrubbing action. Low suspension densities (<40% solids by volume) cause increased free mobility of the individual grains, which may lead to impact
action and undesired grinding effect (Tiefel et al. 1999, Schricker et al. 2000). Also too high stirrer speeds cause unnecessary grain grinding of softer materials,
respectively excessive grain surface abrasion of harder materials and undesired additional slurry volume.
Besides the removal of surface coatings from sand grains through abrasion, an effective attrition process leads to disintegration (deglomeration) of clay agglomerates
and separation of sand grains from cementing materials.
3 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND PROCEDURES
The tests were carried out in verticaltype laboratory attrittion cell, schematically shown in Figure 1 (Sešelj & Stražišar 1998). It consists of a cylindric container of
about 0.381 capacity with internal diameter 72 mm, and impeller (stirrer) of 48 mm in diameter beltdriven by an electric motor with nominal power of 550 W. The
impeller consists of a vertical shaft with 6 pairs of vertically welded 15 mm long pins having circular crosssection 8 mm in diameter. Both the container and the impeller
are made of stainless steel. Impeller rotation speeds is changed by means of adjustable Vbelt and pulley system.
The effects of attrition were tested on three quartz sand samples with different SiO2 i.e. impurity contents (88 to 93% SiO2, 1.25 to 0.77% Fe2O3, 5.4
Figure 1. Laboratory attrition cell.
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to 3.5% A12O3 in raw samples 2/0 mm), taken from three different locations of the open pit mine “Jerovec” located in northwestern Croatia. The feed material of
grain size class 1/0.063 mm was prepared for attrition tests by wet screening of raw sand samples. The grain size analysis of feed material for each of three samples
was made by wet screening on standard testing sieves with mesh sizes 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.1 and 0.063 mm followed by drying and weighing separated size classes.
Samples for the analysis was separated from the total samples by riffling on Jones splitter. Samples for the analysis of chemical composition was prepared separately.
The tests were conducted at various combinations of the values of operating parameters (independent variables) which are supposed to have the main influence upon
the attrition efficiency (see Table 1). Since the results of preliminary testing (Salopek et al. 2003) have shown that at a suspension density lower than 70% solids by
weight, it cannot be expected to obtain satisfactory attritioning effect with quartz sand regardless of attrition duration and stirrer speed, in this test phase, attrition
cleaning has been performed at solids concentrations within the limits of 73 to 78 wt.%. With tested samples, the density of 78 wt.% was the maximum possible
suspension density achieved in attrition cell which enable an appropriate interparticle motion. After each test the attrited sand was screened by wet process through
sieves with mesh sizes 0.5, 0.25, 0.1 and 0.063 mm, separated classes were dried and then weighed. In that way the grain size distributions of three sand samples
attrited at various combinations of suspension density, impeller speed and attrition time were determined. The content of the particles −0.063 mm formed by
Table 1. Design applied for laboratory attrition tests.
abrasion of grain surfaces was regarded as an indicator of attrition efficiency.
The attrition efficiency was also observed with respect to changes in chemical composition. The content of single sand components in size class 1/0.063 mm before
and after attrition as well as in fines (−0.063 mm) abraded from the grain surfaces was determined by standard chemical analysis. The procedure was as follows: SiO2
in samples was deggased with HF. The rest was liberated with KHSO4. In the filtrate, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3 and Al2O3 were identified by EDTA titrimetric method.
Na2O and K2O were identified by flame photometric method. The loss was determined by ignition of the samples at 1000°C. In the sample of the material produced
by attrition, TiO2 was also identified by spectrophotometric method.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Depending on applied combination of the value of operating parameters, the results of the grain size analyses of output (attrited) material for all three samples showed
changes in the mass content of particles −0.063 mm within the limits of: 2.31% to 5.53% for sample with the lowest SiO2 content (sample 1), and 0.64% to 3.64% for
the other two samples with input SiO2 content of about 95 wt.% and 96 wt.% respectively (samples 1 and 2). The abovementioned lower limits for all three samples
were obtained in tests conducted at the lowest suspension density i.e. 73 wt.% (test no. 1) whereas the maximum contents were obtained in tests at the highest
suspension density (78 wt.%), attrition time of 10 and 25 minutes and impeller speed of 960 rpm (tests no. 6 and 8).
The results of grain size analysis of feed material as well as those of output material achieved in attrition test conducted at density of 78 wt.%, impeller speed of 960
rpm and attrition time of 10 minutes (test no. 6) are shown for all three samples in Table 2. From the given data it is evident that in the tested sand, the grain size classes
0.25/0.1 and 0.5/0.25 mm constitute the highest portion (aprox. 93 wt.% to 95 wt.%). The comparison of the grain size distribution of feed and output materials shows
a change in the content of these classes, e.g. for sample 1: reduced content in class 0.5/0.25 mm by about 12% and increased content in class 0.25/ 0.1 mm by about
8%. This indicates that, besides the generation of fines due to the abrasion of grain surfaces, class 0.5/0.25 mm was also subject to deglomeration and grinding to some
extent. It can be also concluded that under conditions of performed tests the greater changes in the content of the abovementioned classes as well as more extensive
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Table 2. Grain size distribution of quartz sand before and after attrition (Test No. 6).
Mass content (%)
Grain size classes (mm) Sample Before attrition After attrition
1/0.5 1 1.26 0.83
2 3.33 2.37
3 2.69 3.20
0.5/0.25 1 33.73 21.46
2 37.88 31.15
3 35.56 30.17
0.25/0.1 1 61.44 69.58
2 55.47 59.36
3 58.25 60.90
0.1/0.063 1 3.01 2.60
2 3.00 3.48
3 3.07 2.57
−0.063 1 0.56 5.53
2 0.32 3.64
3 0.43 3.16
∑ 100.00 100.00
Sample 1: sand, 91.23% SiO2 , 1.07% Fe2 O3 , 4.67% Al2 O3
Sample 2: sand, 95.20% SiO2 , 0.34% Fe2 O3 , 2.34% Al2 O3
Sample 3: sand, 96.37% SiO2 , 0.44% Fe2 O3 , 1.57% Al2 O3 .
Figure 2. Influence of attrition time and impeller speed on attrition efficiency (sample 1, suspension density: 78 wt.%).
generation of particles −0.063 mm were occured in quartz sand sample of lower quality (sample 1). It is probably a consequence of higher content of impurities on
quartz grain surfaces and greater presence of clay agglomerates and cementing minerals in that sample.
Optimal attrition time of 10 minutes was determined by conducting the tests at constant suspension density (78% solids by weight) and different impeller speeds. The
results of these tests are shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that the content of particles −0.063 mm in attrited samples increases with attrition time and impeller speed.
However, that increase becomes relatively negligible after 10 minutes of attrition at each impeller speed. At attrition time of
Figure 3. Influence of suspension density on attrition efficiency (attrition time: 10minutes, impeller speed: 960 rpm).
10 minutes and impeller speeds of 460, 860 and 960 rpm (revolutions per minute), obtained content of particles −0.063 mm was 4.38 wt.%, 5.32 wt.% and 5.53
wt.% respectively. These results apply to sample with the lowest SiO2 content but the same correlations were determined by testing all three samples of quartz sand.
Figure 3 shows the influence of solids concentration in the suspension on attrition efficiency. The increase in the content of class −0.063 mm with the change in
suspension density up to 75 wt.% is minimal. At suspension density higher than 75 wt.%, depending on sand composition (samples 1, 2 and 3), significant increase up
to around 5.5 wt.% can be observed.
The results of chemical analysis and macroscopic observation showed that the material removed by attrition (test no. 6) mainly consists of clay material in which
SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 prevail. It can be seen from Table 3 that the SiO2 content was increased from 91.23% to 93.46% in sample 1 and from 95.20% to 96.35% in
sample 2 (the results of chemical analysis of sample 3 were similar to those of sample 2). The concentration of ferric oxide was reduced from 1.07% to 0.82% in
sample 1 and from 0.34% to 0.29% in sample 2, while that of alumina from 4.67% to 3.08% and from 2.34% to 1.68%, respectively. The last column in table shows
the percentage of relative enrichment and reduction ratio of basic components in attrited sand. From this data it is evident that, relatively, the highest reduction in mass
content occurred with aluminium (by approximately one third). Relatively greater increase in SiO2 concentration and greater reduction of main impurities in class
1/0.063 mm of sample 1 as well as chemical composition of the generated fines i.e. class −0.063 mm (lower SiO2 content and higher content of main impurities
compared to sample 2), confirmed presumption of higher concentration of surface impurities on quartz grains in that sample.
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Table 3. Chemical composition of quartz sand before and after attrition (Test No. 6).
5 CONCLUSIONS
The quality of quartz sand can be improved by reducing the proportion of oxide coatings on the grain surfaces. Attrition cleaning as a stage of overall beneficiation
procedure are employed for that purpose. Besides the removal of surface impurities from sand grains, an efficient attrition process involves disintegration of clay
agglomerates and separation of sand grains from cementing minerals, with a minimum of size reduction of quartz grains themselves. The success of this process primarily
depends on the nature of treated raw material (grain size distribution, mineral composition, the type of intergrowth between grains) as well as the chosen combination of
the values of operating parameters.
The results of conducted tests proved that the solids concentration of the suspension has a decisive influence on attrition efficiency. The more dense the suspension,
the more efficient the cleaning action. The grain size analyses showed that a significant generation of fines in attrited sand occured at solids concentrations higher than
75%. Depending on the quality of attrited sand, attrition time and impeller speed, the increase in the content of class −0.063 mm up to around 5.5 wt.% was
determined. Under conditions of performed tests, the best results were obtained at a suspension density of around 78% solids by weight. It was also shown that
attrition efficiency increased with impeller speed and attrition time, however, the content of generated fines changed to a far lesser extent after 10 minutes of attrition.
Differences in the grain size distribution of feed and output materials indicates that, besides the generation of fines through the abrasion, coarser particles was also
subject to deglomeration and grinding to some extent. The greatest changes was observed in the grain size distribution of sand sample with lowest SiO2 content
(content in class 0.5/ 0.25 mm reduced by about 12% and class 0.25/ 0.1 mm content increased by about 8%).
The results of chemical analysis showed that mainly clay impurities was abraded from the grain surfaces. The cleaning effect achieved by attrition at solids
concentration of 78%, impeller speed of 960 rpm and attrition time of 10minutes was: SiO2 content increased by 2.44%, Fe2O3 reduced by around 23% and Al2O3
reduced by around 34%. The attrited sand meets, by its chemical composition, the requirements of the Croatian standard specifications for foundry sand (HRN
B.B5.011)
From the obtained results, it is apparent that the attrition cleaning alone was not capable of achieving a sufficient improvement in sand quality. To achieve the higher
degree of purity, required e.g. for glassmaking, further processing stage (flotation, highintensity magnetic separation) are needed.
Further examinations are required to determine the influence of the other relevant parameters such as construction characteristics of attrition cell and addition of small
grinding media to the suspension.
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REFERENCES
Donhauser, F. & Baumann, T. 2001. Processing Procedures for the Production of HighQuality Industrial Sands for Glassmaking. AufbereitungsTechnik 42(1):30–37.
Hankel, D., Rosenstock, F. & Biehler, G. 1992. The Effect of Attrition in the LurgiDeconterra Process for Decontamination of Soil. AufbereitungsTechnik 33(5):257–
267.
Schricker, B., Tiefel, H. & Nesse, T. 2000. Remediation of Contaminated Sandy Soil Fractions Using HighPerformance Attrition.In Paolo Massacci(ed.), Proceedings of
the XXI International Mineral Processing Congress,Rome, 23–27 July 2000. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Salopek, B., Sobota, I., Halle, R. & Pfaff, S. 2003. The Effect of Attrition in the Quartz Sand Beneficiation. In Lubomir Kuzev (ed.), Proceedings of the X Balkan
Mineral Processing Congress, Varna, 15–20 June 2003. Sofia: Djiev Trade Ltd.
Sešelj, A. & Stražišar, J. 1998. Products Characterization in Attrition Process. In R.Weichert (ed.), Proceedings of the 7th European Symposium Particle
Characterization PARTEC 98, Nürnberg, 10–12 March 1998.
Tiefel, H., Schricker, B. & Neese, Th. 1999. HighPerformance Attrition for Wet Cleaning of Mineral Raw Materials and Residues. AufbereitungsTechnik 40(4):160–
165.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Analysis of ground vibration and fragmentation by blasting: case study at
limestone and shalestone quarries of PT Indocement Tunggal Prakarsa, West
Java, Indonesia
G.M.Simangunsong, K.Matsui &H. Shimada
Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Kyushu University, Japan
B.Sulistianto, I.Arif & S.Kramadibrata
Department of Mining Engineering, Institute of Technology Bandung, Indonesia
ABSTRACT: A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of bench blasting on building structures. Several investigations prior to and upon fourteen
blasting operations were carried out to find the optimum blasting design. Local structure was carefully investigated by scanline method on each wall of
production bench. Blasting pattern and initiation system of each production blast were recorded. Blast induced vibration was monitored using
Seistronic RAS24. Manual investigation of blasted material was carried out and gave a plausible result of fragment size distribution curve. Having paid
attention to the local structure, blasting pattern, initiation system, and vibration data of each production blast, it was found that the optimum
fragmentation tended to generate relatively low vibration level.
1 INTRODUCTION
Rock Blasting is the rock excavation technique most widely adopted in the various branches of the mining and construction industry because it is economical, reliable,
and safe. The job of the explosive, which is loaded in boreholes in the rock and blasted according to a prearranged sequence (round), is to fracture, fragment and
displace from its natural position a welldefined portion of the rock.
Among the secondary effects of the explosion round, rock vibration at excavation contour generated by the shock wave following the explosion deserves special
attention. This phenomenon is usually harmless: vibration lasts a very short time (a few tens of millisecond), after which the rock reverts to its initial condition.
However, the situation differs, and problems arise, in the presence of important structures likely to be particularly susceptible to dynamic stress (building, bridges,
dams, etc.) because the vibration can be transmitted to them through the ground. In such cases it is necessary to check, during blast design whether the vibration
induced stress may compromise structure integrity. And where danger might be expected, it is necessary to reconsider blast design in order to reduce the induced
vibration to acceptable levels.
The research group at the Department of Mining Engineering and the Department of Physics, Institute of Technology Bandung (ITB), funded by PT Indocement
Tunggal Prakarsa (PTITP), have conducted research project to evaluate the effect of bench blasting of limestone quarry and shalestone quarry in West Java,
Indonesia respectively on building structures and human being. Fourteen production blasts were investigated, and 128 vibration data were analyzed.
2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
The research project was mainly conducted to evaluate the effect of bench blasting respectively on building structures and human being. Parallel with the efforts to
reconsider blast design in order to reduce vibration (in case the vibration may compromise structure integrity), field investigation had been extended to measure
fragmentation. It remains a continuous challenge in the blast design to optimize fragmentation, while minimizing the environmental effect.
The PTITP is located at CiteureupBogor, about 36 km south of Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia. As one of the biggest cement factories in Indonesia, recently
two quarries are operating at the PTITP. They both supply most of raw materials needed by
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the cement factory, which are limestone from Quarry D and shalestone from Quarry Hambalang.
During late July–August 2002, the following work was made in site:
• Scanline mapping
• Blast data collection
• Blast monitoring
• Fragmentation measurement
The results have been reported by LPPM (2002).
3 FIELD INVESTIGATION
3.1 Scanline mapping
Seven scanlines at Quarry D and eight scanlines at Quarry Hambalang were undertaken, the details and location of which are presented in LPPM (2002). A total of
465 m of scanline were mapped for a total 774 discontinuities measurement and the following details were recorded:
• Rock type.
• The intersection distance of each discontinuity with the scanline.
• Discontinuity orientation.
• Discontinuity aperture.
• The presence of gouge.
• Water condition.
Scanline mapping provided a significant amount of valuable geotechnical information and was particularly well suited to the study area where significant lengths of wall
exposure are available. However, the following drawbacks in the method are noted in the context of this study:
• Not all exposed faces were accessible due to unsafe berm and floor condition.
• Each face exhibits some degree of blast damage. Damage will often lead to induced cracking and care had to be taken not to record such crack as discontinuities. It
was generally found that the induced cracks could be identified and therefore ignored. They are random orientation and are less continuous and less weathered than
the genuine discontinuities.
The DIPS program was used to generate the stereonets from the scanline survey data collected. For each scanline survey, a contoured pole data stereonet with joint
set windows was constructed. As an example, Figure 1 shows dip direction of discontinuities from the scanline survey data collected at South East Quarry D, which is
dominated by discontinuities with dip direction and dip range from N238°E to N279°E and 9° to 14°, respectively. At Quarry Hambalang, dip direction ranges from
N308°E to N344°E with dip 10°–18°.
Figure 1. Stereonet of discontinuities from the scanline survey data collected at South East Quarry D.
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3.2 Blast data collection
The investigated areas were blasted as part of normal production. The charges, spacing, burden, etc. were normal for the particular quarries and were not determined
by this study. As a consequence, the input data varied somewhat between the areas investigated. Bench height ranges from 10 m to 19 m. Ammonium nitrate fuel oil
(ANFO) were filled into either 3.5 inch or 6 inch blasting hole.
Bench height, hole diameter, hole depth, burden, spacing, explosive charge, stemming, and initiation layout were carefully measured and recorded. Blast data
collection is of importance to get actual value of explosive weight and to give information in case actual geometry changes from the plan.
3.3 Blast monitoring
Seistronic RAS24 was used as instrument to monitor peak particle velocity (PPV). The field layout, as shown in Figure 2, consisted of eight geophones which were
located between the area of blasting and the nearest infrastructure. The measuring points on the ground surface, labeled XXXGYYY (XXX denoted for blasting
location, YYY denoted for distance) were setup along a measuring line to place vibration monitor. The measuring points on the ground surface were setup along 120 m
apart from the first geophone to the number eight geophone.
At each measurement point, vibration velocity was monitored in three directions; longitudinal, vertical, and transversal. Figure 3 shows a typical particle velocity
versus time history, which was recorded at Block2–261G312 (blasting location: Block 2 Elevation 261, geophone: 312 m away from the blasting source). From the
particle velocity graph, the highest velocity—PPV is attained. Assuming that the peak longitudinal, vertical and transversa l veloci ty (VL, VV, VT) at a point occur at the
same time, the resultant PPV can then be calculated by . This assumption may result in a larger estimation of the absolute PPV than the actual
one. From the engineering point of view, however, the assumption will result in a conservative assessment of structural safety. In normal blasting operations for
tunneling, surface mining and construction, the PPV can vary between 10−4 to 103 mm/s (Dowding, 1985).
Figure 2. Typical field layout of vibration monitoring.
Several difficulties from an unexpected field condition to instrument trouble shooting were found during the investigation. Ground condition was found hardly penetrated
by steel nail. In fact, three holes of 5 mm diameter were obviously needed as a base of the geophone at each measurement point. First trial of vibration monitoring
showed peak vibration less than 0.5 mm/s. The value was considered too small for automatic triggering. Having considered sampling limitation, then it was decided later
in the field to use trigger cable. Explosive primer inside the first initiated hole was tied by the trigger cable; in sequence to give signal to start the monitoring.
The allowable vibration criteria from Indonesian government, KEP49/MENLH/11/1996, was adopted, and the results were shown in Figure 4. The vibration
criteria consist of four categories as follows:
• Category A: No destruction
• Category B: Plaster cracking
• Category C: Block cement cracking
• Category D: Heavy damage.
Eight times monitoring at Quarry D and six at Quarry Hambalang indicated vibration values, which were lower than the minimum threshold to begin structural damage,
and can be categorized in Category A. However, it should be noted that measurement points were located in area between housing and blasting source. Hence, the
particular blasting can be considered safe from any possibility of structural damage.
Figure 3. Typical particle velocity versus time history (at Block2–261G312).
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Figure 4. Plotting PPV using vibration criteria from Indonesian government (KEP–49/MENLH/1171996); (a) Quarry D (b) Quarry
Hambalang.
Figure 5. Plotting PPV using vibration criteria from USBM; (a) Quarry D (b) Quarry Hambalang.
The vibration criteria proposed by Indonesian government has not been widely used yet. For better recommendation, the results were compared with the widely used
criteria such as from US Bureau of Mines (USBM) and vibration criteria for human being from
Figure 6. Plotting PPV using vibration criteria from ISO; (a) Quarry D (b) Quarry Hambalang.
the International Standard Organization (ISO), as can be seen respectively in Figures 5 and 6. Fourteen production blasts, and 128 vibration data found below the
threshold value of each vibration criteria.
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3.4 Fragmentation measurement
Fragmentation measurement was undertaken to know fragment size distribution of blasted material. The measurement was done manually. Square area made by rope
with dimension 10×10 m was spread out over a muck pile, which was done soon as the location announced safe for further investigation. The square area was divided
into 10 rows of dimension 1×10 m. Each boulder within a row was watchfully measured one by one and counted to get fragment size distribution with size interval of
10–20 cm, 20–40 cm, 40–60 cm, 60–80 cm, 80–100 cm and >100 cm.
Typically, a muck pile is heterogeneous with respect to fragment size. Depending on the blast design, the largest sizes could be thrown the furthest from the blast, or
they could slump down directly next to the blast. They may be some sort of gravitational segregation, where the fines are covering the larger blocks or alternatively the
fines may have slipped in and behind the larger block. If assumption is made that the surface of a muck pile is representative, measurement can be simply a matter of
personal decision. Eight muck piles at Quarry D were successfully measured, and the result can be seen in Figure 7a. Seven muck piles at Quarry Hambalang were
successfully measured as well, and the result can be seen in Figure 7b.
Fragmentation is the economically significant size range of a definable volume of broken rock. This accommodates whatever is important to a particular operation,
and will vary with venue. The first item is to establish when discussing fragmentation at a venue will be, what is the important size? (Cunningham, 1996) Within the
present study, optimum opening size of crusher (800 mm) was considered as the optimum fragment size. Figure 7a shows that the best fragmentation for Quarry D was
achieved at Block 3 Elevation 261 on July 27th. At Quarry Hambalang, fragment size distribution shows the similarity between one and another, which indicates
homogeneous rock characteristics of the investigated areas.
4 DISCUSSION
4.1 Prediction of peak particle velocity
The blasting geometry was normal for the particular quarries and was not determined by this research project. The explosive weight varies between the areas
investigated. Consequently, the scaling has become important to use, since the explosive weight, W, and distance, R, are varying. The two most popular approaches are
square root, R/Wl/2, scaling and cube root, RW1/3, scaling. Previous studies have shown that the PPV of ground vibrations are closely related to the maximum charge
weight per delay, or
Figure 7. Fragment size distribution curve; (a) Quarry D (b) Quarry Hambalang.
the amount of explosive detonating at any given instant of time. It is customary at the present time to consider the weight to be that which detonates within any given 8
ms period of time (Dowding, 1985). Blasting pattern within the PTITP is staggered which is delayed hole by hole using either electric detonator or NONEL. As for
NONEL, by tying the holes up within the same row with 76ms delay and 176ms between the rows, interval time of each hole be initiated would theoretically be more
than 8ms.
Plotting the measured PPV as a function of square root and cube root scaling were employed to compare field data and to predict attenuation or decay the PPV. It
was found that the square root scaling provides better correlation factor than that of the cube root. And the best leastsquaresfitted empirical
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attenuation relations are given by the following:
PPV=12.20(R/W1/2)−1.67
PPV=1.46(R/W1/2)−1.76
for Quarry D and Quarry Hambalang, respectively(see Fig. 8). Elastic theory, through the equations of motion for a spherically propagating wave from a point source
in an infinite body, predicts that the peak particle velocities of body waves decay at a rate proportional to 1/Rn (Dowding, 1985). The obtained relationships show that
the peak values decay proportionally to 1/R1.67 for Quarry D and 1/R1.76 for Quarry Hambalang at increasing distances when W is held constant. It indicates that the
PPV rapidly attenuates within a rock mass at Quarry Hambalang compared with limestone at Quarry D. Investigation of cracks using scanline method shows that an
average crack density of a rock mass at Quarry Hambalang and Quarry D are 0.57/m and 0.71/m, respectively. It reveals that a high attenuation of the PPV within a
rock mass at Quarry Hambalang is influenced by its high crack density (Wu et al., 1998; Simangunsong et al., 2004).
It is depicted in Figure 8 that 90% confidence lines are included. Those are made as the recommendation of blasting geometry should be designed based on the peak
vibration value (not average value). Hence, the
Figure 8. PPV vs scales distance; (a) Quarry D (b) Quarry Hambalang.
leastsquaresfitted empirical attenuation relations were increased to 90% percent of confidence. The 90% confidence lines are given by the following:
PPV=19.23(R/W1/2)−1.67
PPV=7.52(R/W1/2)−1.76
4.2 Relationship between vibration and fragmentation
It is well known in blasting practice when burden designed bigger than its critical value, blasting would result in unpleasant fragmentation and consequently give higher
vibration. Otherwise, when burden designed smaller than its critical value, blasting would still give unpleasant fragmentation with high probability occurrence of fly rock.
What would particularly happen with ground vibration, when good fragmentation is achieved? This section presents relationship between ground vibration and
fragmentation base on the results of the field investigation.
Since size distribution curve at Quarry Hambalang found almost similar from one to another, discussion can only be given to Quarry D. By making assumption that
optimum size of fragmentation is 800 mm, percentage of oversize, boulder size above which secondary breaking is necessary before further handling, is presented in
Table 1.
As shown in Table 1, blasting on July 27th at Block 3–261 achieved better fragmentation than others. Vibration monitoring shows that blasting on particular time and
location produced an average peak vibration level. Unlikely blasting on July 27th, unpleasant fragmentation was resulted at Block 3–273 on July 29th, which was 71
percent of blasted rock needed the secondary breaking. Figure 8 (see the triangle data) surprisingly revealed that a peak vibration produced by blasting on July 29th is
one of the three groups with relatively high vibration level.
Table 1. Percentage of oversize during blasting investigation at Quarry D.
5 CONCLUSION
Nowadays, low environmental impact of blasting operation such as vibration level has become important for every quarry and mining companies. The present study has
given the fact that low vibration level does not necessarily mean additional cost. In such a way it will give benefit for the company to obtain the optimum fragmentation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors extend their appreciation to the management and personnel of the PTITP who provided excellent cooperation during the series of blast monitoring for this
work. In particular, Bambang Yudaka of PTITP is thanked. Research member at Department of Physics ITB is thanked for the vibration monitoring device.
REFERENCES
Cunningham, C.V.B 1996. Keynote address: Optical fragmentation measurement—A technical challenge. In Measurement of Blast Fragmentation, Franklin & Katsabanis
(eds), Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 5410 8452.
Dowding, C.H. 1985. Blast Vibration Monitoring and Control, PrenticeHall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632 (1985), 297p.
LPPMITB. 2002. Investigation of blast induced ground vibration at Quarry D and Quarry Hambalang, PT Indocement Tunggal Prakarsa, Citeureup Bogor, Field Report.
Simangunsong, G.M, E.Yulianto, S.Kramadibrata, K.Matsui, H.Shimada, S.Kubota, Y.Ogata. 2004. Field investigation of blastinduced damage of the sedimentary strata
rock mass at PT Kaltim Prima Coal, 1st International Symposium on Explosion, Shock Wave and Hypervelocity Phenomena, Kumamoto, Japan, March 15–17, 2004.
Wu, Y.K., H.Hao, Y.X.Zhou, and K.Chong. 1998. Propagation characteristics of blastinduced shock waves in a jointed rock mass, Soil Dynamics Earthquake
Engineering. 17:407–412.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Assessment and prediction of rock mass damage by blast vibrations
S.P.Singh & R.Narendrula
School of Engineering, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
ABSTRACT: The mining industry is seriously concerned about the cost associated with blast damage in terms of safety and productivity of mines. As
a consequence, improved control over blast damage to mining excavations has become an economic imperative. Ground vibrations are often
considered an undesirable byproduct of blasting. The “Peak Particle Velocity” (PPV) is often used as a means of predicting and/or assessing blast
induced damage. A study was conducted by monitoring ground vibrations in underground development openings and also the review of the relevant
literature. A vibration predictory model was developed for the test site. The predictory model was tested by blasting a round up to the baby arch holes
only. By comparing the predicted and actual damage to the back holes, the burden and spacing for back holes were recommended. The interaction
between the geological features and blast vibrations has been discussed and the effect of the jointing angle on the propagation of ground vibration was
examined using small scale blasting experiments. The relationship between the critical PPV for ‘Damage’ and Tall off was also investigated.
1 INTRODUCTION
In underground mines, blast damage may lead to structural instability, increased supporting costs and decreased productivity. The mining industry is seriously concerned
about the cost associated with blast damage in terms of safety and productivity of mines. As a consequence, improved control over the blast damage to mining
excavation has become an economic imperative. Blast damage is any change in the properties of the rock mass, which degrades its performance and behaviour.
Ground vibrations are often considered an undesirable byproduct of blasting. These are a function of the charge weight and confinement, distance from the charge,
superposition of the stress created by the initiation sequence of the adjacent holes and the manner in which compressive wave decays through the rock mass. Although
damage can be attributed to the tensile wave and vibration frequency, there is a general consensus that ‘peak particle velocity’ (PPV) can be used as a predictive tool
for rock mass damage.
2 REVIEW OF PRIOR STUDIES
2.1 Bauer and calder (1970) made the following observations
Table 1. Damage criteria after Bauer and Calder (1970).
Peak particle velocity, mm/sec Result
<254 No fracturing of intact rock
254–635 Minor tensile slabbing
635–2540 Strong tensile and some radial cracking
>2540 Break up of rock mass
2.2 Langefors and Kihlstorm (1973) proposed the following criteria for tunnels (Table 2)
Table 2. Damage criteria after Langefors and Kihlstrom (1973).
Peak particle velocity, mm/sec Result
305 Fall of rock in unlined tunnels
610 Formation of new cracks
2.3 Oriard (1982) observed that most rock mass suffer some damage at Peak Particle velocities (PPVs) above 635 mm/sec
2.4 Holmberg et al (1984) proposed the following (Table 3)
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Table 3. Damage criteria after Holmberg, et al (1984).
Rock or joint class Critical vibration velocity (mm/sec)
Hard rock, strong joints ≥1000
Medium hard rock, no weak joints 800–700
Soft rock, weak joints ≤400
2.5 Yu and Croxall (1985) during their investigation at Kidd Creek Mine discovered the following (Table 4)
Table 4. Damage criteria after Yu and Croxall (1985).
Threshold peak particle velocity (PPV), mm/sec Nature of damage
No visible damage to underground workings 250
Minor scabbing failure 500
Possible formation of cracks along weakness planes 1000
Moderate scabbing failure 1200
Major scabbing failure 1800
2.6 Fadeev et al (1987) proposed the following damage criterion for underground openings (Table 5)
Table 5. Damage according to Fadeev (1987).
Type of opening Threashold PPV value, mm/sec
Primary mine openings (service 120
life upto 10 years) Secondary mine openings (service life upto 3 years) 480
2.7 Adhikari et al (1994) made the following observations in two operating mines (Table 6)
Table 6. Observations by Adhikari et al (1994).
PPV in mm/sec
Type of damage Fair rock (RMR=60) Poor rock (RMR=38)
No damage <153 <52
Opening of joints 153–217 52–195
Falling of loose pieces 217–367 195–297
Induced cracking 367–604 297–557
Excessive damage >604 >557
2.8 Jimeno et al (1995) proposed the following criteria for blast damage (Table 7)
Table 7. Blast damage criteria after Jimeno et al (1995).
Type of rock/joints Critical PPV for damage, mm/sec
Soft rock, weak joints 400
Medium to hard rock and weak joints 700–800
Hard rock and strong closed joints 1000
2.9 Tunstall (1997) proposed the following blast damage criteria based on the study in an open pit mine (Table 8)
Table 8. Blast damge criteria after Tunstall (1997).
2.10 Singh (2001) proposed the following blast damage criteria for underground excavations (Table 9)
Table 9. Blast damage criteria after Singh (2001).
3 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
A field study was conducted which involved the following:
(a) Blasting of drift rounds in a hard rock
(b) Blasting of small scale concrete models with joints simulated at different orientations (Figure 1)
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Figure 1. Concrete model with simulated joints.
(c) Assessment of blast damage at several operating mines.
4 MONITORING OF GROUND VIBRATIONS
Ground vibrations were monitored during drift rounds and small scale blasting of concrete blocks. For each blast the amount of explosive charge per delay and the
distance from the blast were recorded.
5 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
During the blasting of drift rounds, Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) for each round was recorded. Based upon the information about the distance between each round and
the monitoring point as well as the charge in kg per delay, the following vibration predictory model was developed:
(1)
where V=peak particle velocity in mm/sec; D=Distance between the blast and monitoring point; and Q=explosive charge per delay.
5.1 Critical particle velocity for damage
Blast damage is a result of the induced dynamic strain (Id s) during the detonation of an explosive charge. The induced dynamic strain can be calculated for an elastic
medium as a function of peak particle velocity (PPV) and longitudinal wave velocity (Vp ):
Ids=PPV/Vp
(2)
Depending upon the charge concentration, the magnitude of the dynamic strains that develop around
Table 10. Critical peak particle velocity (PPV) for different rock masses, after Singh (2001).
Rock type Critical PPV for damage in mm/sec
Hard rock: Specific gravity (SG) >2.7; Compressive strength >240 MPa 1200–2000
Medium hard rock: Specific gravity (SG) >2.5; Compressive strength: 100–150 MPa 700–1000
Soft rock: Specific gravity (SG) >2.3; Compressive strength <50 MPa <400
the blast hole will be large enough to induce primary cracking in the remaining rock mass. The critical particle velocity (Vd) at which the damage occurs can be
calculated with the following equation:
Vd =Vp *Ts/E
(3)
where Ts =tensile strength of the rock and E=young’s modulus.
For the test site where drifting was done the critical particle velocity for damage (Vd ) was estimated at 1500mm/s. Based upon the experience at different sites by
the author and other researchers (Tsoutrelis et al, 1995, Holmberg and Persson, 1979), the critical particle velocity for damage ranges for different rock masses have
been summarized in Table 10.
5.2 Testing the validity of the predictory model
In order to test the validity of the predictory model, a drift round was designed specifically for this purpose. The burden for the back holes (the distance between the
back holes and the baby arch holes) was computed on the basis of the predictory model and the critical particle velocity for damage. The burden distance was found to
be 0.6 meters for an explosive charge of 1.4 kg/delay. The predicted zones of damage for the baby arch and back holes are shown in Figure 2. All the holes in the drift
round except the back holes were blasted. The damage to the back holes was found to be minimal thus proving the validity of the model (Figure 3). All the back holes
were successfully charged and blasted.
On the basis of this finding and experience at other operating mines, the burden and spacing for perimeter holes are suggested in Table 11.
5.3 Blast vibrations and rock mass features
The discontinuities are the weakest links in the rock mass (Scoble et al, 1996). The geological features have a major influence on the propagation of blast
Page 320
Figure 2. Computed damage from the baby arch and back holes.
Figure 3. Drift blast upto baby arch holes.
Table 11. Suggested burden and spacing for perimeter holes.
vibrations and damage, which must be accounted for in any blast design and damage monitoring rationale.
Vibrations are generated by blasting, which propagate through the ground in the form of seismic waves. These waves are of different types and propagate with
different velocities in different geological environments. Rock masses are affected by these waves by a characteristic particle motion. The compressional wave (P) is
characterized by radial particle motion and it dilates and compresses the ground material. The shear wave (S) is characterized by a transverse particle motion, which
can be polarized in a vertical or horizontal direction. This motion results in shearing (Clark et al, 1983). The interaction between the different waves and rock masses
can be briefly described as follows:
• Different waves travel with different velocities and as the number of delays give a variety of event durations, it may be possible that several waves interfere with each
other at the same time and spot.
• Soft geologieal formations respond as low propagation velocity, whereas, harder formations result in higher propagation velocities.
• In the case of a layered or jointed rock mass, the wave fronts reflect and refract at the discontinuities and the wave velocities are changed due to different wave
paths. The reflections and refractions depend upon the relation between signal wave length and the dimensions of the geological features.
• Even in homogenous but layered formations, the phase velocity change occur corresponding to a change in the layer thickness (Clark et al, 1983).
• The geometry and nature of geological formation can also change the wave type and subsequently, the direction of particle motion (Clark et al, 1983).
• Vibrationinduced slip along fracture surfaces may also weaken the existing cracks by reducing their frictional properties.
• The blast vibrations cause straining of the discontinuities, resulting in differential acceleration of adjacent rock blocks. This occurs when the motions of adjacent
blocks are out of phase, and if the straining is of sufficient magnitude, it may reduce or destroy the mechanism resisting gravity.
The influence of angle of jointing on the propagation of the blast vibrations was examined by small scale blasting experiments. The joints at different orientations were
simulated between the blast holes and the monitoring points. The magnitude of the blast vibrations after propagating through different joint orientations has been
displayed in Figure 4.
5.4 Critical particle velocity for ‘Fall off’
Blast damage is directly related to the level of stress experienced by the rock mass. In the region close to the explosive charge, permanent damage occurs at a critical
stress level. The stress level responsible for the overbreak may be contributed by one or more of the following:
(a) Compressive strength in the crushed zone where the rock behaves like a fluid
(b) Tensile hoop stress in the non linear zone
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Figure 4. Blast vibrations after propagation through different joint orientations.
Figure 5. Effective detonation pressure Vs ratio Vf/Vd
(c) Blast vibrations in the seismic zone
(d) Pressure generated by the explosion gases.
During this study, the overbreak for each round was measured. The particle velocity at maximum overbreak was predicted with the model in Equation 1, and was
called ‘critical particle velocity for ‘Fall off’. But it must be noted that the overbreak may or may not have been caused entirely by ground vibrations.
It was observed that the ratio between the critical particle velocity for ‘fall off’ (Vf) and critical particle velocity for ‘damage’ (Vd ) varies between 2 and 3.5
depending upon the energy partition characteristics of explosives.
Effective detonation pressure (Edp) was computed for each explosive type considering its degree of decoupling. It was found that the ratio Vf/Vd increases with the
increase in the effective detonation pressure (Figure 5). The value of Vf/Vd was lower in the case of low Edp explosives because the fall off has been assisted by the
gas pressure. This suggested that the detonation behaviour of the explosives is
Figure 6. Magnitude of blast vibrations for the initiation and propagation of damage.
responsible for the observed differences in their damage potential.
5.5 Rock mass quality and damage
The damage caused by blast vibrations depends upon the quality of the rock mass. The rock mass rating system (RMR) developed by Bieniawski (1974) was used in
this study. Based upon the literature review and the work done by the author at different sites the criterion for blast damage is proposed in Figure 6. This figure displays
the magnitude of blast vibrations required for the initiation and propagation of minor and major damage in rocks with different RMR values.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Blast vibrations, as measured or predicted in the rock mass surrounding a blast, can be prescribed as a criteria for blast damage. As the stress produced in the rock
mass is proportional to the vibration level, this technique facilitates the prediction of the minor and major damage. The purpose of controlled blasting is to protect the
rock mass and the amount of protection required depends upon the quality of the rock mass. The geological discontinuities have a major influence on the propagation of
blast vibrations and damage, which must be accounted for in any controlled blasting design and damage prediction rationale.
REFERENCES
Adhikari, G., Rajan Babu, A., Venkatesh, H.S. and Theresraj, A.I., 1994. “Blast Damage Assessment For Underground Structures”, Proc. National Symp. On Emerging
Mining And Ground Control Technologies, February, Varanasi, India, pp. 247–255.
Page 322
Bauer, A. and Calder, P., 1970. Open Pit and Blasting seminar, Mining Engineering Department, Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada.
Clark, D., Larson, B. and Lande, G., 1983. “Vibration: Its effect and measurement technique at or near dwellings”, Proc. 19th Conference on Explosive and Blasting
Techniques, pp. 27–62.
Fadeev, A.B., Glosman, L. and Kartuzov, M.I., 1987. “Seismic control of mine and quarry blasting in USSR”, Proc. 6th International Congress on Rock Mechanics, ISRM,
Montreal, Canada, pp. 617–619.
Holmberg, R. and Persson, P., 1979. “Design of tunnel perimeter blasthole patterns to prevent rock damage”, proc. Tunnelling 79, IMM, pp. 250–283.
Holmberg, R., Larsson, B. and Sjoberg, C., 1984. “Improved stability through optimized rock blasting”, proc. 10th Conference on Explosives and blsting techniques,
February, Lake Buena Vista, Florida, pp. 166–181.
Jimeno, C., Jimeno, E. and Carcedo, F., 1995. “Drilling ad Blasting of Rocks”, Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam, Brookfields, pp. 391.
Langefors, U. and Kihlstorm B., 1973. “The modern techniques of rock blasting, John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA.
Oriard, L., 1982. “Blasting effects and their control”, in Underground Mining Methods Handbook, SME of AIME, Littleton, Colorado, USA, pp. 1590–1603.
Scoble, M, Lizotte, Y. and Paventi, M., 1996. “Rock mass damage from blasting: Charecterization and impact”, proc. Workshop on Measurement of blast fragmentation,
Franklin and Katasbanis (Eds), Montreal, Canada, pp. 225–235.
Singh, S.P., 2001. “The influence of geology on blast damage”, CIM Bulletin, Vol.94, No.1048, pp 121–127.
Tsoutress, C., Kapenis, A. and Theophili, C. 1995. “Determination of blast induced damage zones in pillars by seismic imaging”, proc. EXPLO ‘95 Conference, pp. 387–
393.
Tunstall, A.M., 1997. “Damage to underground excavations from open pit blasting. Transactions, IMM Sec A, 106, pp. 19–24.
Yu, T. and Croxall, 1985. “Kidd Creek blasthole stoping”, proc. International symp. On large scale underground mining”, Lulea, Sweden, pp. 97–106.
Page 323
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Dimension stone milling by abrasive water jet
A.Stellin Jr., W.T.Hennies & V.H.Lauand
Mining and Petroleum Engineering Department, Polytechnic School of Universit y of São Paulo,
São Paulo, SP, Brazil
ABSTRACT: The Abrasive Water Jet can be used to produce engraves in dimension stone tiles, which is commonly named as milling process.
Researches began for studies into that interesting area at University of São Paulo, in a Master of Engineering Program. The generated kerf profile
geometry fundamentally depends on three variables that can be adjusted to the used water jet system of the equipment. The first variable is the used
water pressure of the pump. Normally, the equipment is provided with a relief valve that permits control of the pressure on the nozzle. The second
variable is the transverse speed of the nozzle. This speed can be chosen at some desired velocity if the desire is to etch the target material. Finally, the
third variable is the standoff distance to the tile or plate to be engraved, which can be adjusted before beginning the engraving operation. Low
transverse speed, little standoff distance and medium water pressure gives a deep U form profile of the resulting kerf and then the energy of the water
beam is very high and concentrated along the entire beam’s width. On the other hand, high transverse speed, high standoff distance and low water
pressure results in a V profile in which the energy is higher in the middle of the water beam than in its periphery. The results of experiments that were
made on granite and marble tiles are discussed in this paper. The kerf width and depth can be easily controlled and if a design of a sophisticated low
relief is whished, this can be planed precisely.
1 INTRODUCTION
As it can be today stated, the sophisticated Abrasive Water Jet Systems can be used to produce engraves on tiles of dimension stone to make some kind of low
relieves.
Preliminary researches had begun in a Master of Engineering Program study that is realized by Lauand and directed by Prof. Stellin Jr.
The research studies deal with a careful determination of the kerf profile generated in granite rock and marble, which are dimension stone rocks of São Paulo State.
Figure 1 shows the milling executed on Capão Bonito red granite and Botucatu Sandstone in which the same technique was used. However, the mill was not due in
the granite while there was used only water to mark the letter at the 70 MPa pressure and 10 mm/s transverse speed, with 3 mm stand off distance.
In the next items, at first the state of art of this technique will be presented, after that some fundamental consideration about basic results of observation, then the
experimental work, and finally some results of the study.
Figure 1. Test of milling of the Botucatu Sandstone.
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2 THE STATE OF ART IN WATERJET MILLING
Many authors in the literature had worked on milling with the abrasive water jet.
Laurinat et al. proposed a Model for milling with abrasive water jets on the 7th American Water Jet Conference in Seattle, in 1993. The kerf profiles produced have
some regular shape that a simple cosine function suitably describes. For milling, there is the relation between the width and depth of the kerfs resulting.
Using the Cartesian coordinate system with the origin in the symmetry plane of the kerf profile and in the unaffected surface of the target material, the depth of the
kerf (kc) is two times its amplitude ( ):
(1)
and the wave length (λ) is expressed as a relationship between 2π and the kerf width (bc):
(2)
The test carried out by these authors reveals that there is a linear relationship between the width of the kerf and the standoff distance, which can be expressed by:
bc=b1.s+b0
(3)
where bc is the kerf width, b1 and b0 the coefficients that can be found by regression analysis of practical experiments and s is the standoff distance.
The width of the kerf shows no significant dependence on the transverse speed.
On the other hand, the amplitude ( is:
(4)
where RE is the relative erosion resistance and c1 and c2 the coefficients of the milled material.
3 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Two kinds of commercial dimension stone rocks were used to the experimental work. These rocks were the Red Capão Bonito Granite and the White São José dos
Campos Marble.
The technological characteristics of the used rocks and the quarry locations can be found in the previous paper (Lauand et al., 2001).
The realized assay test consisted in a milled tile with abrasive water jet, in the OMAX 2652A Jet Machining System at lower pump pressure and varying the stand
off distance and the transverse speed.
A first set of test was executed with the pump pressure at TOMPa (10,000 psi).
Three different standoff distances of 3, 10 and 25 mm were used to open the kerf.
Four different transverse speeds of 10, 25, 50 and 75 mm/s were planned for the nozzle velocity.
The remaining data of the assay are garnet of 120#, sapphire orifice with a diameter of 0.3556 mm (0.014 inch) and a ceramic focus tube with a length of 100 mm
and diameter of 0.762 (0.03 inch).
A rectangular block sample of the rock sawed was milled on the Jet System and the resultant kerf was scanned and measured with high precision in its width and
height.
Figure 2 presents one example of the resulting kerfs scans milled by the waterjet in the granite, with the measure of the kerf profile.
In Figure 2 it can be observed that when the standoff distance is very short (3 mm) a nd transverse speed very low (10 mm/s) the profile creates like a bobble and
no the normal U or that of for larger standoff distances.
Figure 2. Red Capão Bonito kerf results of rock milling.
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4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The experimental results of the laboratorial assays consist in a carefully measure of the obtained width and depths of the milled kerf in the profile of the scanned rock
block.
4.1 About the kerf widt
Table 1 presents the results of measured widths in mm of assays on both rocks.
In a careful examination of these results, it is clear to note some important facts.
– There is not significant difference between the kerf widths generated in the hard granite and the softer marble rock, only that their mean is a little larger in the marble.
– Additionally, the kerf width is apparently constant at a definite standoff distance, and finally.
– The width increases as a function of this standoff distance.
If the total pressure was lowered in the system, only marble was milled in pure water jet with a special nozzle. The granite would not open a kerf at this pressure as in
Figure 1 the same drawing was tried in the red Capão Bonito Granite, in which the letters were not engraved then they were originally projected as quality of scribe.
The results of the quality of the scribe or only water for the marble are also presented in the Tables.
In the Tables there are also the mean values for every of the standoff distances served as the calculated values of regression analysis.
In Figure 3 the regression of relationship between the kerf width in marble is presented and its mathematical expression is:
bc=0.0859∙s+1.1719
(5)
Table 1. Kerf width assaying results.
MARBLE
Standoff 3 10 25 25 OW
Speed 10 1.33 2.48 3.95 2.35
Speed 25 1.64 2.17 4.00 2.35
Speed 50 1.27 1.73 3.05 1.63
Speed 75 1.51 1.89 2.33 1.44
Mean 1.44 2.07 3.33
Equation: bc=0.0859.s+1.1917 R2=0.9997
GRANITE
Standoff 3 10 25
Speed 10 1.33 1.51 4.17
Speed 25 0.99 1.46 3.09
Speed 50 0.87 1.07 2.34
Speed 75 0.65 1.01 2.07
Mean 0.96 1.26 2.92
Equation: bc=0.0924.s+0.5435 R2=0.9705
In Figure 4 the regression of relationship between the kerf width in granite is presented and its mathematical expression is:
bc=0,0924.s+0,5435
(6)
4.2 About the kerf dept
Table 2 gives the results of the assays of the kerf depth tests in mm of the two rocks.
Figure 3. Regression of Marble width values.
Figure 4. Regression of Granite width values.
Table 2. Kerf depth in assaying results.
MARBLE
Standoff 3 10 25 25 W
Speed 10 10.36 8.44 6.93 1.21
Speed 25 4.82 4.15 2.87 1.03
Speed 50 2.65 2.02 1.65 0.47
Speed 75 1.85 1.46 1.20 0.25
Mean
GRANITE
Standoff 3 10 25
Speed 10 4.67 3.95 4.28
Speed 25 2.20 1.85 1.62
Speed 50 1.03 0.90 0.84
Speed 75 0.68 0.72 0.58
Mean
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Figure 5. Kerf depth in mm on the white Campos do Jordão marble, as function of traverse speed and standoff distance.
Figure 6. Kerf depth in mm on the red Capão Bonito granite, as function of traverse speed and standoff distance.
In this Table the depth of the kerf is about a relative number of times greater (twice or little more) in the marble than in the granite. Also here the assay with only water
was made in the marble.
These results for a more spatial view were drawn on 3D surface.
Figure 5 presents a 3D surface view of the kerf depth (mm) as a function of the traverse speed (mm/s)
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and the standoff distance (mm) in the Campos do Jordão white marble.
On the other hand, Figure 6 shows a similar 3D surface view of the kerf depth in the Capão Bonito red granite.
The kerf depth is much investigated for cutting the target material and many models were proposed for that, but the standoff distance in those is not considered as a
variable. A goof preview of this kerf depth can be calculated then it seems to have a constant relation with the depth and standoff distance which is of the order of 50 in
the granite (46.48 more precisely for the realized tests at 70 MPa) and 100 in the marble (more precisely 100.9262 in the assays at this same pressure level).
4.3 About kerf profile
The kerf profile can be defined as the traverse section of the area open by the kinetic energy contained in the abrasive slurry of the waterjet. There it has a depth
dimension and a width dimension. After the researches on milling of rocks, and with a carefully examination of the resulting profiles that are the consequences of the
erosion promoted by the abrasive water jet named as AWJ, two extreme ideal cases can be noted, one of high energy and the other of low energy.
In the first ideal case of high energy, the nozzle traverse speed and the standoff distance are very low. In this case, the energy seems to be uniformly distributed along
the entire diameter of the incident abrasive water beam, resulting in the excavation of a large kerf that has the form of the letter U. The method in the highenergy case,
works like a plane large chisel to open the kerf.
The second case of low energy is characterized by the distribution of the abrasive waterjet kinetic energy with more intensity in the center of the jet diameter. The
standoff distance and the traverse nozzle speed are higher. In this case the resulting kerf profile will have more the form of the letter V. The effect of this lower energy
excavation tool is like a very sharp punctual chisel.
If there is thought a soft material as wood to be carved with the chisel the resulting ideal kerfs of our models will be a rectangle and a triangle for high and low energy
excavation.
In Figure 7 there are presented these two ideal cases. In the case of high energy ideal case we have a kerf which has an area of kerf width multiplied by the kerf
depth. Otherwise, in the case of low energy the profile area is proportional to the half of the product of kerf width and depth. Additionally, the model of the cosine
function form today used was drawn at the Figure. As can be seen, it is equivalent to the case of low energy ideal form.
Figure 7. The highenergy kerf profile (rectangle), low energy kerf profile (triangle) and cosine function kerf (model now in use).
5 SUGGESTED MODEL
If in the milling, the standoff distances are low and the nozzle traverse speed and water pressure are higher, the resulting profile generates at the kerf bottom a circular
erosion tube for the escape of the abrasive slurry waterjet. The profile is larger than the normal of the cosine traverse section. The diameter of this erosion tube is of the
order of the kerf width.
In the analyzed crosssection of obtained kerf profiles in one case of the twelve in the granite and in three cases of the twelve in the marble this cosine function of
kerfs was not detected.
In a new series of assays at greater pressure level 140 MPa (20,000 psi), the cases of kerf profiles that do not obey the cosine law are more profuse, and not only in
the softer marble but also in the granite.
6 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, it can be said that, the behavior of highpressure waterjet when used for milling needs a new model to explain when the high kinetic energy is transferred
to cut rocks.
The kerf depth can be previewed as a relation of a constant divided by the nozzle traverse speed. This constant depends on the target material and is of the order of
50 in the marble and 100 in the granite.
The kerf width depends on the standoff distance. Regression analysis can be made for its determination by empirical experiments.
The profile in the normal case of low energy can be used to determine the cosine function that has results if we know the width and depth of the kerf.
The profile in the case of highenergy transfer generates the more complex cross section which tries
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to form the erosion channel at the kerf bottom, a circle that has a diameter of its width at the top.
New series of analysis of higherpressure level will confirm this behavior.
REFERENCES
Holmqvist, G.; Öjmertz, K.M.C. Process developements and apparatus for discretisized abrasive waterjet milling. In: AMERICAN WATERJET CONFERENCE,
9., Michigan, 1997. Proceedings. Saint Louis, Water Jet Technology Association, 1997. v. 1, paper 6, p. 77–91.
Lauand, C.T.; Martín C.G.R.; Hennies, W.T.; Agus, M. 2001. Performance of Water Jet Cutting System in Dimension Stone 11th Minneapolis WaterJet Technology
Association St. Louis, MO, USA p. .
Laurinat , A .; Louis, H.; MeierWiechert, G. 1993. A model for milling with abrasive waterjet. In: Hashish, M. (ed) 1993 Proc. 7th Amer. Water Jet Conf. ed., Water Jet
Techn. Association St. Louis pp 119–139.
Zeng, J.; Muñoz, J. Milling Ceramics with abrasive waterjets—an exprimental invesigatoni. In: AMERICAN WATERJET CONFERENCE, 9., Michigan, 1997.
Proceedings. Saint Louis, Water Jet Technology Association. 1997. v.1, paper 7, p.93–107.
Page 329
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Environmentally sensitive drilling and blasting design for a surface mining
O.Uysal, B.Elevli & H.Akcakoca
Dumlupinar University Mining Engineering Department, Kutahya, Turkey
ABSTRACT: The excavation process has been carried out by means of drilling and blasting in a coal mine in Kütahya, Turkey. The mine is very close
to Karakaya village. The distance is about 700 meters. Although no blasting damages in the buildings have been recorded in the village, some rightful
or unfair complaints of the villagers have been occurred.
Therefore, the mining company had demanded the determination of environmental effects of the blasting. In order to reach at this aim the effects of
20 different blasting in the mine have been measured in different stations by blastmate. The measured ‘maximum particle velocity’ (PPV) and ‘air
shock pressure’ values have been investigated and evaluated. Some regression analysis has been carried out using PPV and ‘scaled distance’ (SD)
values. A correlation coefficient of explosive and SD is very high (r=0.96). On the basis of the regression analysis, an equation for environmentally
friendly explosive amount has been derived.
1 INTRODUCTION
In excavation operations with blasting; the main goal of blasting is to loosen rock and made it loadable/ haulable. But all of the blasting energy can not be used for this
aim. Because of various reasons, same of the energy during detonation period transforms into seismic wave and air pressure. This is unproductivity wasted energy.
During this period, this energy can cause important damages structures and buildings around and also can be disquiet the devellers of settlement place. These situations
cause complaints of people living around (Ipek 1997).
In this study, the blasting practice a coal mine which is very close to a village has been investigated. Ground vibration and air shock resulted from blasting have been
measured. After that, these results evaluated and some arguments have been presented to minimize the environmental problems originated from blasting.
2 GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT MINE
The coal mine is located in Kütahya, Turkey. Coal will be mined out by means of open pit mining. At the time of this study, overburden removal was the only activity.
The rock was broken by means of blasting. There is a village very close to the mine. The nearest building of the village to the mine is approximately 600 m. The applied
bench geometry and drilling pattern is given as follows:
Bench height : 4.5 m
Bench slope angle : 70°
Drill hole length : 5.5 m
Drill hole inclination : 90°
Drill hole diameter : 17 cm
Spacing : 3–7 m
Burden : 4
Subdrilling : 1 m
The soil thickness varies between 0.5–0.8 m in the area. Below that, a clay layer lies with a thickness 7–8 m, and then clay stonemarl formation covers the coal with a
thickness of average 20 meters. The average thickness of coal is 4 meters. Some physical and geomechanic specifications of the marl formation are given as below
(Elevli et al. 2003):
Density
: 1.63 g/cm3
Schmidt hardness : 27.30 (Slight Strong)
Slake durability : Midheight
Uniaxial comp. strength : 14.36 MPa
Indirect tensile strength : 1.44 MPa
Cohesion : 5.9 MPa
Friction angle : 21.25°
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Table 1. Ground vibration and air shock measurement results.
Blasting Drill hole Total blasting Max. explosive Measurement Scaled Distance Resultant particle Peak particle Frequency Maximum air
no number material amount per delay distance (R) (m) (SD (SD2) velocity (PVS) velocity (PPV) (Hz) shock (PSPL)
amount (kg) (W) (kg) 1 (mm/sn) (mm/sn) (Pa)
(R/W0.5) (R/W0.33
1 10 375 37.5 633.47 103.45 191.56
2 5 125 25 231.14 46.23 79.90
3 16 800 100 323.63 32.36 70.80 6.07 5.71 20 20.30
4 8 350 50 327.61 46.33 90.09 3.16 3.05 19 8.00
5 6 45 7.5 294.02 107.36 151.22
6 12 600 100 438.29 43.83 95.89
7 11 550 100 206.48 20.65 45.17
8 12 600 100 248.51 24.85 54.37 10.40 8.89 8.4 18.30
9 11 550 100 294.87 29.49 64.51 7.64 5.33 11 14.30
10 11 500 100 435.79 43.58 95.34
11 8 400 50 437.94 61.93 120.44
12 21 1050 100 419.31 41.93 91.74 4.08 3.43 12 18.30
13 24 1200 150 453.48 37.03 86.78 3.26 3.17 13 26.50
14 7 300 100 269.62 26.96 58.99 11.40 9.78 10 9.75
15 14 700 100 425.88 42.59 93.17
16 16 800 100 377.00 37.70 82.48 4.47 4.19 11 10.00
17 5 250 100 358.79 35.88 78.49
18 22 1100 300 594.81 34.34 90.56 3.58 3.43 3.2 7.75
19 1 10 10 261.17 82.59 122.16
20 19 950 100 437.94 43.79 95.81 3.63 3.43 12 7.50
According to these values, overburden can be considered as hard. So, excavation process can not be realized without blasting. The explosive for blasting is ANFO,
used with powergel dynamite. Electrical detonator is used as igniter with delay.
3 MEASUREMENTS AND EVALUATION
In this study, some parameters of 20 different blasting have been recorded in different stations. The results are given in Table 1.
During the study, 4 different measurement stations have been formed. The ground vibration and air shock values of 10 blasting out of 20 has been perceived and
recorded with blastmate (Instantel Inc. 2001). Some of unrecorded blasting are elongate blasting (5. and 19. blasting), one of them is at soft clay formation (7. blasting)
and some of them are far away from measurement points (1., 6., 11., and 15. blasting). Two of the measurement stations (1. and 18. blasting) were selected near to the
building at the nearest point to the open pit. There was no record for the first blasting (1.) and 3.43 mm/s PPV value was recorded for the 18th blasting. This value is
far below USBM and DIN 4152 damage criteria’s (Siskind et al. 1980). Also the maximum amount of explosive per delay for this blasting was higher than the other
blasts. Therefore, the closer points to blasting area were selected for the other blasting.
All of the recorded measurement values have been below USBM damage standards (3., 8., 9., 12., 14., 16., 18.). But the measurement stations of these 7. blasting
were approximately 250 meters away from the nearest building of village.
Regression analysis had been carried out in order to see the relationship between maximum particle velocity (PPV) and scaled distance (SD1 and SD2). Correlation
coefficient for SD1 is 0.89 and for SD2 is 0.96. The exponential relations obtained with these correlation coefficients can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. The following
equation was obtained from this regression analysis.
y=24572* X−1.9735
(1)
where:
y: Maximum particle velocity
x: Scaled distance
Using above equation and taking into consideration the distance of blasting to the buildings, it is possible to calculate the maximum explosive amount for per delay
according to last particle velocity.
When Table 1 is examined, it can be seen that explosive amount per delay was generally used as 100 kg in all blasting with an exception of 18th blasting. The
maximum particle velocity was
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Figure 1. The relationship between PPV and SD1.
Figure 2. The relationship between PPV and SD2.
measured during the 18th blasting. However, it is still within the acceptable level according to damage criteria (USBM 1983).
4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
With in the scope of this study, the maximum explosive amount per delay for this mine has been
Table 2. The maximum explosives amount per delay according to distance.
calculated as a result of measurements and evaluation of blasting, and presented in Table 2. The derived equation 1 was used in these calculations. The maximum
particle velocity was accepted as 3 mm/s as a damage limit value suitable to DIN 4150 standard. Table 2 provides necessary amount of explosive per delay on the
basis of distance to structures or buildings.
REFERENCES
Elevli, B. et al. 2003. Kömür Açik İşletmesi İçin Çevreye Duyarli Delme Patlatma Tasanmi, Tuncerler Mad. San. Ltd. Sti., Nihai Rapor, Dumlupinar Üniversitesi, 28p.
Instantel Inc. 2001. Blastmate Series III User Manual, 57p.
Ipek, T. 1997. Yapilarda oluşan Sarsmtilarm Asgariye İndirilmesi İçin Patlatma Dizaynmm Optimize Edilmesi, Barutsan Dergisi, No: 1997/2, 4–12.
Siskind D.E. et al. 1980. Structure Response and Damage Produced by Ground Vibration From Surface Mining Blasting, USBM RI 8507, (US Bureau of Mines
Research Investigation 8507), USA.
USBM Bulletin, 1983, USA.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
A semicaving method applied at level 600 Ciurug vein, Pongkor underground
gold mine, PT Aneka Tambang Tbk
R.K.Wattimena & B.Sulistianto
Department of Mining Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
Risono
UBPE Pongkor, PT Aneka Tambang Tbk., Indonesia
K.Matsui
Department of Earth Resources and Mining Engineering, Kyushu University, Japan
ABSTRACT: Pongkor underground gold mine has three primary veins which are being mined: Ciguha Utama, Kubang Cicau and Ciurug. A
conventional cut and fill method, with hydraulic replacement of tailing as filling material, is used for the first two veins and a fully mechanised cut and fill
method, with hydraulic jumbo drill and load haul dump (LHD), was introduced by mid1998 for the third vein. The method is very suitable for level
500 Ciurug vein, because the vein at the level is classified into a fairgood rock mass. However, at level 600, the vein is classified into very poor rock.
Excessively weathering process caused the manganese sandyclay (rich goldore) initiate ore mass to collapse immediately after under slice
excavation progressed. Mining method applied at that level was then modified into a semicaving system. The method was able to increase average
production about 95.7%.
1 INTRODUCTION
Pongkor gold mine owned by PT Aneka Tambang Tbk (PT Antam) is one of underground mines in Indonesia. Boundaries of PT Antam exploitation license for the
Pongkor area lays from 106°30′1.0″ to 106°35′35.0″ East Longitude and from 6°36′37.2″ to 6°48′11.0″ South Latitude (see Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Location of Pongkor gold mine.
Implementation of fully mechanised cut and fill method in level 500 faced no significant problem because the ore mass is competent. However, sill drift development in
level 600 often encountered ore mass collapses due to weak ore mass characteristics. Some examples of ore mass collapse were:
1. Ore mass of a volume of 30 m3 collapsed at the front of sill drift 1A. The fragments of broken material ranged from sandyclay size (ore) to 30–50 cm (waste). The
last supports, which were rock bolt with a spacing of 1 m and welded mesh, were installed at 3 m from the front.
2. At sill drift 1B front, the volume of collapsed ore mass was 40 m3. When the failure occurred, supports have been installed close to the front.
3. Ore mass collapse at South block of level 600. At this location, ore mass characteristics were even worst due to the occurrence of sand filled void in the vein.
This condition required an expensive support system and mining cycle time was longer that lead to the difficulty in meeting the production target. An alternative mining
method was then required.
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2 TRY OUT OF THE METHOD
The semicaving method was firstly tried out in sill drift 2. A foot wall drift with 4 m×4 m dimension was excavated following the contact plane. Four crosscuts with 2
m×2 m dimension (maximum unsupported span for the ore mass) were constructed from the foot wall drift to the contact plane of ore body and hanging wall. The
crosscuts were then connected by overhand drilling creating an “undercut”. Figure 2 depicts the trial of the semicaving method at sill drift 2.
3 APPLICATION
Voids with one to two metres width caused by the washing of sand in the manganese sandyclay rock were also observed at Block 1South area. Regarding the
success of the try out in sill drift 2, the cavingmethod was then applied in the area.
3.1 Country rock and ore masses quality
The RMRs of country rock and ore masses in the Block 1South were all 10 which make them be classified as verypoor rock based on Bieniawski (1989) rock mass
classification.
3.2 Geological structures
3.2.1 Hanging wall
On the contact plane of hanging wall and ore body, some joint sets were observed. Spacing of the joint sets ranged from 30 cm to 50 cm. Persistence of the joints
were predicted two to five metres. In general,
Figure 2. Trial of semicaving method at sill drift 2 level 600 of Ciurug vein.
joint planes were slightly rough, two mm separated and filled with siliceous material.
3.2.2 Foot wall
On the contact plane of foot wall and ore body, veinlet zone with a thickness of one to two cm was observed. In addition, breccia vein was also found. It consisted of
tuff fragment and quartz matrix.
3.2.3 Ore body
In the ore body the visible structures were voids with 10 cm to 2 m openings and filled with loose sand material. Intersecting joints were also spotted which were
potential causes of wedge failures.
3.3 Caving analysis
Based upon relationships between RMR and Q values developed from experiences in underground mines (Choquet & Hadjigeorgiou 1993), the equivalent Q′ values
of the country rock and ore masses in Block 1South were0.05.
The cavability of the cave back was then predicted using the stability graph method. The method was firstly proposed by Mathews et al. (1983) and has been
modified and extended by others (Potvin et al. 1988, Nickson 1992, Stewart & Forsyth 1995, Mawdesley et al. 2001). To use the method, the compressive stress
induced at the cave back, joint and cave back orientations must be taken into account and a stability number N must be determined. The stability number of the cave
back was 0.010 and using the extended Mathews stability graph proposed by Mawdesley (2002) illustrated in Figure 3, it was found that a hydraulic radius of
approximately 3.3 was required for a continuous caving to occur.
3.4 Creating an undercut
The undercut area was created by removing the pillar located between sill drift 1A and sill drift 4S.
Figure 3. Extended Mathews stability graph based on logistic regression showing the stable and caving lines (Mawdesley 2002).
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The undercut dimension was approximately 20 m by 10 m (see Fig. 4), which caused a continuous caving of the ore body. The broken ore was then collected at two
drawpoints (see Fig. 5).
Visual appearance and Augrade of the broken ore was continuously monitored. The mining process was stopped when brownish tuff material from hanging wall
was observed at the drawpoints.
3.5 Ore production
A four months application of the semicaving method has increased the ore production by up to 95.7% in the fourth month that was produced by a crew team that
consisted of only seven people. Figure 6 shows the ore production during the application of the semicaving method in Block 1South.
Laboratory analysis showed that the average Augrade of the broken ore was 45.68 gram/ton. The manganese ore had an Augrade of 28.50 to 90.36 gram/ton.
The Augrade of the ore around the
Figure 4. Undercutting process in Block 1South.
Figure 5. Section AA′ showing the drawpoints.
foot wall was 11.38 to 16.90 gram/ton and the Augrade of ore adjacent to the hanging wall varied from 31.38 to 136.12 gram/ton. These together with the increased
ore production obviously stepped up the gold recovery of the Pongkor mine.
3.6 Surface subsidence
The semicaving method implemented in the Block 1South produced a surface subsidence in an area with a diameter of approximately 10m (see Fig. 7).
Waste produced from development in level 700 was then dumped in the subsidence area. A strong bound among the broken rock was achieved by pouring
concrete into the broken rock. Drawpoint 1 was then blocked by covering it with waste produced from development in level 600 whereas drawpoint 2 was blocked
using a cribbing system.
Figure 6. Ore production during the application of semicaving method in Block 1South.
Figure 7. Section BB′ showing the surface subsidence.
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4 CONCLUSION
The semicaving method was successfully applied at Block 1South of level 600 Ciurug vein. The success was related to the suitable characteristics of the ore body.
The semicaving method might be implemented in other blocks but a proper cavability assessment must be carefully carried out beforehand.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Mr. Iwan Irawan, PT Aneka Tambang Tbk. Board Representative for Pongkor Gold Mine for his valuable guidance during the preparation of this
paper. All crews in level 600 Ciurug also deserve special thanks.
REFERENCES
Bieniawski, Z.T. 1989. Engineering Rock Mass Classification. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Mathews, K.E., Hoek, E., Wyllie, D.C., Stewart, S.B.V. 1981. Prediction of stable excavation spans for mining at depths below 1,000 meters in hard rock. Report
DSS Serial No. OSQ80–00081, DSS File No. 17SQ.23440–09020.
Mawdesley, C.A. 2002. Predicting Cave Initiation and Propagation in Block Caving Mines; PhD thesis. University of Queensland.
Mawdesley, CA., Trueman, R., Whiten, W. 2001. Extending the Mathews’ method for open stope design. Trans. Instn Min. Metall. (Sect. A: Mineral industry) 110:
A27–A39.
Nickson, S.D. 1992. Cable Support Guideline for Underground Rock Mine Open Operations; M.Sc. thesis. University of British Columbia.
Potvin, Y., Hudyma, M, Miller, H.D.S. 1988. The stability graph method for open stope design. In Proc. 90th CIM AGM, Edmonton.
Stewart, S.B.V. & Forsyth, W.W. 1995. The Mathews’ method for open stope design. CIM Bulletin 88(92): 45–53.
Page 337
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Application of presplitting at Chuquicamata mine, Chile
Andrzej Zablocki
Atlas Copco Chilena S.A.C.
ABSTRACT: For years, open pit mines have investigated the possibility of increasing the angle of the pit slopes in order to reduce the amount of rock
they need to remove over time.
Today, it is becoming to be quite a common practice in South America, proving that steeper slopes can save considerable amount of money without
compromising slope stability or safety.
A case story of the presplitting application using Atlas Copco ROC L8 crawler drills in Chuquicamata mine will be described. This drilling job is
being done by a contractor.
Because the presplitting is a vital operation and the mine is working 24 hours a day, there is a demand for very high mechanical availability. In
order to cope with this demand the contracting company has signed contracts with the drill rig manufacturer: for maintenence, for spare parts and rock
drilling tools supply.
The results in terms of drilling capacity, mechanical availability and drilling costs are presented in this paper.
1 INTRODUCTION
Located some 200 Km north of Antofagasta and 2,800 m above sea level in the desert of northern Chile, the Chuquicamata copper mine (Fig. 1) is the most important
of the five divisions in the stateowned Codelco company, the world’s largest copper producer.
It is a huge open pit—8 Km long, 2,7 m wide and 800 m deep.
Mining began in 1913, and currently the mine operation moves 600.000 tons daily, with 3:1 waste ore ratio.
Figure 1. Location of Chuquicamata mine.
To optimize the mining business open pit slopes should be aggressively steeped, so in the last 35 years Chuquicamata mine suffered several slope instability. The
application of presplitting together with the slope monitoring system avoided accidents, damage to equipment and impact on the production plan.
2 PRESPLITTING
Economic benefits of steepening the slopes is obvious. Presplitting operations have, for many years, been carried out by large and heavy drill rigs. But big hole blasting
and heavy loads result in irregular and unstable benches which tend to reduce efficiency.
The introduction of smaller and more flexible drill rig revolutionized presplitting technique (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. One of the pit slope drill hole location.
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Figure 3. Schematic drill pattern.
Figure 4. Comparison between ROC L8 and the conventional drill rig.
In the case of Chuquicamata, due to the mine’s huge size, increasing the pit slope by just one degree would translate into a staggering 150 million m3 less of waste rock
to drill, blast and haul.
Traditionally, the predominant method has been to utilize large hole rotary drilling. The demand for presplitting forced Atlas Copco to introduce the DTH compact
drill in order to be able to drill incline (side or forward) contour holes which in the case of Chile are of 165 mm in diameter (Fig. 3).
3 DRILL RIGS PERFORMANCE
The new generation Atlas Copco L8 crawler drills, specially assigned for this type of operation were introduced in Chuquicamata mine in year 2000.
Flexibility as is comes to hole inclination, compact design and the use of high air pressure for DTH hammers exceeded the performance expectation (Fig. 4).
The mine is operating three 8 hours shifts per day.
Average drilling capacity is 35 m/hr resulting in 12.000 drill m per month and per drill rig. Hole diameter is 165 mm, hole length 18 m to 24 m and are inclined at 20
degrees.
Compared to previously used conventional rigs considerable savings are obtained in fuel
Figure 5. Straight holes give slope stability resulting in easier loading and handling operations. Left without and right with presplitting.
Figure 6. Drilling costs distribution.
consumption (50–551/hr vs. 70–751/hr) and additionally L8 can also drill with side inclination.
The outstanding drilling accuracy of the rigs reduces the amount of explosives required to form the pit slope.
4 HIGH MECHANICAL AVAILABILITY
Drilling operation is done by Jaime Navarrete Contractor that have specialized in this type of job.
Maintenance contract was sign with Atlas Copco to ensure high mechanical availability of the equipment (85%).
Also drill steel supply contract is a part of that partnership agreement between the Jaime Navarrete and Atlas Copco. This ensures the cost control (tube, hammer
and bit costs represents about 30% of total. Fig. 6) and high performance of the hammer.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Good experiences gained in Chuquicamata with ROC L8 have made them to become a leaders in presplitting application. Today already 10 rigs are operating in 5
different mines in Chile.
No doubts, that the maintenance contract is part of this success permitting to utilize limited number of rigs and still fulfill with required capacity.
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Figure 7. Drilling flexibility with ROC L8.
The reputation of the ROC L8 crawler rig is growing fast after conversions that widen the application range to include presplit and production drilling, grade control
(reverse circulation) as well as dewatering hole drilling for pit stabilization (Fig. 7).
REFERENCES
1. Why the new “mosquitoes” bite better. 2001. Mining & Construction p. 8, Atlas Copco.
2. Calderón A., Catalán A. & Karzulowic. 2003. Management of a 15×106 tons slope failure at Chuquicamata Mine, Chile. Proc. SARA, BOSTON, USA, ASCE.
3. Navarrete J., Zablocki A., Allel O. 2003. April 13–15, Application of presplitting at Chuquicamata mine in Chile. Drilling and Blasting conference, WME.
4. ROC L8 gains favour in South America. 2004. Surface Drilling second edition—Atlas Copco, 66–69.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Driving predriven roadway for coalface passing rapidly through fault and
disposing of associated waste in underground
Jixiong Zhang, Dongshen Zhang & Lei Zhang
China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
ABSTRACT: A new technique aimed at the shortcomings of a coalface passing through a fault as the low speed, low efficiency and lowquality coal
and so on, was suggested. It includes two key points as follows: one is to drive the roadway, named the predriven roadway, in the fault before the
coalface arrives; the other is to dispose the waste of driving in the entry of the coalface. Based on the rock pressure’s characteristics of the predriven
roadway, the rational support plan and parameters of roof bolting with a bar and wire mesh were determined, and the manner of driving the waste in
place of coal was adopted. The technique has been successfully used in the Zhaizhen Coal Mine.
The connotation of cleaning coal technology is, by taken many measures, to reduce greatly the pollution of the waste during mining. Under the market economy
condition, there is a tendency that the coal enterprise is developing the cleaning technology of exploiting constantly to make the highquality and highefficient products
according to their characteristics. As far as the complicated coalfaces, which have many faults, are concerned, there is a common question about how to pass the fault
rapidly and have a very little effect on the quality of coal. Usually, two ways of passing through the faults are used. One is to drive the new openoff cut if the fault drop
is relatively great. The other way is to pass the fault directly if the fault drop is small. The latter not only will result in low efficiency and lowquality coal, but also there is
potential safety hazard during mining. According to the actual condition of the 3206E face of Zhaizhen Mine, the paper puts forward the cleaning coal technology of
driving the predriven roadway and the manner of driving the waste in place of coal was adopted.
1 THE TECHNOLOGICAL CONDITION OF DRIVING THE PREDRIVEN ROADWAY
1.1 The “VoussiorBeam” structure of key strata
As it is shown in figure 1, when the coalface arrives at the predriven roadway, the key strata will break and the key block “B” will rotate. At the same time, the
structure of the “voussiorbeam” with the adjacent
Figure 1. VoussiorBeam structure of key strata on the predriven roadway in fault.
block “A” and “C” will appear, which will guarantee the predriven roadway being relatively stable. It is the basic condition that made the technology of the predriven
roadway in the fault be in use.
1.2 The range of the fault drop
According to the actual condition and experience of the Zhaizhen Mine, the width of the roadway cannot exceed 6m and the slope is below 20 degrees, as in figure 2a,
thus the maximum drop of the fault will be:
H=L×sin 20°=6×sin 20°=2.05 m
Suppose the average thickness of the coal seam is m and the maximum mining height is m1, and the minimum mining height is m2. During the mining, the face will rise (or
decline) along the fault. At the same time, the mining height will change from m2 to m1, as figure 2b shows. Thus the maximum drop will be as
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Figure 2. Coalface passing through fault.
the following: H=L×sin α+m1−m2. Obviously, the bigger the difference between the coal thickness and the minimum mining height, the bigger the using range of the
fault.
The minimum mining height m2 of the conventionally mechanized coal mining technology in Zhaizhen is almost 1.4 m, the height H is as follows: H=0.65+m. When
the actual drop of the fault exceeds H, the new openoff cut must be driven. In addition, when the actual drop of the fault does not exceed H, the coalface can pass
directly the fault.
1.3 The manner of the layout of the predriven roadway in the fault
When the drop of fault is smaller than H, the predriving roadway can be driven in the fault, which can realize the objective without the waste. The layout is as in figure 3.
In order to control the fragments’ zones of the fault, the predriven roadway can take up the technology of the roof bolting with the bar and wire mesh.
2 THE PREDRIVEN ROADWAY USING THE TECHNOLOGY OF THE ROOF BOLTING WITH THE BAR AND
WIRE MESH IN THE FAULT
2.1 The survey of the 3206E coalface
The elevation of 3206E coalface is from −243.7 m to −282.1 m that is 400 m from the surface. The thickness of the coal is from 1.8 m to 2.4 m, 2.1 m on average, the
slope is from 1 to 11 degrees, 8 degrees on average. The immediate roof is sandstone, and its average thickness is 3m, which belongs to II grade.
Figure 3. Layout of predriven in fault.
The main roof is medium sandstone, and its average thickness is 20 m, which belongs to II grade. The immediate bottom is mudstone, with the thickness of 0.5 m on
average. The main bottom is medium sandstone, and its average thickness is 12 m. The strike length of the coalface is 723 m, and the dip length varies from 148 m to
152 m. The average length of the dip is 150 m. During the preparation of the coalface, 15 faults whose drops exceed 1.0 m were found.
2.2 The pressure characteristic of the predriven roadway in the faults
According to the analysis of the pressure around the 3206E coalface, the advancing abutment pressure of the entries is as in figure 4.
Figure 4 shows that the pressure characters of the predriven roadway are as follows:
– The influenced scope of the abutment pressure of mining is 40 m. When the predriven roadway is in the scope of abutment pressure, the pressure of roadway is
lower, and the way of the roof bolting with the bar and wire mesh can be taken up.
– When the predriven roadway lies in the scope of the abutment pressure, the pressure of the roadway will be gradually increased, and it will reach the maximum
value. The coefficient of the intensive
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Figure 4. Advancing abutment pressure of entries in 3206E coalface.
stress is about 1.6. Under this condition, the way of the roof bolting with the cable can be taken up.
– When the coalface is near the fault and passes through the fault, the main roof of the coalface will break and rotate, and therefore has a great influence on the pre
driven roadway. Before the deformation of the side of the roadway, temporary support must be taken to prevent the surrounding rocks from deforming.
2.3 The supporting plan and parameters of the predriven roadway
According to the theory of the key strata, the medium sandstone is the key stratum, whose thickness is 20 m. It can become the stable “voussiorbeam” structure.
Therefore, the coalface can use the technology of the predriven roadway to pass through the fault whose drop is less than 2.75 m. In order to determine the supporting
plan and parameters of the predriven roadway supported, the software UDEC3.0 can be used for the numerical analysis.
– The model of the numerical analysis
The model of the geometry dimension is: level/ vertical=91.5 m/41.6 m. In the formula, the width of fault is 1.5 m, and the drop of fault is 1.5 m. The condition of the
boundary of the model is that the left and right sides and the bottom of the model make the displacement border. The right and left side limits the movement in the X
direction. The bottom limits the movement in the Y direction. At the same time, the top border of the model is the stress border. The vertical stress is:
q=γh =2.5×400/100=10.0 MPa
According to the column draw of the coalface about the coal and strata, the mechanic parameters of the coal and strata can be obtained.
– The plans of the numerical analysis
Figure 5. Supporting plan 1.
Three supporting plans are put forward in order to choose a better plan.
Plan 1: The diameter of the roof bolt is 22 mm, and its length is 2 m, which is made by the thread of the screw steel. The wrack intensity is 650 MPa while the
utmost intensity is 900 MPa. Its wrack loading is 47 KN while the utmost loading is 342 KN. The percentage elongation is 17%. The diameter of the slope bolt is 18
mm, and its length is 2 m. The bolt is made of the glasssteel. The cable is the small bore diameter and prestressed force cable. Its diameter is 15.24 mm, the length is
6.5 m, and the bore diameter is 28 mm. The maximum power is 260 KN, and the prestressed force is not less than 150 KN. The distance of the roof bolt is 700 mm,
and the distance of the row is 750 mm. The distance of the slope bolt is 800 mm, the two bolt is near the roof about 250 mm, and the distance of the row is 750 mm.
The distance of the two cables is 2.5 m, and the distance of the row is 1500 mm. The layout is shown in figure 5.
Compared with plan 1, plan 2 and 3 differ in the distances of the roof bolt and the others are the same. The distance of roof bolt of plan 2 is 800 mm and of plan 3 is
600 mm. The layout is as figure 6.
– The analysis of the calculated results
According to the analysis of the three plans, the relation between the distant to the predriven roadway and the maximum vertical displacement of roof is as in figure 7.
The relation between the distant to
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Figure 6. Supporting program.
Figure 7. Relation between the distant to predriven roadway and the maximum vertical displacement of roof.
predriven roadway and the maximum level displacement of roof is as in figure 8.
Figure 7 shows that, the plasticity changes of the roadway finish when the coalface pushes towards the predriven roadway about 22 m. At that time, the roadway is
affected by the advancing abutment pressure. When the distance of the roof bolt is 800 mm, the maximum vertical displacement of the roof is 605 mm. When the
distance of the row is 700 mm, the maximum
Figure 8. Relation between the distant to predriven roadway and the maximum level displacement of side.
vertical displacement of the roof is 416 mm and the percent of the diminishment is about 32%. When the distance of the roof bolt is 600 mm, the maximum vertical
displacement of the roof is 348 mm and the percent of the diminishment is about 16%. Taking into account the technology and economy factors, the better distance of
the roof bolt is 700 mm.
Figure 8 shows that, there is similar relation between the roof bolt and the level displacement of the sides. When the distance of the roof bolt is 800 mm, the
maximum level displacement of the side is 556 mm because of mining effect of the stress. When the distance of the roof bolt is 700 mm, the maximum level
displacement of the side is 432 mm because of the mining effect of the stress. When the distance of the roof bolt is 600 mm, the maximum level displacement of the side
is 394 mm because of the mining effect of the stress. Taking into account the technology and economy factors, the better distance of the roof bolt with the bar is also
700 mm. The results of the analysis indicate that, there is a bigger floor heave. The maximum floor heave is 401 mm. The other side of the roadway changes less, and
the maximum level displacement is 245 mm.
In a word, it can be concluded that the plan 1 is the best one on the base of the analysis.
2.4 The application in practice
In order to monitor the deformations of the floor and the roadway, ten stations are placed in the predriven roadway. The data show that, the maximum deformation is
902 mm. The deformation on the side of the coalface is more obvious as figure 9 shows. Its value is about 2/3 of the full deformation of the roadway. The result of the
support is shown in figure 10a, where the roadway is not affected by mining. The result of
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Figure 9. Surface displacements of predriven roadway.
Figure 10. Predriven roadway.
the support in figure 10b shows the roadway affected by mining. Moreover, the deformation of the floor heave is the most important of the deformations of the roof and
floor. Its maximum value is 411 mm. In fact, the behavior of the floor heave has the relation with the thickness of the soft rock. The thicker the soft rock, the bigger the
deformations of the floor heave.
3 THE MANNER OF THE PREDRIVEN WASTE IN PLACE OF COAL
3.1 The disposal of the waste in predriven roadway
With the technology of the predriven roadway, the waste in the fault can be driven in advance, the rate of the waste in the coal cuts down, and the speed of the
coalface moving forward is very high. However, if the predriven waste is transported from roadways, on the one hand, lots of time and materials will be wasted. On
the other hand, the waste transported to the ground will occupy many fields and pollute the environment. Therefore, it is a good way to transport the wastes that are
packed in sacks to the chambers used for the disposal of the wasted rocks in the coalface entry.
3.2 The manner of driven waste in place of coal
– Predriven chamber for storing waste
A serial of chambers were driven in the down coal wall of the transporting entry, the size and arrangement of the chambers are just shown in the following
Figure 11. Manner of waste in place of coal.
figure 11. The chambers were 2.0 m in depth considering the width of coal pillar which was about 3~5 m. The coal driven from the chambers was transported by belt
conveyors into the entry.
– The fill of the chambers
Firstly, the chambers were dug as the designed side, then, the excess coal was cleared away. At last, the driven waste in sacks were put into the chambers, the sacks
were laid closely and continuously one by one.
4 MAIN CONCLUSIONS
– Based on “VoussiorBeam” structure of the key strata, the technique of the predriven roadways was suggested for the coalface passing through the fault when the
drop was suitable.
– It is manifested that the roof bolting with the bar and wire mesh is effectively used to control the broken roof and to assure the coalface to safely pass through the
fault.
– The driven wastes in place of coal in the special chambers can not only increase the mining rate but also can reduce the quantity of waste transported to the surface.
REFERENCES
Huang kan. The environment protection of mine area and the mining of clear mine. The safe of mine and the environment protection, 2000, 27(5):26–30.
Lijinzhu. The technique of clean mining. The china coal 1997, 23(6):25–29.
Xu jinhai, Shi binghua, Wang yunhai. The study on the capability of bolting and its arch. The journal of CUMT,1999, 28(5):482–485
Hou chaojiong, Guo lisheng, Gou panfeng. The bolt supporting of coal entry. Xuzhou: The publication of CUMT,1999.
Qian minggao, Miao xiexing Xu jailing et al. The theory of the key layer controlling stratum. Xuzhou: The publication of CUMT, 2000.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Remaining material exploration in underground mines using reverse air
techniques
P.Zuñiga R.
Geology Superintendent, El Teniente Mine, Chile
R.Miranda V.
Engineer Chief Diablo Regimiento Project, El Teniente Mine, Chile
ABSTRACT: The paper describes the introduction of a new drilling technology in Codelco Chile’s underground mines (El Teniente, Andina and
Salvador). The technology has been applied to the exploration of broken remaining material from underground levels at the base of the subsidence
crater generated in surface by the caving methods used in these mines. The technique involves ascendant vertical reverse air perforation in the broken
material with the recovery of samples.
1 INTRODUCTION
The copper underground mines of Codelco Chile are: Divisions El Teniente, Andina and Salvador, which use the caving methods for mining that consist in making the
ore collapse and extract it by gravitational means in a controlled way through extraction points in a production level. The method is usually used in underground mining
with massive ore distribution because it allows achieving the highest levels of production with high productivity and low mining costs.
Theoretically, at the end of the mining there is a crater, with broken ore corresponding to the reserves that were above the main reserves, or overburden, mixed with
spilled material from the crater walls that are not extracted due to the low grades. The decision criteria for closing an extraction point due to the low grades obtained
are not usable anymore since the grades used to close an extraction point at that time are completely usable today.
This “Remaining Broken Ore” in the crater is not included in the mine inventory, just because there is not a method for measuring it, but its magnitude indicates that it
can have a great impact in the long term planning of the Divisions.
To incorporate the reserves from the crater there is a need to develop broken ore sampling techniques, through drillings from inside the mine. The surface drilling
techniques are not useable, due to a continuous crater growth, produced by the lower production areas, which shows that the operation under these conditions are very
dangerous.
In 1998, the Geology Superintendence of Division El Teniente made some drilling and sampling tests in the crater material. They adapted the Cubex machine with
vertical rotatory drilling recovering dust and with very promising results and the experience that constitutes a very important contribution to the resolution of the broken
ore characterization problem.
2 BENEFITS
In the light of the preliminary studies, it is estimated that the subsidence crater of El Teniente has 1000 Kton of reserves with the Cu grade of 0.7% on average and over
2% in sampled zones. Without the resources from the Salvador and Andina Divisions considered, the involved copper is enough to justify the effort put into the
innovation to achieve the main objectives in a mid term basis.
On the other hand, the success of this development, will allow us to evaluate the convenience of building a special equipment to make drill holes in the crater, which
could lead to a registered product and production contracts with mining equipment companies.
The project is included in the Reserve Evaluation area of the Underground Mining Technological Program, where the realization of the project would mean an
increment of 18 MUS$ of the Net Present Value of the Divisions of Codelco, that use underground mining methods.
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3 TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION
Using mechanized perforation with ascendant reverse air technology, has allowed El Teniente to know better its reserves’ inventory in terms of quality and copper
grades, and to achieve a greater certainty in the future production plans. At the end, this technology lets us to convert available resources of mining reserves with a
greater degree of knowledge, obtaining better grade predictions.
The technique consists in making vertical ascendant drill holes perforate from a continuous level at the crater base, with the reverse air technique for recovering the
samples.
4 DRILLING MACHINE
The used machine is a Cubex 5200, with the caterpillar translation, hydraulic system, and booster included. The machine dimensions allow it to access galleries of even
2.5 m (height) and in operation position, a minimum height of 3.7 m is needed. The machine is autonomous, and can travel short distances, to travel greater distances it
needs towing.
It is an electric device powered with 600 volts. El Teniente Mine uses 600 volts, and in El Salvador the energy supply is 380 volts. Therefore, there is a need for a
booster to raise the 380 V to 600V.
This machine was adapted to drill vertically with reversing air. Modifications were introduced in the head for reversing the air circulation and in the mast that supports
the drilling tools to revert the operation in an ascendant way.
5 PERFORATION TECHNIQUE
The selected places to make the drillings were the production level streets at the Fortuna Area. The geometry of the production level has the advantage of a 12 m in
situ pillar. This favorable condition gives a stable base to anchor the drilling bars. Once broken the pillar, the remaining broken material perforation starts.
For operational conditions, the drilling diameter must be modified according to the drill hole depth. An initial diameter is determined to start the perforation, and it is
kept as long as possible. When the perforation has the unwanted advances or it is needed to condition the hole to avoid problems such as wall instability, swelling of
wet or argillaceous horizons that can cause the drilling tool to become trapped, the initial diameter is lowered.
The insitu rock pillar is drilled with DTH (Down the Hole) of . This initial stage is slow and generates great amounts of dust, as Picture 1 shows.
Picture 1. Dust generated while drilling the pillar.
Once the pillar is trespassed, the broken material perforation is carried away with tricones of diameter.
The drill hole is made using steel bars with double wall for reversing the air circulation, the length of 1.5 m, the diameter of and the weight of 50 kg. The working
process consists in injecting pressurized air through the external bar hole (see Picture 2), injected through side holes in the tricone at the end of the drill hole, to
refrigerate and circulate the detritus with dust from the perforation to the tricone interior where it is extracted through the concentric space of the bar to the drilling
head.
To achieve better results, bits were welded to the bars every 20 m (see Picture 3), to maintain the drill hole diameter and let the detritus evacuate well. This resolves
a great deal of the drilling works needed.
The air necessary to drill is taken from the mine air net, which has 90 Psi, and goes through a filter to the booster of the machine where is raised to 300 Psi, which
corresponds to the normal work pressure. The water used, works as a cooling element of the drilling system, and is not a part of the drill hole.
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Picture 2. Air injection and extraction.
Picture 3. Bits welded to the bar.
Picture 4. The sample recovery.
The sample that comes out of the drilling machine falls to the head where it is captured with a 4″ hose denominated “Culebron” (see Picture 4). The other end is
connected to a cyclone that works as a receptor, eliminating the inertia of the sample; the exit of the cyclone has a pressure resistant plastic bag, where the sample is
recovered. Later the bag is taken to a riffle with 1″ entrance, where two new samples for chemical and metallurgical analysis are obtained.
6 REQUIRED PERSONNEL
The operation, maintenance of the machine, translation, sample delivery, work coordination, among other tasks, is made by a team of 11 people, in two shifts of 11
hours each, organized as follows:
No. of People Work
1 Technical inspection (Codelco)
1 Work chief
2 Operators
4 Helpers
1 Mechanic
1 Electrician
1 Administrative driver
11 TOTAL
7 RESULTS
In El Teniente, the drillings were made at the Fortuna area from inside the mine using the reverse air techniques, a drilling net of approximately 100 m by 100 m, an
average length of 130 m for the drill holes, the sample recovery every 2 m. The 130 meters drilled that time were considered a big success, since a new drilling
technology, unavailable at that moment, was unveiled.
Again, it was demonstrated that greater grades are to be expected in the remaining material, than the ones estimated in the Base and Development plans of the mine.
The same situation was achieved studying the North Crater.
As a result of the drillings, 57,3 million tons were added with a head grade of 0.65% CuT, which gives a fine of 372,372 t.
The study was used to justify the Pillar Mining Project, at Teniente 4 Fortuna, since it discovered that there were grades not accounted in the reserves.
The restart of the mining process at the Fortuna Zone, means that in 1999, within 5 months in the 11 and 12 streets, 229,6181 were extracted with a head grade of
0.94% Cu, which means 214 t of fine mine copper. This extraction still goes on, and in May 2000, 23,205 t of ore were extracted with a grade of
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1.02% Cu, which gives 238 t of fine copper. The possibility of mining another areas in the future is going to be under studies at this time.
If we analyze the results from the postevaluation considering the mentioned areas that were used to achieve the project economically, these results were not
satisfying, especially in 1998 and 1999, due to:
The remaining ore has not appeared yet at the Isla and Regimiento zones, as it has done in the Fortuna area; the pillar recovery was a proven fact, where it was
possible to extract a greater tonnage, thanks to the identification of better remaining grades, than the ones that were before the perforation of the drill holes.
It is known that in the years 1997, 1998 and 1999 the results did not reflect the ones promised in the postevaluation (41,832 t for 1997–2010), there is a potential
of 372,372 t that could have been extracted since the year 2000, through the Fortuna or Diablo Regimiento or using leaching, and that delivers far better results than
the promised ones.
The results have served to create better grade profiles for the Base and Development Plans, integrating to production UBC’s (Basic Cubic Units) that correspond to
the over extraction that had inferred grades.
8 POTENTIAL ECONOMIC EVALUATION
There is a “Master Plan” for exploring the broken material in the crater, worth US$ 1,417,161, considering drilling in the Reservas Norte, Diablo Regimiento and
Esmeralda areas in 2003 and 2004. The economical analysis of this “Master Plan” supposes a change in the grades of the remaining material from 2007 of the
CBV2003 (Actual Base Case 2003) as a consequence of the new exploration and the model of reserves. The changes are supported by the experience in the historical
production and drillings in the Fortuna and Ten4 NSTD areas.
In the Esmeralda Mine, a grade change from 0.6% to 0.7% can be expected between the years 2007 and 2010. This is the approximated influence area of this
study.
The simplified actualization of the CBV2003 according to the new commercial orientations is as follows:
Discount rate 8.5% Discount rate 10%
NPV (MUS$) INPV (MUS$) NPV (MUS$) INPV (MUS$)
CBV2003 2.131 3.1 1.792 2.8
*Cu Price=85cUS$/lb (long term), Change Type = 711,53$/US$. Eval. Before Taxes.
If results of the project, the grades of remaining material at Esmeralda Mine are modified, the impact in the CBV2003 is as follows:
Discount rate 8.5% Discount rate 10%
NPV (MUS$) INPV (MUS$) NPV (MUS$) INPV (MUS$)
CBV2003 with project 2.138 3.1 1.799 2.8
*Cu Price=85cUS$/lb (long term), Change Type= 711,53$/US$. Eval. Before Taxes.
** Include s Investme nt of 150. 000 US $ in
The project earnings are:
Discount rate 8.5% Discount rate 10%
NPV (MUS$) INPV (MUS$) NPV (MUS$) INPV (MUS$)
Delta (CBV2003)– CBV2003 with project 7.4 6.2
*Cu Price=85cUS$/lb (long term), Change Type= 711,53$/US$. Eval. Before Taxes.
** Include s Investme nt of 150. 000 US $ in
A better knowledge of the Crater Remaining Material leads us to:
– Not to underestimate the CuT grades.
– Get better grades for the planning process.
– Better and more efficient mining infrastructures.
– Making an improved production plan, allowing us to postpone investments or upgrading the production capacity.
The contribution of this project to El Teniente, can be quantified as:
Project Investment: 149.9 KUS$.
Differential NPV CBV2003:7444 KUS$
INPV Project: 49.6
This is the Information Value analysis.
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Design, monitoring and maintenance of mine equipment
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Automation of inferring process in gearbox diagnostic
W.Bartelmus, R.Zimroz & H.Batra
Wrocłow University of Technology, Machinery Systems Division, Poland
ABSTRACT: Basing on developments given in papers on mathematical modelling and computer simulation there is possibility of development of a
gearbox diagnostic method. It is the question if the inferring process can be automated. The automation of the diagnostic method is possible for the
simplified method but not all faults can be identified. For better identification, research has been done, and results have been published, which review
has been given in this paper. Investigation for development of a new diagnostic method for detailed fault detection is based on mathematical modelling
and computer simulations and results are verified on real objects in filed condition. Some ideas for automated inferring are given in this paper. In the
presented paper baseground for automated inferring supported by artificial neural networks is given. There is also given an idea based on model
based condition monitoring with analytical redundancy. For neural networks training preprocessed signals obtained from real gearboxes
measurements and computer simulation will be used.
1 INTRODUCTION
Mathematical modelling and computer simulation (MMCS) (Bartelmus 1994, 1996, 1998b, 2000b, 2001a) has proved to be very important tool for supporting
diagnostic inference (SDI) (Bartelmus and Zimroz 1998a, 2000a, 2001b, 2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2003d, 2003e, Zimroz 2002). We may also say that the aim of
MMCS is to detect faults in a system. In the paper the term fault is used rather than failure to denote a malfunction rather than a catastrophe. The term failure suggests
complete brake down of a system component of function, while the term fault may be used to indicate that malfunction may be tolerated at its present stage. A fault
must be diagnosed as early as possible even it is tolerable at its early stage, to prevent any serious consequences. Development of SDI based on MMCS has been
going though many sages. For SDI of gearboxes condition, models have been developed starting with creation a system with one stagegearbox incorporated into the
system consisting of an electric engine, flexible coupling and driven machine (Bartelmus 1998a, 2000a, 200 1a). For modelling such system and using for SDI many
factors has to be taken into consideration. The factors can be divided into four groups namely: design factors (DF), technology factors (TF), operation factors (OF),
condition change factors (CCF); (collectively) DPTOCCF. All the mentioned factors have influence to dynamic behaviour of the system. Investigating influence of
DPTOCCF to vibration generated by the system with a gearbox it is possible to infer relation between gearbox condition and symptoms given by vibration signal. Big
progress in SDI is given by model development for system with a twostage gearbox (Bartelmus 2000b, 2001a, 2003a, 2003d, 2003e). All the publications are
presenting DPTOCCF based way for gearbox diagnostic inference. Current challenge in diagnostic method developments using mathematical modelling and computer
simulation (MMCS) is to give the background for inferring process automation using neural networks (Bartelmus et al. 2003c). The alternative way is to use MMCS
for modelbased fault detection, for which is a need to create what is called a robust model. The robust model is used in the process of diagnostic automation as
analytical redundancy (Patton & Frank 1999; Patton et al. 2000).
2 GEARBOX DIAGNOSTIC METHOD
Following description given by (Bartelmus, 1992) at first an overview of a simplified diagnostic method (SDM) used for doublestage gearboxes is described here next
the advanced diagnostic method with advanced signal analysis (ASA) will be discussed. The method giving by (Bartelmus, 1992) is based on wide band signal analysis.
This method was used when only some rough description of relation between the DPTOCC factors and vibration signal
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was available and some simple instruments for vibration measurements were used.
The signal of vibration is divided into three spectrum bands and the following attributes have been taken for gear diagnostics.
Operating conditions of the high rotation shaft of the gear should be reflected by a housing vibration velocity v [mm/s] in frequency range (10–100 Hz).
Operating conditions of gearing should be determined by acceleration a [m/s2] within the frequency range (3.5–10 kHz)
Operating conditions of rolling bearings should be reflected by acceleration attribute a [m/s2] within the frequency range (3.5–10 kHz).
The given above method can give only the rough evaluation of gearing condition. There is no possibility to evaluate the early change of gearing condition caused by
the early stage of wear caused by pitting or scuffing and there is no possibility to detect a local fault caused by a tooth cracking/fracture, breakage. By using the
mentioned method we can not separate gearing faults coming from two different gearbox stages. We can not separate local faults and distributed faults. So a new more
advanced method based on knowledge gained from computer simulations and real/measured signal analysis is needed.
The new method takes into account consideration results given in (Bartelmus and Zimroz 1998a, 2000a, 2001b, 2002a, 2002b, 2003a, 2003b, 2003d, 2003e,
Zimroz 2002). The wide band method is easy to use for online condition monitoring. The detailed condition assessment of a gearbox may be done using offline
additional signal analysis and will be considered now.
The method has to take into consideration the scenario of gearbox condition change. Here typical scenario occurring in surface mines is taken. The scenario of the
gearbox deterioration is as follows.
Gearboxes work in heavy environment conditions and very fine particles of sand get inside housings of the gearboxes and cause abrasive wear of gearbox bearings.
The bearings in that condition have influence on the gearing cooperation and cause increase of interteeth vibration (acceleration). For the additional evidence of
condition change caused the bearings abrasive wear, ψ coefficient given by (1) should be calculated. The check consists in determining the slope of a straight line in the
linear relation by calculating the coefficient
Figure 1. Interaction of gearbox elements condition and influence of environment.
The interaction of gearbox element condition is according to Figure 1. The sequence of condition change is as follows: influence of mine environment, abrasive wear of
bearings, change of cooperation in gearing, change of gearing condition (pitting or scuffin g of teet h). The abra sive we ar of be ari also influence to/on a high
rotation/speed shaft (shaft driven by an electric motor) working condition. In the former method gearing condition is described by the gearing cooperation
classification, in succession A, B, C by (Bartelmus, 1992). Further dramatic change of the gearbox condition is ‘knocking out’ rolling bearing seating, unstable run of
gearing, gearing condition cooperation for class D according (Bartelmus, 1992). In (Bartelmus, 1992) it is recommended that replacement of a gearbox ought to be
done when gearing condition is in class B (vibration within 30 and 45 m/s2). Replacement of a gearbox when vibration is within class B is recommended as ‘economic
replacement’. As it was mentioned the method described by (Bartelmus, 1992) can not detect the early change of gearing condition.
The early stages of gearing condition change can be detected by new ways of signal analysis obtained by cepstrum (Bartelmus and Zimroz 2001b, 2002a, 2002b,
2003a, 2003b, 2003d, 2003e, Zimroz 2002). Pitting, scuffing and erosion cause the gearing condition change. The pitting, scuffing and erosion cause distributed faults.
The separated rahmonics in cepstrum can be distinguished for gearbox stages. Besides of distributed faults there are single faults caused by a tooth crack/fracture or
breakage of a tooth. For explicit detection of a tooth crack/fracture or breakage cepstrum and a timefrequency spectrogram signal analysis in an advanced method is
used and given in (Bartelmus and Zimroz, 2001b, 2002a, 2002b, 2003a, 2003b, 2003e, Zimroz 2002).
In the former method (Bartelmus, 1992) there is no possibility to detect such changes of a gearing condition. Interpretation/relation between gearing condition and
vibration signal was not always clear.
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There was a tendency of the diagnostic system user to make a replacement decision when a vibration level for gearing condition is in class C (vibration within 45 and 70
m/s2); it is termed as necessary replacement of a gearbox. This tendency causes increase of funds for gearbox repairs.
Finally we may come to conclusion that joined inference which coming from consideration given in the method description (Bartelmus, 1992) and new findings
presented in (Bartelmus and Zimroz 1998a, 2000a, 2001b, 2002a, 2002b, 2003a, 2003b, 2003d, 2003e, Zimroz 2002) should be taken into consideration during a
gearbox system diagnostic assessment. The condition of gearboxes may be interpreted as it was given in the wide band vibration method/SDM and more evidence for
gearing condition is obtained using new ways of signal interpretation. It is recommended (Bartelmus, 2003b) to use the wide band method for online condition
monitoring. Offline condition monitoring may be used and ASA is recommended when signal comes to the level of class B for detailed evaluation of a gearbox condition
change. One should mention that using recommendations given in ISO 3945, measurement of velocity within 10–1000 Hz and Canadian standard CDA/MS/ NYSH
107 measurement of acceleration within 10–10000 Hz we may have a lot of troubles with gearbox condition evaluation. As it is given in (Bartelmus et al. 2003e) for
inference automation neural networks can be used. It is also very challenging to use an idea given by (Patton, Frank 1999 and Patton et al. 2000) and the idea is named
as robust modelbased fault diagnosis.
3 USING NEURAL NETWORKS FOR AUTOMATED INFERRING
Problem of input values classification in the form of vector of numbers is a standard issue for a neural network. An idea of a recognising system using neural network is
shown in Figure 2.
An ability to recognise objects (phenomenon, signals, processes, situations etc.) specifies ability to assign a particular meaning (CLASS) on the basis of specified
characteristics (FEATURES).
On the basis of former experiences of authors, look into chapter 2, relation between class labels, its description and detection method has been stated. The labels of
classes their description and the methods of signal analysis, which might be helpful in the process of diagnosis gearbox, are put together in Table 1.
Using narrow band analysis/spectral analysis some new definitions are needed. Based on application spectral analysis information about meshing
Figure 2. Idea of condition recognising system based on neural network.
Table 1. Labels of classes used in the programme, their description and the methods of signal analysis.
Table 2. Learning vectors.
Ai—amplitude of ith meshing component in spectrum.
Considered parameters are gathered in Table 2.
As is calculated for first and second stage. It can be interpreted as energy of meshing signal that is strongly dependent on meshing condition.
Shaft condition evaluation is done by analysing parameter Si sum of amplitudes of 3 components fundamental frequencies correspond to wheel revolution speed, next
are its multiple. Si is calculated for first and second stage—third shaft is passed over because of poor spectral resolution (f03=1 Hz).
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Results of cepstrum analysis taken for input vector—similarly like spectrum—are sum of amplitude components correspond to high speed shaft (parameter C1) and
sum of amplitude components correspond to second shaft (parameter C2).
Parameters TF1 and TF2 equal 1 when special *.m Matlab function can find periodic wide band disturbance in timefrequency map. Such disturbance means
impulse appearance in time signal that is (in our case) equivalent to crack of teeth.
On the basis of results of diagnostic signal analysis the learning vectors have been prepared for available signals, Table 2. Each vector is assigned with a target—Targ
that means a suitable class.
3.1 Idea of wining over additional signals (input vectors)
Due to high cost to collect additional diagnostic signals (a huge object −630 kW, large dimensions and lack of possibility to construct a test rig as well as carry out
active experiments) it is decided to use dynamic model of gearset. The model was used to generate signals during earlier studies made by the authors (Bartelmus and
Zimroz 1998a, 2000a, 2001b, 2002a, 2002b, 2003a, 2003b, 2003d, 2003e, Zimroz 2002). It should be stressed the model should be modified according the idea
given in (Bartelmus 2002b). There is presented the model of the system where a doublestage gearbox is incorporated into the system. In the model beside of torsional
vibration, lateral vibration are also considered. To use the model in the process of training the neural network it requires a complete tune up to the real object, Figure 3.
The research work is being done in this field by the authors. An approach based on the model has one more advantage: different types of gearboxes are being used in
mining sector. Preparation of learning data on the basis of active experiments has been already resigned. Obtaining signals within the limit of passive experiments as
shown in abovementioned
Figure 3. Idea of model tuning for recognising system training.
example is not a good solution as well. There is no guarantee that it would be possible to collect signals, which would suite, the classesfaults, which we want to detect.
This model approach allow us to model a system which will allow on the basis of technical documentation and particular measurement verification to construct a base of
diagnostic signals for any technical state being a function of design, production, operational and change of condition factors (DPTOCCF).
4 MODELBASED FAULT DIAGNOSIS
Modelbased fault detection and isolation (FDI) makes use of mathematical models of the gearbox system. Modelbased fault diagnosis (Patton, Frank 1999, Patton et
al. 2000) can be defined as the determination of faults of a system from comparison of available system measurements with a priori information represented by the
system’s mathematical model, through generation of residual quantities and their analysis. A residual is a fault indicator or an accentuating signal, which reflects the faulty
situation of the monitored system. A traditional approach to fault diagnosis in the wider application context is based on ‘hardware (or physical/parallel redundancy’
methods which use multiple lanes of sensors, actuators, computers and software to measure and/or control a particular variable. The major problems encountered with
hardware redundancy are extra equipment and maintenance and cost and, further more the additional space required accommodating the equipment.
Figure 4 illustrated the hardware vs. analytical redundancy concepts. No additional hardware faults are introduced into an analytical redundant scheme, because no
extra hardware is required, hence analytical redundancy is potentially more reliable than hardware redundancy.
Figure 4. Hardware vs. analytical redundancy (Patton 2000).
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5 CONCLUSIONS
The paper gives the review of current developments on automation of inferring process of gearbox fault detection. The first attempt of inferring process automation
using SDM is given in (Bartelmus 1992), but the diagnostic method proposed in this paper can not detect all the crucial faults, which occur in a gearbox lifetime. Further
research using ASA gives back ground for developing new ways for gearbox fault detection (Bartelmus and Zimroz 1998a, 2000a, 2001b, 2002a, 2002b, 2003a,
2003b, 2003d, 2003e, Zimroz 2002). On the description given in (Bartelmus 2003) and further improvements it was possible to construct learning vectors for neural
networks training (Bartelmus et al. 2003c). It seems that using the concept of analytical redundancy (Patton & Frank 1999; Patton et al. 2000, Bartelmus 2003b) is
very promising.
REFERENCES
Bartelmus W., 1992, Vibration condition monitoring of gearboxes. Machine Vibration No.1, pp. 178–189.
Bartelmus, W., 1994, Computer Simulation of Vibration Generated by Meshing of Toothed Wheel for Aiding Diagnostics of Gearboxes, Conference proceedings Condition
Monitoring, Swansea, UK PINERIDGE PRESS Swansea, UK, pp. 184–201.
Bartelmus, W., 1996, Diagnostic Symptoms of Unstability of Gear Systems Investigated by Computer Simulation. Proceedings of 9th International Congress COMADEM
96 Sheffield, July 1996, pp. 51–61.
Bartelmus W., 1998, New Gear Condition Measure from Diagnostic Vibration Signal Evaluation, Proceedings of The 2nd International Conference, Planned
Maintenance Reliability and Quality. University of Oxford, England 1998, UK, pp.12–15.
Bartelmus W., 1998 and 1999, Transformation of gear inter teeth forces into acceleration and velocity. Conference Proceedings of The 7th International Symposium on
Transport Phenomena and Dynamics of Rotating Machinery Hawaii USA and in International Journal of Rotating Machinery Vol. 5. No. 3, pp.203–218.
Bartelmus W., 2000a, Mathematical Modelling of Gearbox Vibration for Fault Diagnosis, International Journal of COMADEM, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 5–15.
Bartelmus W., 2000b, Progress in mathematical modelling and computer simulation for supporting gearbox diagnostic inference. Proceedings of COMADEM 2000 Houston
USA.
Bartelmus W., 2001a, Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulations as an Aid to Gearbox Diagnostics. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing Vol. 15, No.5 , pp.
855–871.
Bartelmus W., Zimroz R., 2001b Vibration Condition Monitoring of two stage gearboxes. 4th International Conference. Acoustical and Vibratory Surveillance Methods and
Diagnostics Techniques. Compiegne France, pp. 645–656.
Bartelmus W., Zimroz R., 2002a Condition Monitoring of Belt Conveyor Transmissions. Mine Czech Republic September pp. 393–402.
Bartelmus W., 2002b Computeraided multistage gearbox diagnostic inference by computer simulation, Scientific Papers of the Institute of Mining of Wrocław University
of Technology No.100, pp 1–120 Wrocław 2002.
Bartelmus W., 2003a, Driving systems with gearboxes: mathematical modelling and computer simulation for supporting diagnostic fault detection. Proceedings of
International Conference, Condition Monitoring CM 2003 pp. 240–255.
Bartelmus W.: 2003b, Diagnostic information on gearbox condition for mechatronic systems. Transaction of the Institute of Measurement and Control 25,5 (2003) s. 450–
464
Bartelmus W., Zimroz R., Batra H.: 2003c, Gearbox vibration signal preprocessing and input values choice for neural network training. Conference proceedings AIMETH
2003 Artificial Intelligence Methods November 5–7 2003, Gliwice. Poland.
Bartelmus W., Zimroz R.: 2003d, Gearbox diagnostic vibration signal modulation phenomena. Proceedings of the 16th International Congress, COMADEM 2003, s. 583–
590.
Bartelmus W., Zimroz R.: 2003e, Gearbox systems dynamic modelling for diagnostic fault detection. The proceedings of The 9th International ASME Power Transmission
and Gearing Conference, 2003 Chicago, Illinois pp.
Patton R.J., Frank P.M. 1999, Robust modelbased fault diagnosis in dynamic systems, Kulwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
Patton R.J., Frank P.M, Clack R.N., 2000, Issues of fault diagnosis for dynamic systems, Springer, 2000.
Zimroz R., 2002, Diagnostic method for belt conveyor transmissions with multistage gearboxes by using modelling, Ph.D. Thesis.
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Page 359
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The load of the longwall tumble heading machine’s head
W.Biały
Technical University of Silesia, Gliwice, Poland
ABSTRACT: The analysis of various mining organs’ mode of action allows the classification and presentation of these organs’ working geometry in
four general groups with regard to the type of the mining machine. The mining organ of the longwall heading machine KGS320 with radial tools was
the subject of the analysis. Cooperation of single knife with the mined solid rock was estimated in order to determine values of the forces and moments
that might occur in the mining process and to estimate the energy consumption of the mining process. Analogous determination of forces and moments
values as well as energy consumption of the mining process for the whole mining organ with regard to all the knives installed.
Following the thorough analysis of the solid rock mining process with the longwall tumble heading machine mining head the PC computer program
simulating such organ’s mode of action has been developed. This program presents the simulation of the mining process in the part regarding direct
contact of the cutting tool (knife) with the rock mass.
The result of this simulation is force and moments distribution, which are transmitted via the mining organ (head) during one full turn (360°) and, as
consequence, via whole longwall heading machine.
1 INTRODUCTION
In Polish mining industry coal exploitation takes place mainly by wall systems via mechanical mining with the use of longwall tumble heading machines.
The increase in coal output in mines is correlated with mining range expansion with already existing tumble heading machines to hard mined coals (Bialy, 2002). The
machines applied in underground mining include:
– mechanical coal miners, heading machines, tunnel drivers.
The analysis of the mining machines organs of various constructions allows for arrangement and division of working geometry of these organs into four major groups:
– group I—mechanical coal miners’ mining organs,
– group II—mining organs of cutter gib heading machines with the mining organ rotating around the cutter gib’s axis and advance parallel to the cutter’s axis,
– group III—mining organs of cutter gib heading machines with the mining organ rotating around the cutter gib’s axis and advance normal to the cutter’s axis,
– group IV—tunnel drivers’ mining organs.
This paper presents the analysis of the group I mining organ’s—after Bialy (1988, 1998 and 2002) and Vasek, Slavik and Gondek (1988)—geometry of action, i.e.
longwall tumble coal miner.
The heading machine is a team machine carrying out many operations simultaneously (mining and loading). With regard to the longwall tumble coal miners (which are
nowadays the only produced and applied) two basic types are distinguished:
– KWB type,
– KGS, KGE, KSW type.
This type of the mining organ may turn bidirectly (Fig. 1a), as well as advance in four directions (Fig. 1b,c). The application of the socalled arms (arm
Figure 1. Turn and advance directions of longwall tumble coal miner’s mining organ.
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head) in longwall tumble head miners allowed for extension of their application and readjustment to the thickness of the mined seam (Sikora 1995 and 1997).
The mining process realized by the mining organ of the tumble coal miner is a process of separation of coal parts from the solid rock with the use of the cutting tools
(knives). As a result of this operation we obtain slices as many as the amount of knives placed on the mining organ.
2 ESTIMATION OF FORCE AND MOMENTS VALUES ON THE MINING HEAD
The mining organ is getting the solid coal with the use of cutting tools—the knives placed on it.
Due to the fact, that the mining organ is the most important element in the process of selection of the longwall complex it is very important that it satisfies all
requirements of the complex. The estimation of the force and moments values on the mining organ as well as their variability in the working mode (one full turn) is very
important then. The subject of this analysis is estimation of the values occurring during the longwall tumble coal miner KGS320 mining organ’s action with tangent
knives placed on it. The cutting tools, called miner’s knives, are replaceable elements mounted in holders welded on the mining organ. When describing the knives
placement geometry on the mining organ a set: knife knife’s holder is considered.
The geometry of the mining organ of the longwall tumble coal miner (Fig. 2) is described by following parameters:
– the amount of knives on the mining organ X [pcs],
– the distance from the knife’s edge to the axis of the mining organ R [mm],
– the distance from the knife’s edge to the yz plane x [mm],
– the knife’s placement circumferential angle φ[°],
– the knife’s angle of rotation related to the drum’s (mining organ) axis β1 [°],
– the knife’s angle of inclination α1 [°],
– the knife edge’s angle of rotation γ1 [°],
– the knife’s length 1 (one) [mm].
The cooperation between single knife and the mined solid coal has been analyzed. Consequently, forces’ and moments’ values as well as mining head’s load (of the
whole mining organ from all installed knives) was estimated. The longwall tumble coal miner’s mining head’s load means resultant forces and moments occurring on the
mining head at one full turn (360°). The forces resulting from rock mass reaction press (concentrated in one point) one knife of the mining organ, which is under
influence of the load
Figure 2. Geometry of the longwall tumble coal miner’s mining organ.
resulting from the rock mass reaction on blade’s penetration.
Three perpendicular forces describe the knife’s load (Fig. 3):
Ft—cutting force,
Fn —clamp force to the mined solid coal,
Fb —side (thrust) force.
The direction of Ft force overlaps the instantaneous direction of tangent to the motion path (cycloid) of knife’s blade edge. The Fn force direction is normal to Ft
force direction and is consistent with direction of line connecting the knife’s blade edge to the beginning of the coordinate system, while the direction of Fb force is
normal to the plane formed by Ft and Fn forces.
The knife’s orientation is described by angle φ, while the inclination angle β1 of knife’s edge in
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Figure 3. Characteristics of knife’s blade forces.
horizontal plane allows considering the solid rock’s reaction with helical plane of the mining organ (semiaxial force occurrence). All the components of resultant reaction
of cutting force Ft have been considered, as well as the clamp force Fn resulting from incising of the mining head into the solid rock. This reaction is not related with the
mining organ’s rotation therefore it has been accepted that component Fn of the force in relation to the helical plane of the mining organ.
The forces, as well as the moments operating on a single knife and on the whole mining organ in given planes are presented on Figures 3 and 4.
Forces values (Fig. 3) are as follows:
In order to determine the forces moment’s values related to given axes of the system, the sum of all forces components related to given axes of the selected coordinate
system needs to be determined.
These forces values are as follows:
Figure 4. The mining head’s forces characteristics.
The moments values (Fig. 4) are as follows:
The forces and moments values which might occur on the mining head equipped with knives, equal the sum of forces and moments resulting from the load of all knives
situated in a given moment in the mined coal.
3 MINING PROCESS MODELLING
After detailed analysis of the solid coal mining process with the use of the longwall tumble miner’s
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Table 1. Longwall tumble coal miner’s mining organ’s geometry.
No. R X φ β pl No. R X φ pl
1 795 54 31 −15 0 20 800 430 86 1
2 785 28 48 −27 0 21 800 520 103 1
3 770 0 65 42 0 22 800 595 120 1
4 795 115 82 17 0 23 800 475 0 4
5 795 54 117 −15 0 24 800 565 19 4
6 785 28 135 −27 0 25 800 205 128 2
7 770 0 155 −42 0 26 800 295 144 2
8 800 87 171 0 0 27 800 385 167 2
9 795 54 211 −15 0 28 800 475 185 2
10 785 28 226 −27 0 29 800 565 200 2
11 770 0 245 −42 0 30 800 160 209 3
12 800 87 262 0 0 31 800 250 225 3
13 795 115 297 17 0 32 800 340 247 3
14 785 28 315 −27 0 33 800 430 266 3
15 770 0 333 −42 0 34 800 520 285 3
16 800 87 351 0 0 35 800 595 300 3
17 800 160 28 0 0 36 800 205 309 4
18 800 250 47 0 1 37 800 295 328 4
19 800 340 66 0 1 38 800 385 346 4
The volume of the mine coal at one full turn of the tumble V=0.18 [m3 ].
mining head a PC computer program simulting such organ’s mode of action has been developed. This program presents the simulation of the mining process in the part
regarding direct contact of the cutting tool (knife) with the solid coal. The result of this situation is a scheme of cutting and analysis of forces and moments that are
transmitted by the mining organ (head) during its one full turn (360°) and consequently by the whole coal miner. In order to present the forces and moments values
occurring at one full turn of the coal miner’s head the mode of action of a single knife has been described. Composition of single knives forces and moments’ values
leads to obtaining total forces and moments’ values of all the knives placed on the mining head. Obtained forces and moments values allow analyzing of the variable
mode of action of the mining organ during its one full turn, i.e. the dynamics of the mining process. The volume of the mined coal was determined as well which is the
value strongly influencing the energy consumption of the mining process.
4 CALCULATIONS RESULTS
With the application of the developed simulating program the scheme of mining with the use of the mining head of KGS320 coal miner at its one full turn (360°) was
presented. Table 1 presents the data resulting from the longwall tumble coal miner’s mining organ’s geometry (with respect to description in chapter 2).
Table 2. Web areas and loosening lines’ length of the knives.
Knife No. Web area Loosening line length Knife No. Web area Loosening line length
1 1510 126 20 1742 85
2 802 99 21 1702 82
3 155 34 22 4727 170
4 842 73 23 1624 81
5 1708 134 24 1358 78
6 828 99 25 1703 83
7 163 38 26 1681 82
8 1414 115 27 1682 83
9 1532 125 28 1692 82
10 719 94 29 1337 79
11 162 36 30 1804 84
12 1137 96 31 1643 85
13 663 96 32 1700 82
14 1893 134 33 1689 82
15 163 38 34 1735 84
16 1238 110 35 4651 169
17 1735 85 36 1582 83
18 1654 81 37 1736 83
19 1651 83 38 1697 82
To perform the calculations following parameters of the coal miner have been accepted; knives type RAPID 83/3, quantity 38, knife width 20 [mm], mineability index
Aψ=3.36 [kN/m], sidecrumble angle ψ=30°, mining organ’s diameter H=1446 [mm], web depth—650 [mm], mining head’s rotational speed vr=40 [cycles/min], coal
miner’s advance speed vp =3 [m/min].
Knives placement: 0—cutting disk, 1, 2, 3, 4—consecutive helical lines on the longwall tumble coal miner’s mining head.
Following have also been estimated:
– web areas of given knives,
– loosening line’s length for given knives,
– mined volume V at one full turn,
– mean values of forces and moments during one full turn (360°).
With regard to the method and algorism of calculations preset the scheme of cutting forces and moments course on the mining organ during its one full turn (360°) was
estimated (Table 2,3,4,Figs. 5 to 8)
5 SUMMARY
The abovediscussed problems regard the solid coal mining with application of longwall tumble coal miners’ mining organs. The mining technology presented is
currently, and in the nearest future, the only effective and profitable coal mining method in Poland and worldwide therefore it is so important to
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Table 3. Forces values at tumble turn by 360°.
Table 4. Moments values at tumble turn by 360°.
Figure 5. Knives placement on the longwall tumble coal miner’s KGS320 mining head during its one full turn (360°).
Figure 6. Mining scheme (knives web) at tumble turn by 360°.
Figure 7. Force characteristics during one full turn (360°).
Figure 8. Moments characteristics at one full turn (360°).
determinate the forces and moments values which may occur on the longwall tumble coal miner’s mining head.
The experiments performed allowed to estimate the influence of the mined solid coal properties on forces and moments values occurring on the mining head of the
longwall coal miner.
Based upon performed experiments we are allowed to:
– determinate the mining scheme which provides us with the information on the given knives’ mining mode. The above analysis leads to selection of the
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knives that are overloaded during the mining process as well as the knives, which have minimal share or do not take part in this process at all. The scheme shows all
mining organs’ imperfections, which are quite often seen in reallife conditions, resulting from their construction or production.
The optimal knives placement must result from the knife’s uniform load during one full turn of the mining organ’s tumble criteria. The proper and thorough analysis of the
problem influences the proper knives’ placement in the most loaded places of the mining organ. Proper selection of β1 angle is very important as well so the side
contact of the knife with the mined solid coal would be avoided (Fb force). The placement of the knives on the cutting disk is an underestimated problem. The
performed analysis should be concluded that the highest differences in the web areas (loosening lines) of given knives are on the cutting disk (Table 2). The vital
problem is proper transition from the knives placement on the cutting disk to given snail’s lobes in such way that any fragment of the solid coal would not be mined with
any knife placed on the cutting disk (Fig. 6). It does also influence the nonuniform knives wear during the mining process, with the costs accompanying, and the
dynamics of the whole mining process, too,
– determinate the forces and moments characteristics during the mining process. Forces and moments resulting from: the knife’s placement on the mining organ,
mineability index Aψ value and sidecrumble angle ψ of the mined coal, have a strong influence on the mining organ action’s dynamics also—the whole coal miner’s
unstable performance.
The forces and moments characteristics of the longwall tumble coal miner’s mining organ during its one full turn are presented on Figures 7 and 8. The analysis of the
curves (Fx, Fy , Fz, Mx, My , Mz) shows further mining organ’s lacks. At one full turn of the mining organ (360°) the variabilities of forces and moments values show
strong aberrations from the mean values, consequently Fx forces varies from 42 [N] to 87 [N], Fy from 753 [N] to 955 [N], while Fz reaches values between 364 [N]
and 712 [N] (Table 3). The moments vary within the following ranges: Mx from 507 [Nm] to 754 [Nm], My from 45 [Nm] to 218 [Nm] and Mz between 150 [Nm]
and 227 [Nm] (Table 4).
Theses values show the dynamics of the longwall tumble coal miner’s mining head’s load as well as the whole machine.
The result of the performed analysis is a conclusion that there are several lacks in the knives placement on the mining organs—regarding the coal miner’s dynamics of
action the solutions are imperfect.
The solution of the stated problem is a situation where all forces and moments would vary as little as possible from the mean values—the minig organ’s action would
be stable what has a direct relation to coal miner’s mining dynamics (mining process).
REFERENCES
Biały W, 1988; Możliwości optymalizacji efektywności urabiania pokładów węglowych kombajnami ścianowymi na podstawie teoretycznych badań organów
urabiających, in V Konferencja Problemy urabiania i przeróbki skał, Zeszyt 1A, Kielce, 183–192.
Biały W, 1998; Badania nad rozmieszczeniem noży na organie urabiającym, in Konferencja ,,Zastosowania mechaniki w górnictwie” Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki
Śląskiej, 89–95.
Biały W, 2002; Wpływ rozmieszczenia noży na dynamikę pracy głowicy urabiającej. Mechanizacja i Automatyzacja Górnictwa, 11.
Sikora W, 1995; Ściana o wysokiej koncentracji produkcji w perspektywie roku 2000 in Nowoczesne techniki i technologie w podziemnej eksploatacji złóż—
systemy eksploatacji węgla o dużej koncentracji wydobycia. Szczyrk.
Sikora W, 1997; Zapotrzebowanie mocy w przodkach ścianowych w aspekcie intensyfikacji i koncentracji produkcji. Mechanizacja i Automatyzacja Górnictwa, 1.
Vasek J, Slavik J, Gondek H, 1988; Analiza poprawy pracy organów urabiającyh kombajnów chodnikowych i ścianowych przy pomocy modelowania matematycznego.
XXVII Sympozjum “Modelowanie w mechanice” GliwiceWisła.
Page 365
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Construction of bucket wheel excavators determined by specific mining
conditions
Janusz Bojczuk
Mechanical Department, PoltegorEngineering Ltd., Wrocław, Poland
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the most significant aspects of designing of the Bucket Wheel Excavators in respect to various requirements of the
potential users. Special observation is made for assurance of functional abilities, selection of technical parameters and consideration of economy of the
performance. The thesis will be discussed on experience of machinery selection considered as recent proposals for Neyveli Lignite Corporation.
1 INTENDED USE OF BWE 700 L
The BWE 700 L is a generalpurpose machine designed for digging lignite and overburden. Due to the physical and chemical properties of overburden, the geological
conditions of lignite occurrence in Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd. are among world’s most difficult ones. Also, the geological location of the mine in the tropical zone
regularly affected by cyclone winds (velocity up to ab. 125 km/h) and high rainfall of more than 1000 mm during the twomonth period of rainy season only.
The specific overburden digging resistances vary between 140 and 180 kN/m. The considerable share of quartz (42–72%), aluminum (15–36%) and iron
compounds (up to 18%), high natural water content (9–24%) brings about, on one side, high stickiness of excavated material and, on the other side, requires to use the
best abrasion—resistant materials for the machine components being in a direct contact with
Figure 1. General view of BWE 700 L.
overburden. Therefore, the excavator is equipped with the digging mechanism of relatively high power (750 kW) having optimum parameters to achieve rated specific
digging force of 110 kN/m
Figure 2. Digging technology of BWE 700 L operating in conjunction with mobile conveyor.
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In Neyveli Mine conditions, the excavator works in a monoblock system operating in conjunction directly, or through the intermediary of intermediate mobile
conveyor, with the excavator bench conveyor.
With the effective yearly working time of 4500 hrs and guaranteed average capacity of the order of 1400–1600 m3/h in bank, the excavator removes ab. 6.3–7.2
million m3 of overburden per year.
The excavator meets extremely high requirements regarding admissible grades both for its working and travel conditions, 1:20 and 1:10, respectively. It is very
convenient in respect of technology for construction of ramps and downhill runs.
The singleunit design of the machine provides its high mobility and easy maneuverability while digging at the ends of excavation fronts or while travelling nearby the
intermediate stations of conveyors. As per contract requirements for BWE 700 L delivered within expansion of Mine IA in NLC, the following main technical details
were specified:
– theoretical capacity defined for number of discharges 81.5 mm−1 3400 m3/h
– bucket wheel diameter 9.0 m
– bucket capacity 700 L
– number of buckets 14 Nos.
– rotary plate diameter 3.8 m
– maximum height of cut 20.0 m
– low cutting depth 2.0 m
– width of excavated strip cut 1800 mm
– admissible grade
– while digging 1:20
– while travelling 1:10
– length of bucket wheel boom 31.5 m
– slewing angle of superstructure relative to undercarriage ±180°
– slewing angle of discharge boom ±105°
– main digging mechanism drive power 750 kW
– auxiliary digging mechanism drive power 22 kW
– rotary plate drive power 90 kW
– travelling gear drive power 6×55 kW
– slewing gear drive power 1×90 kW
– receiving conveyor drive power 2×110 W
– discharge conveyor drive power 2×110 kW
– main winch power 2×110 kW
– total machine weight 1600 t
2 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CONSTRUCTION OF EXCAVATOR
The socalled Tender Document prepared by the Investor is a set of detailed technical data, quality and acceptance requirements which, in opinion of the future user,
have to be met by the excavator being a subject of the order. The document is issued as a comprehensive study which includes detailed commercial rules of the
potential contract and specifies all technical requirements for mechanicalstructurals, hydraulics and electricals. The significant requirement is the conformity of the whole
activity connected with the design, manufacture and commissioning with the requirements of DIN Standards.
In practice, the potential supplier has no essential doubts regarding structural features of the excavator offered while scrutinizing the Document.
Apart from selfevident advantages in respect of the merits, such a system has also a main good point of the commercial nature, namely, the bids submitted by
various companies being in competition between one with the other are far advanced as regards their comparability. Owing to that the user has specified in such detail
its requirements there was no need to do such design work as feasibility study or detailed project report.
A very important postulate defined by the NLC Mine in case of bidding procedures for heavy machinery is obligatory adjustment of the bidders to the standardizing
programme of machine components.
This programme includes:
– subassemblies of crawler undercarriages,
– drives of belt conveyors,
– pulleys of belt conveyors,
– idler sets of belt conveyors,
– cable reels,
– thrustors,
– flange couplings.
Owing to the bidding procedures, as early as the stage of the bid, biding arrangements are taken regarding complete design and manufacturing criteria for the machine
being subject of the future delivery.
Poltegorengineering Ltd. has designed BWE 700 L in scope of mechanicalstructurals while Siemens Ltd. of India has made the same in scope of electricals.
For the first time in the history of designing heavy machinery for surface mines, comprehensive strength and fatigue analysis was made by a FEM method modeling
entirely the supporting structure of the equipment. Thanks to the participation of scientists from the Institute of Machinery Construction and Operation/Technical
University of Wrocław, it was possible to obtain results of calculation with as high as possible probability to represent real phenomena occurring in the constructed
assemblies. It was of essential importance since the machines were of highly prototypical nature, especially for the supporting structures of equipment. For calculation,
the uptodate software in IDEAS system was used. The threedimensional discrete models were made, and the results were obtained in form of contour lines of
reduced stresses acc. to HuberMises method.
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Also, it is worth saying about considerable contribution of the excavator users in the process of shaping technical features of the equipment. The designers were
made available many years of operational experience of mine services, which yielded fruit in implementation of optimum technical options for constructed machinery.
3 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF BWE 700 L
Due to the silhouette of excavator superstructure and technical details, the machine may be among socalled semicompact excavators combining features of big
overburden machines and compact excavators designed for hard rock cutting. The most important structural features of excavator assemblies are persecuted below.
3.1 Digging mechanism
The digging mechanism is fitted with 9.0 m dia chamber less bucket wheel. The bucket wheel structure is made of welded plates and flangeconnected with the hollow
shaft. Around the periphery of bucket wheel, there are installed 14 buckets of 700 L capacity each. The buckets are made of abrasionresistant plates and fitted with
three pairs of blades. Each pair has specific geometry adjusted to performing appropriate function, i.e. twoplane loosening and crushing overburden slices which
encounter during the digging process. The blades are fitted with widia inserts which, in Neyveli minesite conditions, considerably extend the life of bucket components
being in a permanent contact with overburden.
The mechanism is fitted with the drive composed of planetarycylindrical reducer of 164.2 ratio, squirrelcage motor of rated power 750 kW. Moreover, the driving
unit has hydrokinetic (fluid) coupling to ensure the excavator against overload and also, the auxiliary drive for repair purposes. The
Figure 3. Digging mechanism of BWE 700 L.
driving unit is fixed bracketedly to the multispline pin of bucket wheel shaft and supported on the torque arm equipped with the absorber. An important feature of
digging mechanism is how the excavated material is loaded on the receiving conveyor. To minimize the favorable dynamic impact of transported material on the feed
point the rotary plate has been used. It is intended to receive material from bucket wheel chute and to feed it on to the receiving conveyor. The introduction of rotary
plate assembly influenced favorably a substantial simplification of bucket wheel boom head in view of a simple location of bucket wheel and also, structural option
within area of feeding on to the receiving conveyor.
3.2 Handling system
To handle the excavated material from the digging mechanism on to bench conveyor two conveyors are used, i.e. receiving and discharge ones. They are located in the
boom structures in a way enabling operational requirements to be met and permanent attendance and repair works to be done. The conveyors have been made so as
to adhere to the maximum standardization of components. So, the drives, idler sets, pulleys and takeup units are identical for
Figure 4. Rotary plate of BWE 700 L.
Figure 5. Driving pulley of BWE 700 L conveyor.
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both conveyors. In the drives of 110 kW power each, there are used classic bevelcylindrical reducers.
The driving and nondriving pulleys have original design worked out in Poltegorengineering Ltd. based on constant strengthshaped membranes. Also, the idler sets
are made based on the Poltegor’s experience. In particular, the steelrubber absorbers used in the impact idler sets and commonly introduced in conveyors of NLC
mine were very highly appreciated by the user. The excavator is equipped with 1800 mm wide steel cord belts.
3.3 Slewing superstructure
The slewing superstructure composed of the slewing platform, mast or socalled pylon, counterweight, and bucket wheel and discharge booms is entirely welded
structure. It is made as plate girder welded using St52.3 material acc. to DIN 17100 (presently, 5355JZG3 acc. to DIN EN 10025). For quality reasons, the structural
components in the excavator supporting structure were not allowed to be made rolled products, and certified steel plates were only used. The bucket wheel and
counterweight booms are trusses made of bars shaped from welded plates.
All the field joints are made as welded ones. The booms are located in the supporting structures by means of specifically designed ball bearings with use of
designers’ own experience gained from construction and operation of excavators type KWK 1500 s. The booms are luffed by means classic rope hoists with a double
symmetric roping system.
Considering high dynamic loads to which BWE 700 L is subjected during operation, special attention was paid to shaping nodal points of supporting structure.
These nodal points are designed so as to minimize the notch effect on welded joints. In this case, a very helpful tool proved commonly used in calculation the shell
method whose results presented in a plastic manner the found points of stress concentration. Owing to that it was possible, while using AUTOCAD technique at the
same time, to correct immediately structural options as early as the stage of design.
3.4 Slewing gear
The main slewing gear of excavator consists of 8.0m dia ball race, separate sectional toothed ring and drive. In the drive, there is used special reducer having a double
outlet, whose wheels are mating directly with the toothed ring.
The drive is fitted with 90 kW squirrelcage motor fed through the inverter system, electromagnetic overload coupling and double brake. The drive is located in the
front end of superstructure platform between the mast pylons.
Figure 6. Main slewing gear of BWE 700 L.
Figure 7. Discharge boom slewing gear of BWE 700 L.
Unconventionally, the discharge boom slewing gear has been designed. The boom platform is supported on the upper chord of excavator’s superstructure platform by
means of 4.0 m dia torque bearing.
The slewing drive has 11.0 kW squirrelcage motor fed through the inverter system. It is located on special boom shaped out of the slewing platform structure so
that the toothed wheel of slewing gear can mate with the toothed ring of main slewing gear.
3.5 Crawler undercarriage
The crawler undercarriage assembly consists of threesupport ring girder system, twocrawler bogies with two supports in form of the ball link and one selfaligning
support. Such a system provides possibility to use two pairs of turning crawlers and socalled “fixed” crawler. The undercarriage turning gear enables the excavator to
make a minimum turn of 50.0 m radius. It is equipped with the hydraulic power pack with the single hydraulic cylinder mating with the arms of steered twocrawler
bogies.
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Figure 8. Design of BWE 700 L crawler track sprocket.
The system is designed so that a uniform swinging angle of the arms of steered bogies can be achieved in both directions of cylinder movement.
The excavator undercarriage is equipped with six identical 2800 mm wide crawlers. They are of a classic design based on the system of twowheel bogies and four
wheel equalizer beams.
Each crawler has eight travelling wheels. The kinematic system of crawler chain is constructed based on the classic Häcker’s principle. The track chain links of 615
pitch are mating with the track sprocket where replaceable track drivers are fixed by means of a special bolted joint. Both the track chain links and track drivers, and
track sprockets and track idlers of the crawler as well, are made in conformance with the NLC’s components standardization programme.
The crawlers are equipped with drives with 55 kW slipring motors, planetary reducers of 638.4 ratio connected with the track sprocket by means of flange
coupling.
3.6 Other excavator’s equipment
Like each excavator used in surface mining, BWE 700 L is equipped with:
– operator’s cabins’,
– electrical and lubrication rooms and workshop,
– fire fighting system,
– compressed air system,
– oil lubrication systems,
– hoisting equipment,
– switching stations, and power supply and control systems,
– cable reel.
The excavator is equipped with the control system based on the programmable logic controller (PLC).
4 EXPERIENCE FROM MANUFACTURE, ERECTION AND INITIAL OPERATION OF BWE 700 L
The construction of BWE 700 L, whose subassemblies were delivered in 50% from Poland and in 50% from India, proved to be difficult not only in respect of
extremely high technical requirements but also, for logistic reasons. The whole project had to be performed in 28 months. However, for reasons beyond the
contractors’ control, due to the troubles with making available the erection yard, this period was extended by some four months.
Nevertheless, it is worth saying here that very good equipment of the erection yard was provided by the Project Developer, particularly regarding hoisting
equipment.
On some 800 m long erection yard it was possible, owing to the provision of two gantry cranes, to erect three BWEs and four spreaders at the same time.
Fabrication and procurement of most complicated and crucial mechanisms provided by M/s Famago S.A. proceeded without any major troubles. All supplies were
provided according to the fixed schedule. However, for some items connected with fabrication of excavator’s superstructure components in local companies, it was
necessary to use special procedures of supervision over fabrication of structural components, both in respect of dimensions and welding techniques.
For the whole period of machines construction for NLC, professionals from Poltegorengineering Ltd. and Famago S.A. were delegated on site to supervise
permanently the erection, commissioning and technical acceptance. Also, training of Project Developer’s staff was carried out regarding machinery attendance.
All the machines manufactured under the contract for Mine IA expansion for Neyveli Lignite Corporation were awarded quality certificates from certifying institutions
appointed by the Project Developer. First BWE 700 L was handed over for capacity and performance tests in June 2000. The next identical one was handed over in
November the same year. The takeover procedures of BWEs in NLC are twostage ones. First stage of the test consists in proving failurefree operation of BWE in
eight hours when the machine has to achieve capacity of ab. 80% relative to the theoretical capacity.
If this test proves to be successful second stage of testing proceeds after having ensured necessary operational conditions by the Mine Operator. It consists in
proving during the threemonth period of 1000 working hours that the machine has achieved average production equal to the guaranteed capacity, i.e. 1400 m3/h. At
present, after successful capacity tests approved by the user, two BWEs 700 L are in operation.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Microprocessor based solid state control system for improving efficiency of the
conventional coal mine hauler
R.N.Gupta & Srinivasulu Tadisetty
Mine Instrumentation Division, National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Kolar Gold Fields, India
ABSTRACT: The efficiency of conventional coal mine hauler is very poor due to full voltage nonlinear resistance speed controls. The resistance
control technique has many disadvantages and limitations. Therefore the conventional system consumes more power and needs regular maintenance.
As a result the productivity of the conventional hauler is inferior. Thus a new system has been developed for improving efficiency and productivity of
conventional coal mine hauler. The innovative system was successfully field tested in one of the Indian mines. First time variable frequency control
techniques were successfully implemented. This paper discusses the innovative development and its impact on productivity and safety.
1 INTRODUCTION
Electric motors are estimated to consume over 70% of total electrical energy in Indian mines. An AC induction motor can consume more energy than it actually needs
to perform its work, particularly when operated at less than full load conditions. This excess energy is dissipated in the form of heat and increases motor wear. As a
result the power consumption of conventional hauler is more and less productivity. The resistance speed control is not an efficient method due to its many practical
limitations. Therefore improving efficiency of conventional coal mine hauler is imperative (Walker, 1985).
Studies conducted by the electric power research institute, USA revealed that over 60% of industrial motors are operating under the rated load capacity. Idling,
cyclic, lightly loaded or oversized motors consume more power than required even when they aren’t working (Ramulu, 1987). These motors are waste energy and
increases motor wear. Subsequently the conventional hauler needs frequent maintenance and productivity reduced. Hence the enhancement of the conventional hauler
efficiency is imperative. Therefore an innovative system was successfully developed for improving efficiency and productivity of conventional hauler. This paper
discusses its role in improving efficiency, productivity and safety of conventional hauler.
2 ADJUSTABLE SPEED CONTROL TECHNIQUES
Adjustable speed control (ASC) techniques are many types. The majority of ASCs are Volts/Hertz and Vector control, which can be further, subdivided into,
sensorless vector control and feed back vector control.
2.1 Volts per hertz control
A volt per hertz control describes a relationship that is fundamental to the operation of motors using adjustable frequency control. An ac induction motor produces
torque by virtue of the flux in its rotating field. Keeping the flux constant will enable the motor to produce full load torque. Below base speed this is accomplished by
maintaining a constant voltage to frequency ratio applied to the motor when changing frequency for speed control. They are further divided into three types:
• Variable voltage source controller
• Current source controller
• Constant voltage source (frequency) controller
2.2 Vector control
A vector control decouples the magnetizing flux and torque producing currents supplied to a motor and controls them separately.
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An ASC that utilizes this control technique exhibits steadystate and dynamic performance and speed and torque control. Feedback vector control can be further
subdivided in two types. They are as follows:
Direct vector control: A direct field oriented control makes use of ‘hall effect transducer or air gap flux sensor’ to measure the air gap flux with the intent of regulating
it in order to produce controllable motor torque.
Indirect vector control: Indirect field oriented control interprets the motor flux from parameters such as either speed or current. A closed loop vector control makes
use of speed feedback sensor and can provide speed control and maximum torque through out a speed range that extends anywhere from zero to base speed. An open
loop vector control monitor motor current instead of motor speed and cannot produce holding torque at zero speed. It also has a narrower operating speed range than
a closed loop vector control.
Sensorless vector control: The sensorless control determines the rotor position without sensors. Information is obtained from other parameters of the motor to
determine the rotor position and then to control the winding current and produce the desired torque. One common method is to sense the induced voltage in the
winding which is not carrying current at the particular moment. The zero crossing of that voltage is electronically detected, thus establishing where the rotor is with
respect to the winding and replacing the function of the position sensor. The common problem is not providing information at start before any motion of the rotor
occurs. This is solved by electronically generating fictitious pulses until the rotor attains the desired speed at which the sensorless control would take over. The
sensorless control requires more electronics circuit. It is a more expensive control system.
The low cost frequency control modules selected for developing MBSC system. The MBSC system saves energy by measuring the workload on the motor by
comparing the difference in voltage and current waveforms at the motor. This information is then used to reduce the current and voltage to match the workload as
required by the motor, while maintaining the constant speed. It adjusts power consumption proportional to motor loading conditions without altering motor RPM. This
results in reduced electrical power consumption.
In addition excess current, which is dissipated as heat through the motor is eliminated. As a result the motor runs cooler, thus extending motor life.
3 DEVELOPMENT OF MICROPROCESSOR BASED SOLID STATE CONTROL (MBSC) SYSTEM
There are many types of ASCs are available in the open market. In addition the various peripheral
Figure 1. Block diagram of MBSC system.
modules are required to avoid practical field problems and to provide user friendly environment for improving productivity and efficiency of a conventional hauler as
shown in Fig. 1. The microprocessor based frequency control module plays a vital role in MBSC system. This module is economically viable to system development for
40 HP haulers.
The MBSC system is comprised of various imported and indigenous modules. Systematic integration of various modules was imperative for developing an
economically viable system. Figure 1 shows the various modules of MBSC system. The brief discussions of various modules are as follows.
The VFC was interfaced to the control panel, operator’s keyboard, dynamic brake and optional regenerative modules, display and indicators, serial and user
interfaces. The control panel facilitate to interface MBSC system in parallel to the conventional system. Therefore the hauler can be operated either in MBSC mode or
in conventional mode. The operator’s keyboard is rugged and provided user friendly environment for effective operations. The dynamic brake and optional regenerative
module was avoided the regenerative current due to operation of hauler in steep gradient with high inertia loads. Various meters like energy, volt and ammeters were
interfaced for finding out the status of power consumption. The display and indicators were indicated operational status of MBSC system. The serial and user interfaces
were used for networking of multiple haulers for monitoring from a common place.
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3.1 Description of MBSC system
The VFC module of MBSC system was prevented high starting torque by reducing the peak current by as much as 90% of induction motor. Further it limits the inrush
of current, prevents unnecessary excess torque and reduces power line disturbances. The MBSC system senses the motor load and the power to the motor. It then
applies only the exact power required to start the motor without reducing the necessary starting torque or RPM. Thus the power consumption is reduced and the
power factor improved. This leads to smooth and stepless operations. The MBSC system controls the AC induction motor speed so it always functions at optimum
efficiency. This extends motor life and reduces stress and strain on the motor.
Thus the efficiency of the conventional hauler improved. The MBSC system reduced the power consumption around 20–40% and minimized breakdowns and
improved the productivity. This innovative system was successfully implemented first time in Indian mines for improving conventional hauler efficiency.
4 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS & ANALYSIS
MBSC system was indigenously successfully developed with various modules for interfacing to conventional mine hauler to improving efficiency. Only 80% of the
MBSC system modules are readily available in the International market. Remaining 20% modules were indigenously developed. However selecting compatible cost
effective modules are very important for system development. Thus the MBSC system was successfully developed indigenously, which is compatible to 40 HP coal
mine haulers for improving efficiency and productivity. Further it can be operated with squirrel cage induction motor. As a result the capital cost reduced to half. The
MBSC system was compatible to mining environment and economically viable system to 40 HP haulers.
Figure 2 shows the MBSC system with various interfaces. The MBSC system was successfully interfaced to 40 HP conventional coal mine hauler at GDK 9 incline
mine, SCCL Ramagundem, India. The interpretations of various field observations are as follows.
Figure 3(a) shows MBSC system graph of line voltage vs current. The graph shows the current and voltages are in linear. The non linearity at 400 V was due to non
uniform haulage road. Figure 3(b) shows conventional system graph of voltage vs current. The initial current of conventional system was 60 A as per the graph.
Therefore the relationship is nonlinear. Fig. 3(c) and (d) shows MBSC and conventional
Figure 2. Microprocessor based solid state control system.
systems graph of speed vs voltage respectively. The initial voltage of conventional system was 400 V as per the graph. The relation between speed and voltage of
conventional system is nonlinear. The MBSC system has linear relation between speed and frequency as per the graph. Fig. 3(e) and (f) shows the graphs of speed vs
Current. The conventional system has taken 60 A at zero speed as per the Fig. 3 (f). The relation of speed vs current was nonlinear as per the graph of conventional
system. The MBSC system has linear relationship between speed and current. Thus the MBSC system needs zero current at zero speed as per the Fig. 3(e).
5 MBSC SYSTEM ADVANTAGES
The MBSC system has many advantages over the conventional system. They are as follows:
(i) Following modules of conventional system are eliminated
• Drum control module
• Resistance module
• Forward and Reverse control module
• The expensive three phase slip ring induction motor is not required; the low cost three phase
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Figure 3. Electrical characteristics of MBSC and Conventional systems.
squirrel cage induction motor will serve the haulage
• Internal cables required for connecting drumcontroller, F&R switch, and resistance of the motor
• Brush gear unit of the motor (slip rings, brushes and brush holders)
• Humming sound of the motor
• Maintenance of the hauler electricals
• Physical stress and strain of the hauler driver
• Consumption of the electrical spares of main tenance/repair
• The operational defects
• The moving parts of the electrical controls
• Heat generation and sparks
• Tampering of the preset settings
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• Efficiency of the safety controls are improved electronically
• Mechanical jamming
• Frequent fluctuations in flow of voltage and current
• Shock/Impact loads on mechanical (coupling bolts, couplings, keys, Gearbox, Rope socket, Dlinks, pins and shackles)
(ii) Following are minimized due to MBSC system interface
• Space required for 40 HP hauler
• Man shifts required for shifting and erection of hauler
• Consumption of power was reduced to 40%
(iii) Additional features of MBSC system
• The frequency control operations were produced uniform linear speed (avoided jerks). In addition fraction of the motor speed was achieved
• Regulated the flow of voltage and current for better operation
• Operational control features provided in the system are easily accessible
• Absolute safety was achieved due to inbuilt intelligence
• Fault diagnosis is easier due to display of fault type and status
• Remote operations are possible for networking
• Effective operational control achieved
• Stores details of the failure history for better conclusions
6 CONCLUSIONS
MBSC system was successfully developed and interfaced to the conventional coal mine 40 HP hauler. This novel MBSC system reduced power consumption around
40% and capital cost by half. The innovative MBSC system was improved efficiency of conventional coal mine hauler. Therefore the productivity and safety of the
conventional hauler was successfully improved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the Department of Coal, Ministry of mines and coal, Govt. of India for funding this project under coal S&T grant and CMPDIL, monitoring
group for critical comments, suggestions, and interactions. Further, we would express our sincere gratitude to SCCL management for providing facilities for extensive
field investigations.
REFERENCES
Walker. S.C, Mine winding and transportation, Elsevier publications, 1985
Ramulu. M.A, Mine hoisting, Oxford publications, 1987
Mukesh. S.K, Microprocessor based mine winder monitoring system, M.Tech thesis, CEDT, IISc Bangalore, 1988
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Machine maintenance from the viewpoint of present procedural understanding
maintenance
F.Helebrant & J.Fries
VŠB—TU Ostrava, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT: Basic groundwork for ever rightimplemented strategy of maintenance is the prolongation of the active lifetime part of equipment, the
increase of the machine and equipment effectiveness, the increase of the production productivity, and the decrease of the maintenance cost. Moreover,
the appropriately deteimined demands for the maintenance and its securing are the basic instruments which solve the problems during the systematic
and procedural understanding of the maintenance in each production firm and thereby in each coal firm too, of course.
1 INTRODUCTION
Today’s economy seems to be in state of recession. Most of the production companies have low profits that force them to reduce the production costs. Additionally,
the companies need to be more global, centralized; they need to deal with the information technologies, outsourcing, competitive companies, market pressure etc.
Therefore, it can be said, that the production companies try to solve the impossible mission—“enchant circle solution”.
For that reason, the solution of the former forgotten problems is a very powerful mean in business nowadays. The solution of maintenance problems and its
assurance is one of these means. However, the maintenance must be understood as the systematic process thing, which leads to control and reduction of the risk
including the working safety.
2 MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS AND ITS PRINCIPLES GETTING STARTED
For their determination it is necessary to source from the most general definition of working reliability—“A feature of a product (machine), which enables it to work
according to its functions in the limits of acceptable tolerance, given working conditions and required lifetime.” Then, we can discuss the partial features of reliability
such as its functional side, safety, failsafety, assurance, preparation, maintenance etc. We must define from the principle determination point of view: the aim of the
maintenance, maintenance philosophy and strategy, suggestions for maintenance (program).
Consequently, it is possible to declare basic general requirements for the operation and socalled working maintenance principles: process attitude, systematic
attitude, maintenance management, introducing of all workers, changes in thinking and opinions, decisions based on the assurance of facts, never ending improvement,
cooperation with profitable suppliers, and the best quality of working reliability (see Figs 1,2).
The defined requirements are based on the approved legislative and standards. According to standard ISO 22349–1, which deals with the problems, it is necessary
to go on in accordance with the declared process RFAM (Risk Focused Asset Management). RFAM is a process (analysis) that is used to find out and determine the
most effective attitude to maintenance, it means, that includes and defines the problems, which prediction is the most effective from the financial point of view.
Consequently, the procedural systemic attitude leads to solving the maintenance efficiency evaluation, because every process requires controlling and exact defining
the necessary changes including its solutions. Each correctly projected and implemented maintenance system must be based on 3P principle—prevention, proactive,
productivity.
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Figure 1. Basic implementation process of the maintenance (Helebrant 2001).
Figure 2. Process approach to maintenance solving during technical lifetime of the object (Helebrant 2002).
3 MAINTENANCE ASSURANCE
The maintenance assurance must be definitely based on socalled inner maintenance classification from its content point of view:
– selfcontained maintenance—cleaning, oiling, keeping the principles of “Maintenance manual” etc.—it reduces the wear,
– repairs—an activity leading to forming the required state—it eliminates the causes of the wear,
– checking and controlling activity—professional examinations, application of technical diagnostics methods, overhauling of technical equipment etc.—it finds out the
stage of the wear.
The approaches leading to satisfaction of requirements and working maintenance principles cause
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Figure 3. Informative parameters of control system of maintenance.
strategic and conceptual development changes, which lead to the classification of maintenance systems to basic progress stages of the maintenance.
Now we are going to the means of maintenance assurance. These means are actually independent scientific branches. That is why it is necessary to discuss the
problems just in simple terms:
• Tribology and tribotechnics
It consists of the basic tribology processes—contact processes, friction, wear processes and oiling processes. It is obvious, where and how the problems of
maintenance are presented.
• Technical diagnostics
The aim of technical diagnostics is an objective evaluation of the object technical state and to arrange its capability to do required functions under given conditions,
and it applies both for the present and the future.
• Dismantling and assembly approaches
They are part of another feature that influences the maintenance reliability—reparability (capability to change spare parts), practically, it is needed to solve not only
the problems of assembly and dismantling parts (very part of object maintenance project), but also the problems of technological progresses of this activity.
Consequently, it is included in “Maintenance manual” and it solves the repair management problems as well.
• Information technologies
They are systems and tools for strategic planning of maintenance, which enables effective management and controlling all maintenance activities and is capable of
making their economic evaluation. It is due to the CMMS (ComputerizedMaintenance Management Systems), this means, that due to the information technology
we get the required outlets. These outlets in real time are the most important feature of the future machine maintenance. The outlets (information) cannot be acquired
in such quality and in real time from any other system (see Fig. 3).
• Logistics
Present logistics is a very powerful device in today’s business. Its development caused the establishment of the independent industrial branch, which contains much
more than mere loading and transport activity.
Nowadays, there are several basic definition describing the term logistics in general, which can be found in various biographies. It is clear, that the basic aspects of
logistics are—market research, customer’s satisfaction, stock reduction etc. All the
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Figure 4. Maintenance pyramid (Helebrant 2001).
aspects must fulfil the logistics aims, then it is obvious, that the maintenance is used in every sphere, where the loss reduction is considered, as well as the safety
level, stock state, production targets etc.
• Solution of operation risk
Now we talk about the field of procedural safety solution, it means the solution of working safety problems=risk management. It consists of safety policy and
healthcare during the work, organization, planning, implementation, evaluation, and methods such as FMEA, FTA, ETA, HAZOP, and improvement precautions. In
other words, we also confirm mentioned RFAM analysis, EU standards (especially EU 37/1998), government law (especially No 378/2001) etc.
At this moment, we must recommend other special bibliography that considers everything important of the field. The maintenance is a device to manage and reduce
working risks.
• Evaluation of maintenance efficiency and reengineering
Actually it is the maintenance inspection, which follows the principles of Lean management (slight production), it means that it uses the following progress:
– MEE method (Maintenance Efficiency Evaluation)—evaluation of maintenance efficiency due to benchmarking,
– MOPE method (Maintenance Outsourcing Possibility Evaluation)—evaluation of central possibility, integration of maintenance activities,
– Locators Study—usage of maintenance workers.
A project of maintenance reengineering is based on this maintenance audit. Figure 4 “Maintenance pyramid”—essentially it is a complex view of project solution
dealing with the maintenance reengineering (Maintenance system suggestion) on general level and systemic procedural understanding of maintenance.
• Basic legislation
We chose just the most important laws considering the given area:
– act No 22/1977, of the law No 71/2001 “Of technical requirements on products”
– act No 170/1997, of the law No 15/1999 and No 283/2000, which deals with “Technical requirements on machine equipment” including “Maintenance manual”
and other papers needed to the machine equipment
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– government law No 168/1977, of the law No 281/2000 and No 282/2000
– government law No 378/2001 “Requirements on safe operation and machine usage”
Many other standards is connected with the mentioned laws and standards, for example the description of methods agreed for elimination of the danger caused by the
machine equipments (risk analysis) according to ČSN EN 292–1, ČSN EN 1050, ISO 22349–1 (Maintenance optimalization), ČSN ISO 10816–3 (Classification of
vibration levels), ČSN ISO 13337–1 (Machine diagnostics and monitoring of its stage) etc.
• Maintenance manager
This person is responsible for service and maintenance of production equipment; it means the field of human sources in the maintenance and maintenance
management.
The solution of the problems is based on two aspects:
– education in this sphere till university grade,
– certificate of professional capability in the branch, it means dealing with qualifications of the maintenance workers (in accordance with CSN EN 45 013, CSN
EN ISO/IEC 170 24).
• Other notmentioned devices to assure the maintenance
• We have already mentioned the fact, that the given problem is quite large and the individual branches are mostly independent and they are connected with the
maintenance in the general point of view.
These branches are for example:
– Production process and technology from the point of view of operating and serviced object
– Solution of the correct proportioning of operating and maintenance object already in the phase of design and construction
– Theory of renovation and reliability evaluation solving the matter of reliability indexes qualification
– Protection of environment, every operating machine has to deal with the chain a man—a machine—environment and every service causes the chain production—
environment with all positive and negative effects on the environment.
• Theories of maintenance systems
The given task is determined by the state of knowledge and devices about the problems and realizing that maintenance is a partial working process of every
production process, it means the necessity of solution and management of all common connected processes (systemic procedural approach).
4 SUMMARY
The production companies realize more and more, that the adequate maintenance solves the problems of:
– RCFE (Root Cause Failure Elimination),
– ECR (Efficient—Consumer—Response),
– Strategic production management, e.g. JIT (Just—In—Time), when one of the basic assumptions is a reliable equipment—total maintenance management,
– Extra cost reduction.
and so on, without the change of basic ideal maintenance “less unplanned maintenance as a result of the right maintenance system”. Only the possibilities and devices of
maintenance assurance change very much.
The papers dealing with the maintenance problem are not and they will not be ready, they can be assumed as done only when the maximal of possible is done. We
cannot believe in lucky chance, we have to believe in proper preparation. Realized with government financial funds and Czech republic grant agency as the part
of grant project 105/02/1091.
REFERENCES
Helebrant, F. 2001. Komentář vlastních publikací k užití metod technické bezdemontážní diagnostiky na rotujících strojních systémech technologických celků
hnĕdouhelných povrchových dolů a kjejich údržbĕ. Habilitační práce. VŠBTU Ostrava, FS, Ostrava 2001.
Helebrant, F. & Pačaiová, H. 2002. Mezinárodní vĕdecká konference DIAGO 2002. Hodnocení účinnosti údržby a reengineering, údržba jako prostředek
kovládání a snižování rizika. VŠBTU Ostrava. ISBN 80–248–0045–4, p. 374–386, (CD ROM).
Helebrant, F. & Fries, J. 2003. 21. seminář Technická diagnostika v údržbĕ a životnost strojů. Obsah údržby z pohledu dnešního systémového procesního chápání.
VŠBTU Ostrava. p. 35–43. ISBN80–248–0497–2.
Helebrant, F. 2003. In.: Casopis AUTOMA č.2/2003. Reengineering údržby jako procesnĕ technické činnosti. p. 2–4, ISSN 1210–9592, FCC Public,s.r.o.
Helebrant, F. 2002. In.: Seminář “Progresivni metody a nástroje v řízení údržby”, VŠ;BTU Ostrava+ATD CR+KOMA Servis, s.r.o. Procesne technická činnostúdrba.
Čeladná, ISBN 80–248–0214–7 (CD ROM).
Voštová, V., Helebrant, F. & Jeřábek, K. 2002: Provoz a údržba strojů—II. část Udrzba strojů, ČVUT v Praze , vydání, Praha. 124 p., ISBN 80–01–02531–4.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Application test of rock fall detection system using steel wire cable sensor and
mobile multimedia network for a cropped slope
F.Ito, D.F.Akhmetov & M.Komazaki
NTT DoCoMo Hokkaido, Inc., Japan
M.Ujihira
Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan
ABSTRACT: According to some researches on the monitoring of a slope failure, frequency of various scale rock fall tends to increase just before a
big failure. The authors propose the frequency monitoring of small rock falls as a useful way to predict largescale rock falls or slope failures. In this
study, practical applicability of the rock fall detection system using steel wire cable sensor and satellite phone was carried out. The proposed system is
able to transmit the measured rock fall signals to a remote office. The rock fall frequency and the rock fall source could be evaluated, even when the
steel wire cable sensor was stretched on the cropped slope having no net, which made easy the propagation of the rock fall impact. It was confirmed
that rock fall characteristics, such as the falling velocity, could be evaluated through analysis of the data registered by the field side personal computer.
As a result of composition study of measured waveforms, it was concluded that stretching interval of steel wire cable sensors could be increased up to
10 m without deterioration of the detection abilities.
1 INTRODUCTION
It is reported that there are 5.7×104 places(1) where rock fall protection works are necessary in Japan, and more than 103 slopes where the slope failure is possible.
Moreover, rock fall protection works are necessary for rock slopes of open cut mines of limestone and quarries, which are situated nearby the residential area. On
August 25, 1997 a rock shed connected to No.2 Shiraito Tunnel(2) was crushed by a big failure of 4.2×104 m3, and the second failure of 1.4×104 m3occurred 3 days
later during recovery works. Workers, TV reporters and others observed that the second failure occurred after the steep increase of the rock fall frequency. K.Monma
et al.(3) could monitor that relative displacement of open crack, angle changes, AE (Acoustic Emission) event and rock fall frequency increased just before a rock
failure on March 15, 1999. From these observations, it is considered that big slope failure will never occur without some warning signs. Authors consider that the
monitoring of a smallscale rock fall is effective for the slope failure prediction.
For the sensors to be used under the field conditions, performances such as enough sensitivity, water resistance, heat resistance, corrosion resistance, solidity,
simplicity and economical merits are required. The string type cable sensor meets these requirements. In 1995 the authors have started the study of the cable sensors
and many important and interesting results have been got since then(4–6). past study, cable sensors were stretched along the slope where rock protection net was
installed. However, usage of the protection net is a rare practice in Japan. Therefore, the subject of this study is applicability of the cable sensor to the rock fall
detection on a cropped slope without protection net.
2 EXPERIMENTAL SITE
A rock slope along a mountainous load without any traffics and passengers was selected for the test field, where unstable rocks were distributed around the top portion
of the slope. Bottom and middle portions of the slope were composed of weathered andesite, and several meter of top portion of the slope was covered with soil and
roots of trees were exposed to the air. Slope length was 24 m and whose inclination was 50–60 degree.
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Figure 1. Stretched view of SWCS against a slope and monitoring instruments.
Figure 2. Structure of original cable sensor and SWCS.
Figure 1 shows the schematic view of stretching pattern of cable sensors against the slope and measurement and signal transmission instruments. Figure 2 (a) shows the
schematic view of original cable sensor, and Figure 2 (b) shows the steel wire cable sensor (called SWCS hereafter). In the SWCS, original cable sensor is twisted in
the central portion of usual steel wire. The SWCS has the diameter of 12mm and has tensile strength of 7.5 tons. In this field test, SWCS of 13 strings were stretched
horizontally, and 6 strings were stretched vertically in grid pattern. Each stretched space was 2.0 m. Small ampliflers were connected to the end of each SWCS, and
the sensors’ output signals were doubled.
Figure 3 shows the soil and included boulders and pebbles around top of the slope in snow melting season (April 9, 2002). According to the direction of hair root of
trees in the photograph, accumulated snow or mud soil had slid downward. At the lower left of the photograph, boulders and pebbles are seen which will slide down if
it rains heavily. Some
Figure 3. Unstable rocks in the top portion of the slope under snow melting.
Figure 4. Fallen rocks at the slope bottom in spring.
boulders had fallen to bottom of the slope and about half the number was left behind unstable around the top portion of the slope. These unstable rocks are the origin of
rock fall along this slope.
Figure 4 shows the photograph of fallen rocks scattered on the slope bottom of snow. 900 pieces of rock larger than 3 cm were observed. Size of the largest one
was 31.3×17.2×14.5 cm (9.4 kg). does not mean that rock fall occurred 900 times but more than 10 pieces fell down at a falling event. Authors intended to make
clear if SWCS could detect such small rock falls along the cropped slope without any protection net.
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Figure 5. Waveforms and Fourier spectrum from SWCS and accelerometer.
3 SENSITIVITY TEST
Sensitivity of SWCS changes when the stretching condition is changed; namely if it is fixed simply along a slope, fixed on the concrete structure, buried in the ground or
stretched along the protection net. Sensitivity test must be done under the installed condition. Two kinds of sensitivity test using accelerometer in parallel had been
carried out. One is the test in which cyclic vibration is input by a vibrator to SWCS and other one is the test in which impact is input by a hammer repeatedly. It has
been confirmed that both ways are correct methods to obtain the relationship between acceleration and output voltage. Simple impact method was applied, in which
impact was given to the cable laying right angle to the objective SWCS with accelerometer fixed on it.
Figure 6. Example of relationship between acceleration and output voltage from SWCS.
Figure 5 shows the output waveforms of SWCS and accelerometer, as well as their Fourier spectra. In this case, SWCS output is of 2,500 mV against the acceleration
of 300 m/s2, and both signals have the similar frequency components with amplitude for 500 Hz significantly less than for 200 Hz.
Figure 6 shows the relationship of acceleration and output voltage of SWCS. Relation between acceleration and output voltage of SWCS can be expressed by
equation (1), because the data are plotted in linear on a loglog sheet.
α=A•VB
(1)
Deviation of the sensitivity for each SWCS can be revised by transformation of the output voltage to the acceleration accordingly to equation (1), which means SWCS
can be used instead of accelerometer.
4 MONITORING RESULTS
4.1 Artificial rock fall
Initially, the test in which a rock was fallen artificially was carried out to make sure if SWCS could detect the rock falling sensibly. Artificial rock fall was occurred by
pushing an unstable rock softly. Rocks of around 20 cm size and number of kg weight were selected.
Figure 7 shows a set of examples of output waveforms from SWCS of 19 ch., where horizontal axis is a time lapse from the time of trigger signal. According to this
figure, the output signal of 100 through 1,000 mV was obtained with double amplification. The figure shows that waveform of the 1st ch has the earliest raise time and
the raise time of lower channels is delayed in order, and duration of waveform increases with the increase of distance from initial point. The reason of the duration
increase at the
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Figure 7. Output waveforms of SWCS due to artificial rock fall.
lower portion of the slope is that the other boulders or pebbles were moved by collision of the fallen rock. This collision and the movement were observed especially
around the top portion of the slope. Rocks caught between slope and SWCS were easy to fall creating a rock fall cluster. In Figure 7, B and C ch show the large
output voltage, which means the rock cluster mainly fell between B and C ch. Output from each SWCS was judged that the signal was generated by the direct collision
of the rocks to SWCS, because the output of only 10–50 mV was measured when the slope was hit by a hammer of 3.0 kg.
It was confirmed from artificial falling test that SWCS stretched in 2 m spacing could detect a rock fall cluster induced by a rock, as a rock fall event and gap of rise
time of waveforms would give the information related with falling parameters such as falling velocity.
4.2 Natural rockfall
Monitoring against natural rock fall was carried out for one month from June to July 2002.
Figure 8 shows measured waveforms of SWCS of 15 s from trigger signal due to a natural rock fall occurred at 15:40 on July 14, 2002 (rainy day), which has
almost similar waveforms as those obtained from artificial test.
In Figure 9 (a) acceleration waveforms are shown, which are derived from those in Figure 8 to ease the
Figure 8. Output waveforms of SWCS due to natural rock fall.
understanding of the falling process. Looking at this figure, output of 1st ch is very small but other lower channels detected clearly the falling vibration. m the place
between 1st and 2nd ch horizontally, and fell almost along C ch vertically to the bottom. At each channel below 2nd ch, collision vibrations more than several times are
detected. In the case of 3rd ch, it is understood that 9 times collisions or contacts of rocks against SWCS were repeated at least. From total point of view, duration of
this rock fall event was read as around 7 s. Front velocity of the rock fall cluster could be evaluated from the envelope line of rise time of each channel. Tail velocity of
the cluster could be calculated by envelope line of final detection time of each channel.
Figure 10 shows the relationship between vertical height and time lapse of falling, where black circles are the data of rise time and white circles show the data of final
detection time . In the figure, curve(I) is the free falling curve, (II) is the empirical envelope line for front velocity and (III) is the envelope curve of final detection time.
Each curve is presented by the square root equation. Vertical falling velocity VH can be expressed by equation (2), where γ: velocity coefficient, g: gravity acceleration
and H: vertical height.
VH= γ•(2 gH)½
(2)
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Figure 9. Expected waveforms when the stretched space of SWCS is widen from 2 m to 10 m.
Figure 10. Relationship between vertical distance and time lapse of monitored rock falls.
Coefficient γ of curve (II) is 0.278, while the past data of γ was 0.5–0.95, which means rocks fell in low velocity in this slope. Coefficient γ of curve (III) is only 0.031,
which means that initial movement of low velocity by the multirocks collision was repeated along the slope and SWCS itself gave the role of protection work.
As mentioned above, occurrence of rock fall event and source of rock falling could be read at the remote office through satellite network. It can be said this system
is useful for practical rock fall detection, because the rock fall frequency could be registered automatically.
It was made clear that SWCS could detect the natural rock fall events of pebbles to boulders even when the SWCS was installed over a cropped slope.
Furthermore, it was confirmed that rock fall characteristics such as duration of event and falling velocity etc. could be read from measured waveforms.
5 EXAMINATION ON STRETCHING SPACE OF SWCS
In this field study, each stretched space of SWCS was set in 2 m. At the end of each channel, miniamplifier was fixed and connected to data logger using signal
transmission cable of several tens meter. It is economic if number of channel could be reduced. From this point of view, stretching space of SWCS was examined.
Figure 9 (b) and (c) show the figures in which waveform of 1 channel per every 3 and 5 channels (spacing: 6 and 10 m) were picked out and drawn. Looking at
these 2 figures, occurrence of rock fall event and time lapse from the initial to the final stage of falling could be read, even when the stretching space is widen to 10 m.
This suggests that stretching space of SWCS could be widen to 10 m at least.
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Table 1. Measured results of data transmission time through satellite network, and coefficients of Weibull distribution equation.
Figure 11. Distribution of connection time and total transmission time through satellite network.
6 DATA TRANSMISSION TIME THROUGH SATELLITE NETWORK
At the places where network of wire telephone is not equipped or out of communication area of usual mobile phone of PDC system, data transmission method using
satellite phone must be applied. In this test field, satellite phone was used for data transmission because former 2 kinds of transmission methods were not sufficient.
Data volume for transmission for 19 channels was 30 Kbyte (15×103 dot) and data transmission test of 200 times was carried out, of which results are shown in Table
1, where the time for connecting satellite phone with mobile phone in the remote office, the time for data transmission itself and total time for data transmission are
presented. Looking at this table, the shortest time, average time and the longest time for the connection of satellite phone are 39 s, 68 s and 2 min 25 s respectively.
Distribution of the time gap between the measured value and the least time is shown in Figure 11 (a), where shape parameter m=1.5 and scale parameter is 32.2
when Weibull distribution is applied. Using distribution equation in the figure, the time necessary for connecting in the probability of 99% can be estimated as 2 min 8 s.
Concerned with the time for data transmission itself, the time necessary for transmission 30 Kbyte of data in the probability of 99% is 7min49s. Further, total time for
data transmission with the probability of 99% is 8 min 35s (Figure 11(b)).
This transmission time is considered to be rather long. It may be reduced to around 1/5 by using high quality antenna, revision of the transmission software and
compression of data. For example, in the preceding papers of the authors (e.g., Ujihira et al.(5) experimental results are reported when tens Kbyte of data have been
transmitted within 2–3 minutes even with a satellite phone.
7 CONCLUSION
In this study, the field test for detection ability of SWCS against rock falls, carried out on weathered slope of andesite under thawing in spring, is discussed. Data
transmission test of measured waveforms was carried out using satellite phone. Obtained results are summarized as follows.
1) Authors made clear that rock fall detection system using SWCS and satellite phone could detect natural rock fall event, and signals could be transmitted from
mountainous area to remote office correctly.
2) The sensitivity of the SWCS without protection net became lower, however, the rock falls are detectable by SWCS due to its local sensitivity to rock impacts. As
the experiment showed, SWCS stretched in 2m spacing could detect the movement of a rock fall cluster induced by a rock.
3) Rock fall frequency and falling behavior of rock fall cluster could be registered even when stretching space of SWCS is widen to 10 m.
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4) Total time necessary for transmission of 30 kbyte data with the probability of 99% was 8 min 35 s. This time may be shortened to 1/5 by using high quality antenna,
revision of the transmission software and compression of data.
REFERENCES
1) Y.Sasaki (2000): Civil Engineering Journal, Public Works Research Inst., Ministry Construction, Vol. 42, No.10, p.14.
2) S.Kamio, H.Yoshimatu, R.Tsunaki and Y.Wakisaka (1997): Rock failure at No.2 Shiraito tunnel along national route 229. Civil Engineering Journal, Public Works
Research Inst., Ministry Construction, 39–11, pp.2–5.
3) K.Monma, S.Onoda, T.Ochiai, K.Arai, R.Tsunaki and K.Asai (2002): A monitoring example of displacement behavior proceeding to failure at the toppling rock slope, J.
of th e Japan Landslide Soc. ,Vol. 39, No.1, pp.62–69.
4) M.Komazaki, K.Hirama, M.Ujihira, S.Suzuki, H.Saeki and Y.Kawamura (1999): A field test of a rock fall detection system using cable sensor and mobile multimedia
network, Int. J. of Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment, Vol. 13, No.4, pp.159–163.
5) Masaaki KOMAZAKI, Shigeru TSUKAZAWA, Kenji URATA, Fumito ITO, Masuyuki UJIHIRA and Kiyoshi HIGUCHI (2001): Study on data transmission
technology using mobile multimedia network Development of geoengineering application using present transmission method, Jour. Japan Soc. of Eng.Geol., 42.4 . pp.
222–230.
6) M.Ujihira, F.Ito, T.Tokunaga, Y.Kawamura, S.Konno, K.Higuchi and M.Komazaki (2001): Practical applicability of steel wire cable sensor for rock fall detection, Proc.
of 11th Int. Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, pp.57–62.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Experimental tests on the influence of mining conditions on powered roof
supports advancement
M.Jaszczuk
Institute of Mining Mechanisation Faculty of Mining and Geology Silesian University of Technology
J.Krodkiewski
Research and Development Center for Electrical Engineering and Automation in Mining EMAG
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the results of the experimental tests carried out in two coal mines operating in different geological conditions located
in Upper Silesia. Tests were conducted on the powered roof supports equipped with specially modified for this purpose electrohydraulic control
system enabling measurement and recording of support advancement parameters. Mean values of advancement force, advancement time, leg pressure
and histograms of this values were determined on the basis of time related runs of ram stroke, ram pushing force and leg pressure recorded during
automated support advancement sequence. The paper proves the influence of varying floor and roof conditions on the analysed parameters.
1 INTRODUCTION
The tests on the powered roof supports advancement to the conveyor were carried out at two mines of Upper Silesia (PIAST and ANNA collieries) to determine the
influence of mining and geological conditions on this process. They were conducted at retreat faces, both of them equipped with GLINIK 087 22Oz two leg shield
type supports operating in Immediate Forward Support mode. Each support was 1.5 m wide and weighed 11000 kg. Supports were equipped with the reverse
mounted rams with cylinder stroke length 0.8 m, 155 mm cylinder diameter and 100 mm rod diameter, with nominal advancing force of 357 kN at supply pressure of
25 MPa.
At PIAST Colliery, the tests were conducted in the face 141a, extracting the 1.7 m thick seam at depth of about 500 m. The width of the longwall panel was about
217 m. Lengthwise face inclination varied from 2° to 6°. The seam floor consisted of mudstone layer not exceeding 1 m (UCS 34 Mpa), under which sandstone of
about 10 m thickness occurred. In the roof there was mudstone layer with UCS value of about 31 MPa, above which sandstone layer occurred. In the seam, the
mudstone interlayers of up to 0.6 m thickness occurred. The longwall was characterized by high groundwater amount.
At ANNA Colliery, the tests were carried out in the face R14, extracting the 1.8 m thick seam at depth of about 1000 m. Longwall panel was about 241 m wide.
Average face slope was 1° at maximum value not exceeding 8°. The seam floor consisted of 0.7 m to 2 m wide arenaceous shale layer with UCS value of about 56
MPa, under which sandstone bank from 0.5 m to 4.0 m thick occurred. The roof consisted of 3.5 m to 5.0 m arenaceous shales layer with UCS value of about 58
MPa, above which up to 4.5 m thick sandstone layer occurred.
2 RESEARCH METHOD
During the tests time related runs of the basic parameters characterizing the support advancement phase of automated support advance sequence (ASA) have been
recorded. Tests were conducted on powered roof supports equipped with, especially modified for this purpose, electrohydraulic control system—ESTER. After
necessary changes in the system construction and adequate completion of the software it was possible to record time runs of position of the support towards the face
conveyor, advancing force and residual pressure in the piston compartment of one of the support legs.
The hart of the measuring system was support control unit—SCU (Fig. 1). Usually, it is equipped with sensor of pressure in the piston compartment of one leg (1)
and sensor measuring distance between
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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the measuring system.
the support and the armored face conveyor AFC (3) providing information necessary to properly execute the ASA sequence and to monitor the support condition. In
order to determine the ram force during support advancement, an additional pressure sensor (2) has been installed in the outlet port of the ram.
The start of each ASA sequence initiated recording of sensor indications with frequency of 1 Hz during testing at PIAST Colliery and 5 Hz—at ANNA Colliery.
After the end of ASA sequence, all measurement data from support control unit (SCU) were transmitted to the central unit. The data included time related runs
recorded during support advancement, information on the duration of all phases of the cycle, the value of pressure in piston compartment of the hydraulic leg before and
after ASA sequence and on distance between the support and the conveyor before and after the sequence. The data received by central unit were completed with the
information about ASA real time and mean value of pressure in hydraulic supply pressure and return hoses, determined by pressure sensors (4 and 5) connected to the
central unit. Thus completed data were appended, as a successive record, to the local data base in the central unit nonvolatile memory. The central unit was periodically
carried out to the surface where the data were transmitted to main database created in a PC computer.
At both collieries the tests were conducted on 5 supports located about 30 from the maingate. Rams of the supports were connected with pressure supply and return
hoses with control valves DN10, hydraulic hoses DN12 and filters 140 µm DN12.
3 THE TEST RESULTS
At the longwall 141a of PIAST Colliery, there were difficult mining end geological conditions. It resulted in unexpected end of the face exploitation in July 2001. The
immediate roof and the floor were
Figure 2. Examples of time related runs recorded during underground tests.
particularly weak. Owing to loss of continuity of the immediate roof a rock layer loosed from the roof rested on the roof canopy, what resulted in relatively high value of
residual pressure in piston compartment of hydraulic legs during the support advancement into a new position (mean pressure value was about 4 MPa). High
groundwater amount weakened the floor rocks what resulted in frequent sinking support bases into a floor.
The mining and geology conditions in the longwall face R14 at ANNA Colliery were more favorable than those at PIAST Colliery, however during testing some
factors disturbing the support advancement occurred. The greatest disruption was a thick coal powder layer that occurred periodically on floor and slows down the
support advancement. The second obstacle decreasing the speed of the support advancement were the interlayers of gangue (sandstone with shale admixtures) that
occurred when passing through faults in the seam.
There are presented the time related runs recorded during typical advancing sequences of the support to the conveyor at PIAST and ANNA collieries in Figure 2.
Mean value, standard deviation and modal value of the parameters determined on the basis of measuring data obtained during the tests are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
In distributions of advancing force obtained on the basis of the tests results, conducted at the both collieries, near modal values of force occur (90 kN at
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Table 1. Quantities characteristic for the support advancement during tests at PIAST Colliery.
Mine name: PIAST
Parameter Mean value Standard deviation Modal value
Force [kN] 101 28 90, 130
Time [s] 10.4 1.7 10
Power supply [MPa] 17.5 2.1 19.2
Leg pressure [MPa] 3.9 1.5 3.0
Table 2. Quantities characteristic for the support advancement during tests at ANNA Colliery.
Mine name: ANNA
Parameter Mean value Standard deviation Modal value
Force [kN] 87 28 80
Time [s] 8.6 1.7 8.5
Power supply [MPa] 22.3 2.2 23
Leg pressure [MPa] 2.0 0.9 1.0
PIAST and 80 kN at ANNA Colliery) that correspond to advancement resistance of the GLINIK 08/22 Oz support under typical conditions. Force distribution
calculated for the face 141a at PIAST Colliery is characterised by occurrence of a second strongly marked modal value. Its occurrence is related to repeated increase
in the advancement resistance of the support, resulting from penetration of the support bases in floor. The mean value of advancing force in the conditions of longwall
141a at PIAST Colliery, which amounts to about 100 kN, is by 14% greater than the value determined for the data from ANNA Colliery.
The occurrence of low values of flow intensity in the ram supply circuit during ASA sequences running at over the average values of advancement force, evidence
high motion resistance during the support advancement under the conditions of longwall 141a at PIAST Colliery. The proportional participation of the sequences
running at over the average force values end flow intensity, including in one of the distinguished ranges that figure respectively 0–701/min., 70–1001/min., and 100–
1301/min are presented in Figure 4. Total contribution of the ASA sequences with advancing force exceeding over the average values (105 kN for PIAST colliery and
90 kN for ANNA colliery) amounts to 39% in PIAST colliery and 33% in ANNA colliery. During tests at ANNA colliery, there were recorded 28% of the runs with
the flow intensity values, in the ram supply circuit, that exceeded 701/min and only 5% of the runs with flow
Figure 3. Frequency of occurrence of the advancement force values.
Figure 4. Proportional participation of the ASA sequences with various flow intensity, for the sequence with advancing force higher than
modal value by 50% of standard deviation value.
values below 701/min. At PIAST colliery only 5% of the sequences ran at the values of advancement force higher than 101 kN and flow higher than 70 l/min. During
87% of the sequences with the advancement force values higher that 102 kN, the value of flow intensity in the ram supply circuit did not exceed 701/min.
Mean time of the support advancement to conveyor, determined for the data from PIAST Colliery was by about 20% longer than mean time in the conditions at
ANNA colliery. Distributions of advancement times (Figure 5), made on the basis of the data from both the collieries, are of similar character. Both distributions have
positive skewness,
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Figure 5. Frequency of occurrence of the advancement force values.
Figure 6. Histogram of pressure in underpiston space of props.
and little difference between mean and average values occurred. Standard deviations of the distributions are almost the same.
Difficulties in keeping the brittle mudstone roof of the longwall 141a at PIAST Colliery resulted in increased residual pressure in support legs piston compartments.
Figure 7. Histogram of the support advancement distance.
Changeable in time pressure of waste material on goaf shield and diversified layers of loose pieces of rock on the canopies, during displacing the supports into a new
initial position, resulted in the great values of standard deviation of residual pressure, determined for particular time intervals. As during experimental tests, a direct
influence of support external load on the support advancement to the conveyor, and especially on the advancement force value, was not stated, one could conclude
that, the great pressure values in props resulted from waste rock pressure on the goaf shield and, from the pressure of rock debris lying on the canopy which had not
contact with the roof during the support advancement. Pressure of rocks creating the waste on goaf shield helps to advance the support to the conveyor, what balances
increased support bases motion resistances, resulted from increase in support bases pressure against the weak floor.
The effect of difficult conditions that occurred in the longwall face 141a at PIAST Colliery, was a great number of ASA sequences with the support advancement
distance remarkably shorter than the ram stroke (Figure 7).
Partial advancement of the supports resulted from the need to protect unstable roof uncovered due to loosening from longwall face the upper corners of a seam, the
width of which considerably exceeded the sheared web.
The support advancement process at both mines depended also on hydraulic power supply conditions in the face. At ANNA Colliery this conditions were much
better than those at PIAST Colliery. Mean
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Figure 8. Histogram of hydraulic supply pressure values.
pressure value in power supply system (22.3 MPa) was about 25% greater than the same value for PIAST Colliery, at near value of standard deviation (Figure 8).
Owing to this it was possible at the ANNA Colliery to obtain the required values of the support advancement force at the greater values of medium flow intensity in
hydraulic supply system. In consequence, in case of the near values of advancement resistance, shorter times of the support advancement sequence were obtained.
4 SUMMARY
Advancement process of the powered roof support depends strongly on the factors which determine external load of the support during its movement to the conveyor.
Occurrence of the greater values of advancement force at longer times of the support relocation and lower hydraulic supply pressure values can be explained by the
rugged mining and geology conditions that were in the longwall, 141 at PIAST Colliery. Floor weakened due to the high amount of ground water and unstable roof
were the reason for sinking support bases into the floor. It was necessary to pick up regularly the support bases during support advancement to the conveyor every 3–
4 cycle to keep the required speed of support advancement. This made the face operations difficult and limited use of automated support advance sequence.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Theoretical analysis of the external load determination of support units
M.Jaszczuk, K.Stoiński, J.Markowicz & S.Szweda
The Silesian Technical University, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Institute of Mining Mechanization
ABSTRACT: An analysis of geometrical features of a powered roof support unit as well as analyses of external loads and internal forces occurring in
kinematical pairs of a support unit served as the basis to develop a method for determining the load of a canopy and a shield which has been proposed
in the paper. When taking the accuracy of measurement of particular internal forces into account, an analysis of the sensitivity of the developed model
to a change of values of measured quantities has been carried out. It has appeared that the measurement of internal forces occurring in a support unit
can provide the basis for relatively accurate determination of parameters characterizing the load of a canopy. The accuracy of determining of forces
acting on a shield and, especially, of coordinates of the point of their application is several times lower. Practically, the determination of these forces
with a sufficient accuracy becomes impossible.
1 INTRODUCTION
Results of the measurements taken in active workings are widely utilized in the course of designing and testing of machines. In case of a powered roof support unit it
was usual that measurements of the load exerted on the support unit from the rock mass side resolved themselves into the determination of a normal component of the
pressure of the rock mass in relation to the canopy. Not numerous results of measurements of a tangent component of the load of the support unit in relation to the
canopy (Markowicz, 1985) indicate that it is not always allowable to treat this force as a friction force between the roof and the canopy when making strength
calculations for the support unit. The need of determining of all components of a vector of the force with which the rock mass acts on a support unit is produced by the
necessity of identification of parameters of mathematical models of a support unit that is subjected both to static and dynamic reaction of the rock mass.
2 MODEL OF A POWERED ROOF SUPPORT UNIT
For the purpose of analysis of the problem of cooperation of a powered roof support unit with rock mass it has been assumed that the force system acting from the
rock mass side on a canopy and a shield is reduced to concentrated forces applied to major elements of the support unit (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Model of the load of a support unit.
The problem has been considered on the assumption that:
• a support unit is operated on a slightly inclined longwall face,
• the pressure exerted by the roof on a canopy is modelled in a form of one concentrated force the components of which are PN which acts perpendicular to the
surface of the canopy and PT which acts in the plane of the canopy. Direction of the component PT is perpendicular to a face front (Fig. 1). The resultant force of
PN and PT is applied to the canopy in the point with coordinates xp and yp,
• the pressure exerted by the rock mass on a shield is modelled in a form of one concentrated force the components of which are QN which acts perpendicular to the
surface of a shield and QT which acts in
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Figure 2. Static scheme of a canopy.
the plane of the shield. Moreover, the component vectors QN and QT lie in the plane perpendicular to a face front and to the roof of a longwall working. The
resultant force is applied to the shield in the point with coordinates xQ and yQ,
• the reaction of the floor is modelled in a form of one concentrated force the components of which are Ns which acts perpendicular to the surface of a base and T
which acts in the plane of the base.
Vectors of the forces NSi and Ti lie in the planes which are perpendicular to the floor and to the face front and run through seats of legs. Points of application of these
forces are determined by the coordinates xSi.
Schemes of the static load of a canopy and a shield of a powered roof support unit are shown in Figures 2–3. External loads acting on a canopy and a shield form
the system of forces PN, PT, QN and QT modelling the load of rock mass.
A system of internal reactions being exerted on a canopy is composed of the following forces:
• Rij—forces in legs of the support; i, j=1, 2, 4
• R3—force in a cylinder—capsule of the canopy
• AkH, Akv—components of the reaction in articulated joints connecting a canopy with a shield; k=1, 2
• Cij—forces in connecting links; i, j=1, 2
A shield is subjected to action of the following forces:
• R14—forces in legs; i=1, 2
• Ck1—forces in connecting links; k, 1–1, 2
• AkH, Akv—components of the reaction in articulated joints connecting a canopy with a shield; k=1, 2.
Conditions of equilibrium take the form of a system of equations (1):
[A]10×15 ∙[F]15×1=[G]10×1
(1)
where A=matrix of factors dependent on geometric dimensions of elements of a support unit and on its height; F=matrix of internal forces occurring in a support unit;
G=matrix of parameters characterizing the action of rock mass on a support unit.
[F]T=[R11 R21 R12 R22 R3 R14 R24 A1H A2H
A1VA2V A1H A2H C11 C21 C12]
[G]T=[PN PT PN yP PN XP PTyp QN QT QN YQ
QNXQ QTYQ]
The determination of elements of the matrix [G]—treated as unknowns needs measuring of internal forces occurring in a support unit—which form the matrix [F] and
determining of elements of the matrix [A]. They depend on geometric dimensions of a canopy and of a shield as well as on parameters characterizing the working height
of the support.
When taking the possibility of measuring of linear quantities in a longwall working with the aid of the available equipment into account, the determination of a length of
legs or/and of the capsule of a canopy is found to be the most advantageous procedure.
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Figure 3. Static scheme of a shield.
Table 1 contains specification of possible variants of the measurement under consideration of corresponding combinations of measured quantities.
To sum up, it can be stated that results of the measurements taken in a longwall working influence not only the values of matrix elements of internal forces occurring in
a support unit but also the values of matrix elements of geometric factors. Thus, the accuracy of measurements performed in the longwall working affects the values of
matrix elements of unknowns of a system of equations (1).
3 ESTIMATION OF THE MEASURING ACCURACY OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES BEING MEASURED UNDER
MINING CONDITIONS
The accuracy of determining of particular quantities which are indispensable to calculate parameters of vectors of the action of rock mass on a support unit is
conditioned on the applied method of measurement. Geometric quantities—lengths of particular rams—can be determined under mining conditions by means of special
sensors measuring the extension of inner
Table 1. Specification of variants of the measurement of geometric quantities.
tube (Wolnik & Mika 1998). According to Ober (2001), apart from the class of accuracy of a displacement transducer there are clearances in rotary pairs of a
support unit which also affect the accuracy of measurement. The reaction in articulated joints connecting a canopy with a shield can be measured under underground
mining conditions with the aid of special measuring pins (Budnik 1976). The applied strain gauge based method of measuring of components of strain state of a pin
makes it possible to determine components of the reaction in an articulated joint with an accuracy of up to 5%. For determining of forces in connecting links it is
necessary to measure small unit elongations of these elements. Electric resistance wire strain gauges can be used for this purpose. A relative measuring error of the force
Page 400
Table 2. Specification of measuring errors of quantities which are indispensable to determine parameters of a resultant vector of the action of rock mass
on a powered roof support unit.
in connecting links is of 3%. Special sensors with mechanical transmission unit must be applied to reduce this error to about 0.7% (Markowicz 1985). For determining
of a relative error of measuring of forces in legs and rams it has been assumed that these forces will be measured by means of pressure strain gauge transducers.
The analysis of the effect, which the applied method of measurement has on the error of determining of parameters of a resultant vector of the action of rock mass on
a powered roof support unit, has been carried out when using a powered roof support unit of the FAZOS12/23POz type by way of example. Maximal values of the
determined forces ensuing from the analysis of static load of the support unit (within the whole range of its applicability), relative errors of the proposed method of
measurement as well as absolute errors of determining of particular quantities are presented in the Table 2.
Absolute errors ensuing from the necessary measuring range and from the applied method of measurement are to be taken into account when calculations of
parameters characterizing the resultant vectors of the action of rock mass on a canopy and on a gob shield are carried out.
4 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF A MODEL OF A POWERED ROOF SUPPORT UNIT OF THE FAZOS12/23
POZ TYPE
Diagrams presented in Figures 4–7 illustrate the effect of changes of values of the measured quantities within the interval determined by absolute errors specified in the
Table 2.
The exemplary diagrams of the effect of error of particular measurement of the force on selected features of the resultant vector P and Q are presented in Figures 4–
5. In the course of analyzing of the effect of the support unit height on the accuracy of determining the action of rock mass on the support
Figure 4. Effect of measuring error of a force on relative error of a horizontal component of the resultant force of the action of rock
mass on a canopy—at the support unit height of 1.7 m.
Figure 5. Effect of measuring error of a force on relative error of a coordinate xQ of the resultant force of the action of rock mass on a
shield—at the support unit height of 3.1 m.
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Figure 6. Total relative errors of parameters of a resultant vector of the action of rock mass on a canopy of the support unit—at the
support unit height of 3.1 m.
Figure 7. Total relative errors of parameters of a resultant vector of the action of rock mass on a shield of the support unit—at the
support unit height of 1.7 m.
unit it has been stated that the greatest relative errors of determining the features of a resultant vector of the action of rock mass on a canopy occur when the support
unit height is maximum. At the minimum height of the support unit there are the greatest errors of parameters characterizing the action of rock mass on a shield.
Figures 6–7 show diagrams of the total relative error of determining of particular features of a resultant vector of the action of rock mass on a powered roof support
unit of the FAZOS12/23POz type.
The error of measurements made in situ is of up to 5%. With regard to specific, difficult conditions of taking the measurement in longwall workings, higher values of
total measuring error, which in some cases may come even up to 20%, are permitted. From the diagrams presented in Figures 6–7 it appears that with the assumed
accuracy of the measurement of particular internal forces in a support unit, the criterion of the permissible total error being not greater than 20% is fulfilled in case of
components PN and PT and a coordinate xp of the point of application of the resultant action of rock mass on a canopy. It is impossible to determine features of a
vector of the resultant action of rock mass on a shield with the total error being not greater than 20%. The necessity of measuring as many as 9 forces including the
forces occurring in articulated joints connecting a canopy with a shield as well as forces in lemniscate connecting links is what leads to such a high total error of
determining of features of a resultant vector of the load of a gob shield.
5 SUMMARY
Owing to the properties of matrices of geometric factors and to the accuracy of measurement of the quantities measured in a longwall working, the method of
determining of features of resultant vectors of the action of rock mass: on a canopy—P and on a shield—Q allows a vertical component of the action of the roof on a
canopy—PN and a coordinate xp of the point of its application to be relatively accurately determined.
As a complete identification of features of resultant vectors of the action of the roof on a canopy—P and of the gob area on a shield—Q by means of measuring of
the selected geometric dimensions and of internal forces is practically not feasible, it is reasonable to take the possibility of identifying of the selected features of vectors
P and Q only or simplifying of the model of the action of rock mass on a support unit into consideration.
One of the possible solutions consists in determining of parameters of the action of rock mass on the assembly: a canopy—a gob shield treated as a result of spatial
composition of forces. From th e work bein present carried out at the Institute of Mining Mechanization within the framework of the research project no PBU22/RG
2/2003—financed by the Polish Committee for Scientific Research—it follows that e.g.it is possible to determine a vertical components of the main vector with an error
of up to 10% and a horizontal component with an error of up to 30%.
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REFERENCES
Budnik W.M. 1976 Issledovanije mekhanizirovannykh krepej s rozlichnym soprotivlenijem v tjazhelykh gornogeologicheskikh uslovijakh Podmoskovskogo Bassiejna. Ugol
9:48–59.
Markowicz J. 1985 Wyznaczanie obciążeń ruchowych ścianowych obudów zmechanizowanych z prowadzeniem lemniskatowym poprzez badanie sił w wybranych
elementach sekcji. Praca doktorska, Pol. Śl.Gliwice, unpubl.
Ober G. 2001Wplyw luzów w prototypowych sekejachZ obudów zmechanizowanych na tor końca stropnicy. Maszyny Górnicze 3: str 50–54
Wolnik R. & Mika M. 1998 Nowy sposób ciągłej kontroli wskaźnika nośności stropu. In Materiały Miedzynarodowej Konferencji nt.: Bezpieczna eksploatacja
obudów zmechanizowanych w warunkach technicznej restrukturyzacji górnictwa. Proc. intern. conf. Szczyrk 17–19 November Gliwice CMG Komag.
Page 403
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Specific power consumption as factor disintegration process control of digging
wheel excavators
J.Jurman
VŠB—TU Ostrava, Czech Republic
M.Balíček
Rekultivace Dubí, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT: The determination of digging resistance is of decisive importance when evaluating the mining process of diggingwheel excavators.
Methodology of measuring and determinant relations (formulae) are different in various countries and by the comparison of them, underlying data for
complex and objective evaluation using the knowledge from the field of rock disintegration can be obtained. In virtue of analysis of many
measurements in situ, rather high specific power consumption with a wheel of excavator has been proved. What was the criterion for evaluation the
power consumption related to the volume of a rock disintegrated per unit time. From theoretical analyses, possibilities of eliminating a negative
influence of the human factor upon the mining process and thus possibilities of optimum utilizing the power input of a wheel drive follow.
1 INTRODUCTION
The introduction of diggingwheel excavators into the conditions of browncoal opencast mines is inconceivable without observing the digging resistance, research in the
area of optimisation of disintegrating elements (constructional solution and geometry of particular knives and the whole digging wheel), research in the sphere of used
materials, etc. These researches become more and more important in using the diggingwheel excavator under difficult conditions characterized especially by the
occurrence of consolidated layers, where a decrease in output takes place as well as the wear of not only the digging wheel but also of other elements (parts) of the
diggingwheel excavator.
The objective evaluation of methodology of determining the digging resistance with regard to the latest knowledge in the field of rock disintegration and the objective
evaluation of the real mining process can lead to the optimum control of mining and the more effective utilization of power input to the digging wheel of the excavator. It
is the analysis of operating measurements of digging resistance with the digging wheel of the excavator KU 800 introduced to the Vršany opencast mine that is a
contribution to solving these problems.
2 THE MEASUREMENT IN SITU AT THE WASTE BENCH II AT THE OPENCAST MINE
The measurement was made with the excavator KU 800/14 with the aim to measure digging resistance by standard methodology.
The excavator KU 800/14 has the following technical parameters:
• the digging wheel diameter 12.5 m
• the output of the digging wheel drive 2×800 kW
• the circumferential speed of the digging wheel 4.06 m.s−1
• the number of buckets 15 pieces
• the volume of a bucket 1 m3
• the number of discharging 93 min−1
• the digging wheel speed 6.20 min−1
The face was not deformed by blasting and its height ranges from about 20 m to 22 m. The exploited block mainly consisted of lightgrey clay stone without any
marked tectonic disturbance. Overburden sediments were mined in four benches. In the three upper benches, lenses of clay carbonates were there sporadically. In the
fourth bench, at the heel of the coalface, irregularly deposited boulders of clay carbonates of considerably great volume occurred that were unworkable by the digging
wheel excavator. In the course of measurement, three rock samples of stripped soil were taken that were later geochemically and petrographically analysed in the
laboratories of the Brown Coal Research Institute in Most.
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3 THE COURSE AND RESULTS OF MEASUREMENT
The measuring of specific digging resistance and specific disintegration force with the excavator KU 800/14 was carried out using the standard indirect method that
rested upon measuring the load on the digging wheel engines of the drive depending upon the cut taken. The registering apparatus Wareg recorded the power supplied
to the diggingwheel engines at the mining of each cut. Simultaneously, the monitoring of mined amounts of rock of particular taken cuts was carried out by means of the
tensometric conveyer weigher placed on the middle part of the conveyer. The depth of each mined cut was measured just at the extension arm of the digging wheel
boom.
At mining of particular cuts, the power supplied to engines of the digging wheel drive and the quantity of mined rock was graphically recorded during the whole
measurement. From measured values, the theoretical efficiency, specific disintegrating forces, lift output and the unevenness coefficient were calculated according to the
norm ČSN 27 7013.
These values acquired from the measurement in situ formed the groundwork for the next considerations and analyses.
4 ANALYSIS OF MADE OPERATING MEASUREMENTS
When considering the objective evaluation of the mining process, it is necessary to formulate an answer to the basic question: what should be expressed with the
quantity “digging resistance”. The digging resistance is a category of disintegrating characteristic, it means that it is a quantity characterizing the interaction of the rock
and the machine. It is influenced by many factors, such as a set of rock properties, technical properties of the machine, disintegration mode and other influences.
The objectivity of the quantity characterizing the disintegration characteristic depends on a lot of factors that must be taken into account. Operating measurements
and taken values were evaluated just from this point of view.
Nowadays, the disintegrating characteristic for the digging wheel of the excavator (digging resistance) is defined according to [ČSN] by the mean value of the
specific digging resistance FSPLstř that is a quotient of the circumferential digging force and the total mean length of digging edges being simultaneously in gear (in
kN.m−1). This quantity does not consider either size or shape of the cut taken and is not found at concrete regime parameters. Thus all influencing parameters are not
respected and the quantity can have various values under the same conditions and, on the other hand, it can be of the same values under various conditions of mining.
The truthfulness of this assertion is proved by the following analysis.
In a lot of studies, e.g. [Sekula 1978; Jurman 1997; Sekula 1980] it was proved that the specific volume energy is the most objective criterion for evaluating the
disintegrating characteristics of rocks at present. Virtually, this quantity is used in drilling and tunnelling too. Then it is logical that this quantity will be the most objective
also in the evaluation of digging resistance.
The specific volume energy can be expressed from measured values through the following relation:
(1)
where
WR—the specific volume energy of the digging wheel [kJ.m−3]
PCKstř—the mean value of the measured input [kW]
PZDV—lift output [kW]
Po —output proportional to resistances at noload run [kW]
(the excavator KU 800/14 has Po =80 kW)
Vtjj—the volume of rock taken with the digging wheel per unit time [m3.s−1]
Vj—the volume of rock taken with 1 bucket when running through the bench of the h1 height [m3]
Zk —the number of buckets of the digging wheel=the number of discharges per revolution
t k —the time of 1 revolution of the digging wheel (tk =1/nk ) [s]
The next relation gives the volume of rock taken by one bucket when running the bench of the h1 height:
Vj=b∙Stv
(2)
where
b—the cut width [m]
Stv—the vertical area of the cut [m2]
In this way we obtain the energy demand of the mining process which can be expressed for each mined cut by the dependence WR =f (Vtjj).
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Figure 1. The dependence of specific volume energy upon the volume of rock mined per second.
In Figure 1 is overview of values determined in the mined block I, and the bench 2 is presented as an example.
In selected benches with sufficient numbers of measurement, a curve was put between measured points that approximated the behaviour of the function WR=f(Vtjj)
and could be expressed via the equation of catenary as follows:
y=a∙eb∙x+c∙ed∙x
(3)
The program Statgraphics and the program W maple performed the calculation of the curves and the drawing, respectively. Since it was a case of homogenous material
in the whole bench, the influence of rock properties can be though to be constant and the following results may be formulated:
1. Particular measurements in situ were not made under the same conditions—the volumes of cuts and the s/b ratio changed in a broad range, it meant that the choice
of regime parameters did not ensure the optimum mining process at wRmin∙
2. The mining process with cuts lesser than Vopt falls into the area of unsuitable mining with higher energy demands. It is obvious that decreasing the dimensions of the
cut (cut volumes) leads to a growth of the specific volume energy.
3. The more differs the s/b ratio of the cut sides from the optimum value, the more energy demands increase.
4. The curve of dependence wR=f(Vtjj) is of behaviour similar to that of drill ability [4] and reaches its minimum WR in the area corresponding to optimum values Vopt
and (s/b)opt, which meets the demand on an objective value of digging resistance.
5. At the abovementioned measurements in situ the mining process can be characterized as considerably ineffective. By the suitable choice of regime parameters (cut
dimensions), it is possible to execute the mining process in the area wRmin and thus to increase markedly the technical capacity, to reach the optimum utilization of
power input and to ensure the maximum disintegrating power for buckets.
5 CONCLUSION
On the basis of operating measurements with the diggingwheel excavator KU 800/14 introduced to relatively homogenous conditions and in virtue of their subsequent
evaluation, a considerable influence of the human factor (setting of the dimensions of the cut mined) upon the effective of the mining process and on the nonobjectivity
of the evaluating criterion the determination of digging resistance according to the literature [ČSN] has been proved. To eliminate these imperfections we recommend:
• to adopt a new definition of digging resistance resting upon energy evaluation of the mining process related to he whole digging wheel: Digging resistance is expressed
by the quantity of energy needful for the disintegration of the unit volume of rock per unit time and for the overcoming of other resistance of the digging wheel; regime
parameters being regulated to ensure the minimization of this specific energy—wRmin,
• to install a measuring and evaluating apparatus on the excavator for the purpose of evaluating the specific volume energy continuously and controlling the mining
process with maximum effective,
• to install sensors of cut parameters (depth, width and height) and of the power input for electric motor drives,
• to create a database of measured digging resistance with detailed specification of mining conditions, regime parameters and parameters of the machine and the digging
wheel,
• to consider a possibility of speed controlling and thus the control of circumferential velocity of the digging wheel according to rock conditions.
Controlling the mining process by the criterion of minimum specific volume energy brings many advantages, of which the most important are as follows:
1. Mining with the minimum energy demand.
2. Minimizing influences of the human factor upon the mining process.
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3. Objective evaluating the suitability of various types of bucket, teeth of the whole digging wheels under the given conditions
4. Removing many problems existing between the supplier of the excavator and it
Realized with government financial funds and Czech republic grant agency as the part of grant project No 105/02/1091.
REFERENCES
ČSN 27 7013 Kolesová rypadla a nakladače, 1975.
SEKULA, F. 1979. Teoretické a technologické aspekty rozpojovania hornín, Doktorská dizertačná práca, Košice SAV Banícky ústav, 269 p.
JURMAN, J. 1997. Hodnocení efektivnosti dobývacího procesu kolesových rypadel s využitím vrtného monitoringu, Habilitační práce, VŠBTU Ostrava, 59 p.
SEKULA, F.& KOĆÍ, M. & KRÚPA, V. & MERVA, M. 1980 Problematika klasifkáci e vrtatelnosti hornín, In.: Banícke lysty (mimoriadne číslo III Sympózium
teoretické a technologické aspekty rozpojovania a mechanickej aktivácie tuhých látok, Košice, Dom techniky ČSVTS Košice, p 87–91.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Analysis and synthesis of spatial structures of the crossing longwall and gallery
supports
A.Kalukiewicz
University of Mining and Metallurgy, Kraków, Poland
M.Szyguła
Mining Mechanization Centre, Gliwice, Poland
ABSTRACT: Current mining practices for using the supports in the nearwall zones are outlined. The supports are investigated to find the relationships
between their geometrical features and functional parameters. The method of support type selection depending on the actual geological and mining
conditions is provided. In the consequence, a new, original support design is proposed. The verification programme carried out in the underground
mine conditions is presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Mining operations are most intensive in the region of a crossing of the longwall and gallery. Mining jobs at these point cannot be fully mechanised and have to be
performed in extremely difficult conditions, hence they become timeconsuming. Their time consumption accounts for 30% of time required for the whole longwall
operations. Various support configurations have to be used because of a great number of mining, geological and mechanic conditions to be taken into account. In the
consequence, most diverse solutions can be found in Polish mines. This diversity further complicates the problem of mechanisation, moreover no typical support
elements can be developed. In the crossing regions the rock mass impacts are most intensive. Roof cavings strongly impact on the main entry and its immediate
neighbourhood. These rock movement impacts make the crossing regions particularly dangerous since gallery support might have to be partly disassembled to facilitate
coal transportation. A great number of accidents happen in this region hence utmost care is taken to strengthen the crossing zone through the construction of binding
joists under the supporting arches, supporting locks and placing props in each free space. The load bearing capacity of thus modified structure is much greater than that
specified on the basis of currently applied methods. However, the presence of a large number of props hinders the removal and transport of supports with the longwall
face move, transport of conveyor drives and personnel transport, thereby increasing the risk levels. The solution to all the problems might be the employment of a
speciallydesigned powered support in this zone.
2 CURRENT STATUS
Several types of powered supports are employed in crossing regions in Polish collieries. One of the first supports used in this application was FAZOS22/24
engineered by the CMG KOMAG Company for the coal mine “Marcel” (Fig. 2.1). It is a modification of a support FAZOS22/24Poz, by the same manufacturer.
The canopy/cap in this fourprop support is extended, which allows for supporting the gallery ahead of the longwall front. The canopy with archshaped side covers
extended by hydraulic cylinders, which are to protect the side wall sections in the gallery. The support section is placed in the gallery axis and stabilises the gallery
arching. The canopy
Figure 2.1. Crossing longwall and gallery support for the coal mine “Marcel” (design stage).
Page 408
has profiled covers so that it would fit the archshaped gallery profile.
After a while the gallery arching ahead of the powered support section was abandoned and so were the profiled covers. On account of very large dimensions of the
gate conveyor drive, the extending canopy does not adequately stabilise the gallery section. Another cap piece is provided, supported on two extra props (Fig. 2.2).
Support sections of the same structure are employed at two longwall ends and the both tail gates were liquidated. The move involves two stages: removal and
transport of the main part of the support with the open canopy and moving the added canopy piece with the supporting props one step forward. The canopy length was
varied on the extending part. During the proof rides in the course of normal operations the conveyor drive would often fall into the tail gate and press the arching
elements. As a result, arching elements were damaged and had to be removed. This design version was therefore abandoned.
In 1991 the coal mine “Staszic” used a threepart section of a crossing longwall and gallery support 6L420T (Fig. 2.3), supplied together with other longwall mining
equipment by an English comporation MECO International. Each segment has two props and independent lemniscate stabilisation systems. Front props are stabilised
to the sill pieces by special beams. Outside sill pieces are connected in the rear section. The support move involved the
Figure 2.2. Crossing longwall and gallery support for the coal mine “Marcel” (final version).
Figure 2.3. Crossing longwall and gallery support 6L420T.
removal, transport and putting up of the middle segment. The two side segments are moved simultaneously. Segment motion cylinders are placed in sill pieces. Large
stroke cylinders are connected to the drive via the beams placed in sill pieces and special connectors enabling the drive movements to the sides. To move the drive it is
required that all the three support segments be fully stretched. Lifting cylinders are mounted ahead of the front props, in the vertical position.
Canopy pieces are equipped with extending units activated by wedges set in motion by hydraulic cylinders. Thus the extending cap pieces can be regarded as rigid
extension of the canopy. The supporting capacity of the canopy and cap pieces depends on the capacity of front props. However, the canopy mass is rather large and
the support is characterised by a relatively low stability in the longitudinal direction. When the rear part of the canopy cannot lean on the roof during walking, the rear
props are dragged out and the whole support will lean forward, dragging the rear sill piece sections off the floor. To improve stability in the rear parts of the sill pieces,
concrete slabs are added to provide extra loading. Rear sections of sill pieces in the side segments are provided with a light caving protection. The sill pieces are
connected by rigid connectors. The stabilising lemniscate system fixed between the props clears the passage to the wall between the sill pieces and the conveyor drive.
In the normal support configuration (when it is close to the drive) an access to the longwall is possible only over the drive.
Despite minor shortcoming, this support best protects the crossing longwall and gallery region. That is why Polish manufacturers provided their own, though similar,
solutions. FM GLINIK presented several new variants of the support MECO 6L420T: GLINIK23/38Pz (Fig. 2.4), GLINIK28/46Pz. Solutions presented by
FZOŚ FAZOS include the supports FAZOS17/37 and FAZOS21,5/40.
In 1995 a threesegment powered support KSK18/ 37Pz (Fig. 2.5) was designed in CMG COMAG Company. The structure is entirely different from that
Figure 2.4. Crossing longwall and gallery support GLINIK23/38Pz.
Page 409
offered by MECO International. For the first time the lemniscate stabilisation system is installed at the back, to ensure better stability and easy access to the longwall
zone. The lemniscate stabilisation system connects outside support segments via the caving cover and the rear connector. Hydraulic cylinders connecting the main cap
piece with cap pieces in outside elements ensure improve the stability of the middle segment. Outside segments have two props each to support the canopy. The middle
segment has three props, two of them support the canopy and the third one supports the rear cap piece. Canopies in outside segments are equipped with extending
pieces and front pieces supported on cylinders.
Between the main canopies and the extending cap pieces is a connector 300mm long which allows for arranging the cap pieces in the string above or below the level
of the main canopy, to adjust to uneven gallery height. Each connector is supported and fixed in place by two cylinders. Canopies and the extending cap pieces in
outside segments are connected by articulated connectors ensuring parallel guiding of these cap pieces. Walking of the support KSK18/37Pz proceeds in the similar
manner as in previously described 3segment supports. The support (i.e. the middle segment) might push the conveyor drive or might walk independently. The rear cap
of the middle segment extends further than main canopies of the side segments, the difference in distance being equal to the walking step. The rear cap piece, therefore,
stabilises the roof between the cap pieces during walking.
In 1997 and 1998 the powered support KSK18/37Pz was extensively tested. In the consequence, several alteration to the support design are introduced.
In the next few years other crossing of the longwall and gallery supports were developed. CMG KOMAG introduced certain modifications to the design of a
support KSK18/37Pz: GSW17/36Pz and a support with an entirely different structure developed in cooperation with TFUG TAGOR FZOŚ FAZOS S.A. and
with the Central Mining Institute. POSV9 comprises two strings of beams supported on props and supporting beams. Nonetheless, only 3segment supports are
employed in Polish mines.
Figure 2.5. Powered support KSK18/37Pz.
3 TESTING OF ANTICIPATED LOADING OF POWERED SUPPORTS FOR THE CROSSING OF THE
LONGWALL AND GALLERY
The literature on the subject of powered supports for the crossing of the longwall and gallery regions does not provide any data on loading of extra support installed in
the longwall window. Most authors focus on the state of stress under the loading of an arched support. A powered support for the crossing of the longwall and gallery
is to be treated as an additional support in the area. In the longwal openings near the arching zone it is to be treated as the main support. Hence it is necessary to
measure the loads acting upon the extra support. Measurement results might be further utilised in verification of supporting capacity of powered supports in the crossing
of the longwall and gallery.
Measurements were taken of the loads transmitted onto the extra support from the doors of the arched support in a conventional tail gate during the longwall
operations. Accordingly, a prop of the type SHC was placed in the gate axis and pressure in props was recorded on a continuous basis (Fig. 3.1). Props were first
located at some distance from the longwall (more than 10 m), measurements were continued till the wall reached the control section.
Measurements were taken in the colliery “Zofiówka” in the top gates H5 and F17 in December 2001 and in January and April 2002. Tests were confined to top
gates since measurements in tail gates there are supply facilities and methane control devices which would have to be removed.
When the control section reaches the crossing zone, the props would support the arches and the conveyor drive would be in the longwall. Apart from supporting
props are other stabilising elements in the form of beams connecting arch pieces, in accordance
Figure 3.1. Prop layout in the tail gate.
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Figure 3.2. Pressure in the prop 1 (top gate H5).
Figure 3.3. Pressure in the prop 5 (top gate H5).
with the documentation for the given longwall. Supporting props are mostly of the Valent type. The supporting capacity of those props cannot be measured, hence in
the control sections are hydraulic legs SHC.
Measurements would yield pressure patterns in props. The main objective was to fin d admissib le l to be borne by a powered support in the crossing zone in the
given longwall conditions, hence the locations of longwall gates and the doors of the road support are indicated on the pressure plots and so are the positions of
canopies and cap pieces in the powered support KSK18/37Pz. Figs 3.2, 3.3 show pressure patterns in props.
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Table 3.1. Loading of cap pieces in the outside support segment (longwall H5).
Table 3.2. Loading of cap pieces in the middle support segment (longwall H5).
Table 3.3. Loading of cap pieces in the outside support segment (longwall F17).
Table 3.4. Loading of cap pieces in the middle support segment (longwall H5).
Table 3.5. Forces acting at ends of the cap piece in KSK18/37Pz.
Minimal force at ends [kN]
Theoretical value Required value (from testing)
Segment Canopy Initial load Working load Longwall H5 Longwall F17
outside Main canopy—front 1483 2033 381 325
Main canopy—rear 1729 2242 415 378
Extending cap 81 135 331 281
piece—closed
Extending cap 54 91 337 281
piece—extended
position
Front piece 59 80 340 279
inside Main canopy—front 647 828 333 294
Main canopy—rear 980 1254 414 371
Rear piece 254 325 292 377
Extending cap piece 35 48 336 279
Pressure patterns for props yield the loads of the cap piece segments in the powered support KSK18/37Pz at the crossing of top gates H5 (Tables 3.1 and 3.2) and
F17 (Tables 3.3, 3.4) in the colliery “Zofiówka”.
Maximal loads derived accordingly are compared with the supporting capacity (forces at the ends) of individual cap pieces in KSK18/37–Pz (Table 3.5).
Forces at the ends of both cap pieces exceed the required values already for the initial value of supporting capacity. In contrast, supporting capacity of extending cap
pieces in the two segments are too low. During the longwall mining operations in H5 and F17 the top gate might become too narrow, particularly during the support
transportation.
4 DESIGN OBJECTIVES FOR THE UNIVERSAL POWERED SUPPORT FOR THE CROSSING ZONE
The powered support KSK18/37Pz was extensively tested in laboratory conditions to check the strength
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of its all major components. The FEM approach was used in the strength analysis. Following the tests, the powered support was awarded the certificate “B” providing
its being safe and Technical Acceptance by the President of the Central Mining Institute admitting the support to be employed in underground collieries. The support
KSK18/37–Pz was then used in the supply gate to the longwall 37 in the coal seam 510 of the colliery “Wesoła”. The support performance was monitored whilst in
service (Smonths). Results of functionality tests, load measurements and monitoring of support performance whilst in service allowed for formulating the guidelines for
design of a generalpurpose a crossing of the longwall and gallery support.
Accordingly, the support should comprise three segments where outside segments are connected and the middle segment is independent. Each segment ought to
have two legs to provide the safe passage between them, in accordance with the relevant standards. All segments should be equipped with a lemniscate stabilisation
system in the rear part, extra support is ensured by forepole rams. Outside segments should be equipped with a joint lemniscate stabilisation system acting also as a
caving control measure and providing for removal of waste. Cap pieces in the outside segments must be connected by rigid elements in the front part to guarantee the
fixed cap spacing over their whole length. Between the segments, both on the cap and sill pieces, there should be a system correlating the relative positions of segments.
Main canopies in all the three segments should be at least 2000 mm long and generate the passive force at the front end of at least 400 kN per segment. The supporting
capacity should take into account the presence of front cap pieces and the loads they impose. The passive force of the rear canopy sections must not be less than 440
kN per segment. All the three segments ought to be equipped with extendable cap pieces at least 2000 mm in length and generated passive force must be at least 400
kN per segment.
Cylinders supporting the extendable cap pieces should be incorporated in the structure such that the height of cap pieces is not increased too much. The supporting
force of cap pieces should be produced by the hydraulic system. In the string of cap pieces in the middle segment there should be a rear cap piece protecting the roof in
the inside section of the support during walking. All cap pieces in the segments should be as low as possible. The walking system ought to ensure independent support
walking as well as support walking in combination with the substructure of the gate conveyor drive. Accordingly, the walking step of a crossing of the longwall and
gallery support should be twice as large as that of the longwall support. The structure of the powered support for the crossing zone is shown in Fig. 4.1.
Figure 4.1. Design of a powered support for the crossing of the longwall and gallery.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Theoretical considerations and results of tests lead us to the following conclusions:
– The powered support KSK18/37–Pz meets the relevant requirements and is admitted to operations in underground collieries.
– The methodology of testing the powered supports for the crossing zones might be applied in testing of all other types of supports.
– Pilot testing and simulations confirm that the major units in KSK18/37Pz have a sufficient strength in the applied supporting configuration.
– Measurements of loads acting upon the support reveal that extendable cap pieces have too low supporting capacity in sole galleries.
– Observations of KSK18/37Pz performance in service confirm that extendable cap pieces have too low supporting capacity.
– Observations of KSK18/37Pz performance whilst in service reveal the shortcomings of the spatial supporting capacity system, which might be responsible for the
breakdowns that occurred.
– Conclusions relating to the KSK18/37Pz support performance might serve as input data for the design of a new powered support for the crossing zone.
LITERATURE
[1] Biliński A., Kostyk T.: Obciążenie obudowy wyrobisk w chodnikach przyścianowych. Przegląd Górniczy 1994 nr 6
[2] GLINIK SA.Katalog. Urządzenia dla górnictwa węglowego.
[3] Kalukiewicz A., Szyguła M.: Wpływ struktury zmechanizowanej obudowy skrzyżowania chodnika ze ścianą na jej własności ruchowe. Materiały na konferencję: I
Międzynarodowa Konferencja Techniki Urabiania 2001, Kraków Krynica, wrzesień 2001
[4] Kłusek R., Szyguła M, Kwieciński D., Załozenia dla obudowy skrzyżowania ściana chodnik—sekcja
Page 413
chodnikowa. Prace CMG KOMAG, BO/40/94/ZTE, Gliwice, wrzesień 1994
[5] Kostyk T., Mika M., Trembaczewski H.: Podporowa obudowa skrzyżowań ściana chodnik POS V9. Przegląd Górniczy 1999 nr 10
[6] Kostyk T., Prusek S., Rajwa S., Określenie możliwośći stosowania obudowy KSK18/37Pz w chodniku przyścianowym ściany 37 w pokładzie 510 KWK Wesoła,
DSP/116/2002, wrzesień 2002
[7] Kostyk T.: Doświadczenia ze stosowania zmechanizowanych obudów skrzyżowań ścian z chodnikami. Bezpieczeństwo Pracy i Ochrona Srodowiska w Górnictwie
2000 nr 3
[8] MECO INTERNATIONAL, Program produkcji firmy. 1992
[9] Szyguła M.: Zmechanizowana obudowa skrzyżowania typu KSK18/37Pz—nowoczesna technologia zabezpieczenia skrzyżowania ścianachodnik. Materiały Szkoły
Eksploatacji Podziemnej 2003, Szczyrk, 17 21 lutego 2003
[10] Szyguła M.: Analiza porównawcza działania zmechanizowanych obudów skrzyżowań jako podstawa doboru optymalnych cech konstrukcyjnych tych obudów. Prace
CMG KOMAG, BO/08/92/N, Gliwice, listopad 1992
[11] Szyguła M.: Badania wpływu struktury przestrzennopodpornościowej obudowy zmechanizowanej skrzyżowania chodnika ze ścianą na jej własności ruchowe. Praca
doktorska. Kraków, 2003
[12] Zestawienie obudów skrzyżowania ścianachodnik. Fabryka Zmechanizowanych Obudów Scianowych FAZOS S.A.
[13] Raport nr 2/DB/2002 z badań funkcjonalności zestawu zmechanizowanej obudowy skrzyżowania KSK18/ 37Pz, Zakład Podziemnych Systemow Mechanizacyjnych
CMG KOMAG, Gliwice, 09.2002
[14] Sprawozdanie nr 30/DLB1/2002 z badań wytrzymałości konstrukcji zestawu obudowy skrzyżowania KSK18/37Pz, Dział Badań Obudów Zmechanizowanych CMG
KOMAG, Gliwice, 09.2002
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Support for mine rescue purposes made from light alloys
A.Kalukiewicz
AGH, Kraków, Poland
D.Kwieciński
CMG KOMAG, Gliwice, Poland
J.Senderski
IMN OML in Skawina, Gliwice, Poland
ABSTRACT: The structure of a support for mine rescue purposes is presented. The methodology of solving specific problems relating to the design
and engineering is presented and the use of highresistance light alloys is recommended. Accordingly, prop in hydraulic supports and roofbars with
the stabilising elements are made of light alloys. The techniques of protection of surface structures are discussed. The calculation methods for major
components of the support, results of model tests and proof tests in the conditions of underground mines are summarised.
1 INTRODUCTION
During the accidents in underground mines the excavations might be blocked by rock debris. When miner teams are present in the area, the rescue operation is
undertaken to force an access to the miners, provide an escape route and lead them out safely (or carry them if necessary). In the conditions when there is no risk to
human life it might still be necessary to force the way through the rock debris.
In order to safely reach the miners in the hazard zone and, particularly, to force the way through the blocked heading section it is required that specialised equipment
be used to secure the newlybuilt heading. On account of its type and destination, the inside diameters of the new heading are rather small: its height ranging from 0.5–
1.6 m, width: 0.8–1.2 m. The rescue men, carrying heavy apparatus, have to move within such confined space; hence it is necessary that the weight of the equipment be
as little as possible.
Rescue headings are driven in variable geological conditions and the type of surrounding rocks might be hard to establish. In any case the headings are small and
narrow.
2 SUPPORT DESIGN
2.1 Design objectives
The supports employed in rescue headings serve two purposes.
• provide a reliable and effective stabilisation of a newlydriven tunnel section
• ensure the required strength of components when their mass is minimised since each element has to be carried by men working in extremely difficult conditions.
The support itself has a simple structure as most complicated support systems are not effective, which is best demonstrated by attempts to use to tubing supports. The
rescue support has the structure similar to that of conventional supports protecting arcshaped openings and is chiefly made of V profiles. Of particular importance is
the size and profile of the heading to be stabilised. It has a rectangular crosssection, hence it must consist of three segments: two props and a canopy supported on
these props. The heading size are associated with the prop size and the length of the canopy. To ensure the safe operations of rescue teams, the props with two
operating ranges are recommended:
• prop with the minimal length 700 mm and extension range 300 mm
• prop with the minimal length 700 mm, with a capacity to extend to 1300 mm, extension range 300 mm.
There are no legal and technological standards relating to the rescue equipment. The standards PN and EN and other regulations specifying the work safety and
ergonomic requirements do not cover the rescue supports. Rescue teams use professional
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Figure 1. Rescue support.
equipment which is expected to be more reliable and durable than commonly used devices, at the same time the mass of the whole rescue support must be as little as
possible. To satisfy this condition, steel as the construction material is now replaced by light alloys. Apparently the major problem to be tackled is the dimensioning of
the whole structure in the light of roof strength parameters since these problems are nonexistent in the design of mining machines. Traditional materials from which
mining machines are made in accordance with the relevant standards (PNG50041) are steels. The mechanical properties of steel are well known and extensive
laboratory tests on steel elements provide the data required for computation algorithms used in dimensioning.
The conceptual design of a rescue support is shown schematically in Figure 1. It has most specific structure and small size. Its major components include a prop and
a cap/canopy. The prop is a basic component in every kind of support, it stabilises the structure and performs the functions required for motion.
2.2 Selection of material
Selection of aluminium alloys for the prototype of a light rescue support involves the analysis of ALZnMgCu behaviours and its resistance to stress corrosion and other
types of corrosion as well. These parameters have to be determined experimentally on account of unknown sealing conditions and the choice of the sealingoperating
unit.
It is suggested that support components be made from AlZnMgCu alloys in the form of pressed profiles and forged elements subjected to thermal and mechanical
treatment ensuring the required mechanical properties and adequate resistance to stress corrosion.
In the extensive analyses of parameters of thermal and mechanical treatment of the prop material we get the alloy components and the options for thermal treatment
of profiles and other prop components. Accordingly, the main components are made from the specified aluminium alloy in two states of precipitation strengthening—
one for forged elements and rods, the other—for pipe elements.
Precipitation strengthening applies to aluminium alloys during the thermal treatment in the solution heat treatment and ageing operations. This process involves the
disintegration of the solid solution at the ageing temperature ensuring excellent mechanical properties of alloys AlZnMgCu—ca. Rm=600 MPa. The processing
technologies control the precipitation strengthening in the processes of solution heat treatment and artificial ageing to achieve the best resistance to stress corrosion and
oversaturation. The material is stress relieved by tension with a controlled plastic strain 1–3% and then seasoned (aged) to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.
The elements are not straightened after tensioning.
Aluminium alloys, particularly AlZnMgCu, have very specific properties. This alloy was widely employed in military applications and the information about its
properties is rather scarce. The alloy is characterised by a relatively high immediate strength and a high yield point. Most aluminium alloys lack a distinctive yield point,
the apparent yield strength R0.2 is determined, expressed as stress due to elongation strain 0.2%. The proportion Rm/R0.2 for steel equals 1.5, for the applied
aluminium alloy −1.09.
Elements made of this alloy are elastic and soft while compared to steel. In the case of cylinder components major doubts arise how these would behave under
loading.
In consideration of operating conditions of rescue supports, the alloy resistance to corrosion was tested in the simulated conditions. AlZnMgCu resistance to stress
corrosion was tested for several variants of thermal and mechanical and thermal treatment and in various operating conditions.
3 CURRENT STATUS
Several institutions have attempted to engineer the rescue supports, but so far these attempts have not been crowned with success. The major problem lies in prop
design. Prop dimensioning is based on static strength calculations. Several authors propose various computation procedures, though in each case they use the lateral
deflection/buckling strain formula.
Kulesza and Ziółkowski (1973) reported that the earliest model of a cylinder is based on the Euler’s formula whereby a cylinder is treated as a rod with fixed ends
and joints at both ends, the rod length
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being equal to that of the cylinder with the piston protruding and its rigidity equal to that of the piston rod. Accordingly, the solution has a very simple form. The critical
force is given as:
(1)
where:
Pkr—critical loading
E—Young modulus
1—length of a cylinder or the piston rod
I—moment of inertia of a cylinder or piston rod crosssection.
Modified formulas use the reduced length in the denominator lr=η×l where η≤1. They assume that compressive loads are not borne by the cylinder. Thus the role of
fluids in load bearing is taken into account. Some formulas neglect the impacts of the presence of a cylinder, assuming lr to be the piston rod length. However, these
model allow only rough approximations of loads acting on the cylinderpiston rod system.
In engineering practice the ultimate state method is applied to calculations of rods under compressive stress, utilising the relevant formulas and coefficients set forth in
the standards PNB03200 (1990). On account of unique features of the applied materials these coefficients have to be first determined.
Other models assume the curvature of compressed rod with two rigidities. In such models the value of the critical force is derived from the differential equation of the
deformed axis determining the cylinder axis deflection, utilising the formulas provided by Brzoska (1979):
(2)
Clearances between the system components are obtained using a specialise software or with the use of a computing algorithm.
Transforming and computing the equation (2) yields:
(3)
The equation (3) is still valid for the expression:
Setting the boundary conditions and using (4) yields the maximal prop deflections. Accordingly, the compressive and tensile stresses in the prop are obtained, these are
additive values. The stressstrain relationship is given as:
(5)
Figure 2. Computational diagram of the cylinder. Reduced critical stresses given in the HuberMinesHencky’s hypothesis [Brzostek,
1979] are obtained from the formulas.
where:
P—prop loading along the longitudinal axis
S—crosssection area of the considered element
ymax—maximal deflection of the cylinder or a piston rod
W—coefficient of bending strength of the cylinder or piston rod crosssection.
For thinwalled pipes
(6a)
For thickwalled pipes
(6b)
where:
σ1—stresses due to compressive forces and buckling
σ1w—longitudinal stress due to pressure in the pipe
σ1pg—circumferential stress due to pressure in the pipe
σ1rg, σp —radial stress in the pipe (maximally equal to internal pressure).
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Figure 3. Thickwalled pipe crosssection.
While applying the formulas (6) one has to specify whether internal or external walls are considered, because of radial stresses. In the case of upper props not filled
with liquid the terms associated with the impacts of pressure are neglected.
It appears that that verification procedure utilising the formula (7) governing the state of stress in thickwalled pipes [Brzoska 1979] is fully adequate in engineering
practice. The thickwalled pipe is shown schematically in Figure 3.
(7a)
(7b)
where:
b,a—inside and outside radii of the pipe
pa—working pressure inside the pipe
pb —pressure outside the pipe
“σ” denotes compressive stress.
Accordingly, cylinder components subjected to the internal pressure of the liquid can be dimensioned. It is required that circumferential stress in the pipe be
determined.
Another solution is presented in the paper by Kalukiewicz and Kwieciński [2004]. All these formulas, however, proved to be of little use while dimensioning a prop
made of aluminium alloys. Stress values obtained analytically were not consistent with the results of laboratory tests [Kwieciński, 2003]. Approximately correct results
were obtained only when stresses were determined with the use of FEM software. That is why another procedure is suggested which would yield nearly identical
results.
JohnsonOstenfeld curve best approximates the reallife pattern as it takes into account elasticplastic strains. In the case of props, the limit of proportionality
(applicability range of the Euler’s law) is always exceeded as elasticplastic strains will be generated in the prop material.
Exceeding the critical stress level in the range beyond the proportionality limit leads to the changes in the microstructure of the material, in the form of minute slips that
tend to disappear once the loading is removed, at the same time producing plastic strains. When the proportionality limit is exceeded very little, the slips are few and far
between but their number rapidly increases as the stresses approach the yield point.
The range of linear elastic performance is given by the condition
(8)
where:
σE—Euler stress,
RH—limit of proportionality,
Re—yield point,
1—slenderness of the considered element.
When the stress levels corresponding to the limit of proportionality are exceeded, empirical formulas based on the TetmajerJasiński curve (9) or JohnsonOstenfeld
curve (10)
σkr=a−bλ
(9)
σkr=a−cλ2
(10)
assuming that (σkr>0) .
4 INVESTIGATION OF THE BUCKLING RESISTANCE OF MODEL SAMPLES
Tests were first run on model specimens, then on reallife members. The models of piston rod in the prop of the rescue support were developed, the piston rod
slenderness being taken as the similarity criterion 1=13.176 ww of the element. Geometric parameters of models (pipes) are as follows: outside diameter F12 mm,
inside diameter F8 mm, slenderness of the prop model 1=13.176, buckling length of the prop L=47.5. For the boundary conditions
(11a)
(11b)
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Table 1. Critical loading of modelled elements.
Modelled element Slenderness Critical stress Critical loading of the prop P
Model of piston rod in a prop of a rescue support 13,176 553,957 0,018099
and the data from engineering specifications the JohnsonOstenfeld curve is determined for the model and expressed as:
σkrJ_O=559,8−0,034×λ2
(12)
For the determined model parameters the critical value of stress/elasticplastic buckling relationship is given as σkrJO=553.957 [MPa].
Using the relationships expressing reduced stresses in accordance with HuberMisesHencky’s hypothesis
(13)
where σ1, σ2, σ3—components of the compound state of stress (principal stresses) and substituting as stress components in the three principal directions, we get
(13a)
where:
σs —stress due to compressive force in the prop
σz—stress due to bending and buckling loads
σr—radial stress due to pressure inside the prop in accordance with (7)—for outside walls sr=0 (it is assumed that maximal buckling will occur at that point)
σobw—circumferential stress due to pressure inside the prop
Let us consider the case of model elements where the terms associated with pressure impacts in (7) are neglected. Calculating the values of critical loading for the
geometry of the considered prop element we get the following values of critical loads.
The critical force was obtained with the use of DesignSpace software (ANSYS) and Autodesk Mechanical Desktop intended for simulation of behaviours of
structures under loading. The FEM technique provided by ANSYS was employed. Results generated accordingly are summarised below.
In Figures 4 and 5 we see the stress range where the calculated critical (buckling) stress limit and yield point are exceeded.
Figure 4. Geometric model and boundary conditions for calculations of the piston rod using FEM.
Figure 5. Results of FEM calculations of reduced critical stresses (in accordance with HuberMisesHencky’s hypothesis) in the piston
rod of a prop model.
Model samples with the necessary equipment were installed on the hydraulic press with the adjustable rate 0–30 mm and pressing force 500 kN. Then force sensors
and strain gauges were fixed. The
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Figure 6. Results of FEM calculations of reduced strain in the piston rod of a prop model.
Figure 7. Stress in model tests specimens vs the pressing force applied to the model piston rod.
samples were then placed on the bench, which acted as the piston inducing load, and pressed. After the preliminary load was applied, the sensors were duly zeroed. All
experiments were continued until the critical plastic strain would occur. Tests were run on 4 model sample.
The loss of stability during the tests is represented in the diagram as the deflection from the straight line pattern. When the loading fell down below the critical value,
the strain or stress pattern is represented as a straight line parallel to that plotted before the stability loss. The difference between straightline sections of the plot is
attributable to plastic strain of the sample. The strain gauges allow for determining the stress values till the moment plastic strains should appear. When the critical value
is exceeded and plastic strains are generated, the strain gauges still measure strains yet no mathematical apparatus is available to determine stress associated with the
given value of plastic strain. It is regarded as a transient state and the values
Table 2. Characteristic parameters of the cylinder registered in the course of tests of prop footing loads.
calculated for that range do not emulate the real conditions.
On the basis of statistical analysis, the parameters of the equation
σkr=−28,830471∙Pkr+11,357831
(14)
were determined. For the critical force determined in tests Pkr=18.51875 kN, skr=−522.54645 MPa. In comparison, the theoretical analysis reveals that the critical
prop loading Pkrt=18.099 kN at the critical strain skrJ=−553.957 MPa. The difference between the critical load values was 2.27% and between critical stress values:
6.01%.
5 TESTING THE BUCKLING STRENGTH OF THE PROP
The JohnsonOstenfeld curve was obtained on the basis of boundary conditions and the data from engineering specifications:
(15)
For the aforementioned parameters of the prop components, the critical stress due to elasticplastic buckling is:
– for the cylinder σsr=556, 406 [MPa]
– for the piston rod σsr=556,185 [MPa]
Afterwards the critical loads P were obtained:
– for the cylinder Psrcyl=430,77 [kN]
– for the piston rod Psrtlo=796.05 [kN]
That implies the cylinder is going to be damaged first. In the course of laboratory tests, the stresses and corresponding loads were recorded.
Results were the compared with the predicted values and verified in the laboratory conditions (see Table 3).
The difference between the critical load values was 3.05% for the critical stress values: 2.9%.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Comparison of results in accordance with the most typical algorithms reveals that most computation
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Table 3. Critical loading of modelled elements.
Critical stress σkrJ_O [MPa] Critical loading of the prop P [MN]
Slenderness λ Calculated value 10,042 556,406 0,43077
Cylinder in prop Experimental value 540,727 0,41800
algorithms are inadequate as the results vastly differ from those obtained in laboratory conditions. The highest degree of correspondence was achieved when the
algorithm based on TetmajerJasiński and JahnsonOstenfeld formulas was applied and when FEM software was used. Critical loads obtained using FEM are
consistent with the values of critical stress whilst the critical force obtained using FEM is by 20% higher than the experimental value. Mechanical properties of the prop
material and geometry of its structural elements being known, the employed JohnsonOstenfeld principle allows the critical stress to be determined and further utilised
(Eq 13) to find the critical force to be borne by the prop.
Critical stresses and loads are established and the results agree well with theoretical predictions.
Model tests were further utilised in theoretical analysis of stability. Critical stresses and loads acting on the cylinder pipe and the piston rod pipe modelled previously
(F 105/85) were obtained. The results reveal that the cylinder pipe is less stable on account of the smaller critical load to be carried. Accordingly, the cylinder pipe was
used in further analyses.
Comparing the results of these analyses and of previous strength tests shows a good correspondence, as in model testing. At the same time, the algorithm for
engineering calculations of the prop was proposed.
Further research will establish the adequacy of the considered method in the design of other types of cylinders and will help to find the method to minimise the mass
of the element at the same time maximally utilising the mechanical properties of the material. In all this financial considerations and manufacturing capabilities ought to be
given proper consideration.
7 TESTING OF THE SUPPORT CANOPY
7.1 Design objectives
Tests were run on a canopy shown in Figure 8, manufactured in accordance with the CMG KOMAG specification. The canopy and props are made from the alloy
PA9. The canopy is manufactured in the readypressing process. Cuts and openings required for interactions with other support elements were machined.
Static strength of canopies is tested on testing machines with the suitable equipment. The location
Figure 8. Canopygeneral view.
Figure 9. Canopy loading—schematic diagram.
Figure 10. Canopy deformations during the tests.
of support in the experimental setup is shown in Figure 9.
The parameter to be measured is strain in the function of loading. On account of the presence of an overflow valve in the pressure range pr ±5%, the laboratory tests
have to be run for the following safety indices:
(16)
Canopies were subjected to three static tests under loading derived from (16)=880kN. During the test strains, loads and canopy deflections were registered. Results
are visualised on the plot in Figure 10.
Measurement results are compiled in Table 4.
Stresses and strains were obtained with the use of’FE M approa ch in the DesignS pace sof (ANSYS). The obtained stress and strain contour maps are shown in
Figure 13.
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Table 4. Mean stress at measurement points.
Measurement point
00–01 04–05 06–07
Arithmetic mean of stress values 484.91 −550.82 −594.96
Standard deviation 3.56 6.44 5.30
Figure 11. Geometric model of a canopy with the boundary conditions.
Figure 12. Contour lines of reduced strains in the canopy.
Figure 13. Contour lines of reduced stress.
8 CONCLUSIONS FROM CANOPY TESTING
Contour maps obtained using FEM would yield the strains at measurement points: 1–330 MPa, 0405–440 [MPa], 0607–380 [MPa].
Results are comparable only in terms of stress field configuration. Strain values obtained by numerical methods vastly differ from those obtained in laboratory testing.
9 MATERIAL TESTING
9.1 Resistance of AlZnMgCu to corrosion in the simulated operating conditions
Laboratory tests of the AlZnMgCu alloy were conducted in neutral salt nebulae and their results can be used for comparison only. Yet the corrosive surroundings in the
laboratory tests were much more aggressive than those encountered in normal operating conditions. Tests revealed that the alloy has adequate corrosion resistance.
9.2 Resistance of AlZnMgCu alloy to sparking while applying various types of protective coatings
Tests involved three stages:
– selection of protective coating resistant to sparking
– technology of manufacturing and deposition of protective coating on prop elements
– testing the sparking resistance of applied coatings.
Prop components made from AlZnMgCu alloy are exposed to corrosive environment, abrasion and can be hit with metal elements which leads to sparking. The
protective coatings, therefore, should display the following properties:
– excellent adhesion
– resistance to abrasive wear
– resistance to shock
– anticorrosive properties and an adequate thickness to ensure long service life without the risk of its being removed.
To improve the safety features of the rescue supports and their components, multilayer coatings are to be applied. The base in the anode coating A1203, further used
to produce additional coatings.
9.3 Selection of the hydraulic medium
The experimental programme involved two stages:
• design of a hydraulic medium to supply the support
• laboratory tests of the impacts of hydraulic medium on the material from which the cylinder is made.
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Figure 14. Comparison of Ra parameters: the required and experimental values.
Aluminium alloys are most sensitive to acid and base solutions. When the exposed aluminium alloy surface gets in contact with an acid solution, the reaction is the same
as during contacts with an exposed metal and the element in question can be damaged. Similar reaction are expected when the alloy gets in contact with base solutions.
A special hydraulic fluid will be used to control the prop. The value of the pH indicator is as high as 9.5 and in normal conditions it would be damaging, yet the
presence of inhibitors and amines hinders its reactions with exposed aluminium alloy surfaces.
Test samples were in the form of small plates 90×50×9 mm cut from a pressed rod. Their resistance to stress corrosion was tested using the immersion method at
the temperature 20±20°C. The testing programme was continued for 480 hours. Macro and microscale observations did not reveal any traces of corrosive damage.
9.4 Selection of technology of the cylinder and piston rod treatment
Widespread use of new materials requires that an effective method of material production be first developed. Quality and performance control is now a must at all
stages of the manufacturing process. Besides, new innovative materials and effective technologies are being sought. Ensuring the optimal properties of the upper coating
is the priority in selection of the finishing treatment.
The technology of the finishing treatment of hydraulic cylinders made from aluminium alloy AlZnMgCu was developed by D.Kwieciński [2002].
10 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Theoretical considerations and results of experimental tests lead us to the following conclusions:
• Stresses, strains, deflections and critical loadbearing capacity obtained using the method suggested in this study and properties such as tightproof behaviour or
fatigue endurance might be used in design of supports and support elements (props and canopies)
• Test results might be further utilised in verification of theoretical assumptions
• The newlydeveloped technology of manufacturing support elements from the alloy AlZnMgCu is such that all the processes can be conducted in Polish steelworks
• The applied coatings adequately protect the alloy from corrosion and sparking, which might lead to methane ignition
• Tests on the hydraulic medium were run to ensure the good support performance in the normal operating conditions
• The algorithm for prop strength calculation is verified experimentally. Applying the formulas provided in this studies, one can design similar machines made from
different materials.
REFERENCES
Brzoska Z., Wytrzymałość materiałów. PWN, Warszawa. 1979.
Czarnecki H., Tubielewicz K., Kwieciński D.Nagniatanie powierzchni aluminiowych. Międzynarodowa konferencja—Wpływ technologii na stan warstwy wierzchniej.
Gorzów Wlkp.—Poznań, 2002 r.
Kwieciński D., Badania wpływu zastosowania stopów lekkich na własności użytkowe ratowniczej obudowy hydraulicznej. Praca doktorska. AGH, Kraków 2003.
Kalukiewicz, D. Kwieciński Badania wpływu zastosowania stopów lekkich na własności użytkowe ratowniczej obudowy hydraulicznej, Archiwum Górnictwa, Kraków
2004.
Kalukiewicz, D. Kwieciński Ratownicza obudowa hydrauliczna wykonana ze stopów lekkich, Prace naukowe—Monografie CMG KOMAG Gliwice 2004.
Kulesza R., Ziółkowski W.O sposobach obliczania charakterystyki siłownika hydraulicznego prostego. Pr. Nauk. Politech. Warszawskiej, Mechanika nr 22/1973.
PN–90/B–03200, 1990: Konstrukcje stalowe—Obliczenia statyczne i projektowanie.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The new longwall mechanized complex with daily output of 20,000 tons in
“Bogdanka” mine in Lublin coal basin in Poland
Janusz Kasprzak & Bolesław Kozek
Lubelski Węgiel “Bogdanka” SA, Bogdanka, Poland
ABSTRACT: The article describes a new longwall mechanized complex ensuring daily output of 20,000 tons in “Bogdanka” mine. That mine is the
only one in Lublin Coal Basin, situated in Eastern Poland. Hard coal is exploited at a depth of 900–1,000 meters in conditions of very plastic rocks.
In 2002 started the longwall 10/1, which was equipped with a new mechanized complex consisting of Polish shields Glinnik 15/32 POz and JOY
face conveyor and JOY stage loader. The longwall was located in the coal seam 382 with a height of 2.6 m and had a length of 300 m.
The effective time of work at one shift was only about 5 hours because of peripheral localization of a longwall face, long transport and crew access
roads. Nevertheless, the longwall 10/1 achieved satisfying production results. The longwall complex provided regular high output of 15,000–20,000
tons per day. The planned panel length of 3,000 m was achieved in 11th month with the total output of over 4 million tons. The average daily output
was about 15,000 tons. In June 2003 the longwall 10/1 finishe d exploitatio
After the disassembly of the longwall 10/1, its equipment was used in the new longwall 10/11, which has been operating since September 2003.
At present “Bogdanka” mine has 2 active longwalls with total daily output of 22,000 tons. Mechanised complex described here is able to ensure
nearly the whole production of the mine.
1 INTRODUCTION
The “Bogdanka” mine is located in the southern part of Poland and is the only one that exploits coal in Lublin Coal Basin. Seams of coal are located here at a depth of
about 900 m, almost horizontally and quite regularly, between rocks with low strength parameters characterized by high rheological properties.
The Lubelski Coal “Bogdanka” Mine exploits nowadays two coal seams with numbers 382 and 385/2. Daily gross output of about 23,000 tons is ensured by
exploitation of two longwalls—achieving good concentration of output and productivity.
At the beginning of July 2002 the longwall 10/1 was started in the seam 382, equipped with completely new machines and equipment.
It is already the third, completely new, heavyduty longwall complex bought by the Company after 1990. The first one was bought in 1994 and it was applied in
1995 in the longwall 4/1 in the seam no. 382. This complex with Tagor 13/25 POz/B shieldtype supports, KSW500/2A2V/2BP shearer and PF4/932 face
conveyor was working in the six following longwalls in the seam no. 382 with total advance of about 11 km and total output of 13.6 million tons of coal. It was not only
achieving without problems assumed daily output of 10,000 tons, but also often producing much better results.
The second new longwall complex with Glinik 10/ 23 POz shields, JOY 4LS shearer and PF4/932 face conveyor, bought on the turn of 1996, was adapted for
exploitation of the seam no. 385/2 with a height of 1.7 m. The hitherto achieved results have been also good. Till now that complex has been working in 4 longwalls
with total advance of 10 km and output of about 9.5 million tons of coal. Despite a low height of the coal seam, the complex has achieved also good production results:
even up to 10,000 tons daily. Now it is being moved to the next, already the 5th longwall in the seam no. 385/2.
2 THE NEW LONGWALL MECHANIZED COMPLEX WITH DAILY OUTPUT OF 20,000 TONS
The new complex was designed for geological and mining conditions in the northwest region of the
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Figure 1. Shield support GLINIK15/32 POz in the longwall 10/I.
mining area of the coal seam no. 382. The basic equipment of that complex consists of Glinik 15/32 POz shields, Joy 41S8 shearer, and JOY Longwall AFC and JOY
BSL stage loader.
The basic technical parameters of the complex are as follows:
a) Glinik 15/32 POz shield (Fig. 1) is a new designed two leg shield produced by Mining Machinery Plant GLINIK in Gorlice. The new shield has, bigger than
typically, 1,750 mm support centre.
Table 1. Technical characteristic.
Parameter Unit Value
Support height mm 1500–3200
Yield load of leg kN 5027
Yield load of unit kN 8267–9927
Support centre m 1.75
Unit advance mm 1,040
Feeding pressure MPa 25–32
Unit weight kg 22,500
Beside typical support units there were 6 gate shields: 3 at the maingate and 3 at the tailgate face end. They had support centre 1.75–2.20 m.
b) Longwall shearer JOY 4LS8, double ended ranging shearer riding on pans of armoured face conveyor according to chainless Eicotrack system. The double
ended ranging drum is capable of cutting and loading in both directions. See table 2
c) Armoured face convey or JOY Mining Mac Longwall AFC type (Fig. 2)
See table 3
d) Stage loader JOY BSL
See table 4
Table 2. Technical characteristic.
Table 3. Technical characteristic.
Table 4. Technical characteristic.
Figure 2. Armoured face conveyor JOY Longwall AFC type.
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Table 5. Advances of the longwall 10/I.
The stage loader fed the gateroad belt over a crawler mounted belt tail piece, which enabled periodical shortening of a belt for example one daily.
Electric equipment was located at the underslung cars moving automatically together with face advance.
Machines of the complex operated at 3300 volts.
3 MINING HISTORY AND GEOLOGY
The first longwall equipped with a new mechanized complex was the longwall 10/I in the 382 seam, located in northwest region of a mining area. In July 2002 the
longwall was put into motion. For the peripheral localization of a longwall panel, the length of transport roads was about 7000 m. The longwall has 300 m.
The longwall 10/I was led using a retreat mining method with roof caving. Along with face advance both the galleries were drawn off. The seam 382 at the longwall
10/I panel can be characterized by the following parameters:
– seam thickness 2.4–2.9 m
– inclination angle 1°–+6°
– workability indicator according to Protodiakonow 0.95–1.48
– partings of total thickness 0.08–0.50 m
In the floor of the seam there was claystone (gray and compact) and mudstone (gray, compact and very compact)—the 1st and the 2nd class according to GIG
classification.
In the roof there were claystone (gray and compact) and mudstone (gray and)—1st, 2nd and 3rd class according to GIG classification.
The longwall 10/I was led from north to south with slight decline up to 1200 m of advance and next with a rise of 1°–2° (locally up to 6°).
Natural hazards:
– methane—1st category,
– coal dust explosion—B class,
– water—1st and 2nd grade,
– fire—Sza (237)=92°–95°C/min—4th group of selfignition,
– dust harmful for health—2nd and 3rd degree.
4 PRODUCTION
The longwall 10/I carried out high production tasks during the time of its work, that is almost the whole year. In August, September and October 2002 the longwall
made an advance rate of 326, 340 and 334.5 m respectively and achieved a cumulative advance of about 1,000 m.
Average monthly outputs in these months were:
– in August 15,800 t/day with average daily advance of 12.1 m,
– in September 16,700 t/day with average daily advance of 13.6 m,
– in October 15,950 t/day with average daily advance of 13.9 m.
Some days, when the daily advance reached up to 16 m, the output was about 20,000 tons.
Daily and monthly advances of the longwall 10/I are presented at table 5.
There is a need to stress that smaller advances in November and December, and also in May 2003 were not a result of a reduction of its capacity but of increasing
advances in the second longwall (4/V in the seam 385/2) operated in the mine at the same time.
The cumulative output achieved from the startup to the liquidation in June 2003 was over 4 milliontones of coal. Total advance was 2,920 m.
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Table 6. Production results of the longwall 10/1.
Table 7. Production results of the longwall 10/II.
Daily and monthly output from the longwall 10/I is presented in the table 6.
The longwall 10/I results accounted for majority of Bogdanka mine output. This proportion of total output differed from 61% in November 2002 to 76% in
September 2002 and February 2003.
This proportion was higher in reference to the total output and ranged between 68.7% in November and nearly 91% in March 2003.
For a peripheral localization of the longwall face and long crew access roads, the longwall 10/I operated at 5 shift system.
5 MECHANIZED COMPLEX IN THE LONGWALL 10/II
After achieving the planned advance, in July and August 2003, the equipment was removed and reinstalled on a second panel of the longwall 10/II. That longwall was
located near the northern border of a mining area.
The longwall 10/II commenced production in September 2003.
The longwall 10/II had a length of 296 m and budgeted advance is over 2,250 m.
The longwall 10/II is led using a retreat mining method with a roof caving. Along with face advance both the galleries are drawn off.
Seam 382 at the longwall 10/11 panel can be characterized by the following parameters:
– seam thickness 2.25–2.0 m
– inclination angle −2°−+1°
– workability indicator according to Protodiakonow 0.95–1.48
– partings of total thickness 0.1–0.35 m.
In the floor of the seam there was claystone (gray and compact) and mudstone (gray and compact and very compact)—1st and 2nd class according to GIG
classification.
In the roof there was claystone (gray and compact) and mudstone (gray and)—1st, 2nd and 3rd class according to GIG classification.
The longwall 10/II leads from east to west with slight decline of 1°–2°.
The longwall is operating now as an auxiliary one. The main longwall is the longwall 7/II in the seam
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Figure 3. Longwall 10/II.
382 in Nadrybie area. Therefore, the longwall 10/II operates only two shifts per day and its production results are smaller than those of the longwall 10/I.
Till April 15th 2004, after Tmonths of operating, the longwall 10/II has achieved 1,300m of advance, with advance rate of 7,0 m/day. The average daily output in
that period was about 9000 tons.
Output from longwall 10/II is presented in the table 7.
6 SUMMARY
The new longwall complex bought by the Company in 2002 was applied first time in the longwall 10/I and ensured average daily output at a level of 15,000 tons,
maximally 20,000 tons. During 11 month of operation it won there over 4 million tons of coal. Recently equipment has been used on a second panel of the longwall
10/II and temporarily realizes lower production tasks, which stem from current needs of the mine.
Experience with that complex work has proved that the present output level of mine is possible to achieve from one operating longwall in conditions of Bogdanka
mine.
LITERATURE
Krasowski Z., Chmielewski J., Kozek B.,—Wyniki produkcyjne najnowszego kompleksu ścianowego w kopalni. Wiadomosci Górnicze Nr 5/2003.
Krasowski Z., Kasprzak J.,—4mln ton węgla z jednej ściany w 11 miesięcy w kopalni “Bogdanka”. III Międzynarodowa Konferencja Techniki Urabiania, TUR 2003,
Krakow.
Kozek B.,—LW Bogdanka S.A., Poland, examines the machinery and methods implemented to optimise production at the Bogdanka Mine. World Coal, April 2003.
Stachowicz S., Chmielewski J.,—Nowy—wysokowydajny o zwiększonej niezawodności i bezpieczeństwie—kompleks ścianowy w kopalni “Bogdanka”.
Miesięcznik WUG Nr 11/2003.
Kasprzak J., Kozek B.,—Ścianowy kompleks mechanizacyjny o wydajności 20000 Mg/dobę w kopalni “Bogdanka”. Materiały Konferencyjne Szkoły Eksploatacji
Podziemnej. Szczyrk, February 2004.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Newdesign cutting tools and tool holders to be used in hard rocks mining
K.Kotwica
AGH University of Sciences and Technology, Cracov, Poland
P.Gospodarczyk
AGH University of Sciences and Technology, Cracov, Poland
ABSTRACT: The paper outlines the problems that might arise during mechanical mining of hard rocks with the use of currently available cutting tools.
New solutions of cutting tools and tool holders developed in the Department of Mining Machines of AGHUST are presented. Selected results of
proof tests run on the test rig specially designed for singletool testing are compiled.
1 INSTRUCTION
The problems of mechanical hard rock cutting have become more intensive in Polish mining in recent years due to deeper coal seams and driving workings in harder
rocks containing more highly abrasive inclusions. It was connected with smallcutting advance rate and very high wear of the shearer picks, so the cutting process
became not effective economically. The attempts to use the cutting tools of new types, mainly the tangential tools with sintered carbide inserts of increased diameter and
small diameter disc cutters, did not lead to successful results in hard rock cutting. The view of wear of rotary pick after hard rock cutting is shown in Figure 1.
Therefore, the steps towards new rock cutting technologies have been undertaken. At the Department of
Figure 1. View of unsymmetrical wear of rotary pick.
Mining, Dressing and Transportation Machines, University of Mining and Metallurgy in Krakowearlier sgthe rock mining with highpressure water jet assistance with
good results have been investigated. Recently, investigations on application of modern cutting tools and their holders in rock cutting have been executed on test stands.
Results of these investigations are described below.
2 NEW SOLUTIONS OF CUTTING TOOLS AND THEIR HOLDERS
Preliminary studies of hard rock cutting with aids of highpressure water jet, conducted at local special test stand for testing individual tools (Fig. 2), have been fully
successful with respect to the tool wear reduction and elimitation of generated dustiness. In cases of weaklycohesive floor rocks, the technology used highpressure
water jets has not been proved successfully. That is why, examinations directed towards development of new constructional solutions of cutting tools and their holders
have been conducted in order to allow hard rocks mining (Kotwica et al. 2002, 2003).
The first solutions comprise special tool, which can replace traditional rotary picks. This tool is adapted for attachment to standard holders of RH8type of the RM8
system, which is commonly used for hard rock cutting, whereas constructional solution of the pick head is different than it was designed for the system RM8. The
scheme of new pick is shown in Figure 3
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Figure 2. The test stand for testing single tools.
Figure 3. Scheme and view of new type of the bellshaped cutting tool.
left. The cutting segment is bell or croneshaped, and the bit is armed with eight postshaped sintered carbide inserts. Such constructional solution, instead of traditional
cutting with use of RM8 system tool, should allow loosening rock fragments in result of point pressures of individual sintered carbide inserts. Moreover, not uniform
loading of individual sintered carbide inserts should cause increase of the tool rotary speed near the holder, at minimal angle of side
Figure 4. Scheme of the new constructional solution of nonsymmetric disk cutters.
Figure 5. Two options of attachment of new type nonsymmetric disk cutters.
inclination of the cutting tool. The tool in question is shown in Figure 3 right.
Some new constructional solutions of disk cutting tools have also been designed. Construction of nonsymmetric disk cutters, which can be used for rock mining by
so called backcut and crush method instead of static crushing of the rock body, was proposed. That will allow receiving coarsergrained mining material, what will
result with reduction of dustiness and energy consumption. Design in question is shown in Figure 4.
The solution comprises application of disk tools of the diameter of 160 mm, with three different pick angles amounting to 30, 40 and 50°. Bases of the disk tools
allow their attachment perpendicular the rock cut or their deviation from the vertical direction under the angle of 15°. Two sets of such tools are shown in Figure 5.
Page 433
Figure 6. Scheme of modernized, lubricated holder for the tangential rotary tools of the RM8 system: 1—tool holder, 2—delivery ferrule,
3—sleeve.
Figure 7. View of modernized, lubricated holder for the tangential rotary tools of the RM8 system.
Tangential rotary tools tend to operate under quite difficult conditions, especially when the rocks to be mined have various compactness and lithology. Some substances
(fine fraction of the rock and drilling fluid or water used for sprinkling) reach and contaminate the zone of “bearing” of toolholders and make it difficult for tangential
tools to rotate in the holder. It can be cause of unsymetrical wear of rotary pick, as shown in Figure 1.
Based on the references (Kotwica & Maziarz 2004), as well as on the analysis of constructional possibilities and preliminary investigation, the alternative solution for
bearing of tangential rotary tools, using the methodology of multivariant consideration was prepared at the AGH University of Sciences and
Figure 8. Bearing of the tangential rotary tools with the supportive bearing globule in the holder.
Technology. Dry friction was replaced by semidry or mixed friction. These kinds of friction develop as a result of a partly separation of irregularities’ tops, and also
their moistening or covering with the emulsion, oxides or plates, as well as application of selflubricants and plastics with some additives on the bearing sleeve to make it
easier to lubricate. The figure of the modernized solution of the RM8 system holder with forced lubrication of the sleeve is shown in Figure 6. In such a solution a
lubricating agent (lowpercentage oilwater emulsion) is distributed under the pressure through the hole of ferrule 2 to four grooves made in the sleeve 3, mounted in the
toolholder 1. View of this holder is shown in Figure 7.
Going further at the AGH University of Sciences and Technology have taken the attempts to find the methods to replace sliding friction with rolling friction at the
bearing of tool handles in the holders (Bęben et al. 1999). The way of rolling bearing is determined, in a limited constructional space, by a rest loadcarrying ability of
the rolling bearings or their combinations possible to be mounted, as well as their packing (Bęben et al. 2001).
Taking into consideration strength analysis of the tools and holders being at exploitation, as well as the findings of the own research, the alternative methods of rolling
bearing for tangential rotary tools were prepared. Their sample constructional solution and view of second one in the test stand are presented in Figures 8 and 9.
Both solutions are based on the application of needle bearings as the elements transmitting the load transverse to the tool axis and they only differ in the parts
transferring axial load: it is a globule—in the first case and angular bearing—in the second.
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3 MEASUREMENT HOLDER FOR CUTTING TOOLS TESTING
In order to test the new constructional solutions of cutting tools and their holders, a special measuring head (holder) allowing attachment of chosen cutting tools and
independent measurement of forces inserted into the tools curing cutting, has been made. Constructional solution used for Cardan joints has been applied. Special
measuring sensors for independent measurement of cutting forces have been installed in rear side, whereas jaw coupling allowing to set the angle of tested tools has
been installed in front side. Plates with cutting tools are connected to external clutch plate. View of measuring head in the test stand is shown in Figure 10.
Figure 9. The view of the tool mounted in the rolling bearing holder before the start of the test.
Figure 10. The view of measuring head in the test stand.
4 HARD ROCK MINING USING NEW SOLUTIONS OF CUTTING TOOLS AND HOLDERS
Pilot tests with use of designed tools and holders conducted in the test stand have proved that the new constructional solutions were fully useful for mining of cohesive
rocks. Artificial rock samples with compressive strength Rc=65 to 105 MPa are mining with cutting depth g=6 to 12 mm, pitch t=10 mm and cutting velocity
. The obtained results were compared with results attained with traditional rotary tangential tool type RM8. Views of these tolls during rock sample mining
are shown in Figures 11, 12 and 13.
Total loads (pressure, tangential and side force) comparable or a little more with loads generated with use of traditional tools have been observed during
Figure 11. Standard rotary pick type RM8 520 mounted on the special plate to the measuring head.
Figure 12. Belltype pick during rock sample mining with cutting depth g=9mm.
Page 435
cutting operations with use of the new types of cutting tools. Example results for artificial sample of compressive strength Rc=65 MPa are shown in Table 1.
The next tests were aimed to compare new solutions of the holders and standard RM8 holder with the tool handle bearing in the exchangeable sleeve. All trials were
carried out with the use of tangential rotary tools of the RM8 system type RM8–520 with a carbide post of 20 mm diameter. Number of tool rotations as well as the
extent and kind of their wear were measured. During the trials the depth of cutting was changed from g=9 to 12 mm and the angle of side deflection v varied within the
0–45º range. The resistance of a rock sample to uniaxial compression Rc=65 MPa, cutting speed v ca. 1.25 m/s and the scale t=12 mm were kept constant. The
sample was cut along its total width and special marking gauges positioned on the tool handles or toolheads made it possible to count number of
Figure 13. Nonsymmetric disk cutter (pick angle 30°) during rock sample mining with cutting depth g=12 mm.
rotations over 1 minute. The lubricating holder was fed either with 1.5% wateroil emulsion (first case) or with pure water (second case), and the value of supply
pressure was p=1.5 MPa for both cases. The view of this holder during the trials is presented in Figure 14. The number of rotations is shown on the diagram in Figure
15, whereas the wear of tangential rotary tools’ picks and belltype pick are shown in Figures 16 and 17.
The trials proved that for the rolling bearing, even when the tools are deflected at zero angle, they rotate in the holder—it seems to be of great importance on the
uniform wearing and selfsharpening of the tools. Good, but definitely not so favourable results were also obtained for the holder with forced lubrication. However, the
angle of side deflection must have been at least 6° or more, whereas, for the bushed holder, tool deflection up to 45° did not lead to its greater, even irregular rotations.
Increasing the depth of cutting from 9 to 12 mm affected the number of
Figure 14. The view of cutting of the rock sample by the tool mounted in the lubricated holder of the RM8 system.
Table 1. Medium and maximal value of cutting forces during artificial sample mining for compressive strength Rc=65 MPa in dependence of cutting depth.
Cutting depth g, mm
Type of tool Type of force 6 9 12
Rotary pick RM8 520 Preasure force Pdśr/Pdmax 7.91/20.56 10.56/24.83 15.85/34.19
Figure 15. Impact of side angle of tool deflection v on the number of its rotations in the function of machine cutting depth and the kind of
holder.
Figure 16. The view of the edges of tangential rotary tools after the test along the length of ca. 800 m: on the left—tool mounted in the
bushed holder, in the middle and on the right—tool in the holder lubricated at the cutting depth of 9 and 12 mm.
Figure 17. View of belltype pick edge after cutting on the distance more than 2500 m.
rotations, especially in the bushed or lubricated holder.
The occurrence of regular tool rotations, as it has been mentioned above, had great impact on the inconsiderable and uniform wear of the tool blades. The bushed
tool, just after having cut a rock sample on the length of about 800 m, was asymmetrically ground off (Figure 16 on the left), whereas the wear of tools mounted in new
solutions of the holders was rather small and very regular, at the comparable way of cutting. For belltype pick edge after cutting on the distance more than 2500 m not
any visible changes in disk edge were observed.
For cutting tools different cutting material was obtained. For standard rotary pick RM8 520 cutting material was very different, from very powdered to view very big
pieces. For belltype pick cutting material was in first of all in small pieces and very regular. In a case of the disk cutters, the cut material was drastically biggergrained,
as compared to traditional tools. The cutting material for all tools is shown in Figure 18. Share of each grain fraction of cutting material for standard and new cutting
tools for several cutting parameters is presented in Table 2 Actually, complex studies aimed to determine
Figure 18. Cutting material generated during cutting operation: a) with use of rotary pick RM8 520, b) with use of belltype pick, c) with
use of nonsymmetric disk cutter.
Table 2. Share of each grain fraction of cutting material for traditional and new cutting tools for cutting depth g=12 mm and rock sample compressive
strength Rc= 65MPa.
Type of cutting tool
Grain diameter RM8 520 pick Belltype pick Disc cutter β=30° Disc cutter β=50°
<5 mm 28.6 27.4 20.9 13.9
5 to 20 mm 42.7 64.3 34.9 31.2
>20 mm 28.7 8.3 44.2 54.9
requirements and directives for application of the cutting tools in mining cutters are conducted.
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5 SUMMARY
Based on the executed tests we may conclude that implementation of new solutions of cutting tools allows to reduce dustiness and to increase lifetime of the cutting
tools with loads comparable (or a little more) in comparison with traditional tools.
The encouraging results of tests aimed for development of new belltype pick and disc cutters, obtained in Department of Mining, Dressing and Transportation
Machines, University of Mining and Metallurgy are very prospective, and they to be continued. In first stage of next tests purposeful is preparing new constructional
solutions of cutting heads for roadheaders, using new cutting tools.
REFERENCES
Bęben, A. & Maziarz, M. & Tylek, R. 1999. Węzeł łożyskowy obrotowego noża stycznego głowicy organu urabiającego. Patent nr PL313464,—in Polish.
Bęben, A. & Gospodarczyk, P. & Kotwica, K. & Maziarz, M. 2001. Nowe uchwytów noży stycz nych obrotowych, ich trwałość . I Międzynaro dowa Konferencja
Techniki urabiania, KrakówKrynica 2001—in Polish
Kotwica, K. & Dasgupta, S. 2002. New solutions of mining tools for hard rock mining, Journal of Mines, Metals & Fuels, December.
Kotwica, K. & Gospodarczyk, P. Hard Rock Mining with Use of New Cutting Tools. Journal of Minin g Science Vol. 39, No. 4, 2003.
Kotwica, K. & Maziarz, M. 2004. Impact of the Mounting of Tangential Rotary Tools on their Proper Operation. Archives of Mining Sciences. Vol. 40, 1.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Selection of combined cutterloader parameters for unidirectional and
bidirectional longwall mining systems
K.Krauze
AGH University of Sciences and Technology, Cracov, Poland
ABSTRACT: In consideration of the required daily output in the longwall mining operations, the methodology of selection of operating parameters of
combined cutterloaders is outlined. The unidirectional and bidirectional cutting operations are investigated. Theoretical considerations are
supplemented with an example: calculations of longwall operations where a daily production rate Vd <7000 Mg.
1 INTRODUCTION
Because of financial considerations (the need to reduce the costs of coal production) the number of longwalls operated in Polish mines is reduced and attempts are
made to make remaining faces still more productive. That is why operations are concentrated on one longwall face and cutterloaders are required to achieve the
desired levels of productivity. The set of machines required for longwall operations includes: a combined cutterloader, a conveyor and a powered support.
Apart from an increase of productivity, utmost care must be taken to produce coal of desired quality. The proportion of coal grains in excess of 20 mm should be as
large as possible, both in the light of quality requirements and work safety considerations. Assuming that the price of 1 ton of finegrained coal (coal dust) equals unity,
the sales price of coarsegrained coal (nut coal, coal rounds) is threefold higher. This aspect is of primary importance for the financia condition of mines as the demand
for coarsegrained coal is now decidedly bigger.
The cost of coal production might be further reduced when the energy consumption involved in mining operations is reduced. At the same time the high proportion of
coarsegrained coal has to be maintained and the costs of dust control must be brought down. When the amounts of coal dust are reduced, the control of water
management system will be easier, too.
The set of machines used for longwall mining operations includes the mining machines, coal transport facilities and machines for development jobs. The selection of a
cutterloader, the required means of transport (face conveyors, gate end conveyors) and a type of powered support (chock, shield, chockshield supports) is one the
factors enabling the mining company to achieve the desired production levels. The actual layout of cutterloaders and transport facilities helps to achieve the desired
levels of production at minimal investment and running costs, taking into account the mining and geological conditions. Currently available cutterloaders are adapted to
bidirectional mining operations. The cutterloader cutting in unidirection travels in the same direction as the conveyor chain. In the bidirecational system the cutter
loader travels in the opposite direction to that of the conveyor chain. When the bidirectional system is employed, the working time of the cutterloader and of the
whole machine set is best utilised. Widespread use of this system is economically viable.
In some situations, however, this system cannot be employed, particularly in the conditions of rock slides, presence of side walls or when some loading difficulties
arise. The mine operator has to employ the unidirectional mining system whereby the cutterloader travels in one direction whilst the loading is done in the return trip. The
chief problem is the determination of the haulage rate of the cutterloader (coal cutting and loading) and the speed of return trip (loading), known as a manoeuvring
speed. The values of these parameters should be such that the required daily output be achieved.
2 BIDIRECTIONAL METHOD
The efficiency of face mining is determined by the production rate, i.e. the amounts of coal mined in 24 hours. The relationship between the daily production rate and
the face parameters is written as
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(Krauze. 2000, Urabianie…):
(1)
(2)
This formula yields the haulage speed of a cutterloader in bidirectional mining operations. It should be less the haulage speed determined by the travel speed of a face
conveyor, support advance rate and the loading capacity of loading organs.
The selection of a powered support is determined by the actual roof and floor conditions and the longwall face parameters. The operational parameters and the face
move time are vital, too. The supply and control systems have to be designed such that the time of a section move ts t be shorter than the time of machine ride along the
face length (Mironowicz et al. 1995, Elektroniczne…, Sikora et al. 1995, Wybrane…).
(3)
where: tob—scale (width) of a single section [m].
The admissible haulage speed of the cutterloader with respect to the advance of a single support section is given as:
(4)
The carrying capacity of a conveyor, its driving power and chain speed (in certain types of conveyors) much be precisely controlled such that the whole mined material
be carried by the face conveyor. Accordingly, the admissible haulage speed of the cutterloader is expressed as (Krauze. 2000, Urabianie…):
(5)
where: kr—rock loosening factor; k1—coefficient associated with the fall of the mined material from the side wall under the pressure of the rock strata; vt– chain
velocity [m/s]; Q1—conveyor capacity [Mg/h]; “−”—chain movement direction coinciding with that of machine ride; and “+”—chain movement in opposite direction to
the machine ride.
The capacity of a loading organ is defined as the difference between the external capacity of this organ and the mining production rate Vu per one rotation (Krauze,
2000, Urabianie…):
where: kw—filling ratio.
While operating the loading equipment, it is required that the mining output per one rotation of the loading device in the front be less than the capacity of the loading
organ. Accordingly, the haulage speed can be written as:
(7)
where: np —rotations of the loading device in the front [rpm]; Vop—internal volume of the loading device in the front [m3]; z—web cut by the front organ [m]; and
Ds p—diameter of the cutting tool [m].
For the front (cutting) organs of the same design parameters and operating without the loading equipment, the admissible haulage speed is expressed as:
(8)
where: H—mining height [m]
These relationships defining the haulage speed of the cutterloader take into account the interactions between all machines involved in the mining operations. As long
as these requirements are met, the performance of the whole longwall mining set is good and the approved codes of practice are observed.
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3 UNIDIRECTIONAL MINING SYSTEM
When certain requirements of the bidirectional system cannot be met, the loading of the mined material onto the conveyor might present certain difficulties. In some
cases the haulage speed and efficiency of the loading organ(s) are not compatible with the carrying capacity of a face conveyor. In such situation the unidirectional
mining system seems a reasonable choice and the shielded loaders can be thus eliminated. However, the required daily output limits still remain and requirements as to
the machine performance are still valid. When the unidirectional system is operated, some portion of the mined material might be dropped on the floor during the cutting
trip (cutting and loading) and has to be loaded during the return trip (loading). Factors that affect the admissible haulage speed include:
– predetermined levels of daily production rate during the cutting and return trips
– carrying capacity of the face conveyor
– loading capacity of the devices (organs), without loaders
– support advance rate
The admissible haulage speed should be such that the mined material dropped on the floor be loaded onto the face conveyor during the return trip (Krauze. 2002,
Analiza…). The admissible haulage speed related to the loading efficiency of the face conveyor is obtained from the formula:
(9)
The same quantity related to the capacity of the two loading devices (for simultaneous operations) is obtained from the formula:
(10)
The admissible haulage speeds obtained from (9) and (10) are ascribed to the travels of the cutterloader and conveyor chains (vp —cutting+ loading, vm—loading).
Hence we get the parameter k and the daily production rate, derived from (1). When the daily production is adequate from the user’s standpoint, the remaining
parameters are regarded as satisfactory, otherwise the daily production might be controlled (increased) only through changing the times tp and t0 or increasing the time
of longwall operations T. One has to bear in mind that this method of determination of the machine set parameters in the unidirectional system ought to be applied only
in certain face conditions. Whenever the mining operations are to be commenced, attempts should be made to employ the bidirectional system.
4 SELECTED APPLICATIONS
The data required for calculations being collected, we now proceed to establish the daily production rate and the admissible haulage speed, using the analytical
relationships presented in the previous sections. The parameters taken for calculations:
H=3.0 m, L=200 m, z=0.75 m, γ=1.4 Mg/m3, vp =5.0 m/min, tp +t0=20 min, T=720 min (12 hours), tob=1.5 m, vt=1.0 m/s, loading/cutting devices $ 1800×750
(D=1.67 m), D=0.748 m, i=4, b=0.04 m, α=20°, Z=0.67 m, n=30 rpm, k=1.4, k=1.0, k=0.3, Q=700 Mg/h or 1400 Mg/h, and Vd =7000 Mg.
Accordingly, we would seek the answers to the following questions:
– will the required production rate Vd =7000 Mg per day be achieved using the bidirectional system
– what are the admissible haulage rates compatible with the carrying capacity of the conveyor (vt= 1 m/s, Qt=1400 Mg/h) and the loading capacity of the loading
devices Φ 1800×750 operated in the bidirectional system, with or without loaders
– what are the haulage rates of the cutterloader to achieve the similar production rates in unidirectional and bidirectional system operations (Qt= 700 or 1400 Mg/h)
When the bidirectional method is employed:
– at haulage speed vp =5 m/min and for the remaining parameters the achieved daily production rate was Vd =7560 Mg per day
– the time of support move (tob=1.5 m) must not exceed 18 s
– the maximum haulage speeds compatible with the carrying capacity of the face conveyor must not exceed vp ≤4.86 m/min in the forward trips and vp ≤5.8 m/min in
return trips
– loading capacity of the devices Φ 1800×75 the haulage speed (k=0.3) vp ≤5.08 m/min with loaders and vp ≤6.10 m/min without loaders
It is readily apparent that the employment of machines with the predetermined operational parameters in longwall operations adjusted for mining height H=3 m and the
face length L=200 m allows for achieving the required daily production rate Vd =7000 Mg/d. These data were further utilised in calculations run for the unidirectional
method of coal cutting. During the unidirectional cutting:
– the maximum haulage speeds compatible with the carrying capacity of the face conveyor must not exceed vp ≤9 m/min in unidirectional mining and vp ≤12.85 m/min in
bidirectional operation
– loading capacity of the devices (organs) admits the haulage speed vp ≤12.2 m/min
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Comparison of the results obtained for the unidirectional and bidirectional method allows the following conclusions to be drawn:
– similar production rates can be achieved but the haulage speeds (vp , vm) in unidirectional cutting must be greater
– higher haulage rates require some rearrangements of the cutting tool system
– more powerful motors have to be provided in the cutterloader to achieve the desired haulage speeds (vp , vm)
– the time of support section move must be shortened too, which requires an adequate supply and control system
– when possible, the bidirectional method is recommended
The user’s situation becomes less favourable when the carrying capacity of the face conveyor is Qt= 700 Mg/h and vt=1 m/s. The haulage speeds calculated for the
face and cutterloaders parameters given above must not exceed vp <2.53 m/min in forward trips and vp <2.77 in return trips (when the bidirectional method is
considered). In this case the required daily production rate cannot be achieved (T=12 hours, vp <2.5 m/min, Vd =4536 Mg/d) and the unidirectional method becomes a
reasonable choice. The unidirectional method of mining allows for achieving the haulage speeds vp =4.86m/min in forward trips and 5.8m/min during return trips, thereby
ensuring the production rate Vd =4496 Mg/ day (vp =4.5 m/min, vm=5.5 m/min) or Vd = 4503 Mg per day (vp =5.5 m/min and vm=4.5m/ min). The simplest way to
increase the daily output rate is to increase the time of longwall operations to 18 hours per day (Vd =6754 Mg per day).
5 FINAL REMARKS
This methodology of determining the operational parameters of the longwall mining set to achieve the required levels of daily output and coal quality ensures the good
performance of all involved machines, at the same time minimising coal losses during loading. The specialised software can be employed to facilitate the calculations
(Krauze. 2002, Analiza…, Sikora et al. 1995, Wybrane…).
Selected results provided in this study reveal that the bidirectional method is recommended so that the machines be best utilised. In certain cases, however, the
unidirectional method has to be chosen for technical reasons. The decisionmaking process should involve the detailed analysis of operational parameters of the
longwall mining set and of the investment outlays and operation and maintenance costs.
REFERENCES
1. Krauze K.: Analiza procesu ładowania oraz opracowanie założeń do projektu organu frezującego organu ślimakowego. Projekt badawczy nr 9T 12A 008 17, Kraków
2002 r
2. Krauze K.: Urabianie skał kombajnami ścianowymi. Wydawnictwa Naukowe “Śląsk”, Katowice, 2000 r.
3. Mironowicz W., Sobczyk J., Krodkiewicz J.: Elektroniczne sterowanie i kontrola w nowoczesnych przodkach ścianowych. Mechanizacja i Automatyzacja Górnictwa nr
7, Katowice, 1995 r.
4. Sikora W., Jagła J., Krodkiewicz J.: Wybrane zagadnienia z zakresu zasilania i sterowania w systemie hydraulicznym obudowy. Mechanizacja i Automatyzaca
Górnictwa nr 7, Katowice 1995 r.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Dynamic startup calculations for belt conveyors with measured torque curves of
fluid couplings
P.Kulinowski
AGH University of Science and Technology
ABSTRACT: The paper deals with the dynamic startup calculations for belt conveyors. The algorithm of calculations uses methods for dynamic
analysis of belt conveyor that are based on multimass, dynamic model of the conveyor. The characteristic curves of fluid coupling, used in
mathematical modelling of startup devices, were determined on a test stand. Analysis of results of simulation examinations carried out on discrete
model of the belt conveyor was done by DynaBelt software.
1 INTRODUCTION
Belt conveyors are designed for carrying out specific tasks, with local conditions taken into account. Usually, due to the type of material being transported and diverse
values of assumed parameters like capacity, profile of the route and belt speed, each conveyor is designed individually for a specific purpose.
Correct selection of startup device in belt conveyor’s drive constitutes an important stage of design process. At this stage of designing it is necessary to evaluate
how the operation of startup device being selected affects the values of dynamic forces that occur during conveyor startup. This is because dynamic forces acting on
the belt are decisive not only for selection of appropriate strength of the belt, but also have significant influence on the structure of driving, takeup and tail stations of the
conveyor.
Softstart devices enable regulation of starting torque, startup period and other parameters that can reduce dynamic forces. Therefore the designer, apart from
selecting the appropriate starting device, should specify correct settings for it.
In classic method for analysis of conveyor startup process, the mass of all moving elements of the conveyor is reduced to one point; further, it is assumed that the
motion of this point shall be uniformly accelerated. However, in a real conveyor with the length of some hundred meters, not all elements are set in motion
simultaneously. This phenomenon occurs due to elastic properties of the belt and the algorithm of calculations must take it into consideration. This algorithm uses
methods for dynamic analysis of belt conveyor that are based on multimass, dynamic model of the conveyor.
2 MULTIMASS DYNAMIC MODEL OF BELT CONVEYOR
The model of belt conveyor presented below allows analysing the influence of:
– any parameters of starting devices for drives located in various points of conveyor’s route,
– use of various types of stretching devices,
– assuming various rheological models of a belt,
– variable load of the conveyor with the mass of transported material,
on working parameters of the conveyor.
In the presented model of conveyor all reduced masses of driving system components, i.e. electric motors, couplings, gearboxes and driving drums, respective
lengths of belt, transported material and
Figure 1. Physical model of belt conveyor.
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respective number of idlers, are concentrated in points where drives are installed (for instance in point “0” in case of fronttype drive). Similarly, the reduced mass from
the reversing drum region is concentrated in the point “j”. Reduced masses related with upper and lower belts are concentrated in points (1÷j−1) and (j+1÷n),
respectively.
Displacements of particular points are denoted as xi, where i=1, 2,…, n.
Frictional resistance along the specified length of the belt is denoted as Wi. It is also assumed that sense of resisting force depends upon both the direction of belt
displacement xi and the value of motion velocity vi.
The components of gravity force tangential to the direction of motion of the belt and transported material are denoted as Gi, whereas δi denotes the inclination angle
of modelled ith segment of the conveyor.
Active forces operating on the belt that are caused either by driving mechanism or stretching devices are denoted as Pi.
If intermediate drives, stretching devices, discharging drums etc. are installed on the belts in points of the conveyor route other than near the driving or reversing
station, reduced masses of these devices are taken into account and assigned to respective points of the route. If such devices create active forces, the model should
take them into account as well.
The way of modelling the driving force Pi depends on information delivered by manufacturers of motors and starting devices. Accuracy of conveyor startup results
obtained in this model depends on credibility of drive data entered into the algorithm.
Most often, the modelling of an asynchronous motor is based on static characteristic curve determined on the ground of measuring the motor torque as a function of
angular speed.
Fluid couplings are often used as softstart devices in drives of highpower belt conveyors. Use of such devices during starting of a conveyor allows reducing the
dynamic forces in the belt with simultaneous reduction of power supply network load.
Such couplings are manufactured by the VOITH Turbo Company in many design versions.
In fillcontrolled fluid couplings (Fig. 2c) the value of driving force acting on the belt is regulated by electronic circuits that control the conveyor startup process.
In constantfill fluid couplings (Fig. 2a, b) the value of starting torque transmitted to the belt substantially depends on the design of particular type of coupling (Fig. 3).
The value of torque transmitted by the coupling (M2) also depends on the type of fluid inside the coupling, number and diameter of startup nozzles (TVVS),
conveyor’s resistance torque that affects the startup period, and slipping coefficient of the coupling (1−n2/n1). Moreover, both the quantity of
Figure 2. Couplings for belt conveyors, manufactured by VOITH TURBO Company:
a) constantfill coupling type T,
b) constantfill coupling type TVVS,
c) fillcontrolled coupling type TPKL.
Figure 3. Starting torque vs. time for the motor (M1) and selected types of VOITH Turbo couplings (M2).
fluid in the working chamber of coupling Q(t) [%] and its moment of inertia J(t) [kgm2] change during startup.
The mathematical model of fluid coupling, taking into account so many variable working parameters affecting the value of M2 torque, would be too complicated to
be useful in engineering calculations.
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Figure 4. Model of the belt conveyor’s drive with constantfill fluid coupling.
Figure 5. Test stand used for determination of characteristic curves of VOITH Turbo fluid couplings.
Since every simplification of the model can lead to unreliable results of conveyor startup simulation, actual characteristics of fluid coupling measured on a test stand are
used for simulation studies.
The characteristic curve of TVVS coupling determined on the above stand was used in mathematical modelling of startup devices operated in copper ore mines
(Jabłoński, Grzbiela, Kulinowski, Furmanik, Machowski, Łoziak & Jarocha, unpubl.).
3 VERIFICATION OF THE BELT CONVEYOR MODEL
Verification of the dynamical multimass model of the conveyor adopted for analysis of startup devices constitutes a very important stage of design process. So the
selected working parameters of conveyors were measured and results used for verification purposes.
The following electrical parameters were measured: current, voltage, electric power, and power factor (cos φ). From among mechanical parame the displacement of
belt stretching trolley and belt speed at two selected points of conveyor’s route were measured.
Results were used for determination of power consumed by the drive and driving torque of motors and, first of all, for determination of conveyor’s friction resistance.
Measurement results of belt speed v [m/s] nearby the drive and at the distance of 500 m v500 [m/s] from the conveyor face, as well as recorded
Figure 6. Location of measurement points.
Table 1. Parameters of belt conveyor type PT1.
displacements of belt stretching trolley, were used for determination of viscoelastic properties of the belt, particularly the value of dynamic modulus of elasticity.
The mathematical model of belt conveyor, described by ordinary differential equations, was adopted for simulated model study.
The dynamic model of the conveyor was verified for various loads of belt conveyor with transported material.
4 SIMULATION STUDIES
As soon as the model parameters of examined conveyors were verified, the simulation of conveyors’ startups at various loads of belt with transported material and
with the use of various starting devices has been carried out.
Figure 9 shows the forces in a belt near driving wheels as determined by mathematical simulation. Maximum values and time variations of forces during startup were
used for determination of indicators for evaluation of startup quality.
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Figure 7. Comparison of selected startup parameters of loaded belt conveyor type PT1 (Q=450 t/h −30% of rated load) obtained by
simulation with these determined by measurements.
Figure 8. Startup of belt conveyor type PT2:
a) graph of currents of A, B, D, and C motors.
b) graph of driving torques generated by A and B motors and transmitted by TVVS coupling.
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Figure 9. Time graph of forces in the belt of conveyor equipped with TVVS coupling.
Figure 10. Dynamic graph of forces—DynaBelt software.
Determination of forces acting in the belt of examined conveyor without, for instance, measurement of reaction forces in drum support points was possible thanks to the
existing gravitytype stretching device. This device was keeping the value of force in the belt near the driving drum leaving points close to the constant value depending
on the stretching weight.
The analysis of variations of selected parameters of PT2 conveyor shows that the course of startup with the use of TVVS couplings is correct, particularly when
motors are switched on in sequence (4× 160 kW—Fig. 8).
Computeraided simulation with the use of DynaBelt software shown that if four (ABDC) motors of
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the conveyor are switched on in turn with time delay of 0.7 seconds, the pulse values of starting currents do not add up. The ratio of maximum driving force to the force
in stationary motion (Pr/Pu ) decreases by some 10%, whereas the maximum value of force in the belt decreases by 5.4% relative to startup with all motors switched
on simultaneously.
5 DYNABELT
The DynaBelt software is designed for analysis of results of simulation examinations carried out on discrete model of the conveyor. The analysis of results refers to four
final key operating parameters of the conveyor’s model, i.e.:
– Forces in the belt,
– Accelerations of the belt,
– Belt speeds,
– Belt displacements,
– and three selected values determined during simulations, e.g. torques, power consumption, stroke and velocity of belt stretching trolley and so on.
Variations of these values can be observed in selected characteristic points of conveyor’s route, like points where the belt load or conveyor route profile changes or in
points where driving or tensioning devices are installed.
The analysis can be carried out in a multiversion way represented by individual options of the program, i.e.:
– dynamic (animated) graph of forces,
– static graphs of selected parameters,
– dynamic analysis—minimum, maximum and average forces and startup indicators,
– analysis of the correctness of assumed conveyor’s model.
6 SUMMARY
It should be stated that complexity of the belt conveyor’s model depends upon the purpose of model examinations. Accuracy of modelling the individual components is
different in case of examination of belt properties, friction resistances, takeup devices, configuration of conveyor’s route, starting devices or other structural element of
the conveyor.
Capabilities of multimass dynamic model in analysis of belt conveyor’s operation are enough to carry out the designer tasks. It should be remembered, however,
that reliability of results obtained depends, above all, on reliability of data entered into the model.
REFERENCES
Barfoot G.J.: Determining dynamic belt tensions using velocity measurement and computer simulation http:// www.saimh.co.za/, BELTCON 7 1993.
Jabłoński R., Grzbiela C., Kulinowski P., Furmanik K., Machowski A., Łoziak W., Jarocha R.:.—Analiza porównawcza urzadzeń łagodnego rozruchu przenośników
taśmowych: sprzęgieł hydrokinetycznych typu TVVS, rozruszników typu “softstart”, sprzęgieł ze zmiennym wypełnieniem typu TPKL, przemienników częstotliwości
(Comparative analysis of softstart devices for belt conveyors: fluid couplings type TWS, softstarters, fillcontrolled couplings type TPKL, and frequency converters).
Unpublished work, Kraków 2002.
Kulinowski P.: Badania modelowe nieustalonych stanów pracy przenośników taśmowych (Model studies of nonstationary states in operation of belt conveyors). PhD
dissertation, AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków 1997.
Kulinowski P.: Dynamische Anlaufberechnung für Gurtforderanlagen, dargestellt an einem Beispiel mit integrierter Flüssigkeitskupplung, Fördertechnik im Bergbau,
Clausthal—Zellerfeld 2004, pp. 159–172.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Mine equipment selection by using failure mode and effects and criticality
analysis
Ranjan Kumar & A.K.Ghosh
Central Mining Research Institute, Dhanbad, India
ABSTRACT: During acquisition of sophisticated and rugged mining machinery, generally speaking, purchasing decisions are made on the basis of past
experiences and supplier reputations without any application of engineering analysis techniques. At the moment, we have numerous traditional
engineering methods to select mining machineries. But, none of the methods emphasizes the assessment of reliability of machines before purchase
decision. If we look carefully, we will find that most of the problems are due to designer’s failure to foresee the system’s work load/profile and
working environment the design will be subjected to. Therefore, mining management should use a tool, Failure Mode Effect and Criticality Analysis
(FMECA), which can analyze a machine with better design among available machinery. FMECA provides a method of selecting a design with a high
probability of operational. In this expository paper, the principle of FMECA and its application with an example has been discussed for selecting mine
equipment.
1 INTRODUCTION
Equipment selection is a recurring and expensive problem of mine planning. Proper equipment selection can yield substantial saving in time and costs. The successful
operation of a mine will demand the best equipment configuration. In the selection of equipment, there is a considerable flexibility. A large variety of mine equipment is
available in the international markets. The objective of decisionmaking is to select the best combination from the entire set of available equipment.
In surface mining electric and hydraulic excavators, surface miners are used for excavating and leading the ore and various types of trucks, conveyors, railroad and
scrapers are used for hauling the excavated material. Industry trends are putting new demands on surface mining equipment. New large units have been and will be
introduced to market. The increasing scales of operation, the bigger the better concept of mega sized equipment and the total integration of various processes and unit
operations have given a new dimension to the problem of equipment selection. Continuously operationmining machines in conjunction with continuous conveyor
transport are being used more and more. While bucket wheel excavators are primarily used for soft rock, those of a compact design can be found in compact rock.
Continuous surface miners in particulars can be used for selective mining in compact rock.
Equipment selection possesses a challenge to the surface mining industry. Partial parameter list should be considered when selecting equipment is [1]:
Mine parameters: Life of mine, bench height, floor condition, optimum depth of cut, haul distance, and haul grade.
Characteristic of the O/B: Soil characteristics, swell factor material size, and ground pressure.
Types of equipment: Scrappers, front end loader, hydraulic excavators, backhoes, and electric shovels, trucks, conveyors etc.
Equipment characteristics: Bucket size, operating life, depth of cut, work cycle, and speed.
Production rate: Yielding amount of material to be excavated.
Operating costs: Including maintenance and repairs, tires, fuel, lubrication, electricity, and wages.
Although significant effort goes into the equipment selection process, most of what is done does not evaluate the design directly. Instead, the conventional approach
relies on qualitative and subjective selection criteria. The task of comparing dissimilar designs is more difficult than that of comparing similar design. Here, failure mode
effect analysis solves this difficulty.
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2 FMECA APPROACH
2.1 FMECA concept
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis is a reliability procedure which documents all possible failures in a system design within specified ground rules. It determines, by
failure mode analysis, the effect of each failure on system operation and identifies single failure points that are critical to mission success or crew safety. It may also rank
each failure according to the criticality category of failure effect and probability occurrence. This procedure is the result of two steps: the Failure Mode and Effect
Analysis (FMEA) and the Criticality Analysis (CA). In performing the analysis, each failure studied is considered to be the only failure in the system, i.e., a single failure
analysis. The FMEA can be accomplished without a CA, but a CA requires that the FMEA has previously identified critical failure modes for items in the system
design. When both steps are done, the total process is called a Failure Mode, Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA). FMEA utilizes inductive logic in a ‘bottoms
up’ approach. Beginning at the lowest level of the system hierarchy, (e.g., component part), and from a knowledge of the failure modes of each part, the analyst traces
up through the system hierarchy to determine the effect that each failure mode will have on system performance.
2.2 Purpose of FMECA
The FMEA provides:
1. A method of selecting a design with a high probability of operational success and crew safety.
2. A documented method of uniform style for assessing failure modes and their effect on operational success of the system.
3. Early visibility of system interface problems.
4. A list of possible failures, which can be ranked according to their category of effect and probability of occurrence.
5. Identification of single failure points critical to mission success or to crew safety.
6. Early criteria for test planning.
7. Quantitative and uniformly formatted data input to the reliability prediction, assessment, and safety models.
8. A basis for design and location of performance monitoring and fault sensing devices and other builtin automatic test equipment.
9. A tool, which serves as an aid in the evaluation of proposed design, operational, or procedural changes and their impact on mission success or crew safety.
2.3 Methodology
The FMEA is normally accomplished before a reliability prediction is made to provide basic information. It should be initiated as an integral part of the early design
process and should be periodically updated to reflect design changes. Admittedly, during the early stages, one usually does not have detailed knowledge of the
component parts to be used in equipment.
The FMEA consists of two phases, which provide a documented analysis for all critical components of a system. First, however, definitions of failure at the system,
subsystem, and sometimes even part level must be established [4].
The Phase 1:
This phase analysis consists of the following steps:
1. Constructing a symbolic logic block diagram, such as a reliability block diagram or a CauseConsequence chart.
2. Performing a failure effect analysis, taking into account modes of failure such as:
a. Open circuits
b. Short circuits
c. Dielectric breakdowns
d. Wear
e. Partparameter shifts
3. Proper system and item identification.
4. Preparation of a critical items list.
Phase 2:
This phase is implemented by performing the following steps:
1. The symbolic logic block diagram, failure effects analysis, coding, and critical items list are reviewed and brought uptodate.
2. Criticality is assigned, based on the item applicable failure mode, the system loss probability, the failure mode frequency ratio, and the item unreliability. The analysis
of criticality is essentially quantitative, based on a qualitative failure effects analysis.
Criticality CRij defined by the equition:
where,
(CR)ij=system failure rate due to item i’s failing in its mode j; αij=failure mode frequency ratio of item i for the failure mode j i.e., the ratio of failures of the type
being considered to all failures of the item; βij=loss probability of item i for failure mode j (i.e., the probability of system failure if the item fails). A suggested scale is
Certain Loss=1.00, Probable Loss ranges from 0.1 to 1.0, Possible Loss ranges from 0 to 0.10, No Effect −0.0; and λi=failure rate of item i.
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3. The system criticality is given by equation:
where,
(CR)S =system criticality (failure rate);
=Sum over all failure modes of item i;
=Sum over all items.
3 APPLICATION OF FMECA FOR EQUIPMENT SELECTION
The mining industry is characterized by that it does not produce any machine itself, most are bought from suppliers. The equipment is often large and expensive, and
operated for long hours in a harsh and demanding environment. Many of the applications are specialized and demand special operating skills. Research shares that 60
to 70% of system failure can be attributed to the design and construction, 25–30% to operating procedures, and 5–15% to maintenance [2]. If we look carefully, we
will fin d th at m os t o problems are due to designer’s failure to foresee the system’s work load/profile and working environment the design will be subjected to. Often
operational profile of the product is considered the working environment is not. Maintainability issues like repair time, repair cost, accessibility, diagnostic ability, and
serviceability should be planned and designed into the system from the beginning. The same argument is valid for reliability issues like downtime, uptime, availability,
dependability etc.
In brief, most of the problems can be tackled down to the design phase. The preference of considering failure at the design stage through FMECA is to find out the
most critical parts that affect the system failure and repair characteristics throughout the design life cycle. This emphasizes the importance of mapping the real need w.r.t.
how the equipment is to be operated and used, skills of the operators, maintenance strategy, and last, but may be most important, the environment in which machinery
is to be operated in, before purchasing the machine.
4 SELECTION OF DESIGN ALTERNATIVES
Let us take an example of two HEMMs. We have to evaluate the Failure Mode and its effects. HEMM contains seven major groups. Each group is independent in its
structure and function and contains further many assemblies and parts. Each group is made of electrical and mechanical parts.
Figure 1. Logic block diagram of an HEMM.
First step: Construct a symbolic logic block diagram and assign code to each block. (As shown in fig. 1)
Second Step: Perform a failure effect analysis, taking into account modes of failure. The Database of standard failure modes of different electrical and mechanical
parts can be found in MILHDBK338A.
Otherwise, it can be generated machine specific failure modes.
Third Step: Generate the failure rate of each and every lowest component of machine under consideration.
Fourth Step: Calculate the individual criticality of component.
Final step: To sum up all the criticality to evaluate the system criticality. All the calculations of each step are shown below for the fault indicator in attached criticality
worksheets.
5 FAULT INDICATOR (FI) EXAMPLE [3]
Failure Mode Effect Analysis has been done for two types of Fault Indicator(FI) of different machines ‘X’ and ‘Y’, as an example using criticality worksheet. This
panel is used during check out of the fault occurs within a machine’s major parts with Automatic Checkout System. It is a standard part of any modern machine. It has
several LED’s which locate faults, if any in the system. This panel also contains the switches for switching on and their frequency selection. The criticality sheets are
shown in separate pages. It has been found that the system criticality for the first FI ‘X’ is about 10.52 and for the other ‘Y’ comes around 7.70. We can recognize
without much pain the most critical items of the Fault Indicator. In
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SYSTEM:HEMM CRITCALITY WORK SHEET for SUBSYS TEM: Fault Indica
(X)
Item Code Function Failure Mode Failure Loss Probability Failure Mode Frequency Failure Rate per million Criticality
Effect (β) Ratio (a) Hours (λ) (CR)
LCD LD Display Dim Rows No output 1.00 0.39 0,0547 0.021333
Blank Display Wrong 0.10 0.22 0.0547 0.0012034
output
Fickering No output 1.00 0.20 0.0547 0.01094
Rows
Missing Wrong 0.10 0.19 0.0547 0.0010393
Elements output
CONNECTOR CON Connection Open No output 100 0.61 0.011 0.00671
Poor contact Wrong 0.10 0.23 0.011 0.000253
output
Short No effect 0.00 0.16 0.011 0.0000
RELAY RL Tripping Fails to trip No output 1.00 0.55 1.2 0.66000
Spurious Trip Wrong 0,10 0.26 1.2 0.0312
output
Short Wrong 0.10 0.19 12 0.0228
output
SWITCH SW Open No output 100 0.65 18 117000
Sticking Wrong 0.10 0.19 1.8 0.0342
output
Short Wrong 0.10 0’16 18 0.0288
output
SYSTEM:HEMM(Y) CRITICALITY WORK SHEET for SUBSYSTEM: Fault Indica(Y)
Item Code Function Failure Mode Failure Loss Probability Failure Mode Frequency Failure Rate per million Criticality
Effect (β) Ratio (α) Hours (λ) (CR)
LCD LD Display Dim Rows No output 1.00 0.39 0.0547 0.021333
Blank Display Wrong 0.10 0.22 0.0547 0.0012034
output
Fickering Rows No output 1.00 0.20 0.0547 0.01094
Missing Elements Wrong 0.10 0.19 0.0547 0.0010393
output
CONNECTOR CON Connection Open No output 1.00 0.61 0.011 0.00671
Poor contact Wrong 0.10 0.23 0.011 0.000253
output
Short No effect 0.00 0.16 0.011 0.0000
RELAY RL Tripping Fails to trip No output 1.00 0.55 1.2 0.66000
Spurious Trip Wrong 0.10 0.26 1.2 0.0312
output
Short Wrong 0.10 0.19 12 0.0228
output
SWITCH SW Open No output 1.00 0.65 1.8 1.17000
Sticking Wrong 0.10 0.19 1.8 0.0342
output
Short Wrong 0.10 0.16 1.8 0.0288
output
CRITICALITY OF FAULT INDICATOR=
the worksheet, calculation of the critical item is highlighted with color. The lower criticality is desirable for the equipment selection. Therefore, failure mode and effect
analysis can give us a prior measurement of potential failure associated with particular subsystem of large machinery. This analysis gives a quantitative figure to make a
decision for selecting equipment. Though, the failure rate here used is of MIL STD (Military Standard), it is not very difficult to find out failure rate of each item of a
machine which is used in mining operation. Also, mining industry will be greatly benefited if there be a standard and global database of failure rates of each part used in
mining machinery. In this connection, tripartite collaboration of mining industry, manufacturer, and R&D laboratory must be there to generate such database. This will
enable the mine equipment selection process by FMECA easy and compatible enough to match the requirement of a mining company.
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6 CONCLUSION
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis is like seeing the portion of iceberg that is underneath the surface. FMEA helps to envisage the potential failure component in
equipment. The purchasing company may not have necessary information to do FMEA themselves, and it is therefore of important to cooperate with the supplier. The
principles of FMEA are straightforward and easy to grasp. The practice of FMEA is tedious, time consuming but very profitable. It is best done in conjunction with
causeconsequence and Fault Tree Analysis. Practice shows that FMEA is an effective engineering tool for acquisition of better and effective system.
REFERENCES
Marteset, T. & Kumar, U., Application of LCC technique in selection of mining equipment and technology. In…. (ed.), Mine Planning and Equipment Selection; Proc.
intern. Symp. Wroclaw, 1–3 September 2004. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Ercelebi, S.G. & Kirmanli, C. 2000. Review of Surface mining equipment selection techniques. In….. (ed.), Mine Planning and Equipment Selection; Proc. intern.
Symp. Wroclaw, 1–3 September 2004. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Kumar, Ranjan & Raju, K.K. 2002. Reliability and Maintainability Prediction of Control and Guidance System. M. Tech Thesis, IIT Kharagpur.
MILHDBK338B. 1998. Electronic Reliability Design Handbook. Department of Defense USA.
Page 455
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
New technologies available to maximizing equipment reliability
M.D.Kuruppu
WA School of Mines, Curt in Universit y of Technology, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia
ABSTRACT: Modern haul trucks used in mining and construction are quite complex equipment that cater for the demands of large capacity, reliability,
ruggedness, efficiency and operator safety and comfort among others. They use heavy diesel engines, hydraulic control systems, complex suspensions
and large tyres. These subsystems are assisted by electronic control, data logging, and modern communication systems that enable continuous
monitoring of their performance by the operator and maintenance personnel. Maintenance is critical to ensure troublefree operation and make the
optimum use of the truck over its life span. Availability, reliability and maintainability are significant performance parameters that help to prevent
disruptions to the mining operations thus saving valuable resources. Key methods of maintenance that is used to enhance the performance are time
based equipment servicing, conditionbased maintenance, and reengineering. Each of them has a significant role to play as the deficiency of any one of
them can seriously affect the performance. By analysing the key performance parameters of a number of mining fleets consisting of modern large
trucks, it is shown that maintenance, communication, and advances in information technology contribute significantly to improve and control the mine
performance to benchmark standards.
1 INTRODUCTION
Australia is a major producer and exporter of mined materials. However, the prices of raw mined materials have been steadily decreasing over the decades and costs
should follow suit in order for the mining industry to remain profitable. Therefore the mining industry has embraced continuous improvement of operations. Such
measures include the implementation of technological advancements, optimisation of mine planning and operation, and the regular use of information technology for
better control the mining activities.
Some of the major new technologies that have been introduced with the aim of further optimising the operations are:
– Computerised truck dispatch systems
– Trolleyassist for speeding up the haul trucks in open pit ramps
– Equipment condition and performance monitoring
– Advanced sensor technology and communication systems
Advances such as Global Positioning Systems (GPS) as well as hardware and software able to communicate instantaneously has revolutionised the deployment,
control, troubleshooting and maintenance of surface mining equipment (Fig. 1). In recent times new technology has enabled the remote control and autonomous
operation of underground haul equipment such as loadhauldump trucks (LHD). Although the economic viability of remote and autonomous operation of equipment is
yet to be proven and the technology requires further improvement for regular use, these developments are in the right direction to minimise the requirement for
personnel deployed in hazardous areas of mining. In the area of maintenance, advanced communication technology has helped to monitor the condition of equipment
and to take corrective action before any failure occurs.
Figure 1. Truck and shovel operation in open pit mining.
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2 RECENT ADVANCES OF TECHNOLOGY
In addition to improving the functionality, quality and reliability of equipment and their subsystems the fast development of information technology has helped the
equipment manufacturers to develop computerised data acquisition and control methods to further improve the performance and reliability of equipment.
2.1 Fleet control and dispatch
Powerfiil computerised hardware/software have emerged to control and dispatch mining fleets of equipment during operation. They rely on GPS monitoring of
equipment location, status of each equipment based on sensor and communication technology, and the use of computerised optimisation algorithms. The current status
of technology however requires the manual introduction of mine planning information into the equipment control and dispatch algorithms (Golosinski 2000).
Some of the widely used dispatch control systems are DISPATCH developed by Modular Mining Systems (2003), WENCO developed by Wenco International
(2003), and Fleet Commander developed by Caterpillar Inc. (2000). These systems gather information using a variety of sources such as the production schedule,
GPS, sensors installed in equipment as well as operator inputs and translate into a equipment dispatch control system to optimise the available resources. They usually
provide guidance to the operators to optimise the tasks to be carried out and may even determine what and how is to be mined based on production targets.
Dispatch systems ensure that an optimum number of trucks are supplied to meet the loading units’ requirements. This is done by working out all the possible routes
from the shovel or loader to all the dumps and then back to the shovel using the road network. The system analyses the travel time for each section of the haul route,
the status of each shovel and its dig rates, status of all trucks including delays before deciding where the truck is needed most.
2.2 Equipment condition and performanc monitoring
Modern mining equipment are fitted with a vast array of sensors for online monitoring of the mechanical condition (e.g. temperature, hydraulic pressures etc.) as well as
the operational performance (e.g. payload, speed etc.). This information can be assessed by the operator, stored in an onboard computer or directly transmitted to a
central inhouse computer for immediate or subsequent use. Equipment condition information is useful for predictive or proactive maintenance, monitor severity of
equipment operating conditions, removal decision of equipment for repair, and to manage haul road maintenance. Performance information is usually used for
production monitoring, control, optimisation and production analysis. For example Caterpillar uses Vital Information Management System (VIMS) for this purpose and
other manufacturers have their own hardware and software systems.
VIMS system gathers data and monitors over 250 vital machine functions and areas including temperature, pressure and brake performance in a modern large truck.
Once an abnormal condition or event is detected, the event is further analysed by the computer/sensor system and alerts the operator and service personnel. Three
levels of warning are given depending on the severity of the event. VIMS also provides information required for payload management including truck weight speed
management (TWSM). Road Analysis Control (RAC) sub model measures the condition of the haul road by monitoring the strut pressures, thus alerting the operator of
any bias, pitching or racking. This information can be used to improve the condition of the haul road as well.
Recently Caterpillar introduced Minestar software that allows transfer of information and coordination of several other control software developed previously. These
include machine health monitoring system, machinetracking system, machine production monitoring system and VIMS among others. This system facilitates easy
management of diverse functions of the mining equipment in addition to remote monitoring and recording of information. Modular Mining System (2003) also developed
INTELLIMINE software incorporating a number of their proven systems such as DISPATCH used for fleet control and VHS, vehicle health system that monitors
equipment condition (Golosinski 2000).
However there are some problems associated with complicated hardware systems. One such problem is that many sensors lack the ruggedness required to
withstand the harsh mining conditions and fail frequently. Another common problem is the failure of communication and the resulting loss of data if a remote computer is
used for data acquisition. The high degree of attention required for maintaining these systems is sometimes unwarranted.
2.3 Other technologies
Mines use a combination of strategies to optimise maintenance including preventive maintenance, computerised maintenance management systems, and using
information technology for health monitoring and fault diagnostics. In addition, reengineering has often been used to be necessary to fix recurring major
Page 457
problems such as engine or hydraulic overheating, lack of power or other malfunctions and failures. Reengineering involves redesigning an existing unsatisfactory
system or replacing with a more functional component (Tomlingson 1985).
The autonomous operation of equipment while highly desirable for underground conditions may not be that desirable for surface mining. This technology still has to
address the probability of hazard detection and avoidance, high degree of flexibility expected from surface haul trucks, reliability of sensor and communication systems
and high cost of software and hardware. It appears that manual equipment operation will be preferred for surface mining equipment in the foreseeable future.
Trolley assisted haulage systems where electrical power from an overhead trolley wire is fed directly to the wheel motors via pantographs and onboard control
system of electric haul trucks can be beneficial to some surface mining operations. The external electrical power is used for the operation of the truck fleet as and when
required. This eliminates power supply restriction traditionally imposed by limited truck engine horsepower thus allowing for faster truck speeds on ramps. This
increased speed translates directly into higher productivity. Additional cost advantages can be gained by substitution of expensive diesel fuel by relatively cheap electric
power. Although certain disadvantages are associated with trolley assist truck operation, such as the restriction of truck mobility, overall cost reductions are possible.
Moreover, the use of electricity as a power supply keeps the mine less polluted while improving health and working conditions of the workforce (Kuruppu &
Golosinski 1998).
Tyres are high cost consumables used in mining trucks and the proper management and timely replacement is extremely important. Ground engaging teeth (GET) is
another high cost consumable used in shovels and underground LHD trucks. Mining industry makes use of software tools developed for vendor selection, optimising
purchase contracts, inventory control, and for the proper management of them when fitted into equipment.
3 CASE STUDY OF TRUCK PERFORMANCE
A comprehensive study of the performance of truck fleets in three large openpit mining operations were carried out to determine the comparative performance and
efficiency of truck haulage. The study reveals the effectiveness of the operational strategies such as truck dispatch systems, and the mechanical reliability and
maintenance effectiveness. All the mines employed over 20 large trucks in each of them and required a number of loaders to match the haulage fleet. First mine (mine
A) is a large coal operation having heavy overburden removal. Second and third mines (B and C respectively) are hard rock operations both having high degree of
overburden rock removal. In comparison mine A removes relatively softer material than mines B and C. All three mines operate round the clock 7 days a week. Each
of them has a continuous improvement system aimed at ever increasing the performance.
A number of key performance indicators (KPI) that reflect the availability, utilisation, reliability and the maintenance effectiveness were deteimined in order to
measure the relative performance of each of the truck fleet. Moreover, KPI can be used for benchmarking if compared with welloptimised operations. They also give
information of any room available for further optimisation (Wireman 1998, Neely et al. 1997). The information required to determine these performance parameters can
be obtained from equipment operating and downtime log and mine work schedule. Typically each mine uses its own inhouse set of KPI for performance reporting.
However, this analysis used one specific set of KPIs defined as follows:
(1)
where Available hours=rostered hours—(downtime+lost time).
(2)
where Utilised hours=Available hours—equipment idle hours.
(3)
(4)
where MTBF is mean time between failures that describes the reliability of the equipment.
(5)
where MTTR is mean time to repair that describes the maintainability of equipment and maintenance efficiency of the organisation.
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Table 1. Key performance indicators.
The KPI values were determined by analysing the time breakdown of each truck performance over a certain period such as 6 months (Tables 1). They were calculated
for each month in the first instance and averaged over a period up to 6months. They are expressed as percentages wherever necessary.
Mine A has three different makes of trucks and maintenance is done inhouse. The mine has access to all the latest technology available for optimising the
maintenance and the deployment of trucks. However they are yet to embrace other work practices such as hot seat changes. The availability is satisfactory. However,
the equipment utilisation has room for improvement. The reliability of the fleet is very good as indicated by high mean time before failure, MTBF. However, the
maintenance efficiency is poor as given by 25 hours in comparison to 10 hours or less as expected from a maintenance organisation of a similar mining fleet.
All KPIs in Mine B are good despite the fact that this operation is situated far from population centres and the work force commutes to the mine by flyin and flyout
from the nearest city. There has been some disruption to maintenance as well as equipment utilisation due to the rigid roster of the operation. Nevertheless the operation
makes full use of the available resources such as a modern dispatch system and a welltrained inhouse maintenance crew.
Mine C also has a fleet of large modern trucks produced mainly by a single manufacturer. This mine too makes use of an advanced dispatch control system.
Maintenance is provided by the vendor of the equipment and performed by skilled technicians. It has the highest availability of all three fleets (85%) and it reflects the
condition and the quality of the equipment, operating environment such as the haul road condition, and the quality of maintenance support. The mine maintains a
reasonable level of utilisation using strategies such as dispatch control, hotseat change and regular operator training. Efficiency of repair and maintenance is shown by
the low mean time to repair. However, the reliability measured by MTBF is relatively low showing some concern of the quality of maintenance.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Australian mining industry has been adopting new technologies to optimise the performance of mining operations in order to reduce the overall cost of operations and
improving safety of miners. Some of these technologies are computerised maintenance management systems including machine health monitoring, truck dispatch
systems, and remote operation of underground trucks. Despite all the recent advances of equipment reliability management and control, the fact remains that there are
still too many breakdowns of equipment that disrupt the normal functioning of critical mining operations. This situation is aggravated by the increasing complexity of
mining equipment, and ever increasing size of equipment hitting the technological barriers (e.g. in the case of tyres). Improving the quality and the reliability of
components and subsystems, developing computerised communication systems which are easy to implement and use by all mine operators and facilitating methods for
easy repair are some of the areas requiring attention by both the manufacturers and the users of equipment.
The performance of mining fleets of three large open pit mines employing large haul trucks and latest available technology was analysed using the availability,
utilisation, reliability and maintenance efficiency indicators. All the operations were found to have satisfactory performance of equipment availability. However, the
utilisation was low in some cases indicating that there is room for operational improvements. Other areas of concern are low equipment reliability that can cause
frequent disruptions to the mining operations and inefficient maintenance that can lead to increased down time.
REFERENCES
Caterpillar, Inc. 2000. Company product information, www.cat.com
Golosinski, T.S. 2000. Advances in Automation and Robotization of Open Pit Mining, In T.S.Golosinski,
Page 459
(ed.), Mining in the New Millenium—Challenges and Opportunities: Proc. AmericanPolish Mining Symp., Las Vegas, Oct. 2000, 145–152. Rotterdam:
Balkema.
Kuruppu, M.D. & Golosinski, T.S. 1998. Maintenance Practices of Mining Machinery—A Western Australian Perspective, In R.K.Singhal, (ed.), Mine Planning and
Equipment Selection: Proc. Intern. Symp., Calgary, 6–9 October 1998. 607–612. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Modular Mining System Inc. 2003. www.modularmining. com/profile. shtml.
Neely, A., Richards, H., Mills, J., Platts, K. & Bourne, M. 1991.Int. J. of Operations and Production Manage 17:1131–1152.
Tomlingson, P.D. 1985. Maintenance Management Information Systems, Maclean Hunter: Chicago.
Wenco International 2003. www.wencomine.com/
Wireman, T. 1998. Developing Performance Indicators for Managing Maintenance, Industrial Press Inc.: New York.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Testing of conveyor belts made by the FTT Stomil Wolbrom S.A. Company and
used in modern conveyors designed for underground mining applications
A.Lutyński & M.Lutyński
Silesian Technical University, Gliwice, Poland
J.Dyduch
FTT Stomil Wolbrom S.A. Company, Wolbrom, Poland
ABSTRACT: The selected design solutions of belt conveyors of the new generation which are in operation in Polish coal mines and in which conveyor
belts made by FTT Stomil Wolbrom S.A. Company have been incorporated will be presented in the paper.
Moreover, the paper will contain results of testing of physical and mechanical properties of the belt types operated in the belt conveyors described
therein.
1 INTRODUCTION
The restructuring process related changes, that take place in underground workings of coal mines, entail an essential increase of tasks with which transport systems for
conveying of runofmine coal are faced. With a view to the expectations of ever higher transportation capacities, a structure of systems for conveying the runofmine
coal is being changed. Over the last few years belt conveyors have very successfully replaced mine rail transport systems. Their modern constructions allow horizontal
and space curves of the existing transport roads to be negotiated. Belt conveyors find often application on inclines which connect working levels of a mine. A number of
the developed solutions have proved to be very suitable for use in place of vertical transport means—mine hoists. The available design solutions have been practically
implemented into mining operations. New designs of conveyors and of their assemblies have been developed and implemented in answer to changes of the runofmine
stream in respect of its volume, high safety requirements and diversifying of transportation tasks. Considering new objectives to be realized by mine transport means
and new solutions of conveyors that have been developed, it became necessary to introduce novel conveyor belts into production and service. Such innovatory
activities have been carried out by the Fabryka Tasm Transporterowych STOMIL WOLBROM S.A. (Factory of Conveyor Belts STOMIL WOLBROM Joint Stock
Company), a leading producer of conveyor belts on the Polish market, for many years (Antoniak et al. 1995). The Factory was established in 1908, when the Swiss
Piotr (Peter) Westen and Otto Dulla founded the Wolbrom Division of the Olkusz Shareholders Society of the Iron and Metal Industry. In the space of its history of
nearly a hundred years the Factory has gone through a number of transformation processes becoming a modern plant, well known on the home market and abroad.
The Fabryka Taśm Transporterowych STOMIL WOLBROM S.A. (Factory of Conveyor Belts STOMIL WOLBROM Joint Stock Company) has earned a
reputation for developing the belt conveyors designed for underground mining applications, where specific and very stringent safety requirements as regards slow
burning and antielectrostatic properties of nonmetallic materials are in force (Dyduch & Robakowski 2001). It was the first Polish Company which produced a flame
resistant fabric and rubber belt in 1960, a rubber belt with steel cords in 1997 and a slow burning fabric and rubber belt in 1992. During the last 10 years the Fabryka
Taśm Transporterowych STOMIL WOLBROM S.A. (Factory of Conveyor Belts STOMIL WOLBROM Joint Stock Company) has developed and implemented a
number of types and versions of belts well suited for underground mining to satisfy the market demand. From those
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solutions it is worth to mention the following slow burning belts:
• fabric and rubber, multiple interlayer belts,
• belts with steel cords,
• belts with metal wire cloth of the Fleximat type,
• belts with a monoply core (single ply and multiple ply).
2 MODERN BELT CONVEYORS USED IN POLISH MINES
The aforenamed restructuring changes taking place in hard coal mines and high technical requirements to be met by transport systems for conveying the runofmine
coal, ensuing from the restructuring process, provided the motivation for developing of quite a few interesting solutions of belt conveyors. Some of such design solutions
have been described thereinafter and parameters of particular conveyors are presented in Table 1 (Antoniak 2000, Lutyński et al. 2001). One of the longest belt
conveyors installed in the Polish underground mines is the PIOMA 1200 Bg conveyor operating since 1994 in the “Bogdanka” Coal Mine at the 960 m level. This
conveyor together with two much shorter conveyors has replaced the road transport over a distance of 3000 m. The conveyor has an intermediate drive of “beltbelt”
type of the total length of 120 m and with the belt contact over the length of 75 m. The width of an auxiliary drive belt, which manufacturer is also FTT STOMIL
WOLBROM S.A., is 1000mm. The power of motors of the main drive amounts to 2×160 kW and the motor of the intermediate drive has the power of 100 kW.
Thus, the total installed power of driving motors is 420 kW. The intermediate drive is installed at a distance of 1673 m from the discharging station. A tensioning follow
up twocarriage unit with carriages coupled with lines of the constant transmission ratio i=6, has been used in the conveyor. The GTP 800/2–2–1–1200 belt has been
installed in the conveyor. This was an innovative belt of the GTP series in the Polish mining industry, slowburning, chloroprene belt, with two interlayers, of the tensile
strength of 800 kN/m, with covers of 2–4 mm in thickness and unit weight of 20,5 kg/m. 19 segments of the belt glued with Cement SC 2000 produced by TIPTOP
Stahlgruber formed a loop of the belt installed in the conveyor. The conveyor has been working for ten years with the 90%95% efficiency of the rated value and has
transported about 24 mln Mg of coal so far. About 800m of the belt i.e. ca. 16%, have been replaced. The installed belt of the GTP 800/2–2–1–1200 type is being
replaced by the GTP 1000/2–2–1–1200 belt. The average life of the belt splicing as obtained in the course of its operation was of 4.5 years.
A conveyor equipped with the GTP 1250/3–2–1–1400 belt of 1400 mm in width, that has been in operation at the Piast Coal Mine at 650 m level since 1995, is the
first Polish belt conveyor that had been installed in underground working of the mine. The total length of this conveyor is 2199 m and its equipment incorporates two
drives: a main drive and an auxiliary drive the total power of which amounts to 5×132 kW. The auxiliary drive is situated within a conveyor track at a distance of 889 m
before a horizontal curve. The curve length is of about 30 m, its radius is 480 m and an angle of the track deflection is 3.15°. In the top belt, over a length of the curve
there are special sets of idler rollers whose troughing is set hydraulically. Thyristor starters, which serve for soft starting up of the conveyor, have been incorporated into
its drives.
The Bogda—1400 conveyor equipped with a slowburning belt with steel cords, installed on an interlevel incline in the Jankowice Coal Mine late in the year 2000,
can serve as an interesting example of application of this type of belt.
Table 1. Technical characteristics of polish modern belt conveyors equipped with FTT Stomil Wolbrom S.A. belts.
Coal mine
Characteristic parameters Bogdanka Piast Jankowice Silesia Ziemowit
Length, m 2450 2157 1080 746 960
Carrying capacity, t/h 950 1550 2000 800 1000
Belt width, mm 1200 1400 1400 1000 1200
Haulage height, m 0 0 165 152 −232
Radius of horizontal curvature,° – 3.15 5 6 –
Belt speed, m/s 2.0 3.25 1.6–3.8/2.5 2.5 2.5
Number of drives 2 2 1 2 1
Power of drives, kW 2×1×160+ 100 3×132+ 2×132 2×2×355 2×1×200+ 1×200 2×250+ ret.100kW
Soft startup system Voith couplings Thyristor starter Frequency converter Voith couplings Frequency converter
Belt type GTP–800/2 GTP–1250/3 GTPST–3150 GTP–1250/3 GTP–1600/4
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The described conveyor of the total length of 1080 m is rising over a length of 910 m at an angle of 9°50′. The end segment of the conveyor 170 m long is horizontal
at the beginning and in the area of the discharging station it slopes at an angle of 5°50′. The incline, on which the conveyor is situated, is deflected spatially at an angle of
5° at a distance of about 660 m from the turning station. A space curve radius of the conveyor is 600 m.
A special belt of GTPST–3150–10/8–2–1–1400 type characterized by a very high lengthwise cut resistance has been manufactured to be incorporated into that
conveyor. Such a high lengthwise cut resisance has been achieved due to 30 m segments of metal breaker of the BF 125 type being vulcanized inside the belt every 30
m. The performed tests have shown that in spite of its reinforcement with metal breaker the belt can form a trough with side idler roller being inclined at an angle of up
to 60°.
The followup station equipped with a hydraulic cylinder and a hydraulic winch, designed to balance the permanent belt elongation, have been applied in the
conveyor. Frequency converters control motors allowing the belt speed to be adjusted to 2.5 m/s for manriding applications and to 1.6 to 3.8 during runofmine
transportation. Stationary speed of the belt is 3.15 m/s.
Unlike the methods of negotiating of space curves that have been presented so far, the design solution of a belt conveyor used in the Silesia Coal Mine is offered.
The conveyor characterized by a length of 746 m and an average inclination of 11.8° at a distance of 418m from the turning station passes from the inclination of 8.8°
to the inclination of 15.7°. At the same time it negotiates a bending in the horizontal plane at an angle of 6°. It is estimated that during the stationary run of the belt, a
force the value of which exceeds 88 kN is present at a place of conveyor bending. Thus, it was necessary to generate a vertical force so that a belt could be pressed
down to the conveyor track providing for proper conveyor operation with its belt not being lifted. The problem has been solved by using of an intermediate transferring
drive of 200 kW in power. This has brought about reducing of the force occurring in the belt to 42 kN at the same time. The application of the intermediate drive not
only made it possible to negotiate a curve but also allowed the GTP–12503–2–1–1000 belt to be used in place of the belt of 1800 kN/m in strength. The bottom belt
changes the direction of its run at another place than the top belt so that the height of the conveyor structure might be limited in the area of track bending. Soft starting
up of the conveyor is assured owing to fluid couplings type 562 TVVS of the Voith Company incorporated in its drives.
An interesting design solution is also embodied in a belt conveyor installed at the Ziemowit Coal Mine to transport the runofmine coal downwards the incline of
13°. The belt is 960 m long and the difference in levels of loading of the runofmine coal and of its discharging is 232 m. The conveyor drive is provided by two 250
kW motors being controlled with frequency converters made by CARBOAUTOMATYKA S.A. The applied control systems enable to recover the electric energy
and to transmit it to the network. An interesting feature of the described solutions consists in introducing of a hydraulic retarder of the Voith Company which makes it
possible to apply continuous braking of 100 kW power. It is the first case of implementation of a retarder in a conveyor designed for mining applications (Pycek et al.
2003). This solution of the driving and braking operations has allowed a belt of the GTP–1600/4–2–1–1200 type to be incorporated into the conveyor.
3 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF BELTS DESIGNED FOR MODERN BELT CONVEYORS
The fulfillment of high requirements to be met by underground transport based on conveyors is, to a considerable degree, feasible owing to physical and mechanical
properties of conveyor belts. Therefore, these properties should correspond to a given type of belt as well as be conformable to existing requirements. This conformity
is, in practice, verified in the course of manufacturing of a belt. The final verification of these properties is performed by authorized institutions, after having carried out
the pertinent tests.
On the basis of the tests the State Mining Authority issues approvals for belts to be operated in underground workings of mines under conditions of natural hazards
encountered there. The FTT STOMIL WOLBROM S.A. offers sixtysix conveyor belts characterized by different make of their core and approved by the State
Mining Authority for underground operation. Recently, i.e. late in the past year and in this year, approvals for the following belts were obtained:
– GTP embracing the types: GTP800/2, GTP1000/ 2 and 1000/3; GTP1250/3 and 1250/4; GTP1400/ 4; GTP1600/3 and 1600/4 as well as GTP2000/4 all of
them being of 800 to 1800 mm in width,
– GTPEP with covers made from nitrile rubber, reinforced with polyester and polyamide fabric (EP) embracing the types: GTPEP800/2, GTPEP1000/2 and
1000/3; GTPEP1250/3; GTPEP1400/4; GTPEP1600/4 as well as GTPEP2000/ 4, GTPEP2500/5, all of them being of 650 to 1800 mm in width.
Moreover, the Factory obtained approvals for underground operation in copper ore mines for the belts: GTPM1800/5, GTPM2000/5 as well as GTP
M1600/2EPP and GTPE2000/2EPP.
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Table 2. Results of testing of physical and mechanical properties of a slow burning belt of the GTP800/2 type.
Strength parameters Time of burning of a sample
Unit elongation, Resistance to delamination, With covers, s Without covers, s
% kN/m
No. of belt Tensile strength Surface resistance× 107
Item segment kN/m E10 Er pp po Mean Maximum Mean Maximum [Ω]
1 1495 864 2 26 7.3 5.8 0.6 0.6 1 1 5.8
2 1496 901 2 26 7.3 5.8 0.6 0.6 1 1 5.8
3 1497 868 2 27 7.6 5.8 0.6 0.6 1 1 5.8
4 1512 810 2 23 7.8 6.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 5.8
5 1513 908 2 26 7.6 7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 5.8
6 1514 923 2 26 7.6 7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 5.8
7 1624 1002 1 20 7.3 6.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.1
8 1807 1040 1.5 18 7.5 5.9 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.1
9 1816 910 2.5 25 9 7.3 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.1
10 45 830 2 22 8.4 6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 5.2
11 62 845 2 25 8 6.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.069
12 63 935 2 22 8.9 6.3 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.069
13 232 827 2 23 7.5 6.4 0.6 0.6 2.1 6 0.12
14 233 834 2 24 6.7 5.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.12
15 260 931 2 26 7.6 6.2 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.12
16 307 998 2 27 7.4 6.7 0.6 0.6 5.8 12 0.12
17 314 965 2 26 8.5 6.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.12
The verification of physical and mechanical properties being performed within the whole process of manufacturing is possible due to the Quality Assurance System ISO
9001 according to ENISO 9001 1994 that was implemented in the Factory in the year 1995. Over the years this system has been subjected to transformation and to
procedures which allowed the system to be adapted to varying and modified requirements. The system being used at present satisfies all requirements of the pertinent
standard PNEN ISO 9001:2001.
Results of a statistical analysis of the selected physical and mechanical properties of the belt types, which have found application in the described belt conveyors will
be presented thereinafter. The results have been obtained during tests of belts coming from the normal manufacturing range of the Factory. Samples with the following
sample sizes have been taken for particular belt types: GTP800/2–17, GTP1000/2–21, GTP1250/3–16, GTP1600/4–15. Thebelt GTPST3150–10/8–2–1–1400
operated in a conveyor installed at the Jankowice Coal Mine has been ignored during tests because this belt is a single product. The results of tests contain data relating
to the belt being at present installed in a conveyor at the Bogdanka Coal Mine, also the belt of the GTP 1000/2–2–1–1200 type. These are the physical and
mechanical properties of belts under testing (see Tables 2–5 for results):
– tensile strength of belt,
– unit elongation of belt when being under load corresponding to 10% of its nominal strength,
– unit elongation of belt at breaking,
– resistance to delamination between interlayers (pp), resistance to delamination between an interlayer and a cover (po),
– mean and maximum time of burning of a sample without covers when evaluating the flame resistance by means of a flame test,
– electrostatic property, measured as surface resistance (maximal value).
When making use of the Statgraphic program version 5.0i (Sobczyk 1997) a statistical analysis of the results of tests of physical and mechanical properties of conveyor
belts under consideration, contained in Tables 2 to 5, has been carried out.
Basic parameters of characteristics describing the distribution of features (physical and mechanical properties) being tested have been determined. In the statistical
analysis there are left out of account the electrostatic property, because only the maximal value obtained during tests is of essential importance for its evaluation, as well
as a unit elongation of belt at breaking and the maximum burning time of a sample, because they are less essential.
These are measures describing the distributions of properties being tested within the analysis carried out:
– positions determining the central tending of a value of the characteristic, arithmetic average, median, modal value;
– dispersion of the characteristic, variance, standard deviation, minimum value, maximal value, range;
– skewness and kurtosis.
Page 465
Table 3. Results of testing of physical and mechanical properties of a slow burning belt of the GTP1000/2 type.
Strength parameters Time of burning of a sample
Unit elongation, Resistance to delamination, With covers, s Without covers, s
% kN/m
No. of belt Tensile strength Surface resistance×107
Item segment kN/m E10 Er pp po Mean Maximum Mean Maximum [Ω]
1 1581 1111 3 30 9.4 7.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 5.8
2 1646 1081 3 30 7.1 7.4 0.6 0.6 1.5 2 4.1
3 1693 1240 2.5 28 8.4 7.2 0.6 0.6 5.6 11 4.1
4 1726 1222 3 30 7.8 6.7 0.6 0.6 4 15 4.
5 1727 1222 3 30 7.8 6.7 0.6 0.6 4 15 4.
6 1728 1129 3 30 9.6 7.1 0.6 0.6 3.7 10 4.
7 1729 1132 3 28 9.5 6.6 0.6 0.6 4.8 11 4.
8 1742 1189 2.5 28 7.5 6.8 0.6 0.6 1.5 6 4.
9 1743 1016 2.5 27 7.1 6.4 0.6 0.6 5.6 15 4.
10 51 1010 3 28 7.2 6.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.52
11 55 1004 2.5 25 7.8 6.9 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.069
12 94 1115 2 24 8 6.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.069
13 95 1115 2 24 8 6.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.069
14 100 1037 1 22 7.8 6.4 0.6 0.6 1 1 0.069
15 101 1037 1 22 7.8 6.4 0.6 0.6 1 1 0.069
16 110 1229 2 25 7.4 6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.069
17 111 1229 2 25 7.4 6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.069
18 112 1175 2 26 7.8 6.4 0.6 0.6 1 1 0.069
19 121 1101 2 23 8.6 6.7 0.6 0.6 1 1 0.069
20 122 1101 2 27 8.2 6.1 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.069
21 123 1101 2 27 8.2 6.1 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.069
Table 4. Results of testing of physical and mechanical properties of a slow burning belt of the GT P 125 type.
Strength parameters Time of burning of a sample
Unit elongation, Resistance to delamination, With covers, s Without covers,
% kN/m s
No. of belt Tensile strength Surface resistance × 107
Item segment kN/m E10 Er pp po Mean Maximum Mean Maximum [Ω]
1 1672 1447 2.5 27 7.2 7.1 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.1
2 1673 1384 2.5 27 7.5 7.3 0.6 0.6 7.8 15 4.1
3 1674 1424 3 28 8.2 7.7 0.6 0.6 2.8 7 4.1
4 1686 1433 3 27 6.6 6.7 0.6 0.6 2.5 8 4.1
5 1687 1508 3 28 7.1 6.8 0.6 0.6 2.8 14 4.1
6 1691 1517 3 28 7.8 7.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.1
7 1692 1379 3 27 7.5 7.1 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.1
8 1704 1388 3 28 7.3 7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.1
9 1706 1415 2.5 28 7.4 6.9 0.6 0.6 7.3 14 4.1
10 1707 1482 2.5 26 8.3 7.5 0.6 0.6 4.6 12 4.1
11 1711 1482 2.5 28 7.6 7.6 0.6 0.6 1 1 4.1
12 1712 1487 3 28 7.7 7.5 0.6 0.6 3.8 15 4.1
13 1721 1333 2.5 26 7.3 7.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.1
14 1722 1422 3 28 8.4 7.9 0.6 0.6 2.3 11 4.1
15 1723 1447 2.5 28 7.7 7.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.1
16 1724 1393 2 22 7.6 7.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.1
Findings of the analysis are presented in Tables 6– 9. From the statistics presented in Tables 6 to 9 it appears that measures of the central position (concentration) i.e.
an arithmetic average, a median and a modal value assume values above the minimum value determined under proper technical conditions of manufacture and according
to pertinent standards. Values of the nominal tensile strength are exceeded to
Page 466
Table 5. Results of testing of physical and mechanical properties of a slow burning belt of the GTP1600/4 type.
Strength parameters Time of burning of a sample
Unit elongation, Resistance to delamination, With covers, s Without covers,
% kN/m s
No. of belt Tensile strength Surfaces resitance×107
Item segment kN/m E10 Er pp po Mean Maximum Mean maximum [Ω]
1 20 1774 3 30 7.6 7.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.38
2 26 1818 3 27 6.7 6.9 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.38
3 35 1711 3 29 6.5 6.9 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.83
4 37 1829 3 26 6.9 6.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.83
5 51 1676 3 28 7.2 7.3 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.83
6 58 1821 3 25 6.8 6.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.83
7 66 1792 3 24 7 7.1 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.83
8 68 1633 3 30 6.7 6.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.83
9 156 1718 2.5 30 8.7 7.3 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 8.3
10 157 1736 3 29 8.4 8.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 8.3
11 165 1705 3 28 8.8 7.4 0.6 0.6 1 2 8.3
12 188 1635 2.5 28 9 8.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 8.3
13 195 1642 3 28 8.6 8.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 8.3
14 202 1724 3 30 8.8 8.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 8.3
15 213 1666 3 29 9.2 9 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 8.3
Table 6. Measures describing the characteristics of physical and mechanical properties under testing of a slow burning belt of the GTP800/2 type.
Strength parameters
Resistance to delamination, kN/m Mean time of burning of a sample, s
Item Statistical measure Tensile strength, kN/m Elongation E10, % pp po With covers Without covers
1 Number of measurements 17 17 17 17 17 17
2 Arithmetic average 905.35 1.88 7.76 6.36 0.6 1.06
3 Median 908 2 7.6 6.4 0.6 0.6
4 Modal value 901 2 7.6 5.8 0.6 0.6
5 Variance 4640.99 0.14 0.37 0.23 0 1.63
6 Standard deviation 68.12 0.38 0.61 0.48 0 1.28
7 Minimum value 810 1 6.7 5.8 0.6 0.6
8 Maximal value 1040 2.5 9 7.3 0.6 5.8
9 Range 230 1.5 2.3 1.5 0 5.2
10 Skewness factor 0.43 −1.56 0.75 0.36 0 3.61
11 Kurtosis −0.70 2.62 0.19 −0.85 0 13.61
a different extent for particular type sizes and range from several to anywhere from ten to twenty per cent. A median and a modal value differ in their values by several
per cent. In case of the resistance to delamination these measures have been exceeded by more than 50% and 100%.
The parameters of belt elongation under load corresponding to 10% of the nominal strength, of flame resistance expressed as the mean burning time reach values
below the maximum permissible value as per the technical specifications.
Measures of dispersion of the characteristic (a variance, a standard deviation, a range) are approximate one to another. This indicates that, for example, the tensile
strength, the resistance to delamination or elongations have similar range of the occurrence of a characteristic, within which 2/3 of all values of the parameters
population are contained.
In case of burning times determining the flame resistance degree values of the measures of concentration coincide, practically, irrespective of the belt type. Measures
of dispersion and skewness assume
Page 467
Table 7. Measures describing the characteristics of physical and mechanical properties under testing of a slow burning belt of the GTP1000/2 type.
Strength parameters
Resistance to delamination, kN/m Mean time of burning of a sample, s
Item Statistical measure Tensile strength, kN/m Elongation E10, % pp po With covers Without covers
1 Number of measurements 21 21 21 21 21 21
2 Arithmetic average 1123.62 2.33 8.02 6.63 0.6 1.91
3 Median 1115 2.5 7.8 6.7 0.6 1
4 Modal value 1101 2 7.8 6.7 0.6 0.6
5 Variance 5979.55 0.38 0.54 0.19 0 3.33
6 Standard deviation 77.33 0.62 0.74 0.43 0 1.83
7 Minimum value 1004 1 7.1 6 0.6 0.6
8 Maximal value 1240 3 9.6 7.6 0.6 5.6
9 Range 236 2 2.5 1.6 0 5
10 Skewness factor 0.05 −0.69 1.01 0.52 0 1.14
11 Kurtosis −1.12 0.08 0.43 −0.05 0 −0.35
Table 8. Measures describing the characteristics of physical and mechanical properties under testing of a slow burning belt of the GTP1250/3 type.
Strength parameters
Resistance to delamination, kN/m Mean time of burning of a sample, s
Item Statistical measure Tensile strength, kN/m Elongation E10, % pp po With covers Without covers
1 Number of measurements 16 16 16 16 16 16
2 Arithmetic average 1433.81 2.72 7.58 7.31 0.6 2.57
3 Median 1428.5 2.75 7.55 7.4 0.6 2.3
4 Modal value 1482 3 7.3 7.5 0.6 0.6
5 Variance 2683.23 0.10 0.21 0.12 0 5.81
6 Standard deviation 51.80 0.31 0.46 0.35 0 2.41
7 Minimum value 1333 2 6.6 6.7 0.6 0.6
8 Maximal value 1517 3 8.4 7.9 0.6 7.8
9 Range 184 1 1.8 1.2 0 7.2
10 Skewness factor −0.07 −0.65 0.01 −0.27 0 1.24
11 Kurtosis −0.63 −0.32 0.35 −0.85 0 0.69
values “0”. This is indicative of a symmetrical distribution of this characteristic and that there is not any change of values.
4 SUMMARY
The transformation process occurring in the Polish hard coal mining has exerted a vital impact on the modernization of transporting of the runofmine coal with belt
conveyors. Over the last few years the belt conveyors have gone through changes in the field of their structure and parameters. The modifiedconveyors allow the need
for growing transportation capacities to be satisfied. As design solutions of belt conveyors have been developed, the conveyor belt have undergone changes in their
construction and physical and mechanical properties. A leading Polish manufacturer of belts—the Fabryka Tasm Transporterowych STOMIL WOLBROM S.A.
(Factory of Conveyor Belts STOMIL WOLBROM Joint Stock Company)—fully meets the demad of the coal industry for any type of modern conveyor belts. The
Quality Management System according to the new standard PNEN IS O 9001:200 1, wh ich has been implem in the Factory, makes it possible to offer highgrade
Page 468
Table 9. Measures describing the characteristics of physical and mechanical properties under testing of a slow burning belt of the GTP1600/4 type.
Strength parameters
Resistance to delamination, kN/m Mean time of burning of a sample, s
Item Statistical measure Tensile strength, kN/m Elongation E10, % pp po With covers Without covers
1 Number of measurements 15 15 15 15 15 15
2 Arithmetic average 1725.33 2.93 7.79 7.61 0.6 0.63
3 Median 1718 3 7.6 7.3 0.6 0.6
4 Modal value 1711 3 8.8 7.3 0.6 0.6
5 Variance 4690.81 0.03 1.01 0.74 0 0.01
6 Standard deviation 68.49 0.18 1.01 0.86 0 0.1
7 Minimum value 1633 2.5 6.5 6.6 0.6 0.6
8 Maximal value 1829 3 9.2 9 0.6 1
9 Range 196 0.5 2.7 2.4 0 0.4
10 Skewness factor 0.19 −2.40 0.07 0.55 0 3.87
11 Kurtosis −1.25 4.35 −1.93 −1.44 0 15.0
products which satisfy both the requirements of pertinent standards and high requirements of belt users.
A conveyor belt installed in the conveyor operated at the Bogdanka Coal Mine, on which about 24 mln Mg of runofmine coal have been already transported, as
well as other belt applications described in this paper can be cited as an example.
Tests of physical and mechanical properties carried out on a number of samples have indicated that belts reach all standards prescribed for this product. The
descriptive statistics of selected characteristics in a form of measures of concentration and dispersion as well as skewness prove that good repeatability of parameters
occurs within each type of belts. This is indicative of good command of the production technology of this product range. The repeatability of parameters of a product
has a vital importance in the course of operation of a belt incorporated into long conveyors in which a belt loop is composed of several to anywhere from ten to twenty
segments joined one to another. Repeatable and much shorter times of burning as well as antielectrostatic property measured as surface resistance are what decides
that the prescribed requirements are met and that the safe operation of a product even under most arduous conditions of underground workings of hard coal mines
exposed to mining hazards is ensured.
REFERENCES
Antoniak, J. 2000. Przenosniki taśmowe wznoszące z łukami wznoszącymi. VIII Międzynarodowe Sympozjum FTT Stomil Wolbrom S.A. Ustroń
Antoniak, J. & Lutyński, A. & Dyduch, J. 1995. Poradnik użytkownika taśm transporterowych i innych wyrobów gumowych produkcji FTT Stomil Wolbrom S.A.
WolbromGliwice.
Dyduch, J. & Robakowski, St. 2000. Bezpieczne taśmy przenośnikowe dla kopalń węgla węgla kamiennego i zakładów górniczych wydobywających rudy metali
kolorowych i surowce mineralne prod. FTT Stomil Wolbrom. Mie sięcznik WUG. Vol. 7–8: (83–84).
Lutyński, A. & Gładysiewicz, L. & Dyduch, J. 2001. Nowoczesne rozwiązania w przenośnikach podziemnych z taśmami FTT Stomil Wolbrom S.A. Transport
Przemysłowy. Vol. 3.
Pycek, H. & Kuska, J. & Wójcicki, W. 2003. Przenośniki taśmowe pracujące w wyrobiskach upadowych. XI Międzynarodowe Sympozjum FTT Stomil Wolbrom S.A.
Zakopane.
Sobczyk, M. 1997. Statystyka, Warszawa. PWN.
Page 469
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
A new technology for ground monitoring in underground mines using
instrumented rockbolts
H.S.Mitri & L.Laroche
Department of Mining, Metals and Materials Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
ABSTRACT: A new loadmonitoring device called SAFEBOLT (Stress And Force Evaluator in BOLTs) has been developed at McGill University.
The device SAFEBOLT, is essentially an alternative to the load cell, it permits the monitoring of bolt axial load from the time of its installation
underground. The paper describes the features and limitations of the new load cell. Pilot tests at underground mines were carried out and helped
improve the initial design of the device head.
1 INTRODUCTION
The consequences of rock falls in underground mines can be disastrous. Not only that rock falls can cause mine production delays, but also they can be responsible for
serious injuries and even fatalities. Therefore much attention is given to the design and installation of adequate rock support systems. Among the most commonly used
rock supports are the rockbolts, which are used as primary support in underground coal and metal mines. Rockbolts are installed in almost all mine access areas such
as gate roads, drifts, ramps and shafts. Because of their important role as primary rock support, it is sometimes necessary to verify that the rockbolt is functioning
adequately and is not subjected to excessive load. There are many situations in underground mines where such a concern may arise especially in heavy traffic zones and
permanent installations such as the crusher room, workshop, warehouse, etc.
When it is required to verify the quality of bolt installation, the bolt load is measured or estimated. To estimate the existing load on a bolt, a torque is applied to the
nut (bolt head) with the help of a torque wrench; the torque is gradually increased until the nut starts to turn. The torque attained can then be entered on the
manufacturer’s chat to obtain the axial load on the bolt. The method is considered an accepted practice to check newly installed rockbolts. However, of the bolt has
been in the ground for quite some time, the application of the torque wrench test is not recommended, particularly if the bolt head shows signs of excessive rust. Such
test could cause the rusted bolt head to break prematurely.
The need to measure the rockbolt load with instrumentation methods has been recognized by researchers and new measurement techniques were successfully
developed and became commercially available (Mitri, 1998). Some of these products are the wellknown load cell technology and the IRAD vibrating wire bolt. The
concept of the load cell is based on measuring the axial strain inside the cell, which is induced by the bolt load at its head. Knowing the properties of the cell cylinder,
the axial load is calculated. The IRAD bolt has vibrating wire strain gauge at its head, which senses the axial strain. The bolt load is then calculated knowing the
mechanical properties of the bolt.
The main disadvantage of vibrating wire technology for rockbolt load measurement application in mining is that they often break prematurely as their strain limit
(about 2500 to 3000 microstrain) is often not large enough to ensure the measurement of the bolt yield load. Many mining applications involve loads, which reach
beyond the yield load, e.g. loads in the roof bolts in coal mines.
This paper presents a new load cell for rockbolts, rebars or forged head bolts called SAFEBOLT (Stress And Force Evaluator in BOLTs). The cell, which is
essentially an electrical resistance stain gauge, is embedded in a blind hole in the centre of the bolt head; see Figure 1. More details on the design of the load cell in the
bolt head are reported elsewhere by Mitri and Marwan (2001). The new load cell has been successfully tested both in the laboratory and the field. The principles of the
load cell design and the monitoring method are presented here.
Page 470
Figure 1. Schematic of the SAFEBOLT design concept.
2 LOAD MONITORING METHOD
The underlying concept of the SAFEBOLT technology is to monitor the axial strain at the bolt head due to the applied load. Once this quantity is measured, the axial
load can be calculated for a given bolt size and material.
For a twopoint anchor such as a mechanical rockbolt, the axial load in the bolt is uniform along the bolt as shown in Figure 2a, whereas for a bonded bolt such as a
grouted rebar, the bolt load distribution is nonuniform; see Figure 2b and 2c. If the rock mass in which the rebar is installed is fairly homogeneous, then the load
distribution is likely to be as shown in Figure 2b, and the maximum bolt load will be at the bolt head (Tang et al., 2000).
In the case where significant separation in the roof might occur due to the presence of discontinuities, the load distribution will be different, and the maximum load
may not necessarily be at the bolt head as shown in Figure 2c. These conditions must be taken into consideration when interpreting the measurements from the
SAFEBOLT device.
The actual strain measurement is taken by an electrical resistance strain gauge. The selected sensor for the SAFEBOLT system is a commercially available electrical
resistance gauge with a limit of 5000 mircostrain. This limit is chosen to be considerably larger than the elastic limit strain at which
Figure 2. Axial load distributions in rockbolts and rebars.
Table 1. Characteristics of the SAFEBOLT sensor.
Nominal resistance 120 Ohm
Strain limit 5000 microstrain
Operating temperature −10 to +60°C
Coefficient of thermal expansion
15.6 10−6
the steel material of rock supports begins to yield (normally less than 3000 mircostrain). Therefore, it is possible with the SAFEBOLT system to monitor the bolt load
up to and past the yield load capacity of the bolt—a feature often desired in mining applications.
The electric circuit of the gauge is a typical ¼ Wheatstone bridge with a threewire arrangement, a feature, which eliminates the error due the length of the lead wires.
Other features of the sensor include:
– wide range of operational temperature (−10 to +60°C), and
– its relatively small size, which allows it to be inserted inside the bolt head; refer to Table 1.
To monitor the axial load, P, in a SAFEBOLTinstrumented bolt, the following equation is applied.
P=(R−A)∙B
(1)
Where, R is the signal reading as obtained from the readout unit, A and B are constants derived from the calibration test conducted in the laboratory on the
instrumented bolt prior to its installation in the field.
All calibration tests were conducted in the laboratory where the ambient temperature is approximately 25°C. Large temperature variations in the field can affect the
accuracy of the load calculation results, and the nonmechanical strain component due to temperature drop (shrinkage) or temperature rise (elongation) must be
accounted for. If the ambient mine temperature, Ta, is different from that of the
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Figure 3. Selfreaction test rig for the calibration of SAFEBOLT instrumented rockbolts and rebars.
laboratory (25°C), the calculated load should be corrected using following equation (Mitri, 2002)
P (corrected)=(R−A)∙B−ΔP
(2)
where ΔP (in metric tonnes) is given by
=0.056 (Ta−25) for the 5/8 inch rockbolt,
and
=0.087 (Ta−25) for the ¾ inch rebar
(3)
The above corrections can be derived in load units other than metric tones, and for other bolt sizes if desired.
3 LOAD CELL CALIBRATION
The purpose of the calibration test is to establish the value of the constants A and B. First, a standard strain meter (Model P3500) is used to perform a verification test
to ensure that the internal cell is working properly as a strain sensor after it has been installed in the bolt head.
In a calibration test, the instrumented bolt is placed in the test rig and then subjected to axial load using a hydraulic loading system as shown in Figure 3. The load is
applied incrementally in small increments of 100psi, and is measured directly from the pressure gauge. In order to avoid the development of permanent (plastic)
deformations in the bolt, the maximum calibration applied load is not greater than 75% of the nominal elastic limit or yield load of the bolt being calibrated. Using the
readout unit, shown in Figure 4, the SAFEBOLT device signal readings R are taken after each load increment.
Two loading cycles are applied to obtain the data points necessary for the calibration. The second loading cycle is applied to ensure the repeatability of
Figure 4. Readout unit.
Figure 5. Typical calibration test results (Mitri, 2002).
the calibration test results. The data obtained from the calibration test is plotted and best fitted to a straight line using regression analysis. The results of this analysis are:
– Constants A and B
– Coefficient of correlation R2
– Standard error SE
The data points are plotted on an xy diagram as shown in Figure 5, whereby the xaxis is the reading R
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Figure 6. Definition of the angle of deviation θ.
Figure 7. Simulation of angle of deviation in the laboratory.
and the yaxis is the actual load, P, measured directly from the hydraulic loading system.
Often enough, the drillhole for the bolt is not perfectly perpendicular to the rock surface and as a result, the actual bolt axial load is slightly different from the one
measured. This situation is characterized by the fact that the nut pushes the base plate against the rock surface, which is not quite perpendicular to the bolt axis. The
angle of deviation from perpendicularity, θ, is illustrated in Figure 6. This situation was simulated in the laboratory with the help of shimming plates inserted between the
base plate and the hydraulic cylinder to induce the angle of deviation; see Figure 6. The load calculated from Equation 1 should then be corrected as follows (Mitri,
2002).
Corrected load=P Equation 1∙(1+Ei)
(4)
where for i=1, and 2, we have
E1=2.611+1.381 R fo r θ=7°
E2=4.075+1.168 R for θ=10° (5)
4 LIMITATIONS
The following are the limitations of the present SAFEBOLT load cell technology.
– The precision of load calculation in metric tonnes using Equation 1 is subject to an error. The most recent series of tests have shown a standard error of ±18 kg (40
lbs). The standard error is the measure of the error in the prediction of the axial load, P, as a function of the signal reading R.
– The precision of load measurement is sensitive to bolt inclination with the rock surface. Not recommended for an angle of deviation greater than 10°.
– The instrument connector will be damaged if a halfdome nut is used to install a rebar. One must use a rebar with a thread interrupter and a regular nut.
– SAFEBOLT cannot monitor the load to the ultimate strength of the steel bolt as the gauge will most likely break before the failure load is attained.
– The instrumentation system in its present form cannot be adapted to such rock supports as Split Set, Swellex and cable bolts.
5 PRACTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
More often than not, the underground mine environment is highly corrosive. Therefore, it was necessary to ensure that the SAFEBOLT device has adequate resistance
to corrosion. As the device is fully encapsulated in the bolt head, there is little concern that the sensor itself will corrode. However, the readings are taken at the bolt
head via the device connector, which is exposed. In order to avoid possible corrosion of the device connector, which is exposed at the bolt head, gold or nickelplated
connectors are selected, which come each with a dust cap.
The current design of the SAFEBOLT device does not account for selftemperature compensation. Therefore, it might be necessary to correct the reading as shown
in Equation 2, when the temperature of the mine is different from that of the laboratory. Given that the ambient temperature in the underground mine varies only within a
small range, no further provisions were made to the design of the SAFEBOLT device at this stage.
In order to protect the device from possible damage during the handling and installation of the bolt, a screwon metal cap was designed. The cap is
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Figure 8. Photo of protective metal caps placed on instrumented bolts.
machined from commercially available steel bar and coated with antirust paint. The cap is designed to be sufficiently smaller than the bolt nut, and thus does not have to
be removed from the bolt during the installation.
6 UNDERGROUND MINE TEST
The first set of in situ trials involved the installation of SAFEBOLT instrumented rockbolts and rebars at three underground operating mines in Quebec. Only one of
those trials is reported here, which will be referred to as Mine A. Other field tests are reported elsewhere (Mitri and Marwan, 2001)
Figure 9 shows a plan view of the mining layout in which the SAFEBOLTinstrumented rockbolts were installed at Mine A. Four 15.2 mm (5/8″ diameter), 1.50 m
(5ft) long, mechanical rockbolts were installed in a drift on level 1100. The rockbolts have a nominal yield load of 6.08 tonnes (13,600 lbs). Four rockbolts were
successfully installed, namely number 1, 2, 3 and 4.
It was observed that previous blasts have caused considerable damage to the bolt head. It was decided to shield each bolt by a pair of timber blocks anchored to
the roof near the instrumented bolt. The blocks are each approximately 250 mm×250 mm in size and 50 mm in thickness. As bolts 3 and 4 were at the intersection of
two perpendicular face advances; it was decided to install timber blocks around each bolt to shield the instruments from blastinduced damage. Using the calibration
coefficients for each bolt, the applied loads were calculated. The staff of Mine A conducted load monitoring for approximately six weeks. The results are recorded in
Table 2 in terms time or production blast stages, which followed after the installation of the monitored bolts.
Figure 9. Location map of instrumented bolts at mine A.
Table 2. Monitored bolt loads (metric tonnes).
A few points were worth noting at the end of the pilot test program. They are:
– Bolt 1: Installed with an initial load of 3.26 tonnes. Small load fluctuations took place during production as the drifts were driven further. However, the load increase
is insignificant with face advance. This can be attributed to the fact that the bolt is installed close to the sidewall, and therefore was not further loaded when the drift
face has advanced. The slight drop in load in stages 2 to 5 could be attributed to a slight loosening of the expansion shell of the rockbolt due to blast vibrations.
– Bolt 2: Loaded initially to the full yield load of 6 tonnes. The bolt was lost subsequently during production blast.
– Bolt 3: Installed with a load of 1.54 tonnes and then picked up an additional 3.9 tonnes of load during face advance. This was to be expected since the bolt is located
at the intersection in the excavation mid span.
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– Bolt 4: installed with load of 1.74 tonnes. Instrument was lost during blasting due to damage of the bolt head possibly from fly rocks.
7 CONCLUSION
A new load monitoring technology called SAFEBOLT (Stress And Force Evaluator in BOLTs) has been developed for monitoring axial loads in underground rock
supports such as rockbolts, rebars and forged head bolts installed in underground mines and tunnels. Pilot tests successfully undertaken at an undergroundmine are
reported here . T he SAFEB system has several features, which make it an attractive tool for load monitoring of rock supports. They are:
– It can be installed on any type of industry standard rockbolt, rebar or forged head bolt.
– Wirefree tool; the sensor is fully encapsulated inside the bolt, and hence is well protected.
– Easy to use.
– The gold or nickelplated connector of the device offers excellent protection against corrosion.
– The metal cap on the bolt head (Fig. 8) provides good protection from damage during transportation and installation.
– Space saver. As the load cell is effectively inside the bolt head, no additional length is required below the roofline. This could be advantageous in areas of limited
headroom such as a coal mine gateroad.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was made possible thanks to the financial support of l’Institut de recherche Robert Sauve en santé et en sécurité du travail (IRSST). Their financial
support is gratefully acknowledged. The authors wish to thank all the research staff at McGill who was involved in this project. Special thanks are due to Mr. Joseph
Marwan, who was a research associate in the author’s research group.
REFERENCES
Mitri, H.S. 1998. Review of monitoring technologies for axially loaded rock supports. Technical Report, Mining Engineering (MGMM01–98), 35 pp.
Tang, B., Mitri, H.S. and Bouteldja, M. 2000. Finite element modelling of rock anchors. Ground Improvement Vol. 4, pp. 65–71.
Mitri, H.S. 2002. Design and development of a new rockbolt loadmeasuring device, Project No.: 099–041, IRSST
Mitri, H.S. and Marwan, J. 2001. A new rockbolt axial loadmeasuring device. Proceedings of the 20th International Ground Control Conference, Morgantown, West
Virginia, Peng, Mark and Khair (eds), pp. 367–373.
Page 475
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
eMaintenance for equipments effectiveness in mining and mineral based industry
Aditya Parida & Uday Kumar
Division of Operation & Maintenance Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
ABSTRACT: Worldwide, mine and mineral based industries are facing unparalleled challenges and industry competition due to technological
advancement associated with the loss of productivity and risk. These challenges have demanded the application of stateoftheart information and
communication technology (ICT) together with innovative maintenance strategy to reduce the overall business risks. To bring about a change and
increase the productivity, industries are working towards an enhanced overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) achievement. A large number of
companies have identified maintenance as the most desirable and strategic area of the business focus to increase the effectiveness of the processes and
organisation. The largest scope, as exist in these industries, is a low OEE, with a likely scope of 15 to 25% increase in their target level. In order to
improve the level of OEE in the mining and mineral based industries, a model incorporating emaintenance is conceptually discussed in this paper.
1 INTRODUCTION
Equipment maintenance in mining and mineral based industry is a complex issue as it involves communication and interaction with all the internal and external
stakeholders. The technological development compels the mining industry to adopt electronically connected remote operation care centre for monitoring, coordination
and control of the risk and reliability. In such scenario, an intimate collaboration amongst the customer, production plants, maintenance departments, suppliers and
operation centre are required. Equipment maintenance and management system depends on the cost of maintenance amongst others, and can be 40–60% of the total
operating cost in a highly mechanized mine (Kumar, 1990). The total yearly expenditure in maintenance, on average, comes to 75–85% of the total investment made by
mining sector and amount to about 16% of the total turnover (Ahlmann, 1986). Thus, management of maintenance functions in mines have significance influence on the
economy and performance of mining industry. Implementing effective maintenance programmes for the critical equipments of the mining system can control the loss of
performance and revenue due to unexpected breakdowns. Contribution of maintenance to asset performance is a problem of both risk and value (Liyanage and
Kumar, 2002). Many mines have adopted a “best of breed” approach in their selection of key equipment, remote condition monitoring systems and realtime
supervisory systems. Mining equipment manufacturers, such as Komatsu and Cummins offers the option of outsourcing the user’s maintenance data analysis using
internet and web based technology (Michael and Luiz, 2001). This remote condition monitoring realtime supervisory system is the emaintenance system used in the
mine and mineral industry to enhance the equipment effectiveness.
2 USE OF ICT AND eMAINTENANCE IN MINING INDUSTRY
The main problem with performance measurement for decisionmaking is the nonavailability of relevant data and information. The recent application of information and
communication technology (ICT) and other emerging technologies facilitates easy and effective collection of data and information. The two most important application
of the measurement is the identification of opportunities to improve existing equipment and plant before new investment or to promote improved supplier performance.
Maintenance performance measurement becomes part of the decisionmaking process for mining industry, where use of condition monitoring plays a most important
role.
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Figure 1. eMaintenance virtual connectivity.
eMaintenance is a maintenance management concept whereby mining operations involving the plants and machineries are monitored and managed over wireless
communication through use of intelligent sensors. Today, with availability of unique emaintenance solution, mining industry can benefit from the serverbased software
applications, latest embedded internet interface devices and stateoftheart data security. With access to the emaintenance solution, the following systems can be
accessed by the concerned industry.
– Instant virtual supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and computerised maintenance system facilities to manage plants and equipments.
– Real time monitoring and control including alerts.
– Maintenance systems availability for 24 hours a day and 7 days a week (round the clock).
– Webbased technical support and solution.
– Virtual instrument panels on desktop computer.
– Data availability, confidentiality and integration for emaintenance solution.
As it can be seen, emaintenance creates a virtual knowledge centre with users, technicians/experts and the manufacturers, specializing in operation and maintenance of
process industry like mining amongst others. eMaintenance provides solution in its entirety for the process industry with an objectives to reduce the overall costs, bring
in a change and savings in resources through OEE and return on maintenance investment (ROMI). Condition monitoring techniques generally include one or several
alarms that are triggered if a tolerance limit is exceeded or if a trend deviates from the expected values in time. References of the working points of signals are provided
by knowledgebased systems and not by comparison with a model of the system. These signals are acquired by sensor system (Lodewijks, 2004).
An emaintenance virtual connectivity basic model is given at Figure 1. The real time connectivity amongst all concerned stakeholders is mentioned which facilitates
collection of system health and performance information. US companies have a substantial lead in the interoperable maintenanceoriented tools area with MIMOSA
(Machinery Information Management Open System Alliance), which has elaborated a set of standards. In the Europe, organizations like ITEA (Information Technology
for European Advancement), established in 1999, conducting PROTEUS project (ITEA 01011) to provide a fully integrated platform to support any broad e
maintenance strategy.
3 eMAINTENANCE MODEL
Some of the existing emaintenance solution provide the server based software, equipment embedded internet interface devices (health management card). These e
maintenance solutions provide 24×7 (24 hours a day and 7 days a week) realtime monitoring, control and alerts, at the operating centre. This system converts data in
to information, available to all concerned for decisionmaking and predicting the performance condition of the plant and machineries on a real time basis. This enables
the system to match with the ebusiness and supply chain requirements. For example, once the supervisor knows the plant degradation condition, its related effects on
material, and inventory, then the delivery status can be planned
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Figure 2. eMaintenance.
and coordinated with a greater speed to satisfy the customer.
A broad emaintenance model indicating different stakeholders and their role is given at Figure 2. As it can be seen, emaintenance creates a virtual knowledge
centre with users, technicians/experts and the manufacturers, specializing in operation and maintenance of process industries like mining and paper amongst others. e
Maintenance can provide solution in its entirety for the process industry with an objectives to reduce the overall costs, bring in a change and savings in resources
through OEE and return on maintenance investment (ROMI). This model indicates the feasibilities of organizing the maintenance activities and competence into a virtual
centre called maintenance control centre. With the support of ICT, the centre can monitor, predict and control all maintenance related information.
Plant/equipment health management system (PHMS) can be defined as an approach used for corrective, preventive and predictive maintenance besides other
supportive activities. With a need to achieve zero down time, zero defect, instantaneous response and decision making, and world class OEE (overall equipment
effectiveness) performance; prognostics and diagnostics are used through embedded sensors and device to business tool (D2B). The largest problems as exist in the
industry today, is a low OEE, which is 15–25% below the target level. All these needs have lead to ehealth card for equipment’s degradation assessment, which forms
part of emaintenance. PHMS thus, consisting of condition monitoring (CM) diagnostics and prognostics, and condition based operation and support, can improve the
dependability and safety of the technical systems, besides decreasing life cycle cost of operation and support (Mobley, 1990, Compbell and Jardine, 2001),
(Soderholm and Akersten, 2002). This system delivers data and information, which indicates the health condition of the system. The stakeholders of the system are the
receivers of the data and information (Lyytinnen and Hirschheim, 1987 (ISO/IEC 1528.2002), Soderholm, 2003). The problem today in a health management system
is the existing information islands, i.e. the different specialized systems, with in an organization speaking a different data and information language.
Managing varieties of information demands effective information management involving and integrating all stakeholders, so as to achieve the desired maintenance
optimization. With development and emergence of intelligent emaintenance in the manufacturing and process industry, the objectives of managing maintenance
information system is to convert the field data into useful information, so that decisions to achieve maintenance optimization can be made online and/or remotely
through wireless means (Lee, 1999).
4 CONCLUSION
eMaintenance system will provide the necessary bridge between the advanced technologies like the remote condition monitoring and the maintenance personnel
besides the other stakeholders. This will allow the mine and mineral industries to achieve the desired equipment effectiveness. A conceptual basic model of e
maintenance incorporating many related issues has been discussed in this paper.
Page 478
REFERENCES
Campbell, J.D. and Jardine, A.K.S. 2001. Maintenance excellence: optimizing equipment lifecycle decisions.
Marcel Dekker, New York. ISO/IEC 15288, 2002. Systems Engineering: System Life Cycle Processes. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva
Commission Electrotechnique Internationale, Geneva.
Lee, J. 1999. Machine Performance Assessment Methodology, Reports on Frontiers in Engineering, 75–83 , National Academy of Engineers
Lyytinnen, K. and Hirschheim, R. 1987. Information system failures: a survey and classification of the empirical literature. Oxford surveys in information
technology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 4, 257–309.
Michael, W. L and Luiz, S. 2001. Maintenance of mobile mine equipment in the information age, Journal of in Maintenance Engineering, Volume 7, No. 4. 2001, 264–
274.
Mobley, R.K. 1990. An introduction to predictive maintenance Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Söderholm, P. 2003. Continuous Improvement of Complex Technical System: Aspects of Stakeholder Requirements and System Functions, Licentiate Thesis,
Division of Quality and Environmental Management, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden.
Soderholm, P. and Ak’ersten, P.A. 2002. Aerospace Diagnostics and Prognostics in a TQMPerspective. Proceedings of the 15th Intenational congress of
COMADEM, 2–4 September, Birmingham, UK, 80–89.
Page 479
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Material aspects in the degradation theory of the surface mining machinery
G.Pękalski
Institute of Materials Science and Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: In this work a concept and test results of material aspects of the degradation theory are presented. The research concerned
constructional steels subjected to longterm operational use in conditions of variable loads and corrosive hazards. The object of the investigation were
first of all elements of the body of brown coal excavators. It is shown that degradation processes progressing with time are reflected by unfavourable
differentiated structural changes and changes of mechanical properties, which are different depending on the kind of steel.
1 NOTION OF DEGRADATION—CONCEPT OF RESEARCH
Considerations on material aspects of the degradation theory are based on a definition taken from Dudek et al. (1994): Degradation is the process of deterioration of
mechanical and usage properties of elements, joints, thus of the whole object. One of the basic aspects of the degradation theory is the problem of the estimation of
time influence on processes which occur in constructional materials in variable conditions of service. They have been described as ‘material aspects of the degradation
theory’.
In Figures 1 & 2 author’s own conception is shown of a multicriterion system of solving material
Figure 1. Diagram of the concept of a multicriterion system of solving material problems in the degradation theory (Pękalski 1998).
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Figure 2. Conception of material investigations of selected steel constructions in the degradation theory.
problems in the degradation theory and a range of tests carried out on chosen objects.
2 CHANGES OF STRUCTURES AND SELECTED PROPERTIES DUE TO DEGRADATION
General thesis is that structure and mechanical properties of material subtly change during service, which in turn involves a change in strength properties. The tendency
of changes is described as increasing failure probability (Ziółko et al. 1998). Regarding the steel for overbridge construction of the year 1912, Leda (1998) stated: ‘A
longterm operational use in variable temperature conditions and vibrations caused by the railway traffic were the cause of a brittleness of the same order as ageing in
the temperature of 200°C’.
It has been assumed, as a result of preliminary research and literature analysis, that the main influence on degradation processes is exerted by:
– Changes of structure and material properties during service,
– Changes of macro and microstructure due to corrosion (described by Pękalski (1996, 2003)),
– Presence, generation and development of macroand microfractures.
Such definition of test areas raises a question about the reference level to estimate the state of degradation. In other words what were the structure and properties of
old steels which are under investigation now. As a reference level to estimate the degradation state the normalized state has been accepted (Leda 1998, Dobrzański et
al. 1997). Some research results were presented by the author in papers (Pękalski 1998,1999). Shumann (1988), Gulajew (1988), Staub et al. (1994) and Haimann
(2000) shown the ‘tendency’ of changes of the structure and properties of materials submitted to longterm operational use. Steels with content of carbon below 0.1%
are particularly susceptible to these processes. Cooling of steel in technical conditions causes the ferrite supersaturation with carbon and nitrogen. In ambient
temperature atoms of carbon already show some mobility. As a result of cooling the homogeneous ferrite undergoes separation without forming precipitates susceptible
to microscopic identification (singlephase separation). The very process can cause measurable changes of ferrite properties. The motion of carbon atoms is intensified
by the increase of temperature. Above 50°C one can observe twophase separation. Due to this separation the presence of first precipitates of ε iron carbide can be
noted. It is thought that in temperatures below 200°C ε carbide precipitates both in the matrix and at dislocations. In higher temperatures a stable carbide Fe3C is
formed inside ferrite grains. Needleshaped carbide precipitates are irregularly set in the matrix. If pearlite occurrs in the steel structure, Fe3C usually crystallizes to the
cementite lamellas in pearlite. Effects of precipitation due to ferrite supersaturation with nitrogen show already in ambient temperatures in steels put under cold plastic
strain. In temperatures up to 250°C in supersaturated ferrite originates a
Page 481
Figure 3. Microstructure of the steel of object 10 construction elements. The age of material is 118 years. Ferrite grains with shapes
close to equilibrium ones with a large number of nonmetallic inclusions. An extensive corrosion pinhole and damages at grain
boundaries can be seen. Magn. 250×. Etching: 3% HNO3.
metastable phase α″ (Fe16N2), forming lamellar or needleshaped precipitates inside grains. In temperatures between 200 and 250°C lamellar nitride γ″ (Fe4N) should
precipitate from ferrite. Shumann (1988) stated: ‘Ageing due to nitrogen causes a considerable increase in steel brittleness and decrease in impact strength. It was
shown that rich in nitrogen “Thomas steel” can be so brittle that thickwalled metallurgic casts may crumble when dropped on a stone floor’.
Processes of carbon and nitrogen precipitation from ferrite cause the increase in hardness and tensile strength and the decrease in impact strength and plastic
properties. In rimming steels clear decrease of tensile strength was observed in ageing temperatures between 50 and 100°C (Leda 1998). This group of steels
(especially in the crude and normalized state) shows the above 0°C temperatures of plasticbrittle transition.
3 STRUCTURES OF STEELS AFTER LONG SERVICE AND NORMALIZING
Investigated steels had carbon content between 0.05 and 0.22%. Their structures consisted of irregular ferrite grains and, depending on the carbon content, cementite
at grain boundaries or pearlite areas. In unalloyed steels fabricated before 1940 a large number of nonmetallic inclusions was observed, mainly silicates, sulfides and
oxides. Sulfides often formed groups, were ‘crumbled’ and ‘segmented’. Around sulfides microcrevices were formed and part of them spread in the material as
microfractures (Figs. 3 & 4).
Figure 4. The age of material is 118 years. A large concentration of heterogeneous and multiphase nonmetallic inclusions. Magn. 550×.
Etching: 3% HNO3.
Figure 5. Microstructure of the steel of object 8 construction elements. The age of material is 93 years. Cementite and iron nitride
precipitates inside ferrite grains. Magn. 5000×–scanning microscopy. Etching: 3% HNO3.
In surface layers materials of objects 6, 7 and 10 had structures of ferrite and differentiated grain size at the sheet section. In surface layers the grain size was bigger and
in some grains twin boundaries were observed.
Structure of ferrite with cementite or ferrite with pearlite areas occurred in steels of elements of the body construction of brown coal excavators and in samples taken
from other objects. Characteristic features of these structures are shown in Figures 5–10. By methods of electron microscopy, in the area of ferrite grains, the presence
of Fe3C and iron nitride (Fe16N2 and Fe2−3N) precipitates was found (Dudziński 1998, Dudziński et al. 1999). These precipitates had the forms of needles, acute
triangles and quadrangles. Sometimes at ferrite grain boundaries feathershaped or fine regularshaped cementite precipitates were also
Page 482
Figure 6. Microstructure of the steel of a jib of a bucket wheel construction of an excavator of 1943. Stmcture of ferrite grains with
sometimes continuous cementite aureola at grain boundaries (1). Single areas of lamellar pearlite (2). Large single sulfide
precipitate (3). Inside ferrite grains numerous, fin e cementi te and nit ride precipi tat visible. Chemical composition of the steel
corresponds to a rimming steel grade of St3SX. Magn. 800×–immersion. Etching: 3% HNO3.
Figure 7. Enlargement of a fragment of the structure shown in Figure 6. Ferrite grains with areas of irregular and lamellar pearlite. Inside
ferrite grains nitride and cementite precipitates are visible. Magn. 2000×–immersion. Etching: 3% HNO3.
noticed. Areas of pearlite which underwent the disintegration to ferrite and fine carbides (degenerate pearlite) were also found.
The problem in estimating the structure changes in material during service is that the structure of the initial state is not known. Therefore as a reference level for these
steels the normalized state has been accepted. Characteristic features obtained after this type of heat treatment are shown in Figures 11 & 12.
Microstructures of the steels under investigation consisted of ferrite grains with cementite at grain
Figure 8. Microstructure of the sample shown in Figure 6. Continuous cementite aureola at grain boundaries. In the middle of the image
feathershaped Fe3C is present. At point of junction of grain boundaries lamellar pearlite is visible. Magn. 4000×–scanning
microscopy. Etching: 3% HNO3.
Figure 9. Microstructure of the sample shown in Figure 6. Area of pearlite shows evidence of disintegration (degenerate pearlite). Magn.
8000×–scanning microscopy. Etching: 3% HNO3.
boundaries in the form of continuous aureolas or precipitates set in chains. The other type of structure was formed by ferrite grains with areas of lamellar pearlite.
Examinations of thin films carried out by methods of electron microscopy and analyses of electron diffraction patterns (Dudziński 1998, Dudziński et al. 1999) showed
lower density of dislocations in normalized preparations than in those in the afterservice state. Also after normalization some very fin e undissolv ed nitr ide and cemen
precipitates were found inside ferrite grains.
Among constructional materials for brown coal excavators also lowalloyed 18G2 steel of increased strength is used. The oldest samples of this steel came from
1943. Metallographic examinations did not
Page 483
Figure 10. Microstructure of th e samp le of a mine extra machine construction. The age of material is about 120 years. Ferrite grains
with cementite precipitates at the grain boundaries forming continuous aureolas or nets. Inside grains single carbide and nitride
precipitates are visible. In the middle of the image there is a degenerate pearlite area. Magn. 8000×–scanning microscopy.
Etching: 3% HNO3.
Figure 11. Microstructure of the steel of a jib of a bucket wheel construction of the excavator of 1943—after normalizing. Ferrite grains
with cementite aureolas at grain boundaries (to compare with the structure shown in Fig. 6). Magn. 2000×–immersion. Etching:
3% HNO3.
show clear changes of their structures due to service. In the steels being in operational use for minimum 25 years the presence of microfractures relevant to nonmetallic
inclusions was found. However, it is impossible to ascertain whether they were formed in service and thus are a reflection of the degradation processes. In the steels of
18G2A grade these kind fractures were not found (Konat et al. 2003). Summarizing it can be stated that microscopic signs of degradation of steels under investigation
are:
– Presence of cementite and nitride precipitates inside ferrite grains.
Figure 12. Microstructure of the steel of object 8 in the normalized state. Ferrite grains with Fe3C at grain boundaries. Fe3C and iron
nitride precipitates were dissolved. Magn. 2000×–immersion. Etching: 3% HNO3.
– Local decomposition of pearlite into ferrite and carbides.
– Occurrence of cell structure of dislocations as a reflection of ageing.
– Presence of microfractures relevant to nonmetallic inclusions.
– It cannot be excluded that during service precipitation of cementite at grain boundaries can also occur, as numerous incidents of fires of brown coal excavators are
known. The objects under investigation are welded, which enables local intensification of precipitation processes.
– Microscopic observations of several hundred metallographic samples lead to the conclusion that steels continuously submitted to dynamic loads in service
(excavators and bridges) show more clear signs of degradation than similar steels used for pipelines and collectors in waterpower plants.
4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AFTER SERVICE, NORMALIZING AND AGEING
In the literature one can find statements that the material changes its structure during service and consequently mechanical properties. According to papers (Ziółko
1991, 1994, Ziółko et al. 1995, Dobrzański et al. 1997, Gołaski & Lachowski 1999, Haimann 2000, Dudek & Kubicki 2001, Buś 2001) the expected changes of
properties due to degradation are:
– Increase of the yield point and strength resistance.
– Decay of a distinct yield point and change of the YS/UTS ratio.
– Change (decrease) of impact strength and elevation of plasticbrittle transition temperature.
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Table 1. Mechanical test results of materials after service, after normalizing and ageing.
Mean values
Material–time of service Material state R [MPa]
p0.2 UTS [MPa] EL [%] RA [%] HV30 Rp0.2/ UTS
10X*–95 years After service 314.7 401.3 28.7 53.1 179.5 0.79
10X*–95 years After normalizing in 930°C/2 h 282.3 386.7 39.5 62.0 127.1 0.73
10X*–95 years After normalizing and ageing in 200°C/ 265.0 375.3 40.0 64.4 110.3 0.70
10X**–88 years After service – – – – 97.8 –
StSSX***–55 years After service 294.0 451.0 33.0 58.4 132.6 0.65
St3SX***–55 years After normalizing in 930° C/1 h 299.0 458.0 21.7 60.9 134.7 0.65
After service 264.0 400.0 36.1 – 136.0 0.66
St3SX^–50 years
After service 291.5 436.0 33.9 – 128.2 0.67
St3SX^^–34 years
18G2–55years After service 414.3 612.3 26.8 59.2 208.2 0.68
18G2–55 years After normalizing in 920°C/1 h 372.0 559.0 27.4 – 190.0 0.67
18G2–34years After service 365.3 564.2 31.4 – 191.8 0.65
18G2–25years After service 382.0 588.3 28.0 – 200.2 0.65
18G2–20 years After service 344.0 524.0 27.7 210.0 0.66
18G2–14 years and fire After service 403.0 520.0 30.0 52.0 153.0 0.77
18G2–14years and fire After normalizing in 930°C/1 h 348.0 545.0 25.0 33.0 303.0 0.64
18G2–14 years and fire After normalizing and ageing in 250°C/24 h 380.0 561.0 23.0 32.0 305.0 0.68
18G2–14 years and fire After normalizing and ageing in250°C/48 h 371.0 555.0 22.0 25.0 328.0 0.67
18G2A–31 years After service 325.0 520.0 32.5 30.3 154.0 0.62
18G2A–31 years After normalizing in 930°C/1 h 331.0 533.0 – 30.3 152.0 0.62
* Chemical composition of 10X (PN89/H84023/05): 0.07–0.14%C;0.25–0.50%Mn; 0.04%Si; 0.04%Pi S; 0.20%Cr; Ni and Cu=0,30%.
* Actual chemical composit ion (increased content of P and S): 0.1 %C; 0.5% Mn; 0.03 %Si; 0.055%P; 0.087%S; 0.05%Cr. 0.1%Cu.
** Actual chemical composition: 0.1%C; 0.45%Mn; 0.05%Si; 0.043%P; 0.061%S; 0.09%Cr; 0.07%Ni; 0.07% Cu (Polish Standard PN89/H84023/05 allows the increase of P and S content by
about +0.006).
*** Actual chemical composition: 0.07%C; 0.41%Mn; 0.05%Si; 0.035%P; 0.02%S.
^Actual chemical composition: 0.18%C; 0.38%Mn; 0.02%Si; 0.033%P; 0.053%S.
^^Actual chemical composition: 0.07%C; 0.36%Mn; 0.03%Si; 0.025%P; 0.06%S.
In Table 1 and in Figures 13–16 hardness and strength test results are presented. In rimming steel remaining in operational use for 95 years (Fig. 13) the following
diversification of properties in various states was observed. In the afterservice state the steel showed the highest yield point, strength resistance and hardness and the
lowest plasticity indices. After normalizing and after both normalizing and ageing of specimens taken from the serviced steel, the Rp0.2, UTS and hardness decreased,
whereas the unit elongation and the percentage reduction of area decreased. The Rp0.2/UTS ratio was the highest in the afterservice state (0.79), lower after
normalizing (0.73) and the lowest after both normalizing and ageing (0.70).
Characters of plots of stress versus strain for the normalized and afterageing conditions were similar. These plots show a clear yield point, whereas the tensile plot
for afterservice state does not. Tensile curves for steel of similar chemical composition
Figure 13. Changes in selected properties of steels of chemical composition similar to 10X steel.
A—afterservice state—the age of material is 95 years,
B—state after service and after normalizing in 930°C/1 h,
C—state after service, then normalizing and ageing in 200°C/2 h.
Page 485
Figure 14. Representative tensile plots for samples in the afterservice state and normalized ones. Object 8—the age of material is 93
years.
Figure 15. Object 8—the age of material is 93 years. Changes of mean values of the impact strength test results carried out on
longitudinal specimens with Vnoth in +20 and −20°C.E—afterservice state, N—normalized state.
serviced for 93 years (object 8) in afterservice state and in normalized one both show clear yield points (Fig. 14). However, it appears that changes of structures due
to degradation found by microscopic methods have caused considerable changes of impact strength (Fig. 15).
When taking into consideration the steel one can state that the observed tendencies of changes of properties are consistent with the literature. However in the case of
the steel of chemical composition similar to St3SX steel (basic constructional material of ‘old’ excavators) they do not. The data listed in Table 1 show that elongation
of service time (from 34 up to 55 years) did not cause clear changes of mechanical properties. The properties were within
Figure 16. Changes of selected properties of 18G2 steel versus service time.
the interval of acceptable spread of properties and their average values were similar.
Such remarks can also be formulated for this material after 55 years of service and normalizing. Only a very clear increase of impact strength of the steel after
normalizing in the test temperature of +20°C was observed. Tensile curves presented in paper (Krajczyk et al. 2000) show the presence of a distinct yield point,
whereas in normalized samples it has not been found. According to Krajczyk (2000) in steels of chemical composition similar to the St3SX percentages of ductile
fracture are the highest in the normalized samples and in the test temperature of +20°C—from 70% up to 85%. In the samples in the afterservice state there was
always more of brittle fracture. In the temperature of −40° C fractures were always brittle in character, independently of the state of the material.
Interpretation of impact strength test results of St3SX steel is difficult and ambiguous. Test results of the material after various service periods show great
diversification (from 3.6 J/cm2, on an average about 16 J/cm2, up to 70 J/cm2 in the normalized state) (Krajczyk 1997a, b). The presented CVN values in the after
service state are also very low in the temperatures above 0°C. Although normalizing St3SX steel remaining in service for 55 years causes the increase of impact
strength, in temperatures around 0°C the impact strength is close to only 35 J/cm2. Investigation carried out on steels of similar grades has shown that normalizing does
not have considerably advantageous influence on the increase of their crack resistance. The resistance is little in both the afterservice and the normalized state
(Frydman & Pękalski 2000). Compared to unalloyed rimming steels, the lowalloyed steels show considerably lower susceptibility to degradation. In Fig. 16 the
influence of service time on the properties of 18G2 steel is presented.
Page 486
Neither service time nor normalizing caused distinct changes of properties of 18G2 steel, except the increase of impact strength in temperature of +20°C (of samples
in the afterservice and normalized states). In paper (Pękalski 1998) a diagram is presented of changes of mean impact strength of 18G2 steel versus service time
where a tendency is visible of decreasing the impact strength from 66.3 J/cm2—after 20 years of service, 63.3 J/cm2 for 25year service, through 62.6 J/cm2 after 34
years of service and down to 61.1 J/cm2 after 55 years of service. A more distinct change of impact strength values was observed for specimens taken crosswise to the
rolling direction from 39.6 J/cm2 after 25 years of service, down to 23.5 J/cm2 after 55 years of service.
The 18G2 steel did not show (just like St3SX steel) a distinct range of plasticbrittle transition temperatures, although in comparison with an unalloyed steel it had a
higher impact strength level and percentage of ductile fracture (Krajczyk 2000). Tensile plots of 18G2 steel after 14 and 55 years of service, after normalizing and after
normalizing and ageing were not differentiated in their character. All the curves had a clear yield point. Test results showed that the 18G2 steel after 55 years of service
presented high crack resistance before as well as after normalizing (Frydman & Pękalski 2000).
The acquired test results compared with the changes of properties due to degradation mentioned in literature in relation to the materials under investigation allow to
state that:
– Steel remaining in operational use for 95 years of chemical composition similar to 10X steel shows a lower yield point and tensile strength after normalizing. Plastic
properties of the material are clearly lower in the afterservice state than in the normalized one. The yield point is not observed in tensile plot for the material in the
after service state. In this state hardness was the highest as well, which points indirectly to the lowest impact strength in the afterservice state.
– Test results of steels of chemical composition similar to the St3SX unalloyed rimming steel do not correspond to these found in literature.
– 18G2 and 18G2A steels show considerably lower vulnerability to degradation than unalloyed ones. The only quantity decreasing in the function of service time was
the impact strength.
5 DISCUSSION
The multicriterion concept of solving material problems (Fig. 1) was accomplished entirely in relation to objects being modernized or taken out of service. When
carrying out such an extensive investigation it was possible to create a vast structural and strength degradation database. The database is used to evaluate the
degradation state of serviced objects (from which only small quantities of materials for investigation can be taken). Analysis of data of papers (Żółtowski & Sawczuk
1999, Bodarski & Czapliński 2000) proves that simple strengthcomparative criteria cannot be useful to the estimation of the degradation state. As indicated
previously, structural criteria alone are also insufficient.
Figure 17. Version of the concept of estimation of the state of material degradation conformed to exploiters’ needs (Pękalski 2000).
Page 487
Therefore the concept including structural, strength and corrosion aspects may be recognized as accurate. On the grounds of the concept a version conformed to
exploiters’ needs was elaborated (Fig. 17).
Taking into consideration the concept and results of investigation on material aspects of the degradation theory as a whole, one can state that the theory refers to
John R.Platt’s opinions presented in paper (Platt 1964): ‘Today we preach that science is not science unless it is quantitative. We substitute correlations for casual
studies and physical equations for organic reasoning (…). Many—perhaps most—of the great issues of science are qualitative, not quantitative, even in physics and
chemistry. Equations and measurements are useful when and only when they are related to proof; but proof or disproof comes first and is in fact strongest when it is
absolutely convincing without any quantitative measurement’
This argumentation may be somewhat crassing as concrete object like an excavator, bridge or pipeline require answering concrete questions:
– For how long can brown coal machines be used safely and effectively?
– Which of them and in what order can be profitably modernized?
– Which research results allow to estimate the state of degradation?
That would be true if the activities defined as material aspects of the degradation theory did not have confirmation in service and during the process of construction of
new machines—and they do.
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Leda H. 1998. Strukturalne aspekty własności mechanicznych wybranych materiałów. Poznań: Wyd. Politechniki Pozńariskiej.
Pękalski G. 1996. Korozja konstrukcji nadwozia maszyn podstawowych górnictwa odkrywkowego. Problemy Maszyn Roboczych N27 Vol 7:75–90
Pękalski G. 1998. Material aspects of the degradation theory—conception of a multicriterion system of estimation of the state of material. Systems vol 3 N2:108–129.
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Dobrzański J., Hernas A. & Klimas H. 1997. Materiałoznawcze podstawy przedłiżania bezpiecznej eksploatacji elementów krytycznych kotła. Energetyka N10:549–560.
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Dudziński W. 1998. Badania metodami mikroskopii elektronowej stali St3SXi 18G2A w stanie poeksploatac i po normalizowaniu. Dortmund. Paper not publised.
Dudziński W., Haimann K. & Pękalski G. 1999. Metody mikroskopii świetlneji elektronowejw zastosowaniu do oceny stopnia degradacji stali. Proc. IV Conf. Metody
doświadczalne w budowie i eksploatacji maszyn: 273–282.
Konat Ł., Kujawa A., Muchaczow J. & Pękalski G. 2003. Porównawcza ocena podatności do degradacji stali 18G2 i 18G2A. Górnictwo Odkrywkowe N 4–5:52–57.
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Buś A. 2001. Badania procesòw degradacyjnych stali konstrukcyjnych po wieloletniej eksploatacji i pożarze. Master’s Thesis supervized by G.Pękalski. Wrocław.
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Krajczyk A., Baranek J., Milian W. & Ziółkowski B. 2000. Regeneracja materiałów starych konstrukcji stalowych i jej wpływ na własności mechaniczne i mikrostrukturę.
Węgiel Brunatny—Wyd. Specjalne: 58–61.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
New methods of design and dynamic control of shaft steelworks performance and
conveyance guiding in mine shafts
M.Płachno
Akademia GórniczoHutnicza (AGH), Kraków, Polska
ABSTRACT: The paper explores the state of the art methodology of design and dynamic control of shaft steelworks and conveyance guiding in
vertical mine shafts in Poland. These methods will replace the conventional approach, now slightly obsolete. It appears that the new method ensures
more effective design solutions whilst the dynamic control should eliminate costly mistakes involved in the traditional approach.
1 INTRODUCTION
Results of recent research conducted in Poland (10) reveal that the current approach used in the design of shaft steelworks and conveyance guiding systems, widely
applied in Poland and worldwide for many years, does not stand the test of time. That refers particularly to the method that specifies the steelwork force as 10% of the
weight of the conveyances and to the approach to conveyance guiding in shafts, based on the criterion of admissible conveyance accelerations. Results of research
conducted in Poland in the 1980s (2,3), and in the South Africa ten years later (9) clearly indicate that the traditional approach should be replaced by a new
methodology assuming that impact forces in steelworks are strongly dependent on design parameters of the steelwork guide and bunto n stiffne and bunton spacing in
the vertical. This study reveals that the new approach to the design of steelworks should produce more effective design solutions.
As regards the dynamic performance and control of steelworks and conveyance guiding, the need for the new approach became apparent when the findings of the
research were published (7,10), exposing the weaknesses of the previous method whereby exceeding the admissible hoisting acceleration would be interpreted as
exceeding the maximum admissible steelwork force. As a result, the assessment of the steelwork and conveyance condition would involve major errors, thereby leading
to further costly inspections and unnecessary steelwork repairs. The research (7,10) seemed to trace the source of the major error: the relationship between the
measured lateral accelerations of the conveyance and the impacts of conveyances on the steelworks is not straightforward and hence the accelerations cannot be
directly recalculated and expressed in the units of force. In real shaft operations the assumption that a conveyance behaves like a stiff body in contact with the guides
does not hold true. That is why the dynamic control of shaft steelworks and guides requires a new method, admitting a criterion of admissible forces and guide
distances. This study clearly demonstrates that the new method should help eliminate the errors involved in the traditional approach.
2 NEW APPROACH USED IN THE DESIGN OF SHAFT STEELWORKS
Research and inshaft tests conducted in the early 1980s in Poland revealed that impact forces experienced by shaft steelworks strongly depend on design and
construction parameters of this steelwork, which gave rise to the new approach to the steelwork design affording us the means to solve the major problems associated
with the operation and maintenance of steelworks designed by conventional methods: too short fatigue life of guides and buntons and bunton spacing limited to 4.5 m
(6). These problems could be overcome only when the new method was introduced whereby the sizing of the guide crosssection was made independent of the
steelwork force and the design loads for the guides were derived as the resultant design parameters.
In the traditional design the steelwork is dimensioned on the basis of applicable indices of guides and bunton bending moments. These indices would be first
determined for the steelwork force specified as 10% of the conveyance weight and then increased
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to about 50% to provide for some safety margin and ensure the longest safe service life possible. On account of thus defined strength indices, guides and bunton sets
can be now made from standard Cprofile sections. The whole series of types of Cprofiles are readily available, which renders the design of a closed profile with the
required strength parameters a relatively easy task.
Many years’ experience of shaft operations in Poland shows that thus designed safety excesses fail to ensure the required fatigue life of the steelwork. In shaft
operation practice the admissible wearing of closed profiles made from Cprofiles is not due to the admissible deterioration of their bending strength but to the decrease
in the thickness of joints connecting the bar shelves and the decrease of the thickness of the profile web. It appears that the admissible decrease in the thickness of
joints and profile webs occur even though the strength parameters should reach only 60% of their admissible value.
To solve this problem it is suggested that the traditional sizing of guide and bunton crosssections be replaced by the sizing procedure based on specifications of wall
thickness and outside guide crosssections. In the light of many years’ experience in shaft operations in Poland, rational values of these dimensions do not depend on
the steelwork force/ design load. In the new approach the thickness of guide crosssection walls is the sum of the two components:
• the minimal thickness of 4 mm, specified by the Polish standard PNG42224;1997 “Mine ShaftsRigid Steelworks. General Requirements”,
• safety margin to account for guide wearing whilst in service, obtained as a quotient of the projected service life of steelwork and the yearaverage decrease of
thickness of steelwork wall taking into account the actual shaft conditions and the corrosion control (0.08–0.3 mm/year)
The outside dimensions of guide profiles are now obtained taking into account the requirements shown in Figure 1, related to the width B of guide rollers interacting with
guides and to the operational clearance L, ensuring the required operating conditions. Many years’ experience of shaft operations in Poland shows that the width of
roller guides B should not be less than 100 mm and the running clearance L should be at least 25 mm. Accordingly, the dimension h of the guide crosssection should
be at least 200mm, no mater what the steelwork force, and b must be at least 150 mm. Hence the new approach specifies the external dimensions of guide cross
section profiles to be h=200 mm, b=150 mm, g=10 mm, no matter what the steelwork force.
Figure 1. Sizing specifications for the guide crosssection.
It appears that when the relationship quantifying the effects of steelwork design parameters on the impact forces between the conveyance and steelworks (2,3,8) is
applied, the steelwork design will allow 6m bunton spacing and the guides b×h× g=200×150×10 mm should ensure the safe and smooth performance for at least 50
years of service life even when largest conveyances are hauled.
Figure 2 shows the characteristics of major operating parameters of the guides while hauling the largest skips employed in the Polish mines: the lifting capacity 35
Mg, hoisting speed 20 m/s (2,3,8). The assumption is made that as regards the guide alignment tolerance and the admissible bending moments and guide stresses, all
requirements set forth in the relevant mining regulations are met (12).
On the plots are the parameters associated with skip/conveyance interactions for the three values of bunton spacing (l=3 m, l=4.5 m, l=6 m):
• ratio of the maximum guide bending moment to the admissible bending moment, u,
• ratio of maximum guide stresses to the admissible stress, w,
• ratio of the maximum guide load to the conveyance mass, p.
Each parameter is plotted as the function of the steelwork frontal stiffness ratio. It is a design parameter, obtained using the procedure for bunton calculations and
utilising one of the two formulas [8]:
(1)
(2)
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Figure 2. Parameters of guide (b×h×g=200×150× 10 mm) interactions with the conveyance of the lifting capacity 35 Mg (hauling speed
20 m/s).
The formula (1) applies to buntons treated as beams supported at two ends while (2) applies to buntons treated as cantilevered beams. Symbols present in (1) and (2)
have the following interpretation:
Jc—moment of inertia of the guide crosssection with respect to the neutral axis, normal to the side of the length h (Fig. 1),
Jd , Jw—moments of inertia of the bunton crosssection with respect to its vertical neutral axis,
a, b, c—bending length of the bunton due to the guide pressure,
l—vertical spacing of buntons.
It is readily apparent (Fig. 2) that for 6m bunton spacing, the guides b×h×g=200×150×10 mm should ensure the safe and smooth performance for at least 50
years of hauling even the largest conveyances as long as the steelwork stiffness ratio should not exceed 5.5 and the yearaveraged decrease in thickness of profile walls
should be less than 0.12 mm/year. Nowadays these requirements can be fully met, hence the new approach will lead to much better steelwork design solutions. Plots in
Figure 2 show that the traditional approach ensures the required safety levels though the bunton spacing in the vertical must not exceed the longproven value 4.5 m.
That is why a 6m bunton spacing is rarely found in currently operated shafts. Adaptation of the new approach might bring about major changes in this respect.
3 NEW METHOD OF DYNAMIC CONTROL OF STEELWORK AND CONVEYANCE GUIDING IN THE
VERTICAL SHAFTS
The chief deficiency of the traditional approach was that direct assessment of steelwork and guides safety condition was impossible. The new methodology, therefore,
ought to provide for evaluation of real forces and guiding distances, taking into account the admissible forces and guiding distances. The safe condition for the shaft
steelwork and the guiding system performance in terms of the admissible forces and guiding distances means that real impacts of conveyances on steelworks should not
exceed the calculated steelwork force while the real distances between the guides and slipper plates are no greater than the level at which the conveyance would be
detached from its guides. Accordingly, the new metho of dynamic control of steelworks and the guiding system specifies the dynamic guiding force as the designed
steelwork force while the admissible distance is treated as the distance at which the conveyance is detached from the guide, equal to the height of side supports of the
slipper plate less 40 mm (1,11).
Thus determined admissible forces and guiding distances are utilised in monitoring of actual forces and guiding distances. In the new method these are determined by
simultaneous measurements and monitoring of two parameters associated with lateral motion of the conveyance inside the shaft:
• Guiding distance, i.e. the distance between the guide and the conveyance slipper plate.
Page 492
• Lateral acceleration of the conveyance measured along the line determining the guiding distance.
Fullscale tests were run to check the efficiency of the new method (7,10). It appears that measurements of these parameters require the converters with the frequency
band 0–100 Hz, the measurements of guiding distance should be taken with 0.2 mm resolution laser converters and the converters with the measuring range ±4 g are
recommended for acceleration measurements. Measuring signals of distances and lateral acceleration are registered digitally along the whole travel path of the
conveyance and the path signal is recorded simultaneously. The analysis of measuring signals yields the instantaneous values of force and guiding distances in the
function of the conveyance travel path inside the shaft.
The first part of the signal analysis involves repeated processing of the measuring signal of the guiding distance. During the first stage the signal is rescaled into the
pattern of instantaneous distances between the guide and the slipper plate, expressed in millimetres. The next step involves algebraic transformations of measuring
signals to yield the pattern of instantaneous guide force. The third procedure consists in precise location of the guide—slipper plate contacts. Accordingly, the
subsequent instants of conveyance travel are ascribed the value of 0 (when the instantaneous deflection of roller guide should be less than the guide stroke measured
directly before the test ride) or 1, when the instantaneous deflection equals the guide stroke. When the pattern of guide/ slipper plate contacts yields zero values only,
the roller guide force pattern would become the plot of real controlled steelwork and guide forces. These force patterns might be evaluated in terms of the admissible
forces and admissible guiding distances. When the value of 1 should occur, it means that during the test ride two forces would act upon the guide: previously determined
roller guide force and the slipper plate force whose value for each of such contact points ought to be determined.
In the new method the slipper plate forces are obtained by transformations of acceleration signal in the frequency domain, utilising the frequency relationships
associated with the conveyancesteelwork systems. These relationships were published in 1989 in Poland [4]. It appears that the proportion of mass of a real
conveyance that interacts with the guide can be written as a function m(f):
(3)
Figure 3. One of the results of industrial application of the new method of dynamic control of steelwork and conveyance guiding in Polish
shafts.
travel z in the shaft. The third procedure yields the plot q(z) expressed as:
q(z)=w(z)−p(z)
(4)
The final result is the relationship g(z) obtained by eliminating the wave components associated with guide deflection due to the action of guiding forces from q(z). The g
(z) is a plot of guide misalignment in the function of the conveyance travel in the shaft. In the final step g(z) is compiled with the plots of real forces and guiding distances
in the functions of the conveyance travel. Thus the chief objective of this new method is achieved: the spots along the conveyance travel path where repairs are
necessary to eliminate the excessive forces or guiding distances will be located in an efficient and reliable manner.
Figure 3 compiles the plots of real forces and guiding distances obtained by this method with the pattern of guide misalignment of a skip with the loading capacity 15
Mg, hauling speed 15 m/s. Figure 3 provides the results of an industrial application of the method in Polish mines. It applies both to the case when the admissible
guiding force value 32 kN and the admissible guiding distance 50 mm are exceeded. It follows from Figure 3 that the admissible force and guiding distance levels are
exceeded at points located 324 m, 383 m and 417 m from the bank level. The locations where repairs are required are located 297 m, 310 m, 383 m, 392 m, 400 m,
415 m, 450 m, 459 m from the bank level. It is readily apparent that without compiling the force and distance patterns with the guide misalignment plots, location of
spots where the repairs are required would present major difficulties.
4 CONCLUSIONS
• The new design approach utilising the relationships based on the discovery made (2) that the forces of conveyances impact on shaft steelwork depend on the design
parameters of the steelwork seems to solve the major difficulties encountered in steelworks designed by traditional methods: short fatigue life of guides and buntons
and bunton spacing limited to 4.5 m. The new approach demonstrates how the bunton spacing in the vertical can be increased to 6 m without increasing the guide
weight, at the same time ensuring safe steelwork interaction even with the largest conveyances for at least 50 years.
• The new method of dynamic control of shaft steelwork performance and conveyance guiding allows the assessment of the steelwork and guides safety features in
terms of admissible slipper plate forces and guiding distances. When the safe levels are exceeded, the method enables a reliable and effective location of those spots
along the conveyance travel path in the shaft where repairs and modernisation will eliminate those deficiencies.
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Application of the new approach in the mining practice helps to eliminate costly errors involved in the traditional methods of design.
REFERENCES
1. Kawulok, S. 1994. Zagrozenia bezpiecznej pracy urządzeń wyciągowych od prowadzenia naczyń w szybie. Bezpieczeństwo Pracy i Ochrona Środowiska w
Górnictwie 4/12:28–32.
2. Płachno, M. 1982. Zagadnienie sił od prowadnic zabezpieczających w układach prowadzenia szybowego z prowadnikami na dźwigarach. Mechanizacja i
Automatyzacja Górnictwa 7–8/161:55–64.
3. Płachno, M. 1983. Zagadnienie obliczania zbrojeń szybowych z powiększonym odstępem pionowym między dźwigarami. Budownictwo Węglowe. ProjektyProblemy 6
(309):1–8. 8/161
4. Płachno, M. 1989. Zagadnienie drgań poprzecznych naczyń wyciągocyh. Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Śląskiej, Górnictwo 180:147–159.
5. Płachno, M. 1996. Metoda obliczania zbrojeń szybowych o wysokiej trwałości. Zeszyty NaukowoTechniczne AGHKTL 6:5–36.
6. Pfachno, M. 2002. Problem projektowania zbrojeń szybowych dla modernizowanych szybów górniczych. Zeszyty NaukowoTechniczne AGHKTL 25:66–76.
7. Płachno, M. 2003. Problem badań stanu zbrojenia oraz prowadzenia naczyń wyciągocyh w szybach górniczych. Transport Szybowy 2003 (ed. KOMAG. Gliwice), vol.
II:15–20.
8. Płachno, M. i in. 2003. Propozycja nowego podejścia do wymagań bezpieczeństwa zbrojeń i prowadzenia naczyń wyciągowych w szybach górniczych. Zeszyty
NaukowoTechniczne AGHKTL 31:41–53.
9. Design Guidelines for the Dynamic Performance of Shaft Steelwork and Conveyances. Unpublished monograph prepared for The Chamber of Mines.
10. Research Organization, Auckland Park (RPA) by Structural Dynamics Research Corporation, Milford, Ohio (USA), 1990.
11. Opracowanie nowych metod projektowania zbrojeń szybowych dla modernizowanych szybów górniczych. The research programme KBN nr 5 T12 054 22, supported
by the State Committee for Scientific Research in Poland, continued at the AGHUST.
12. Mining Law in Poland, 1994. Wymagania w zakresie budowy i obsługi górniczych wyciągów szybowych. Appendix no 17 to the regulation of the Ministry of
Industry and Trade of 14 April 1994 having relevance to work safety, operation and fire prevention measures mandatory in underground mines. (Journal of
Laws No 67 item. 342 of 19 June 1995).
13. Mining Law in Poland, 2002. Regulation of 28 June 2002 issued by the Minister of Economics relevance to work safety, operation and fire prevention
measures mandatory in underground mines. (Journal of Laws No 139 item. 1169 of 2 September 2002).
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Transport of heavy loads in Czech deep mines
J.Polák
Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT: The latest ten years of the Czech mining industry have been marked by distinct quantitative and qualitative changes. Among others they
have resulted in multiple increases of daily production rates per single working face up to an average of 2500 t/d with an occasional maximum of about
8000 t/d. Technological equipment for a coalface of almost 6 m of worked thickness and about 250 m of length would weigh more than 5000 tons
cost almost a thousand million of invest money. Concerning machine available time, a considerable pressure ensues from this fact, which implies a
tendency for minimizing the working face clearance time and carrying out relevant activities as safe as possible.
1 INTRODUCTION
Transport operations for mine excavation mass, personnel, and materials represent critical points of the whole mining process. It is not so much that the transport of
excavated mass would be particularly problematic but supplying workplaces with materials, especially nonrecurring provision of engineering equipment and machinery
to coalfaces and their clearance, is generally rather difficult. Technological equipment for a coalface, which is 250 meters long, weighs more than 5000 tons, and its
typical investment costs are in the order of milliards. It is only logical that maximum cost effective, timesaving utilisation for such equipment is required, especially
concerning its transport to the place of excavation, installation, dismantling, and final clearance.
Forefield equipment provisions and clearance activities are time consuming, and from the point of view of working safety, they are quite risky. It is especially these
activities that imply manipulation with excessively heavy and bulky loads, and are a focus point of this paper.
2 CURRENT SITUATION IN THE CZECH MINES
The Czech deep mining in its substance is localised in OstravaKarvina coal mining district, concerning both the OKD (OstravaKarvina Mining Enterprises) and CMD
(BohemiaMoravia Mining Enterprises). Conditions in all mines are very similar, and there are several factors that constitute the transport problem:
– Broken routes of transportation and their corollary: necessity to employ varying transportation equipment,
– Time of logistics that calls for the equipment shortest installation periods,
– Bearing capacities and loading limits of related facilities that work for several years at their saturation limiting rates,
– Passage capacity of transport routes,
– Safety of transport and manipulation.
Heavy loads (engineering equipment), which require single or per piece manipulations, are repre″sented by mechanized shields, e.g., WS 1.7 (26 t), MEOS 26/56 (34
t); drift and heading machines, e.g., PANDA (70 t), Eickhoff 500SL (72 t), AM 75 (50 t) a 4PP2 (50 t); ploughs; loaders; armoured conveyers; etc. The majority of
this machine engineering equipment is not transported to the place of their employment in one piece but rather per parts. Nevertheless this still means very heavy and
bulky loads, which is especially true for mechanized shields.
Figure 1, illustrates a typical situation of transportation concerning a coalfacemining complex. It is obvious that the equipment has been dismantled on the ground to
pieces transportable underground, at which point the principal criteria have been the equipment’s dimensions and cage lift bearing capacities. The order of sequence, in
which particular pieces are transported underground, is crucial.
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Figure 1. Scheme of a face equipment transport.
After trains have been shunted in the shaft station, they are transported to freight transport station to be loaded on a monorail route. The monorail locomotives carry the
load to an assembly chamber. This is located in close vicinity to the coalface and serves the purpose of putting together individual pieces of the mechanized shields that
is finally transported to the coalface by skidding it along the working floor or by means of a specialised trail. The assembly of machines is carried out directly at the
coalface.
3
TECHNICAL MEANS EMPLOYED3
3.1 Shaft transportation
According to dimensions of the equipment transported, the transport takes place inside the cage or underneath it. The cage floor’s dimensions are usually in the range
from normal 3.3 by 1.08 meters up to dimensions of specialised cages, 4.17 by 1.5 meters. The majority of transported parts can be put inside the cage.
3.2 Rail transport
The mining railroad gauge is 600 mm, and for the Rail Category I, the admissible axial load is up to 80 kN. Platform wagons of 5–8 tons are used for heavy load
transportation. Also a specialised eightwheel wagon, P 20 (Fig. 2), of 20ton load maximum is in operation. Only dieselhydraulic locomotives of
Figure 2. Eightwheel mining platform car P 20.
Figure 3. Transport at monorail.
DH category are employed as traction vehicles that have an adhesive weight up to 14 tons.
Rail transportation of heavy loads may be difficult if passage along curves or through barrier objects are involved. Concerning stabilities of transported objects in
particular, some difficulties may occur if railroads are in bad condition or if their maintenance has been inappropriate.
3.3 Monorail transport
At the joining point of the rail and monorail transport facilities, transfer sites are located that serve the purpose of putting the loads from the platform wagons on the
carrying vehicles of the suspension trail. With an exception of a single mine, a suspension trail, ZD 24A, B, C, based on a profile, I 155 KN 425564, is generally used.
This enables transfers of axial forces of 64 kN, and a special trail, ZD 24C, can transfer even 84 kN. The loading capacity of the carriage unit itself is 2690 kg and, if
specialised carrier beams are employed, transport of heavy loads up to 8 tons is possible (for example an armouring anticollapse shield, MEOS 22/46) poses no real
problem; see also Figure 3. Also specialised suspension transport
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equipment, ZPZ 25, is at disposal for transportation of loads up to 25 tons of weight.
Traction vehicles are dieselhydraulic monorail locomotives of two operation powers. The weaker of the two has an engine of 50 kW, and its maximum pulling force
is 63 kN. The other has an engine 68 kW can exercise a traction force up to 80 kN maximum.
The monorail transport is realised in difficult sections like those of impaired space or sloped track. Problems for transport are mainly posed by the necessity to
ensure adequate passage profiles along with sufficient pulling force (and by that token also adequate transportation capacity), which especially concerns limiting slope
angles.
3.4 Assembly chamber
Assembly chambers are localised in coalface close vicinity. The road in length of 10 to 15 meters is enlarged to width of 4.5–5 meters, and height of 4 meters. The
workplace is equipped with a manipulation gear moving along two suspension trails, ZD 24. The most commonly used equipment is a hydraulic manipulation gear,
HMZ12, of 12 tons bearing capacity. Assemblies of mechanised shields are conducted here, and implementing right sequence of individual assembly steps—starting
with loading operations at the surface—is crucial.
3.5 Transport by specialised ground floo r tra
Assembled parts of longwall shield that can weigh more than 30 tons are transported from the assembly chamber to the coalface. In view of the sizes and loads
involved, it is performed on the ground floor, and transport by specialised tracks (duorails) is more modern.
Czech mines have been recently employing cog way locomotives moving along specialised tracks. Two systems are used, ground floor rackrail, KSZS 650/900,
driven by dieselhydraulic cog way locomotive (Fig. 4), and ground floor rackrail, KOD 6507 900/30/60, with an electric towing vehicle.
In view of the fact that a railbound transport is involved, the load moves steadily by a control optimum speed, and overspeeding is checked by an emergency brake.
As such, it is a relatively safe system.
3.6 Transport by skidding
Sometimes offroadtransport is an inevitable necessity. In this case, hoists of great pulling force are used for transporting of heavy loads by ground skidding (pulling
and dragging). Ground floor skidding represents the simplest option. It is usually an exercise of final adjustments by joining equipment individual parts together. It is a
relatively risky
Figure 4. Dieselhydraulic cog way locomotive.
operation that asks for cooperation of various hoists and their operational staff.
The transport from the assembly chamber to the coalface is realised by skidding the load on the road made from old conveyor pans or rails of greater gauge.
Individual sections are fixed on traction platforms that ensure stability, as regards side movements. Sliding tracks are greased to put sliding friction down. Various hoists
are used for the job, and their traction force may be even 128 kN.
It is obvious that such transport is less efficient and less safe compared to duorail transport. It is very often expertise and tradition of a particular mine staff that
decides about employing such form of transport.
4 SAFETY ASPECTS FOR HEAVY LOAD TRANSPORT
The Czech Mining Office’s amendment of the Decree No. 22/1989 coll., which is about to take effect from 1 July 2004, defines loads of excessive value as such that
exceed the weight of 3000 kg. Loads of excessive dimensions are loads whose transport cannot observe related Transport Safety Codes.
Heavy load transport asks for special preparatory steps. Transport safety codes are developed concerning all aspects of the transport operations and procedures. In
spite of painstaking precautionary measures, this transport belongs to the most dangerous exercises claiming five fatalities in the past four years.
As can be expected, transportation by skidding and manipulation with assembled armouring are the most risky operations. Nevertheless also two fatalities have been
recorded, as regards railway transport and transfer of loads from suspension track to a rail one. Both cases involved the problem of the load stability Figure 5. The
former case concerned transport of an shield, FAZOS 12/28, by means of a special vehicle that toppled over complete with its load. The latter case involved toppling
over of a ceiling shield Hemscheidt KG 291–5/19, that toppled by being transferred from the suspension track to a special carriage vehicle, DVD 8.
Concerning the skidding transport, a transport platform derailed from the railway, 1000mm gauge, in its vertical bend. The weight of the assembled section, MEOS
22/46, was 22 tons, and a hoist, VP 40, pulled the platform.
Both mentioned fatalities occurred by applications of traction hoist driven transport. The former case
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Figure 5. The load stability at a railway transport.
concerned slipping of the rope out the clamps of the hoist, BOBIN 200, as the assembled section was moved (turned) at the coalface. The latter case concerned
fracture of the binding medium (chain) by manipulating a trestle section, PIOMA 25/45.
5 CONCLUSION
Transport of heavy loads in spacelimited conditions of deep mines is both materially/technically and economically demanding, and also a risky one. Sufficient transport
capacities are at hand for this transport needs both on the Czech and European markets. As such, it is especially the human factor that will have to be focused on trying
to reduce the risk of operations. This orientation concerns both designing and implementation phase of the related project.
That is the reason why the project of the VSBTechnical University of Ostrava has been oriented by assessments of the standing information on this kind of transport,
and the modelling/analyses of risk posing operations. The project outcome will provide relevant requirements concerning concrete developing steps for transport codes,
and amendments of the standing safety regulations.
REFERENCES
Polák, J. 2004. Zvýšení bezpečnosti při dopravĕ břemen nadmĕrné hmotnosti a nadmĕrných rozmĕrů v hlubinných dolech, TU Ostrava, 79 p.
Page 499
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikor (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Design objectives for a new (allpurpose) rock drill
J.Reś & K.Władzielczyk
University of Science and Technology AGH, Cracow, Poland
ABSTRACT: The paper outlines the main technical objectives for a newlydesigned rock drill. The design objectives are based on the stateoftheart
solutions in design and engineering of drilling rigs by leading world manufacturers. Special attention in given to versatility of rig applications in a whole
range of drilling tasks and functional features of its main subassemblies. Besides, the selection of main parameters ensures a wide scope of drilling rig
applications.
1 INTRODUCTION
The designed drilling rig presented in this study, indicated with the symbol WH 300/12, is the first attempt after nearly twenty years to design and engineer an all
purpose drilling rig in Poland that could compete with those offered by leading world manufacturers. One has to bear in mind that there have been no major changes on
the market for drilling rigs in Poland in the last twenty years. The drilling sector mostly uses old rigs manufactured in the former Soviet Union and the drilling rigs
WIRTH purchased mostly in the mid seventies (B3 and L4).
The only exception known to the Authors is a modern drilling rig BBA90 (BAUER) purchased in 2001 by the Oil and Gas Drilling Company PRWiG in Warsaw,
though it is mostly intended for largediameter hole drilling. These statements are confirmed by representatives of drilling companies participating in the working
meetings dealing with the conceptual design and specific solutions in the drilling rig WH 300/12.
While developing the design objectives, the participants presented numerous suggestions as to the scope of drilling tasks to be performed by the drilling rig, bearing
in mind the current stagnation on the market for drilling jobs. The purchaser, therefore, needs to maximally utilise the potentials it will offer. That is why the drilling rig
WH 300/12, though principally intended for rock and well drilling with the left or righthanded (standard and reverse) mud circulation systems, can be also adapted to
smalldiameter hole drilling (including core drilling jobs) to the inserting of casing tubes.
2 GENERAL OBJECTIVES
Before the technical specifications were developed, the general design objectives were formulated: the scope of applications of the drilling rig WH 300/12, its structure
and major operating parameters.
The design of the drilling rig WH 300/12 should meet the following objectives:
• it should be used for rotary drilling of all kinds of holes (with a reverse mud system and air lift capacity or with a standard mud circulation system) down to the depth
of 300 [m] and the end diameter 311.2 mm [ ].
• The drilling rig WH 300/12 should be also fit for other applications.
– smalldiameter hole drilling (core drilling) using the core barrel method down to the depth 700 m
– lifting operations associated with the inserting of casing tubes such that the casing tubes fit telescopically
– maximal hook load capacity range Q=420− 450 [kN]
– the design of a drilling head fitted on the rig should provide for drilling operations with left and righthand (standard and reverse) mud circulation systems or with
airlift (through the change of drilling equipment), the drilling head should deliver the torque M=17 [kNm] and the maximal rotary speed n=650−700 [1/min] (on
account of core drilling)
– all subassemblies of the drilling rig should be mounted on a mobile chassis, its mass,
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dimensions and equipment being adapted to the road conditions
– the driving unit in the mobile chassis should also drive the drilling rig whilst in service, accordingly a power distribution mechanism will be required
– all main subassemblies (the rotating cutter, mud pump, compressor, winches and others) and the cylinders in hydraulic supports, mast and cheek supports are to
be hydraulicpowered via hydraulic pumps integrated within the drive system unit
– the machine should be controlled from the driller’s panel mounted on the chassis at the point where drilling and ancillary operations are well observable
– drilling equipment required for various drilling tasks shall be provided individually to the customers’ demands
It is a direct wish of the future users that the mud pump, the compression unit, the mechanism for inserting the casing tubes as well as other subassemblies except the
winches should not be included as the basic equipment of the drilling rig WH 300/12. These subassemblies might be connected to the rig by the users as separate units
or also mounted on the mobile chassis.
3 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS AS TO THE MAIN SUBASSEMBLIES OF THE ROCK DRILL
3.1 Technical requirements as to the hoisting system in the drilling rig WH 300/12
Before the design objectives and basic parameters of the major subassemblies of the hoisting system can be specified, some requirements of the future users ought to
be considered:
– the load on the drilling tool should be exerted via the string of drill collars (through the use of blocks/ pulleys or hooks)
– alternatively, the rig design should be such that the load on the drilling tool be exerted by the feed mechanism mounted on the mast
– the maximal diameter of casing pipes used in lifting operations should be 1500 [mm] and hence the distance between the hole axis and the front surface of the mast
must be at least 800 [mm]
These requirements strongly impact on the structure and dimensions of the designed rig.
3.2 Technical requirements for the mast structure
The mast in the drilling rig WH 300/12 is to be mounted in the rear part of chassis frame, the mast footings should support on the ground while the machine is in service.
The assembly and disassembly of the mast will require two hydraulic cylinders mounted on the chassis frame. The cylinder stroke and the manner the cylinders are
mounted should be chosen such that the mast can be easily set in the vertical position and then put back in its readyfortransport position (i.e. the mast is to lean on the
stand fixed to the chassis behind the operator’s cab).
The mast structure requirements:
– the block is to be mounted on the mast top and the required distance between the hole axis and the mast front surface must be maintained (800 [mm])
– the winch block/pulley is to be mounted at the height and location enabling safe hoisting of pipes to the drillhole area
– potential of mounting a feed mechanism within the mast structure must be provided
– safe guiding of the slide with a rotary drilling head at least over the length of 10 m
– in the lower section of the mast a table with a lower grapple is installed: the table must be easy to disassemble and turn by 90° to the left or to the right when casing
pipes are to be lifted
– safe assembly and guiding of hydraulic systems supplying the rotary head (or the feed mechanism) and mud and compressedair supply conduits
– extra drilling equipment is to be fixed, such as pipe wrenchers, weight indicators
The mast height must be such that two types of drilling operations are possible:
– operation of the feeding mechanism requires that the maximal head travel be about 10 [m] (it is assumed that mud pipes 9 m in length will be used in the mud
circulation system).
– drilling with the use of a block (or a hook), while blocks will be employed only in lifting of casing tubes. The required casing clearance L=12 [m] determines the mast
height in this case
3.3 The lower grapple requirements
All over the world, the drilling rigs of the type WH 300/12 currently manufactured are equipped with a lower grapple. The main aim of the lower grapple, mounted in
the lower section of the mast, is to support the pipe string in the hole while it is being extended or shortened.
Two basic grapple designs can be distinguished:
– single cheek grapple (permanent cheeks) used to support the pipe string whilst pipes are shortened or lengthened with the use of pipe wrenches
– doublecheek grapple (permanent and mobile cheeks) where the permanent cheeks support the
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pipe string, as above while the mobile cheeks are used for cutting or extending the pipe string
Accordingly, the grapple mechanism has to be equipped with cheeks appropriate for the given drilling technique. The following assumptions have to be made:
– in all rock drilling applications with the standard mud circulation system the cheek spacing should be adapted to the diameters 4′′, , depending on the user’s
requirements.
– In rock drilling applications with the reverse mud circulation system and airlift using doubleweight drill pipe the cheek spacing should be adapted to the nominal
diameters 150, 200
– In core drilling for smalldiameter holes the cheeks should be adapted to the pipe diameter or less
– The lower grapple should be fixed to the mast in the manner allowing its easy shifting to the sides
3.4 Technical requirements as to the main and ancillary winch
The main winch will operate as a block hoist. In accordance with the approved objectives, it should be hydraulicdriven and to be mounted on a frame of a mobile
chassis behind the mast.
Future users postulated that the “slow operation mode” of the winch be made possible. According to them, the running of a casing pipe column in the “slow
operation” mode will be easier when the hole diameter should change (swelling, walling in). However, if this condition were satisfied, a drilling rig WH 300/12 could not
be equipped with a commercially available winch. That means that a new winch suitable for slow running operations has to be newly designed, as the designs of
available winches preclude the use of a mechanism enabling slow operation mode.
On account of the maximal admissible hook loading capacity, the design of the block system and the mast clearance, the Authors specified the major technical
parameter of the main winch:
– loading of rope wound on the drum— rope velocity for the maximal lifting capacity Qmax=450 [kN]
– maximal rope velocity for the 1/2 maximal lifting capacity
– rope diameter
– drum volume LIL=150 [m]
On account of the projected applications of an ancillary winch in WH 300/12 for drilling smalldiameter holes with the use of core barrel techniques, it is required that it
be equipped with a largervolume drum.
As in the case of the main winch, the ancillary winch is to be hydraulicpowered. Apart from the drum volume, no design modifications will be required hence a
commercially available winch could be installed in WH 300/12.
The ancillary winch will be mounted on the chassis frame, behind the main winch at the spot where the operations of these two will not interfere. The block pulling for
guiding the rope from a ancillary winch must ensure that the rope will not get entangled with the rope from the winch I.
Major technical parameters of an ancillary winch (when making an order) are:
– loading of rope wound on the drum—
– rope velocity V2L=0−1.8 [m/s]
– suggested rope diameter d2L=12 [mm]
– drum volume L2L=800 [m]
3.5 Technical requirements for the rotary head and the feed mechanism
The rotary head in the drilling rig WH 300/12 will be used in drilling of all types of holes in the processes with the standard and reverse mud circulation systems. It is
also intended for smalldiameter hole (core) drilling and in some cases also for rotarypercussive drilling with the use of a hollowing percussive mechanism.
Assuming the maximal torque to be delivered by the head to be 17 [kNm], its applications in such diverse drilling operations require that the range of available
rotating velocity be much wider: 0–700 [1/min] in small diameter hole drilling. Such velocity range for the given torque value is impossible to achieve with the use of one
hydraulic motor, hence the spindle should be driven by two hydraulic motors and two operation modes shall be made available.
Depending on the type of drilling operations and the selection of hydraulic motors, the recommended spindle parameters are:
• drilling with a reverse mud circulation system and “airlift”
– spindle torque 6.15 [kNm] for spindle velocity range 0–150 [1/min], delivered in the I operating mode; spindle torque 17 [kNm] and spindle velocity range 0–60
[1/min] (II operating mode)
• drilling with standard mud circulation systems also (smalldiameter hole drilling)
– spindle torque 1.8 [kNm] for spindle velocity range 0–700 [1/min], delivered in the I operating mode (smalldiameter hole drilling)
– spindle torque 4.8 [kNm] for spindle velocity range 0–180 [1/min], (I operating mode; drilling with standard mud circulation)
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Figure 1. A schematic diagram of the layout of major rig components on the frame.
Figure 2. Rig dimensions in readyfortransport position.
The design of the rotary head must include the connections of supplying leads as well as compressedair and mud supplies, also it should enable the removal of a three
phase mixture in the course of drilling operations with “airlift”. Besides, it has to be shifted to the sides in the course of lifting operations.
The application of a feed mechanism is strongly recommended. It is hard to image drilling operations (particularly smalldiameter hole drilling) without the feed
mechanism which, together with the lower grapple, helps to reduce the time required for ancillary operations (making up and breaking out of the pipe string) which are
thus mechanised. It is suggested that a chain transmission be used in WH 300/12 as the feed mechanism. The drawing load 250 [kN] is sufficient at the feed rates of the
order 0.3–0.4 [m/s]. The design of the feed mechanism allow the handling of pipes 9 [m] in length and the minimal clearance 0.5 [m].
3.6 Technical requirements for the selection of a compressor unit and a mud pump
Though the future users reserve to right to individually choose the compressor units and mud pumps, the recommended parameters are:
– capacity Qs p=10 [m3/min]
– maximal pressure Ps p=1.5 [MPa]
These values are slightly more than the theoretical ones to ensure some redundancy in case of any difficulties in the course of drilling operations. As far as a mud pump
is concerned, the recommended parameters are:
– maximal capacity Qpl=1700 [dm3/min]
– maximal discharge pressure Ppl=[4 MPa]
4 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
A hydraulic system is to be used for powersupply and control of the major rig subassemblies:
– rotary head
– clamping mechanism
alternatively:
– mud pump
– air compressor
It is also used for powersupply of
– the main winch (rope drum)
– ancillary winch
– mast support cylinders
– hydraulic support cylinders
– cylinders in permanent and mobile cheeks
– other subassemblies or hydraulicpowered tools employed in drilling operations (such as a hydraulic power tong with a controllable torque)
These subassemblies operate in a sequential configuration. That means that in the course of drilling jobs, subassemblies responsible for greatest power consumption
are switched on only during so called “pure” drilling. The only subassemblies powersupplied all the time, right from the moment of rigging, are mast support cylinders.
Hydraulicpowered winches (main and ancillary winches) have the greatest power demands; accordingly they are on only in the course of lifting or transport operations.
That is why they can be powered from the same pumps as other subassemblies.
In the preliminary version the system is powered via: a double pump system, where the pump I should alternatively supply the rotary head and the main winch while
the pump II will be used to supply the remaining subassemblies or the ancillary winch an extra pump to supply the cylinders supporting the mast and permanent and
mobile cheeks, including proportional valves.
On account of the rotary head parameters, the recommended operating pressure in the system should be 35 [MPa].
The hydraulic system and hence the operations of the drilling rig subassemblies will be controlled from a control panel.
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Figure 3. The functional diagram of the hydraulic system for the drilling rig WH 300/12.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Technical requirements relating to the newlydesigned drilling rig WH 300/12 ensure that it will meet same standards as the rigs produced by the world leading
manufacturers. As this paper is limited is scope, the Authors were not able to present all new design solutions. It is worthwhile to mention that the employment of a main
winch capable of “slow operation mode”, a modern mast with several new innovative solutions allow the full range of drilling operations to be performed (including the
drilling with a hook or a feed mechanism). These are novel solutions, not found in other drills. Novelty and originality of these solutions and potential applications of the
drilling rig to a variety of drilling tasks allow us to hope that the newlydesigned rig will have a good position on the drilling equipment market.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study is completed as a part of a research program 2915.C.T12–6/2001 supported by the State Committee for Scientific Research in Poland.
REFERENCES
Allen J.H. 1976. Reverse Circulation Air Lift Methods for Big Hole Drilling. World Mining 1/76.
Atlas Copco. 1996. Drilling Equilling Equipment. Stockholm.
Avakow J.M. 1966. Rascot burovogo oborudovanija. Niedra, Moskva.
Bauer. 1999, 2001. Katalog. Germany.
Boart Lena Spółka z o.o. 2000. Wielozadaniowe urządzenie wiertnicze Deltabasse 540.
Boart Longyear. 1997. Deltapumps 100–200. Segrate, Italia.
Boart Longyear. 1997. Drilling Equipment. Segrate, Italia.
Borisovic W.T. (and others). 1977. Burenije skavazin bolszovo diametra. Niedra, Moskva.
Danieljan A.A. 1972. Burovyje masziny i miechanizmy. Niedra, Moskva.
Failing pumps. 1998. Catalog. Denver.
OBRTG. 1984. Główne parametry przewodu wiertniczego do wierceń z podnośnikiem powietrznym. Warsaw.
Gonet A. (and others). 1985. Projektowanie otworów wiertniczych. AGH. Cracow, nr 981.
Gonet A., Macuda J. 1995. Wiertnictwo hydrogeologiczne. AGH 1365. Cracow.
Grabov G. 1982. Hydropneumaischer und hydraulischer Fistsoff—transport in vertikalen Rochrleitungen. Neue Bergbautechnik 11.
Ingersoll Rabd—Drilling Equipment. 1996, 1998, 2000. Phillipsburg.
Ingersoll RabdDrilling Equipmen t. 19 83. The Resk
Ingersoll Rabd. 1996. New T4 Drillmaster, Rock Drill Division. Phillipsburg.
Katalog wyrobów Fabryki Maszyn w Strzyzowie. 1998. Strzyzow. Poland.
Kerimov W.A. 1983. Technika i technologija burznija skwazin bolschovo diametra. Niedra, Moskva.
Knop H. & Wędzicha J. 1973. Wiertnicze urządzenia wyciągowe. AGH 285. Cracow.
Liftstar H. Super hydroblock. 1999. Catalog SAMIIA.
Parker. Motion & Control. 1998. Catalog. Hydraulic Controls Division, Kaarst.
Piwniak G.G. (and others). 1990. Zarys inżynierii wiertniczej II. AGH 1207. Cracow.
Raczkowski J. 1981. Technologia płuczek wiertniczych. Śląsk, Katowice.
Rutenberg J. 1972. Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Water—Raising by AirLift. Doctoral Dissideration, Universitat Karlsruhe.
Solimec—Katalog. 1999, 2001, 2002. Roma.
Vollhydraulisches Bohrgerat B2A, B3A, B4A. 1998. Alfred Wirth & Co. KG. Erkelenz.
Weber M. 1992. Sizing of AirLift Systems of Drilling Rigs. Wirth, Erkelenz.
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Page 505
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Electrical equipment upgrading of contactless electric locomotive power supply
system
A.Ya.Rybalko, V.I.Panchenko & M.V.Rogoza
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Perspectives in developing activities on a mining rail transport with locomotives which are fed by higher frequency current are
considered. Its power supply system allows to accumulate modularly an expansion of transportation routes (basic version of an electrical equipment
complex on a rated load of 250 kW: the tracking substation, 3–4 electric locomotives and a thrust network of fixed length).
Solutions on perfecting the main clusters of an power supply system basic version on an alternate current of higher frequency are turned out.
Offered technical solutions on energy receiver allow to stabilize a magnetic coupling of a thrust network and energy receiver in places of turnouts and
on a railway curves, to reduce an internal inductance of an energy receiver winding and a leakage field.
The multipleturn design of the thrust line is offered, permitting to strengthen magnetic connection with energy receiver and therefore to increase
power transmission efficiency on an electric locomotive.
The purpose reached by the development and introduction of a miner rail transport with locomotives which are fed by higher frequency current (Fig. 1), is the
application field provided by the Safety rules in coal and shale mines for electric locomotives with advanced reliability level of implosion protection. However, safety
properties of contactless electric locomotive power supply system and advantages of locomotive exploitation allow to interpret its application perspectives more widely
on the following items:
• to electric locomotives inductive feed of the electric power from the thrust network excluding contact with a mine atmosphere is carried out;
Figure 1. Structural scheme of contactless electrical transport power supply: 1—transformer substation; 2—thrust frequency changer;
3—electric locomotives; 4—compensating station; 5—thrust network.
Page 506
• in a power supply diagram of rolling stock there is not disconnected energy source;
• from a work area maintained by enginemen, access to the parts located under power is eliminated;
• constant operational readiness and unlimited energy supply under decentralized power supply;
• nonpolluting complex of the equipment (for example, as contrastedto battery locomotives the negative phenomena are eliminated, connected with availability of the
accumulator battery—a potential source of a fire, an ignition source of explosive mixes in a mine atmosphere, source of operating environment polluting with gases
and an electrolyte);
• comfort and safety in operation due to professional functions of enginemen simplification;
• high level of a toilet facilities of the staff labour conditions;
• low effort and operation servicing, resulting in rather smaller number of the staff maintaining the transport.
Perspectives in developing activities on this type of transport are the following.
First, a new type of transport can be used not only for fixed main routes. Its electrical power supply system allows to accumulate modularly an expansion of
transportation routes (as the unit it is necessary to consider basic version of an electrical equipment complex on a rated load of 250 kW: the tracking substation, 3–4
electric locomotives and a thrust network of fixed length). The field of this electrical power system application will essentially extend also with increase of a self
sufficiency of electric locomotives. If there are accumulators of power the electric locomotive can leave from under a thrust network and return to sites with a thrust
network for the accumulator boost charge. Such combined electrical power supply system can be the basis of reaching its electrical equipment up to an explosion proof
level of implosion protection and can be used in technological diagrams of a different profile and an expansion.
Second, the solutions on upgrading the main clusters of an electrical power supply system basic version on an alternating current of higher frequency are turned out.
Separate solutions, perspective schemes and designs are considered below. There is no doubt, their further development is required depending on use conditions and
technological destination of the transport.
An electric locomotive energy receiver is that electrical power supply system component which essentially influences on its capabilities and parameters. Therefore
upgrading energy receiver design is rather actual. It is directed on stability maintenance of electromotive force level induced in it, winding inductance decreasing and a
leakage inductance reducing.
While an electric locomotive on turnouts and railway roundings moving the magnetic connection between energy receiver and a thrust line decreases at the expense
of their offset. It results in reduction of induced electromotive force in an energy receiver winding. The range of such electromotive force values change decreases with
an accessory mounting in energy receiver winding of turns or halfturns intensifying electromagnetic connection. They are so located to each other, that the sum of
electromotive forces induced in them little varies at energy receiver lateral or angular motions relatively to a thrust network.
Winding inductance size decrease and the corresponding reduction of compensatory condensers determined power is reached by separating winding conductors
with the help of ferromagnetic elements, and also turns or groups of turns paralleling.
Winding conductors separating by ferromagnetic elements reduces mutual inductance between turns and as a result the dimension of a full winding inductance is equal
to the sum of separate turns inductivity. Defect of this design is increase of energy receiver dimensions and mass under number of winding turns at the expense of
ferromagnetic elements installation.
Essential reduction of a winding reactive power is reached under its fulfilment with a distributed capacitance that excludes necessity of compensatory condensers
installation on an electric locomotive. Structurally such winding consists of the tandem groups collected by flat isolated from each other conductors forming the
condenser with diagonal bushings and laying in section of a magnetic circuit.
The external electromagnetic field of energy receiver leakage can be slackened by installation of compensatory elements. Such elements are, particularly, shorted
turns. They can be installed on all winding length or on its separate parts. So, with the puadvanced levelose of a field reduction on a job of the engineman it is
expediently to install shorted turns in end parts of energy receiver winding. In them electromotive force from an electromagnetic field of end parts is induced. Thus of an
electromagnetic field compensation of an energy receiver winding end parts occurs. As a result the field reduction in 4…6 times is reached depending on distance up to
energy receiver.
The analogous effect of a leakage field reduction gives application of flux shunts in the bitter cress (two sections of the trough form) of energy receiver. For
elimination of shielding of a winding from a thrust network flux shunts are set with air gap. It is necessary to take into account, that flux shunts installation results in
energy receiver winding inductance increase and demands the corresponding increase of compensatory condensers installed power.
For stabilization of induced electromotive force it is offered to execute a contactless electric locomotive
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energy receiver which consists of a magnetic circuit and the winding located in its chases, in the following way. The magnetic circuit should be plump longwise by
separate sections, each of which has poleshoes, and sections are separated from each other by air spaces, and poleshoes of adjacent sections are installed with the
mutual lateral movement concerning a shaft of a thrust network into equal distance.
The thrust line in an electrical power supply system is structurally a singleturn winding. Increases of power transmitted through a line can be achieved by increase of
current values, stress in a line, a current frequency or at change of a thrust line design.
It is possible to lower a current in a line, applying its multipleturn design. It’s expediently to have such position of the cable line turn that the vector of field intensity
of a weeping current on a turn crossed a plane of outside circuits under angle, close to 0 or 180°. The thrust network consisting of an isolated cable, turned on the bitter
cress from dielectric allows to achieve similar effect. And the direction of winding changes to the opposite one through fixed distance, at which mutual inductance
between a cable and energy receiver (its sections) is maximum. Energy receiver consists of two identical parallel sections which windings are located in a plane,
perpendicular to a plane of a thrust network. Each section consists of the ferrite core in which cross chases slab coils of the winding plump by a highfrequency cable
are enclosed. And distance between chases is equal to the change interval of a thrust network cable coiling. Coils of an energy receiver winding are consequently
connected to each other. At passing a current along a linear cable in its each coil there is a magnetic flux, proportional to a current and a number of turns. It
considerably exceeds a flux created by a singleturn thrust network. When there is no electric locomotive on a site force lines become isolated symmetrically around the
cable. If under a thrust network there is energy receiver the main magnetic flux completes through its magnetic circuit and, crossing turns of an energy receiver winding,
induces in them electromotive force. As magnetic fluxes of adjacent coils of a thrust network cable are directed to adverse sides electromotive force of section adjacent
coils is contradirectional. Their consequent inclusion allows to summarize induced electromotive forces. At such design of an energy receiver thrust network owing to
the magnetic fluxes cancellation created by cable coils, induced in outside volt circuits are practically missed.
The considered design of a thrust network cables and energy receiver is rather longrange. It allows to increase considerably flux linkage of these system
components of higher frequency electromagnetic power transmission to mobile object, to increase its power and to limit a leakage field.
However the offered engineering solution demands significant increase of conduction materials discharge. It is possible to achieve the compromise here due to
application on an electric locomotive (or together with it) energy accumulating module. In this case the multipleturn cable line can be applied only on some sites during
which an accumulation of power in energy accumulating module is simultaneous with an electric locomotive boost.
Achievements of power transforming technique allow to realize efficiently enough the advantages of commutatorless railway motors (asynchronous or valve).
Activities in this direction are very important both for contact, and contactless electric locomotives.
The system with the valve engine, as it is known, contains a frequency transducer with the selfcontained inverter and the engine. Such system of the electric drive
receives broad application in an industry and on the transport. It has high adjusting characteristics of continuouscurrent machines and, as contrasted to them, has
advantages of reliability and reduction of discharges on operation.
The valve engine frequency transducers schemes are different in throttles, the transformers switching and control devices, stress control modes. Cost of these
transducers is rather insignificant, but costs of the railway motor are more.
Such transducers can contain a directcurrent intermediate link. And structures of transducers are extremely simple, the stress regulation can be carried out with the
help of the electric locomotive energy receiver rectifier or with the help of a pulse converter. Schemes with application of commuting devices for functionability of the
transducer maintenance can be used at drive low speeds of (less than 10% nominal), that is especially important for contactless electric locomotives thrust drive. In
transducers with an implicit directcurrent link the use of thyristors is more efficient, there is a possibility of stress regulation without additional devices.
The main difficulty in the valve engine application for contactless electric locomotives consists in complexity of stress regulation and the transducer output voltage
frequency because of energy receiver high Qfactor and higher frequency of power circuits current. In a directcurrent link the controlled rectifier of different schematic
realizations or the unguided rectifier with versions of input voltage of a frequency transducer regulation with the help of alternating voltage transducers in an energy
receiver circuit can be used in this case.
Application of the controlled rectifier on a contactless electric locomotive and impulse transducer of a dc voltage provides availability of accessories as the inlet filter
of the considerable dimensions designed for frequency 5 kHz and full input voltage. Practical realization of the unguided rectifier with the indicated
Page 508
regulation versions suggests rather complicated functional realization and it is economically ineffective because of three stages of transforming electromagnetic energy
parameters in an electric locomotive power circuit. Besides charges on commuting devices are high enough.
Such transducer types together with the valve engine inverter complicate a thrust drive system, reduce its reliability and useful activity coefficient. In such conditions
the structure is functionally easier, it permits to regulate stress and frequency. However on a contemporary development level of transforming technique the charges
on a power equipment of these schemes are significant.
Thus, because of specific features of contactless electric locomotives power circuits the application on them thrust commutatorless motors demands the complicated
transforming devices installation and the new equipment development. However the results of the last developments in the sphere of power semiconductor devices
allow to eliminate the majority of the indicated deficiencies and to apply efficiently systems of the thrust electric drive with valve or nonsynchronous engines on
contactless electric locomotives. This direction will be applied in the new perspective vehicles realizing an inductive power transmission principle.
For scientific and practical maintenance of development and expansion of using the transport with contactless electrical power supply it is necessary to continue
activity in the following directions:
• optimizations of parameters transformation processes in the systems of contactless higher frequency power transmission to movable objects of different destination;
• optimizations of higher frequency transducers power circuits with applying new perspective types of devices, synthesis of systems of their efficient control and
protection on the basis of microprocessor technique means;
• upgrading electromagnetic converter devices of higher frequency and building on this basis different vehicles and a complex of the transport explosion proof electrical
equipment;
• investigating safe application conditions, development of means and protective measures, increase of a level of explosion protection of an transport system electrical
equipment;
• upgrading railway motors design.
CONCLUSIONS
Efficiency of an electric haulage operation is determined by a level, quality, reliability of an electrical equipment operation, including the power supply system and an
electric locomotive.
For an electrical power system with a magnetic connection the proposals on upgrading energy receiver and a thrust network of higher frequency current are
developed.
Offered engineering solutions on energy receiver allow to stabilize a magnetic connection of a line and energy receiver in throwing mechanisms places and on railway
roundings, to reduce an internal inductance of an energy receiver winding and a leakage field.
The multipleturn design of the thrust line is offered, permitting to strengthen magnetic connection with energy receiver and therefore to increase power transmission
efficiency to an electric locomotive.
Page 509
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Shearer drum design using Visual Basic environment
Sriradha Somanchi & Vladislav Kecojevic
College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
Tadeusz Kozminski
Kennametal Inc., Latrobe, Pennsylvania, USA
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of a research project on development of lacing and breakout patterns used in mechanical design of
shearer drums. The torque graph is generated to estimate the force variance, and the effect of tool removal on shearer drum performance is discussed.
In order to assist in design process, a new software package was developed. The standalone and network versions with both metric and imperial
units were developed in Microsoft Visual Basic programming language. The shearer drum database was developed using Microsoft Access system
and applies multiuser, open database connectivity for storage and processing of shearer drum information. The project was completed at the
Pennsylvania State University in cooperation with Kennametal Inc.
1 INTRODUCTION
Underground longwall mining systems use shearer drums mounted on ranging arms to cut and load coal on the armored face conveyor. The drum simultaneously rotates
and traverses along the longwall face to cut coal. Coal pieces are separated from the seam by the shearing action of the cutting tools installed around the circumference
of the drum.
Due to variable and adverse geological conditions the drum is subjected to vibration during cutting action. This vibration causes significant damage to the unit and
components and results in higher machine downtime and operating cost (Cigla & Ozdemir1, Tiryaki, Ayhan & Hekimmoglu13). In most cases it is difficult to accurately
predict conditions under which the drum will be operated in a mine. Thus, it is important to design the drum so that it can handle hard, abrasive materials with minimal
damage to the drum, toolholders, sleeves and picks . Arrangeme nt of to around the drum circumference is crucial to achieve this design. Cutting tools should be
arranged around the drum so that tools experience almost equal forces during cutting action. When determining the spacing between cutting tools, the cutting actions of
consecutive tools must be considered with special attention. If the tools are spaced too far apart, individual tools experience excessive compressive and vibration
stresses, and high wear. If they are spaced too close, individual tool cutting action is not optimized because energy is used grinding the coal rather than chipping it,
causing an increase in respirable dust (Heikimoglu, Tiryaki & Ayhan3).
The capacity of lateral coal removal decreases and obstructs drum movement by clogging the space between vanes (Courtney2). Tools should be placed at the
appropriate position on the drum to ensure optimal cutting action, maximum production, minimum tool wear, and safe operating conditions. Properly calculated vane
angles ensure optimal loading efficiency. Similarly, attention should be given to selecting operating parameters such as drum rotation speed and advance rates to ensure
an efficient, unobstructed, and safe working environment (Courtney2, Peng & Chiang11).
Extensive research has been conducted to develop and select cutting tools and toolholders based on the geomechanical properties of rock (Hekimoglu & Fowell4,
Hurt & McAndrew6,8, Hurt, Morris & McAndrew7, Hurt, Morris & Mullins9, Hurt & McStravick10, Roxborough & Rispin12). Normal and vibration forces
experienced by individual cutting drums have been estimated through laboratory experiments. Soflware applications have been developed to estimate excessive cutting
vibrations and inefficient cutting conditions with consideration to single and multiple tracking arrangements (Tiryaki, Ayhan & Hekimoglu13, Holt, Morris and Owen5).
Though all the existing computer programs were developed to generate the torque graph and breakout pattern diagram, no provisions were made to estimate the effect
of losing the tool from the lacing pattern on the torque distribution and force variance of the drum. The information on any wornout or knockedoff tool is very
important to avoid damage to the adjacent tools.
Page 510
2 DESIGN COMPONENTS
2.1 Shearer drum components
Major shearer drum components include the barrel, hub, end ring, and vanes. The face (end) ring and vanes, in addition to structural and coal transportation functions,
also serve as a base to which the tool blocks are attached. All drum parameters and drum structure are custom designed to fit requirements dictated by the existing
mine conditions.
Input parameters required for the shearer drum include: number of starts, cutting diameter, barrel diameter, tool height, number of cutting tools per line, total web,
vane web factor, pitch 1 and 2, pitch variable, number of face ring tools end ring space, tool name, placement angle, Yvalues, angle of lean, color code for each tool,
drum speed, advance rate, bulking, vane thickness, and radial position of first tool. After defining these input parameters, the following output parameters are calculated:
vane diameter, loading vane height, vane web, vane web 1 and 2, total number of tools, number of vane tools, angle of wrap 1 and 2, total angle of wrap, line speed 1
and 2, bit sump per revolution, vane angle 1 and 2, throat width 1 and 2, conveyance area, conveyance capacity, and material input. Material input (quantity of coal)
can be adjusted by changing the haulage rate of the drum, while conveyance capacity is adjusted by changing the drum speed. If material input exceeds drum
conveyance capacity, the design has to be revised.
The cutting and barrel diameters are determined by the thickness of coal seam and size and capacity of the power unit on which the drum is loaded. Similarly, pitch,
line spacing values, and number of starts and cutting tools per line are selected based on the material properties and expected operating conditions of the drum.
Operating parameters like drum RPM and advance rate are selected based on production requirements, haulage capacity of the shearer and safety factors.
2.2 Lacing pattern
A drum lacing pattern diagram and a torque graph are used to generate the distribution of vibration stresses. In addition, they provide significant information regarding
distribution of the tools on the drum. The
Figure 1. Lacing pattern and torque graph.
primary goal in the design process is to get the most uniform force variance value for the drum. The lacing pattern diagram is generated on a flat surface and shows 36
equally spaced vertical lines, each line representing a 10 degrees angle. The horizontal lines represent the spacing values between the tools. Tools are placed on the grid
based on their angle and spacing values. Values for the face ring are provided as input and an algorithm has been developed to calculate them for the vane tools. Force
variance of the drum is calculated by focusing on a 10 degrees section of the drum each time incrementing by 1 degree to obtain the next section. At each section the
tools are assigned a number based on their position. The sum of the numbers gives the vibration variance value for that particular section. These variance values are
plotted across the drum to obtain the torque graph. Figure 1 displays the cutting tool pattern diagram and associated value of force variance. The torque graph is
illustrated along the circumference of the drum.
During typical operations, some tools in the lacing pattern lose their ability to cut, due to excessive wear or force. The stresses caused by vibration increase
significantly affecting the remaining tools on the drum. Failure to replace the lost or worn tools subjects the adjacent tools to very high forces, damaging cutting tools
sleeves and blocks. Reblocking of the drum would mean longer machine downtime and higher costs of repair. For instance, Figure 2 displays the cutting tool pattern
diagram without tool number 10. As illustrated, the effect on the torque graph is enormous. The force variance is raised to 160 from 39, a value obtained when all the
tools were in place.
2.3 Line pattern
The line pattern of the tools represents the angles of lean and skew of the face ring tools. Figure 3 illustrates the angle at which the outer face ring tools on the shearer
drum are leaned and skewed for sumping (moving into the face in the longitudinal
Page 511
Figure 2. Torque graph and force variance without the tool # 10.
Figure 3. The line pattern of the tools.
direction before rotating in the lateral direction to cut the coal). The face ring tools should to be set at specific angles determined by a lean and skew that protect the
sleeves and blocks of the outermost tools. The face ring tools should be set at specific angles to ensure that the rear side of the tools receives proper wear protection.
This pattern uses the angle of lean, Yvalue, and spacing values associated with the tools to trace a line diagram of the tools on the face ring. Outer face ring tools are
leaned at an angle so the tool protrudes the tool out. These tools perform the shearer sumping at the beginning of a new web cut. Protruding outside the drum end
ensures the tool tips prevent drum ends erosion.
2.4 Breakout pattern
The breakout pattern diagram provides information on the utilization and cutting efficiency of the tools. The area occupied by each tool should be more or less equal. It
enables the tools to hit and cut different portions of the seam. If advance rates are high, the area occupied by each tool is insufficient. This means the tools are grinding,
not shearing the mineral. If
Figure 4. Breakout pattern of the tools.
Figure 5. Breakout pattern diagram without tool # 10.
spacing between tools is small, the area occupied by the tool is smaller. Consequently, the cutting process is not efficient because the tools will deepen an existing
groove rather than chip the adjacent new area. If tools edges do not appear symmetrical in the diagram, the body of the tool is exposed and susceptible to wear. The
breakout pattern diagram is very useful for designing the drum and determining optimal setting for operating parameters. Figure 4 represents an example of desired tool
breakout pattern. The visible area of individual tools is almost the same. This indicates that input parameters like tool spacing, drum speed, and advance rate have been
set properly to achieve optimal cutting efficiency.
Figure 5 shows the breakout pattern diagram when a tool is knocked off the drum or stops performing due to wear damage. The unhardened portion of tools
adjacent to tool number 10 is exposed. This exposure causes damage to the other cutting, blocks, and sleeves.
3 CONCLUSION
The software application discussed here provides a costeffective means in design and evaluation of
Page 512
shearer drum performances. A drum’s loading and cutting characteristics can be calculated, lacing patterns can be recommended, and breakout patterns can be
generated to achieve optimum performance.
The diagrams generated by software are used to make useful observations in the design process. The torque graph is generated to estimate the force variance value,
an indicator of the intensity of vibration on the cutting tools. This application makes the torque graph more intuitive by drawing it around the circumference of the drum.
Special emphasis should be placed on replacing worn tools to prevent excessive vibration and damage to adjacent tools.
However, it must be noted that the drum design application can serve only as a supplementary tool for the design of drums. Knowledge and experience in drum
design are prerequisite to producing successful mechanical designs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work in this paper was funded from Kennametal Inc. grant MOA 64114 titled “Phase 1–5—Development of the program packages for design of cutting systems”.
Support from Kennametal Inc. is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Cigla M. and Ozdemir L. Computer modeling for improved production of mechanical excavators. Proceedings of the 2000 SME Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City,
(Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, 2000), preprint 1–12.
2. Courtney J. Longwall cutting systems: design enhancements to improve operating performance. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on High
Performance Mine Production, Aachen, (Aachen University of Technology, 2003), preprint 1–10.
3. Hekimoglu O.Z., Tiryaki B. and Ayhan M. Reducing respirable dusts and fines through shearer drum design in coal mines. CIM Bulletin, Vol. 95, No. 1059, 2002, 119–
123.
4. Hekimoglu O.Z. and Fowell R.J. From research into practice: insitu studies for design of boom tunneling machine cutting heads. Proceedings of the 31st US
Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Denver, (Balkema, 1990).
5. Holt P.B., Morris C.J. and Owen R.J. Desktop computers for design work. The Mining Engineer, No. 143(271), 1984, 485–48
6. Hurt K.G. and McAndrew K.M. Designing roadheader cutting heads . The Mining Engineer. No. 141(240), 1982, 167–170.
7. Hurt K.G., Morris C.J. and McAndrew K.M. The design and operation of boom tunneling machine cutting heads. Proceedings of the 14th Canadian Rock
Mechanics Conference, Vancouver, (CIM, Montreal), 1982, 54–58.
8. Hurt K.G. and McAndrew K.M. Cutting efficiency and life of rockcutting picks. Mining Science and Technology, No. 2, 1985, 139–151.
9. Hurt K.G., Morris C.J. and Mullins R. Developments in coal cutting techniques. The Mining Engineer. No. 145 (296), 1986, 467–477
10. Hurt K.G. and McStravick F.G. High performances shearer drum design. Colliery Guardian, No. 236(12), 1988, 428–429
11. Peng S.S. and Chiang H.S. Longwall Mining. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., (New York, 1984), p.708.
12. Roxborough F.F. and Rispin A. A laboratory investigation into the application of picks for mechanized tunnel boring in the lower chalk. The Mining Engineer. No. 133,
1973, 1–13.
13. Tiryaki B., Ayhan M. and Hekimoglu O.Z. A new computer program for cutting head design of roadheaders and drum shearers. 17th International Mining Congress
and Exhibition of Turkey, 2001, web site: yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~bulent/IMCET2001_1.pdf
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Monitoring and analysis of hydraulic chock shields behavior on real time
Srinivasulu Tadisetty & R.N.Gupta
Mine Instrumentation Division, National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Champion Reefs, Kolar Gold Fields, India
Kikuo Matsui & Hideki Shimada
Department of Earth Resource Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
ABSTRACT: The leakages in the hydraulic circuits of shield will continuously overload the power pack pump resulting in frequent failure. With the
deteriorated condition of hydraulic systems, chock shields will not offer adequate resistance. Therefore, roof in front of the chock shields gets
separated and load transferred over the face results in severe cavities in face and falls of stone boulders, disturbing face operations. Thus the condition
of chock shield plays a vital role in successful longwall operations. Therefore monitoring and analysis of chock shields performance is imperative. The
condition of chock shield can be maintained by systematic monitoring and implementing necessary precautionary measures on real time without
disturbing face operations. Thus an innovative real time pressure monitoring (RTPM) system was successfully developed to detect and forecast
hydraulic failures for better safety and productivity. This paper discusses the innovative system development, field applications and impact on safety
and productivity of Indian longwall operations.
1 INTRODUCTION
Difficult caving characteristics of overlying strata have been experienced in the majority of longwall faces in India. Uncaved span of the roof overhangs in the goaf
causes excess strata loading on the supports. Increase of load on supports also causes increase of front abutment. Further increase in the hanging roof behind the chock
shields leads to a dynamic loading on shields. This situation enhances the strata control problems and disturbs safety and productivity of face operations. Therefore the
fracturing of the hanging roof for reducing support load to safe mining operations is imperative to keep safe mining operations. The fracturing of the roof needs an
effective scientific decision. The conventional manual methods sometimes lead to improper decisions due to lack of important information. Therefore the continuous
monitoring and evaluation of strata behavior on real time is imperative (Jiang et al., 1997).
The condition of chock shield deteriorates after extraction of every panel due to complex geomechanical conditions. The deterioration increases the hydraulic
leakages. Further, the severe leakages in the hydraulic circuits, overload the power pack pump resulting in frequent failure. The deteriorated condition of hydraulic
system reduces the load bearing capacity of chock shields. Therefore roof in front of the supports get separated.
The load was transferred over the face resulting in face collapse due to severe cavities in face. Detection of hydraulic leakages by manual conventional method is not
possible since the majority of leakages are internal (Hanna et al., 2001). Therefore, continuous monitoring of hydraulic health of chock shields on real time is imperative
for effective longwall operations. Thus the RTPM (real time pressure monitoring system) played a vital role in achieving enhanced safety and productivity of longwall
operations. The following sections concentrate on the development and the application of this innovative system.
The RTPM system was developed on virtual instrumentation environment. Virtual instrumentation environment empowers to build instrumentation systems with
standard computers and cost effective hardware. The software centered systems leverage off the computational, display and connective capabilities of popular
computers to give the power and flexibility to build functions of instrumentation system. The conventional instruments are composed of capacitors, resistors and ICs and
wiring in metal or plastic chassis. The virtual instrument on the other hand is composed of codes, algorithms, routines and data structures that run through and operating
system
Page 514
Figure 1. Pressure sensor interfaced to the powered support test port.
of a conventional computer (Tadisetty et al., 2002). Therefore the virtual instrumentation environment is more suitable for developing real time systems.
2 DETECTION OF SUPPORTS PRESSURE
Thin film strain gage pressure sensors were interfaced to the powered supports test port as shown in Fig. 1. The maximum pressure was 2000 bars. The power
requirement was 100 mW. The pressure sensor was intrinsically safe and compatible to underground environment.
3 WIRELESS DATA TRANSMISSIONS
The wireless transmitter was installed on the surface near the borehole over the longwall workings as shown in Fig. 2. All the underground pressure sensors were
interfaced to the wireless transmitter through multipair armored data cable. The state of the art wireless operations were successfully implemented. The wireless
transmitter was capable of transmitting
Figure 2. Underground sensors interfaced to wireless transmitter.
data around 32 km in license free frequency bands of 902 to 928 MHz. The data transmission rate selected was 114 kbps. One of the wireless data transmission
techniques is frequency hopping algorithm successfully implemented to guarantee reliable transmissions irrespective of underground noises. Further the data transmission
range will be extendable with repeater stations. As a result the innovative wireless transmission techniques avoided many limitations and disadvantages of conventional
cable transmissions.
4 REAL TIME PRESSURE MONITORING SYSTEM
The RTPM system was developed on advanced virtual instrumentation environment. Therefore software plays a vital role in this innovative new system. The RTPM
system was an economically viable and reliable system, as the system was developed on virtual environment, the system capacity can be extendable as and when
required. The RTPM system was successfully commissioned at a longwall panel at GDK (Godavarikhani) 10A, SCCL Ramagundem, India for continuous monitoring
and analysis strata caving for forecasting to safe longwall operations.
The RTPM system was interfaced to wireless receiver and intelligent dump terminal as shown in Fig. 3. The RTPM system commissioned on the surface around 25
km away from the wireless transmitter. The line of sight was maintained for
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Figure 3. Real Time Pressure Monitoring system interfaced to wireless receiver and intelligent dump terminal.
effective data transmission. The RTPM system acquired underground sensors data via wireless receiver and displayed on real time monitor after analysis as shown in
Fig. 3.
All the underground sensors were configured on configuration menu of the RTPM system. The data acquisition time selected was one minute. The warning limit
selected for shield pressure was 400 bars. The RTPM system initiated inbuilt warning modules if the supports pressure crosses warning limit (threshold). The real time
display updated for every minute with the latest information of strata and supports. This information facilitated for taking prompt decisions to effective operations. The
real time display includes cluster of various informations like underground sensors and strata and supports behavior as shown in Fig. 3. The underground sensors
information includes type, location, units, calibration, date of commissioned and date of replaced. The chock shields information includes setting pressure, yield
pressure, supply pressure, hydraulic circuit failures, influence of shearer cutting, influence of adjacent shield advancement and dynamic loading in graphically and
numerically as shown in Fig. 3. Further the numeric display indicates the rate of change in parameters. The strata behavior includes caving of immediate and main roof,
face spalling, stress levels in face and cavities.
All the aforesaid information was continuously updated for every minute promptly after detailed analysis on real time. The RTPM system initiated warning modules
during adverse behavior of strata and supports for implementing necessary precautionary
Figure 4. Mine plan.
measures to avoid safety and productivity loss. The RTPM system successfully recorded sensors data and stored in standard format for easy and quick access. The
data continuity and reliability was maintained due to inbuilt wireless operations.
5 EXPERIMENTAL LONGWALL PANEL
Longwall panel No. 04 was prepared in I seam bottom section leaving the 3 m clay/shale coal in the roof. The depth of the panel varies from 247 to 297 m. The
compressive strength of the stone roof is 13.6 MPa. The overlying strata was highly water bearing. Longwall retreat was 4 to 5 m per day. The face retreat was not
uniform most of the time due to supports and strata problems. An average daily production was 2500 t. The panel length and face length were of 950 m and 116 m,
respectively. The panel working height was 3 m. The panel was equipped with 80 chock shields of capacity 4×800 t. The seam thickness was 6.40 m with a 0.30 m
clay band and an average seam dip was 1in 6 towards N73° E. The strata overlying the coal seam is composed of course to medium grained ferruginous sandstone,
course gained kaolinised felspathic massive sandstone with clay and gray shale. The experimental panel was indicated on mine plan as shown in Fig. 4.
6 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
The experimental longwall panel was equipped with heavy duty four leg chock shields capacity of 800 t. The supports are aging and have poor condition. The
monitoring system successfully generated a big data base of chock shield performance. The selected cases were shown in below. The interpretation of selected cases of
chock shields performance is as follows:
Chock shield C40 setting pressure was 300 bars initially at 9.22 hrs on 10th May 2002 as shown in Fig. 5. The pressure variation was near linear. The
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Figure 5. Chock shield C40 behavior on 10th May 2002.
Figure 6. Chock shield C64 behavior on 27th April 2002.
chock shield was yielding from 16.08 to 18.23 hrs due to periodic weighting. The pressure was reduced to 350 bars after 18.23 hrs due to the periodic falls. The
chock shield was in the centre of the panel. The RTPM system successfully recorded and initiated warning module during yielding period.
Chock shield C64 setting pressure was 338 bars initially at 20.02 hrs on 27th April 2002 as shown in Fig. 6.. The support pressure suddenly increased and then
decreased and again increased and decreased between 20.32 to 22.00 hrs due to periodic falls in the goaf behind the support. The chock shield pressure returns back
to setting pressure at 23.00 hrs. The chock shield was near the tailgate. The RTPM system successfully evaluated the chock shield performance and forecasted the
periodic falls during 20.32 to 22.00 hrs.
Chock shield C35 setting pressure was 345 bars initially at 20.02 hrs on 27th April 2002 as shown in Fig. 7. The chock shield pressure increased at a faster rate to
373 bars at 22.07 hrs due to periodic
Figure 7. Chock shields C35 behavior on 27th April 2002.
Figure 8. Chock shields C64 behavior on 26th April 2002.
weightings. The chock shield was in the centre of the panel. The RTPM system successfully initiated warning module during periodic weightings.
Chock shield C64 setting pressure was 250 bars initially at 20.23 hrs on 26th April 2002 as shown in Fig. 8. The chock shield pressure increased in steps to 278
bars from 20.23 to 22.53 hrs due to face operations. The support pressure reduced to 262 bars at 23.00 hrs due to fall in the goaf. The chock shield was near the
tailgate. The RTPM system successfully recorded and forwarded the adverse shield behavior for implementing necessary precautionary measures during fall in the goaf
at 23.00 hrs.
7 CONCLUSIONS
The RTPM system was successfully developed and applied to the Indian chock shields condition monitoring to maintain efficiency. The RTPM successfully recorded
many supports and strata problems. It successfully indicated chock shields performance on real time display for implementing precautionary measures to avoid major
disastrous accidents. The main important feature of the RTPM system was detection and indication of problematic chock shields details on intelligent dump terminal for
quickly implementing necessary measures. Otherwise manual tracing of problematic chock shield in an active longwall panel is complex and takes more time due to no
visible signs of fluid loss. Thus the above discussion clearly indicated that the RTPM played a vital role in achieving enhanced productivity and safety. This is a cost
effective solution for achieving effective and efficient longwall operations.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The SCCL (Singareni Collieries Company Limited) management and Department of Coal, Government of India was strongly acknowledged for supporting field
experimentation and providing necessary funds respectively. Further to be acknowledged the Japan Society for Promotion of Sciences for approving fellowship to
carry out the research at Kyushu University, Japan. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and not necessarily of the organization they represent.
REFERENCES
Hanna, K., D.Conover, and D.Neil, 2001. Application of Advanced Technologies to Delineate Ground Hazards in Coal Mine, Proceedings of 17th International Mining
Congress and Exhibition of TurkeyIMCET.
Srinivasulu Tadisetty, Kikuo Matsui and R.N.Gupta, 2002. Virtual instrumentation for real time analysis of supports behavior, Journal of mines, metals and fuels, special
issue on annual review 2002.
Jiang YM., D.W.Park, D.Deb and R.Sanford, 1997. Application of fuzzy set theory in the evaluation of roof categories in longwall mining, Mining Engineering Journal
1997.
SCCL report on adequacy of powered roof support for 122 m face length, at GDK 10 A, Incline, January 2003.
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Simulation, optimalization and control of technological processes
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Precut operation in the Nochten opencast mine—efficient overburden removal
and winning on the basis of innovative equipment and use of suitable geological
and technological models
W.Bahrt & T.Bauch
Vattenfall Europe Mining AG, Senftenberg, Germany
ABSTRACT: The influence of the deregulation of the German energy market lead to an enormous increase in the cost pressure on all parts of the
value chain in the energy company. A new technological and planttechnical concept was developed for the Nochten opencast mine, an operation of
the company Vattenfall Europe Mining AG that is effective in the long run. This concept secures an essential reduction of the investment for the
required plant equipment and contributes at the same time to considerably lower the operating costs. The challenge was to coordinate the interests
between an undisturbed production of two different excavators feeding one belt conveyor on the one hand, and an uncompromising fulfilment of the
recultivation goals under difficult geological conditions on the other hand. The requirement is met by a new planning and operational management
system that is described in detail in the following report. It refers to the realisation of a quality management and control system for overburden handling.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
At present, a bucket wheel excavator of the type SRs 6300 is working in the precut operation of the Nochten opencast lignite mine. Since the precut overburden
thickness will increase to 68 m after the year 2005 another bucket wheel excavator will be used on a second bench. Moreover, the share of finegrained material (silt,
clay) has been considerably increased since starting excavation of a Tertiary upland area (“Trebendorfer Hochfläche”) in 2003. Parallel to the difficult excavator
operation in the precut the spreader operation turned out to be an important factor for the planning of a safe operation and a postmining use satisfying the
requirements. So, efforts were made to look for instruments not only for production planning but also for the winning process aimed at helping to control the
complicated process in an optimal manner and meet the set data.
1.2 Onewing operation—preferred variant for the precut development
The slewing operation around the precut pivot point will end in the 1st halfyear of 2005. The bucket wheel excavator that will remove this precut overburden alone
till then will start parallel operation in July 2005. From 1st October 2005 the second bucket wheel excavator of the type SRs 2000 will start parallel operation in the
second precut. The overburden is transported by a 2 m belt conveyor system to the north via a ramp 1:8 to the head belt of the first precut. After transfer to the joint
head belt conveyor the masses are transported to the spreader of the type A2RsB 15400. This technological mining variant is called onewing operation (MROSK, G.
1999).
Figure 1. Survey—Onewing precut operation.
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2 GEOLOGICAL PRECUT MODEL
2.1 Geological conditions
In 2003 the geological conditions in the precut operation changed basically. Instead of the valley sands of the Lausitzer Urstromtal (Lusatian icemarginal valley) the
younger Tertiary talus bolder fan formations of the RaunoFormation appeared. In the Tertiary upland area (Trebendorfer Hochfläche) they have been preserved in
form of cyclic changes between bullclay and gravel sand. Only at the bench beginning even thicker Tertiary sand layers occur.
The weathering of the Palaeozoic rock south of the Lausitzer Haupttabbruch (Lusatian main fault) since the Mesozoic resulted in a strong kaolinization. Due to
tectonic impulses (AlpsCarpathiansTectogene) uplifts of different intensity repeatedly occurred in the Tertiary. A massif large process of erosion started with the
uplifts leading to the deposition of the younger Lausitzer talus bolder fan (MEIER, J. 1991).
The process of erosion and sedimentation started slowly and intensified over a longer period. The grabens of Nochten and Weißwasser were only occurring in form
of flexure at the beginning of the sedimentation of the younger talus bolder fan. After deposition of the 2nd bullclay horizon the influence on the lithology of the single
horizons within the grabens increased in an active faulttectonic phase.
Figure 2. Composition of the precut overburden.
The bullclay and gravel sand layers dominating in the precut overburden masses of the Nochten opencast mine are mostly fluviallimnic depositions. It is assumed that
rivers have deposited their sediments in a flat multiply subdivided basin and/or bay. Possibly this was a flooded area with a large continuous water surface only
occurring cyclically. The bullclay and gravel sand layers achieve a maximum thickness of 96 m in the graben of Weißwasser. The fluvial influence increases from the
floor to the roof.
Due to the heterogeneous material composition the correlation of the single layers is complicated. The terrestrial material sedimentated in a basin in which limnic,
lagoonderived and in the beginning possibly also marinebrackish facies alternated and partly existed in parallel. Interlocking, segregation and overlapping or erosion of
single alluvial cones occurred (Meier, J. 1991). A differentiated running subsidence and phases characterized by fracture tectonics as well as the various compactions of
peat/coal, clay, silt and sand complicate the correlation additionally.
2.2 Requirements to the geological precut model
As already mentioned above, the spreader operation turned out to be an important factor for planning of safe operation and a postmining use satisfying the
requirements already during the planning phase. The spreading of the material from the excavator side on the dump shall be carried out under the following premises:
– Securing the output in precut operation,
– Preparation of a safe bench for the spreader with at least 5 m thick mixed soil and cohesive portions (silt and clay component) below 35%,
– Ensuring the requirements of recultivation after a backward dumping of 3 m thickness from material consisting mainly of Quaternary soil and a maximum cohesive
portion of 35%.
For the part of the Nochten coal field the geological model was developed for there exists an exploratory drilling network of ca. 50 drillings per square kilometre
(average distance among exploratory drillings ca. 120 metres). The core drilling network with more detailed petrographic data has a wider drilling spacing of ca. 400
metres. The strongly differentiated strata formation in the zone of the talus bolder fan required the execution of rotary drilling despite knowing that the interpretation of
the portions of main and secondary fractions from the boreholegeophysical measuring curve is influenced subjectively.
By means of a computer routine eight soil classes are generated from the short version of the sediment description contained in the deposit data base (for the
sediments of the precut overburden there are
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available 1,300 different descriptions). They significantly differ in their portion of cohesive components (grain size <63 µm). These examinations became necessary
because the sediment properties also vary within one stratigraphic unit.
The parameter “cohesive components” (grain size <63 µm, corresponds to the silt and clay fraction portion) is decisive for the static stability of the spreader and for
an efficient preparation of the postmining use.
The first blending of different soils is done by the excavation of slices of the respective bucket wheel excavator (SRs 6300 in 1st precut, SRs 2000 in 2nd precut).
The second blending is made through the transfer of the masses excavated in the 2nd precut to the joint head belt conveyor. The machines participating in the
overburden removal have strongly varying performance parameters.
First, the geological precut model had to be developed in order to be able to predict the quality (percentage of silt and clay fraction) of the masses transported to
the spreader.
It is a complete system of overlapping and intersectionfree grid reference maps of the boundary surfaces of all single layers occurring in the precuts.
Totally, 42 geological planes including the terrain surface had to be produced in a quadratic 10 mgrid. The intersectionfree grid reference maps were generated
after plausibility tests by means of computer solutions via one and/or more adjustments to the grid reference maps of adjacent boundary surfaces.
2.3 Cohesion of layers
Computer solutions are also available for determining the portion of silt and clay fractions in the respective layer at the boring site. With the help of the grid reference
maps for roof and floor of one layer the stratification data base is layerwise split using all available exploratory drillings. Afterwards, the average cohesive portion
(weighed via thickness of the represented soil classes) is determined at the boring site via computer routine for soil class allocation.
The data determined for the boring sites are then included in the calculation of the grid reference maps of the cohesive portion related to the layer in a 10 m grid
The grid reference maps (NPK) base on a quadratic grid. Complex grid maps may contain several properties at the same time for one point represented by its
coordinates (hourly effective output capacity, weight…). The available property of the prism with a quadratic base area (grid spacing=10 m) and a height HGDi—
LGDi is the mean cohesive portion of the respective layer at the grid point. The calculated portion (weighed mean value) is allocated to the whole prism.
2.4 Application and control of the calculation results
Therefore, a parameterrelated (cohesive portion) grid reference map system is available. Based on this, profiles for the precut can be generated in any direction and
the cohesive portion calculated for each unit (slicewise, blockwise, whole year, etc.).
A procedure is available for the production of a bench cut to visualize the geological conditions and for necessary corrections due to new findings (including actual
mapping results, surfacegeophysical measuring results and additional exploratory drillings in problem zones).
From the described number of exploratory drillings it can be concluded that actually there may occur considerable deviations to the interpolated grid points between
two drillings. Within the framework of the project “Onewing operation Nochten opencast mine—Priority control” investigations were carried out according to
measuring methods which should control the mixed soil calculated from the geological model with sufficient accuracy.
3 PLANTS AND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PRIORITY CONTROL
3.1 Basic principles
Based on selected geological parameters of overburden, geotechnical and technological requirements to the design of the dump side including recultivation as well as
the machinetechnical main parameters a model for efficient operational management of the entire precut operation was developed and implemented in onewing
operation in the Nochten opencast mine.
This requirement is mastered by a new system for planning and operational management. The most important task is the implementation of a quality management and
control system for overburden handling. Substantial functions of the entire system comprise:
– geological horizon model for describing selected overburden parameters acc. to item 1,
– computeraided precalculation for optimizing blending parameters of overburden and operative equipment use,
– use of complex sensors typical for mining (a.o. GPSbased location detection, output measurement volume and quantity) to determine relevant process parameters
for the process control and –optimization,
– setup of suitable models for simulation and control of continuous winning, transport, blendingand storage processes,
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Figure 3. Overview of process control system.
– application of a dump model and an operation monitoring system for controlling the operation.
3.1.1 Planttechnical prerequisites
Basis for the implementation of the overall system is the existing central control station of the Nochten opencast mine. The central control station consists of a complex
and hierarchical setup process control based on WinCC/PCS7 (Siemens). The necessary interfaces for the planning system are available via an overall territorial linked
data network (Fig. 3). The connection to systems and process control engineering of the precut conveyor belt, excavator and spreader is performed by efficient
broadband fibre optical transmission technique on Open Transport Network (OTN) basis (Siemens ATEA).
The process control and regulation system installed on the equipment also bases on WinCC/Simatic S7.
Sensors and actuators typical for the mining industry are hierarchically linked via Interbus (PHOENIX Contact) and secure the required safe and quick interaction
between the process and the superordinated process control engineering of the machine and the central control station (Petrich, F. 1998).
The use of modern software technology (a.o. data bases and WEBPortal) enables efficient provision and distribution of information for the operating personnel.
3.2 Technological and operative planning
3.2.1 Technological planning
According to the requirements for preparing the working levels and the recultivation area on the spreader dump it is necessary to determine the cohesive portion of the
removed overburden in advance. Based on the 3Dmodel (NPK) acc. to item 2 the performance targets for the yearly and monthly technological plan are determined
by means of the precalculation program Technological Planning.
Figure 4. Overview of precalculation.
It is possible to determine the soil properties (cohesion) per block as well as the resulting blending quality of soils from the precut lines 1 and 2 (VS1 and VS2) using
the basic data of the planned working levels and installing VS1 and VS2 and the set data of the mining blocks to be excavated. Furthermore, an iterative determination
of optimal slice heights per VS1 and VS2 is possible. The precalculation programs for Technological and Operative Planning base on the CADSystem MicroStation
(Bentley Systems) that is used as standard application in the company.
3.2.2 Operative planning—geological excavation level
The bases for operative planning are the results from the Technological Planning and a geological excavation level for VS1 and VS2 calculated from the 3Dmodel
(NPK), which is representative for the planned extraction block. Starting data are the planned working level and deployment. The level course is graphically preset as
traverse. The result is a representative level referred to SL or working level referred to 0 m (WL=0).
This results in the data reduction to the 2Dmodel which is required for operative planning and process control (Fig. 4).
The Actual Bench Cut, representing the mining position, is established by linking the excavation level with the digitized aerial photograph. Hereby, the respective
traverses of the relevant edges of the VS1 and VS2 are used as intersection line. With the help of graphical correction functions it is possible to adjust heights and
thicknesses of single horizons in the sectional representation including working level thus establishing a reference to the actual geological precut conditions insitu.
3.2.3 Realtime precalculation
The operative precalculation program bases on the geological excavation level with AE=0. The level is used to derive from it the basic data for the precalculation
program and for process control engineering. Position, slice height and block width are input parameters. Result of the calculation is the cohesive portion per slice VS1
and VS2 and the blending quality of soil VS1/VS2 for the iterative determination of the optimal slice heights. The program is used for technological planning in the
production preparation and as help in making operative decisions in production. The resulting targets: equipment position, slice heights, output shares and priority and
technologically set data are tested and if necessary modified by the operative engineer before they are adopted as nominal and limit value in the processoriented
control of the central control station.
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3.3 Performance optimization and priority control
With the help of the nominal values described under item 3.2, a nominal value Qpri [m3/h] is set for one of the two excavators (Leading excavator/Priority control). The
resulting nominal value for the Depending excavator Qdep is obtained from the maximum discharging capacity of the conveyor belt and/or spreader Qdis:
Qdep=Qdis−Qpri
(1)
Alternatively, it is possible to predetermine the percentage of the total output capacity (maximum discharging capacity) for the determined Leading excavator.
Depending on the total output capacity the performance proportion of the Depending excavator is calculated in m3/h and made available for visualization and/or
handing over to the respective excavator program control (BPS) of the equipment.
3.3.1 Manual priority control
The calculated and/or set performance proportions are displayed to the equipment operators by the respective visualization devices on the basis of WinCC. The mode
of operation is determined by the responsible precut belt conveyor dispatcher in the central control station and manually executed by the equipment operator.
3.3.2 Automatic mode of operation
Alternative to the manual priority control the nominal values are directly given to the excavator program controls (BPS) as target data. The performance of the
respective excavator is homogenized and automatically controlled by the output capacity regulation subordinated to the BPS (a.o. regulation of slewing assembly,
1/cosφ control).
3.4 Transport and blending model
The transport model is produced by linking the bench cut (see item 3.2.) with the basic geometrical data and parameter file and by the process chart with the respective
process values in realtime:
– positions of excavator SRs6300, SRs2000 (GPSlocation equipment axis),
– position of hopper car,
– dumping point of spreader calculated (from slewwing angle and GPSposition of equipment axis),
– belt speed.
The density of the mass flow at the measuring points is calculated from the recorded volume and quantity values of the excavators and the first head belt conveyor and
afterwards delivered to the transport model.
For visualization of the transport model, the GPSpositions of the excavators SRs6300, SRs2000 and spreader are transformed into the projected bench with
sufficient accuracy. Internally the model is produced in GaussKrueger coordinates. The representation of the belt loading (volume, quantity, cohesion) is made in 10s
intervals.
3.5 Dump model
The soils, including their cohesive portions, in the dumping area shall be technologically controlled and documented as proof.
A dump model shall be developed and visualized adequately based on the transport model using the herein described soil portions with the assigned soil properties
(cohesion, density, etc.) from the excavator side to the spreader.
For a simple visual display (screen and print) the cohesive portions shall be adequately classified (f. e. in 10% steps) and assigned to by colours. The dump model
shall be used to give the following proofs:– proof of dump base level,—proof of handing over of dump surface recultivation layer.
The proofs shall be carried out sectorwise (one shifting) for the base level dumping by colourcoded representation of the average cohesion for the respective area
element in an adequate spacing (f. e. 10×10 m2) over the whole layer thickness (ca. 5 m). Both proofs are visualized in the operational control centre (central control
station). A respective DGNfile is generated for the transfer to the MicroStation Systetn.
3.6 Summary and outlook
The described models and processes as well as the equipment base on long years of experiences gained in the company Vattenfall Europe Mining AG.
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The development of the geological model described in item 2 is completed. The methods for precalculation according to item 3 benefit from experiences of the coal
quality management system implemented in VEM and are under further development at present.
The systems engineering prerequisites are established for the central control station, the communications infrastructure and for the excavator of the type SRs2000
and belt driving stations.
For the other equipment including the excavator SRs6300 and the spreader they will be completed by 2005.
In order to prove the correct and reliable function of the entire process and its components modelling of bench cut, ambient values of excavator, transport and
blending model as well as dump model, suitable calibration and control methods have to be developed.
REFERENCES
Meier, J. u.a. 1991. Bericht Ton Nochten—Ost II,—unveröff. Bericht G.E.O.S. Freiberg, 58, Freiberg.
Mrosk, G. 1999. Untersuchungen zum Vorschnitt des Tagebaus Nochten für die Jahre 2005 bis 2018,—unveröff. Bericht LAUBAG AG, HA Bergbauplanung, 20,
Senftenberg.
Petrich, F. u.a. 1998. Process Control and Communication Infrastructure at LAUBAG Opencast Mines, BRAUNKOHLE—Surface Mining, Vol.50, Nr. 3, 257–267.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
A new deveoloped software for equipment selection in mining engineering
Ataç Başçetin
Istanbul University, Engineering Faculty, Dept. of Mining Eng., Istanbul, Turkey
Oğuzhan Öztaş
Istanbul Univesity, Engineering Faculty, Dept. of Computer Eng., Istanbul, Turkey
Ali İsmet Kanli
Istanbul Univesity, Engineering Faculty, Dept. of Geophysical Eng., Istanbul, Turkey
ABSTRACT: Equipment selection in mining engineering is one of the most important decision that is affected the mine design, production planning and
economic parameters in open pit and underground mining. Mine planning engineers generally use of their intuition and experiences in decision making.
Mostly linguistic variables become in question and decisionmakers may not know how these variables are computed. Due to the advent of the fuzzy
set theory, these uncertainties are easily interpreted in decision making process. With the development of computer technology and programming of
colloquial language with expert systems have fairly reduced decision makers’ arduousness. In this study, a new software called EQS which is based on
fuzzy set theory for equipment selection in mining engineering is introduced. The study includes concepts and theories of multiple attribute decision
making in a fuzzy environment and the scope of this type of search, a new developed EQS software and its applications of the fuzzy set theory to
mining industry problems, and presents case studies (study).
1 INTRODUCTION
Last three decades, fuzzy logic methods have been advanced as a formal means to deal with implicit imprecision in a wide range of problems, e.g. in industrial control,
military operations, economics, engineering, medicine, reliability, and pattern recognition and classification. There are many studies related to these subjects, e.g. Maiers
& Sherif (1985), Kandel (1986), Klir & Folger (1988), Prade (1985), Dubois et al. (1992), Bandopadhyay & Chattopadhyay (1986), Bandopadhyay (1987),
Gershon et al. (1993), Herzog & Bandopadhyay (1996), Bascetin & Kesimal (1998), Bascetin & Kesimal (1999), Bascetin (1999), and Kesimal & Bascetin (2002).
Fuzzy logic synthesises different solution alternatives, each of which need not be right or wrong but instead is possibly true to a certain degree (see, Zadeh (1965);
Yager (1986)).
Decision making may be characterized as a process of choosing or selecting “sufficiently good” alternative to attain a goal or goals. Decision making involves quite
uncertainty. Thus, one of the most important aspects for a useful decision aid is to provide the ability to handle imprecise and vague information, such as “large” profits,
“fast” speed and “cheap” price. A decision model should cover process for identifying, measuring and combining criteria and alternatives to build a conceptual model
for decisions and evaluations in fuzzy environments. Mining engineers generally use of their intuition and experiences in decision making. Mostly linguistic variables (the
weather is raining, soil is wet, etc.) become in question and decisionmakers may not know how these variables are computed. Since the advent of the fuzzy set theory,
these uncertainties are easily evaluated in decision making process. With the development of computer technology and programming of colloquial language with expert
systems have considerably reduced decision makers’ arduousness. In this study, a new developed software based on fuzzy set theory for equipment selection in mining
operations is introduced.
2 FUZZY SET THEORY AND ITS CONCEPTION
In using our everyday natural language to impart knowledge and information, there is a great deal of
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imprecision and vagueness, or fuzziness. Such statement as “John is tall” and “Fred is young” are simple examples. Our main concern is representing, manipulating, and
drawing inferences from such imprecise statements.
The description of a human characteristic such as healthy;
The classification of patients as depressed;
The classification of certain objects as large;
The classification of people by age such as old;
A rule for driving such as “if an obstacle is close, then brake immediately”.
In the examples above, terms such as depressed and old are fuzzy in the sense that cannot be sharply defined. However, as humans, we do make sense out of this
kind information, and use it in decision making. These “fuzzy notions” are in sharp contrast to such terms as married, over 39 years old, or under 6 feet tall. In ordinary
mathematics, we are used to dealing with collection objects, say certain subsets of a given set such as the subset of even integers in the set of all integers. But when we
speak of the subset of depressed people in a given set of people, it may be impossible to decide whether a person is in that subset or not. Forcing a yesorno answer
is possible and is usually done, but there may be information lost in doing so because no account is taken of the degree of depression. Although this situation has existed
from time immemorial, the dominant context in which science is applied is that in which statements are precise (say either true or false)—no imprecision is present. But
in this time of rapidly advancing technology, the dream of producing machines that mimic human reasoning, which is usually based on uncertain and imprecise
information, has captured the attention of many scientists. The theory and application of fuzzy concepts are central in this endeavour but remain to large extent in the
domain of engineering and applied sciences.
With the success of automatic control and expert systems, we are now witnessing an endorsement of fuzzy concepts in technology. The mathematical elements that
form the basis of fuzzy concepts have existed for a long time, but the emergence of application has provided a motivation for a new focus for the underlying
mathematics. Until the emergence of fuzzy set theory as an important tool in practical applications, there was no compelling reason to study its mathematics. But
because of the practical significance of these developments, it has become important to study the mathematical basis of this theory. Nguyen & Elbert (2000).
The first publications in fuzzy set theory written by Zadeh (1965) defines: “the notion of a fuzzy set provides a convenient point of departure for the construction of a
conceptual framework which parallels in many respects the framework used in the case of ordinary sets, but is more general then the latter and, potentially, may prove
to have a much wider scope of applicability, particularly in the fields of pattern classification and information processing. Essentially, such a framework provides a
natural way of dealing with problems in which the source of imprecision is the absence of sharply defined criter of class membership rather than the presence of random
variables.”
“Imprecision” here is meant in the sense of vagueness rather than the back of knowledge about the value of a parameter as in tolerance analysis. Fuzzy set theory
provides a strict mathematical framework (there is nothing fuzzy about fuzzy set theory!) in which vague conceptual phenomena can be precisely and rigorously studied.
It can also be considered as a modeling language well suited for situations in which fuzzy relations, criteria, and phenomena exist.
3 MULTI ATTRIBUTE DECISION MAKING
Multiple attribute decision making (MADM) deals with the problem of choosing an alternative from a set of alternatives which are characterised in terms of their
attributes. Usually MADM consists of a single goal, but this may be of two different type. The first is where the goal is to select an alternative from a set of scored ones
based on the values and importance of the attributes of each alternative. The second type of goal is to classify alternatives, using a kind of role model or similar cases.
MADM is a qualitative approach due to the existence of criteria subjectivity. Both type of goals require information about the preferences among the instances of an
attribute and the preferences across the existing attributes. The assessment of these preferences is either provided directly by the decision maker or based on past
choices. The general formulation is: let X={xi| i=1,…, n}be a (finite) set of decision alternative and G={gj|j=1,…, m} a (finite) set of goals according to which the
desirability of an action is judged. Determine the optimal alternative xo with the highest degree of desirability with respect to all relevant goals gj.
Most approaches in MADM consist of two stages:
1. The aggregation of the judgments with respect to all goals and per decision alternative.
2. The rank ordering of decision alternatives according to the aggregated judgments.
In crisp MADM models it is usually assumed that the final judgment of the alternatives are expressed as real numbers. In this case the second stage does not pose any
particular problems and suggested algorithms concentrate on the first stage. Fuzzy models are sometimes justified by the argument that the
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goals, gj, or their attainment by the alternatives, xi, respectively, cannot be defined or judged crisply but only as fuzzy sets. In this case the final judgments are also
represented by fuzzy sets which have to be ordered to determine the optimal alternative. Then the second stage is, of course, by far not trivial.
Yager (1978) shows very clearly the general structure of the problem and the fuzzy MADM model.
Let X= {x1,…, xn } be set of alternatives. The goals are represented by the fuzzy sets Gj, j=1,…, m. The “importance” (weight) of goal j is expressed by wj. The
“attainment” of goal Gj by alternative xi is expressed by degree of membership .
The decision is defined in line with definition Yager (1978) as the intersection of all fuzzy goals, that is,
(1)
and the optimal alternative is defined as that achieving the highest degree of membership in D.
The rationale behind using the weights as exponents to express the importance of a goal can be given as: There the modifier “very” was defined as the squaring
operation. Thus the higher the importance of a goal the larger should be the exponent of its representing fuzzy set, at least for normalized fuzzy sets and when using the
minoperator for the intersection of the fuzzy goals. Yager concentrates on the problem of determining the weights of the goals. As a solution to that problem he
suggests Saaty’s hierarchical procedure for determining weights by computing the eigenvectors of the matrix M of relative weights of subjective estimates Saaty (1978).
The membership grade in all objectives having little importance (w<1) becomes larger, and while those in objectives having more importance (w>1) becomes
smaller. This has the effect of making the membership function the decision subset D, which is the main value of each X over all objectives, being more determined by
the important objectives, which is as it should be. Furthermore, this operation (min) makes particularly small those alternatives that are bad in important objectives,
therefore when we select the xi that maximizes D, we will be very unlikely to pick one of these Yager (1978).
The solution procedure can now be described as follows: Given the set X={x1,…, xn } and the degrees of membership of all xi in the fuzzy sets Gj
representing the goals (or criteria),
1. Establish by pairwise comparison the relative importance, ai, of the goals among themselves. Arrange the ai in a matrix M.
2. Determine consistent weights wj for each goal by employing Saaty’s eigenvector method.
3. Weight the degrees of goal attainment, exponentialy by the respective wj. The resulting fuzzy sets are (Gj(xi))wj
wj
4. Determine the intersection of all (Gj(xi))
(2)
(3)
5. Select the xi with largest degree of membership in D as the optimal alternative.
Let X={x1, x2, x3} and the goals be given as
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Yager suggests the use of Saaty’s method for pairwise comparison of the criteria (attributes). A pairwise comparison of attributes (criteria) could improve and
facilitate the assessment of criteria importance. Saaty developed a procedure for obtaining a ratio scale for the elements compared. To obtain the importance the
decisionmaker is asked to judge the criteria in pairwise comparisons and the values assigned are wij=1/wij. Having obtained the judgments, the m×m matrix B is
constructed so that: (a) bii=1; (b) bij=wij; (c) bji=bij. To sum up, Yager suggests that the resulting eigenvector should be used to express the decision maker’s empirical
estimate of importance (the reciprocal matrix in which the values are given by the decision maker) for each criteria in the decision. The judgment scale used is 1—
Equally important, 3—weakly more important, 5—strongly more important, 7—demonstrably more important and 9—absolutely more important. The values between
(2, 4, 6, 8) show compromise judgments. The judgement scale can also be determined by decision makers. For example, the judgement scale can be applied such as
1—Equally important; 1.5—weakly more important; 2—Strongly more important; 2.5—demonstrably more important; 3—Absolutely more important.
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The subjective evaluations have resulted in the following matrix of weights:
(8)
Via Saaty’s method we obtain the vector
w= {w1, w2, w3, w4} as
w={2.32, 1.2, .32, .16}
Exponential weighting of Gj(xi) by their respective weight yields
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
The fuzzy set decision D, as the intersection of the becomes
(13)
and the optimal alternative is x1 with a maximum degree of membership in D of µD(x1)=0.24 Zimmermann (1991).
4 EQS PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
4.1 Aim of the EQS program
EQS program compares the various mining systems and criterions in an open pit or underground mines by using fuzzy logic algorithms. Then finds the optimum mining
systems in a great accuracy. General flow chart of the program is given in Figure 1.
4.2 EQS program working processes
The program has two basic components and it is worked in two steps. In the first step, input parameters are taken by EQS which is programmed in the Visual Basic
Programming Language and then the fuzzy logic algorithm process is executed by using Matlab v 6.0 software.
At the starting point, sort of the mine is selected as an openpit or an underground type. All listed alternative systems and criteria can be taken from the separate files
which are “openpit.txt” and “openpitcriteria.txt” for openpit type mines or “underground.txt” and “undergroundcriteria.txt” for underground type mines.
After the selection of the mine type, user can select the system alternatives and its criteria by using the program window. Then, the membership grades of each
alternative systems are entered by user. The membership grades of all alternative systems for each criterion are determined conferring with experts on this subject. For
the comparison of the criteria each other, a new data window which is a squaredmatrix form has to be filled in or user can easily select one of the default files.
However, the alternative systems and criteria that are inexistence in the program window dealing with any specific area can also be entered to the program manually.
The criteria ratios one to another are given in the matrix form.
This m×m matrix form is constructed to express the decisionmakers’ empirical estimate of importance for each criterion. After these processes are completed,
matlab code (see appendix) has to be run for obtaining the eigenvalue and the eigenvector of the criteria comparison matrix. Matrix dimension determines the number of
the eigenvalues and eigenvectors. It means that the matrix dimension is the same as the number of eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the criteria comparison matrix.
The eigenvector which corresponds to the maximum eigenvalue is obtained.
The eigenvector corresponds to the weights to be associated with the memberships of each attribute/ criteria/feature/goal. Thus, the eigenvector is used as the
exponential weighting for each criteria which are selected for alternative systems. The value corresponded to the minimum criteria is taken for each system alternative in
determining the decision vector (equation 3). The optimum system alternative which corresponds to the maximum value is obtained from the optimum decision vector
(equation 13).
Matlab software carries out this selection by using fuzzy logic algorithm in a numerical manner and calculates the optimum system alternative. As a consequence user
can easily obtain the result which corresponds to the optimum system alternative from the developed EQS program.
5 CASE STUDIES
5.1 Case study for underground mining method selection
This study has been done by Karadogan et al. (2001) for searching the optimum underground mining method selection which has been based on the brown coal
(lignite) mine situated in Black Sea coast at northwest of Arnavutkoy, Istanbul, Turkey. Because of the existing of a summer resort area in Black Sea open pit mining
may be restricted in the
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Figure 1. General flow chart of EQS Program.
future. Therefore, application of one of the underground mining methods is unavoidable for producing coal.
The needed physical parameters such as geologic and geotechnique properties of ore, hanging and foot wall, economic effects, environmental impacts, which are
established with field and laboratory tests together with other uncertain variables were determined. The generated parameters for the method selection are given briefly
in Table 1 together with related criterion.
Initial analysis of the method selection system suggests the following alternatives: longwall with filling (direction of inclination rising) (A1), longwall with filling (direction
of inclination decline) (A2), longwall with filling (progressed) (A3), longwall with filling (returned) (A4), or room and pillar with filing (A5) systems.
Some of the linguistic results produced as follows:
– According to dimension, A3 is the best method.
– Seam thickness is average 2.1 meters, therefore A3 can be chosen.
– A5 is suitable in terms of seam inclination.
– A5 is more safety according to soundness degree of the hanging wall.
– From the viewpoint of safety of ground water A1 can be best choice.
Before underground mining method selection procedure, the following eighteen criteria of each operation
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have been considered in the decision making (Table 2).
At the end of the evaluations (determining the membership grade of each criterion and building m×m matrix, obtaining the maximum eigenvalue of the reciprocal
matrix and finally exponential weighting) the following results are obtained (for complete information of this work see Karadogan et al.(2001)).
And the optimal solution is,
µD(A*)=0.92/A5.
In conclusion, room and pillar method with filling (A5) resulted in more suitable method with 0.92 membership degree than others.
Table 1. Technical parameters determined as selection criterion.
Geometric shape of the lignite deposit Plate state (layered)
Thickness of the lignite seam 2.1 m (average)
Seam inclination 7°
Ore depth 50 m (average)
Soundness degree of the lignite Low strength
Contact state of hanging and foot wall Not clear
Hanging wall
Clay, low strength (compressive strength: 2.2 kg/cm2)
Foot wall
Clay, low strength (compressive strength: 2.2 kg/cm2)
Subsidence effect Risky (seam is close to surface)
Roof support Necessary
Settlement area Exist over the coal seam
Combustion Combustible coal properties
Ground water Exist because of the sea
5.2 Case study by using EQS for underground mining method selection
In this section, we applied our EQS program to the case study which has been done by Karadogan et al. (2001) mentioned in section 5.1 for searching the optimum
underground mining method selection which has been based on the brown coal (lignite) mine situated in Black Sea coast at northwest of Arnavutkoy, Istanbul, Turkey.
Our aim is to prove our program reliability and demonstrate its application procedures.
At the first step, after running the EQS.exe (or EQS.vbp) which is the main program, It can be easily selected from the program window for the sort of mine which is
an underground type. After the selection of the mine type, the system alternatives and criteria can be taken from the “case1.txt and the case1_atr.txt” for our case study
by using “Load Files” button.
The membership grades of the alternative systems for each criterion can be loaded from the program using the Load Criteria Values Button and selecting the
“kv18.txt” text file. However, these values can be entered manually to the program by using the program window. For the comparison of the criteria each other, a
default data window is selected and then a squaredmatrix form is taken automatically (select “Comparison Criteria Button”, “Load Comp. Criteria Button”,
“ozd18.txt” respectively). After these processes are completed, matlab algorithm has to be run for obtaining the eigenvalue and the eigenvector of the criteria
comparison matrix. By using the result button in the main program (EQS) it can be obtained the optimum final decision which is a room and pillar method (Figure 2) as
mentioned in the section 5.1.
5.3 Case study for open pit mining method selection
This case study has been done by Bascetin (1999) for searching the optimum open pit mining method selection, it has been carried out on loadinghauling systems to
transport coal to the power plant
Table 2. Criteria of each operation.
Figure 2. The window shows the result of the optimum equipment selection.
(2×150 MW capacity) that will be constructed 5 kilometers far from Can lignite mined by TKI (Turkish Coal Enterprises). The coal mine is situated about 79
kilometers north of the town of Can in southeastern Canakkale located west of Turkey. The mine has been in continuous operation since 1975.
The Initial analysis of the transportation system suggests the following alternatives: shoveltruck (A1), shoveltruckinpit crusherbelt conveyor (A2), or shovelinpit
crusherbelt conveyor (A3) systems. The characteristic of the minesite and the equipment specifications are given in Table 3.
The following are some of the given linguistic results produced from various solution methods (linear programming, expert systems, etc.) and therefore presented by
the experts to questions posed (what if…? or if…?, etc.) Each system has shown its own advantages. In this case, it did not appear that an easy solution to the problem
could be obtained. From the solution point of view, application of the fuzzy set theory would be a proper choice, and therefore also used in this case study.
– The road conditions differ from season to season. Thus the value of rolling resistance gives rather low (2%) in dry season while it reaches the high (%5) in winter.
– Maximum material size is about 0,5 meters, in case, truck haulage has an advantage from the loading point of view.
– A1 and A2 are the best alternatives when mobility and flexibility in the system are considered.
– A2 is the better system in terms of the working stability.
Before loadinghauling method selection procedure, the twentyone criteria of each operation have been considered in the decision making (Table 4).
At the end of the evaluations (determining the membership grade of each criterion and building m×m matrix, obtaining the maximum eigenvalue of the reciprocal
matrix and finally exponential weighting) the following results are obtained (for complete information of this work see Bascetin & Kesimal (1999)).
and the optimal solution is,
µD(A*)=0.93/A2.
In conclusion, shoveltruckinpit crusherbelt conveyor (A2) resulted in more suitable method with 0.93 membership degree than others.
5.4 Case study by using EQS for open pit mining method selection
In this section, we applied our EQS program to the case study which has been done by Bascetin (1999) mentioned in section 5.3 for searching the optimum open pit
mining method selection that has been carried out on hauling systems to transport coal to the power plant (2×150 MW capacity) that will be constructed 5 kilometers
far from Can lignite mined by TKI (Turkish Coal Enterprises).
As mentioned in the section 5.2, it can be easily selected from the program window for the sort of
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Table 3. Technical parameters calculated for each system.
Reserve Possible: 97,236,350 ton, available: 78,122,206 ton
Coal production 1,800,000 ton/year (for power plant), daily: 6,006 ton/day
Active workday 3 shift/day, 300 days/year, 6000h/year
Coal Lignite, intermediate: clay, tufa, silica
Coal density
1.5 ton/m3
Average coal thickness 19.3 m
Coal size Max. 50 cm (runofmine), 10 cm (belt conveyor)
Coal analyse Moisture: %22.5, Ash: %25, Low Calorific
Value: 2,878 kcal/kg, Sulfide: %4.2
Swell factor (coal) 1,2 (conveying)
Blasting Exist
Haulage distance 5 km (A1), 3 km belt conveying—0.3 km truck haulage (A2), 3.3 km (A3)
Average grade resistance %3
Average rolling resistance %3
Max. inverse grade + %2
Dump level Front Shovel: 7.5 m. Truck (Loading Height: 3.78 m).
Bucket capacity
Hydraulic excavator: 4,6 m3
Bucket fill factor %90
Operating weight Front shovel: 83,800 kg, Truck: 40,188 kg
Usefiil life Front Shovel: 25,000 h, Loader: 20,000 h, Truck: 15,000 h,
Conveyor: 24,000 h
Loading time Hydraulic excavator: 25 s
Cycle time 26.3 min for 5 km (A1), 6.2 min for 0.3 km (truckconveyor)
Belt conveyor 2 m/sec, 900 mm width, 3 km length (out of pit) 0.3 km (inpit)
Inpit crusher 350 ton/h
Capital cost Truck: $400,000, Crusher: $700,000, Conveyor: $3,000,000 (3 km long), Conveyor: 3,200,000 (3.3 km)
Operating cost A =$5.67/ton, A =$3.75/ton, A =$3.42/ton
1 2 3
Table 4. Criteria of each operation.
mine which is an open pit mine type. After the selection of the mine type, the alternative systems and criterions can be taken from the “case2.txt” and the “case2_atr.txt”
for our case study by using “Load Files” button.
The membership grades of the alternative systems for each criterion can be loaded from the program using Load Criteria Values Button and selecting “kv21.txt” text
file. However, these values can be entered manually to the program by using the program window. For the comparison of the criteria each other, a default data window
is selected and then a squaredmatrix form is taken automatically (select “Comparison Criteria Button”, “Load Comp.Criteria Button”, “ozd21.txt” respectively). After
these processes are completed, matlab algorithm has to be run for obtaining the eigenvalue and the eigenvector of the criteria comparison matrix. By using result button
in the main program (EQS) it can be obtained the optimum final decision which is shoveltruckinpit crusherbelt conveyor method (Figure 3) as mentioned in the
section 5.3.
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Figure 3. The window shows the result of the optimum equipment selection.
6 CONCLUSIONS
With the development of computer technology and programming of colloquial language with expert systems have considerably reduced decision arduousness. Thus, the
decision making in a fuzzy environment for solving multiple attribute problems of optimum equipment selection in surface mining and optimum underground mining
method selection by using the developed computer program which is called EQS is discussed in this study. Case (study) studies and its application of EQS program for
both mining type have been introduced. Although the focus is about the developed program, fuzzy multiple attribute problems and the most important methods for
solving these problems were also presented.
The new developed EQS program, used in Fuzzy multiple attribute decision making problems, shows us that it is effective, faster, more practical, financially efficient
and saves in time and cost than conventional approaches. Thus the program (EQS) is thought to provide the potential usage in mining applications for wide spread in
the mining industry worldwide.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Research Fund of Istanbul University.
Project number: 1607/30042001 and
UDP267/31032004
The EQS program can be requested from: atac@istanbul.edu.tr
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535937 6
Optimization of freight traffic and schemes of the openingup in CAD system of
open cast
D.G.Bukeikhanov, V.F.S’edin, B.Zh.Bekmurzayev & A.A.Jarilkasinov
National Centre of the Republic of Kazakhstan Complex Processing of Mineral Raw Materials RSE, Almaty, The Republic of Kazakhstan
M.Zh.Zhanasov
“NOVATrading & Commerce AG”, Almaty, The Republic of Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: The paper presents method of optimization of system of opening of openpit field and working levels development with using of
economicmathematical model, which classified as nonlinear multiproducts transport problem in network with limited transport capacity. Solving of
the problem is given as an example of concrete open cast.
1 INTRODUCTION
In formalized form opening workings and transport network may be presented in a form of oriented graph G(NL), where L—set of arcs and N—set of nodes. Nodes
of graph are images of real points of loading, discharging and crossing of transport lines, which are boundaries of two or more adjacent parts of network. Numbers rij,
which are transport capacity of arcs, and function of cost Fy , which characterizes integral costs of creating and maintenance of a district ij and also costs of rock mass
transportation, made correspond to every arc ij of graph. Economicmathematical model provides for joint optimization of open cast’s opening and open cast’s freight
traffics, systems of constraint, of goal function, ascertaining by analogy with equations of the first and the second Kirchhoffs laws for electric network, balance
condition, when volume of production in points of loading during t time must be not more than transport capacity of arcs and be equal to intake capacity of points of
rock mass receipt. Offered model ensured correct solving of given problems in conditions of concrete open cast when design and planning of mining operations.
Open cast is a difficult dynamic naturaltechnological complex to which the variety of structures and the functions which are carried out by each structural unit is
peculiar. The complex interrelation between elements of open cast and an environment, and its separate structures and elements of open cast variety of elements and
their nature, and also presence of the general and local purposes of functioning open cast to the big difficult dynamic systems.
By virtue of complexity of object of planning and designing what is open cast, and also because of complexity and laborious of the process of planning and designing,
designers and to technician personnel it becomes rather inconvenient to designers to reveal and make really optimum decisions by development of projects and planning
of mountain works while in service deposits, using traditional methods of planning
Improvement of quality of the technical and economic assessment on accepted decisions at designing and planning of mountain works is reached by creation of
effective technology of the automated designing, planning and management of open cast mining on the basis of the system approach and use of means of computer
facilities. The methodology of the system approach and creation of systems of the automated designing of open cast (CAD open cast) is based on a rational
combination of the heuristic receptions generalizing experience, intuition and logic of designers with numerical methods of the analysis and synthesis, methods of
research of operations, acceptance of decisions, mathematical programming and modeling on the COMPUTER.
The system of the automated designing and planning of the open cast mining, providing achievement local and global aims, forms complete unity of set of subsystems
and their elements (components of system), each of which has property to organize and carry out one either several design procedures or
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service process of system of designing. The automated design procedures are realized on the COMPUTER with use of models of objects of the designing, entering
internal mega objective and proceeding information streams. By means of the COMPUTER between components of system are supported backbone relations
providing steadily reproduced technology of automated designing of open cost mining.
As a result of the analysis of various variants of structures and functions of system and its elements it is constructed and parameterized model of system which to the
greatest degree corresponds to conditions of realization of the automated technology of acceptance of decisions on problems of opencast mining (figure 1). The model
represents twolevel system at which top level the subsystem “Coordinator” providing strategy is located, interaction and management of processes with a priority of
acceptance of decisions, and at the bottom level—projecting and planning subsystems which number includes also subsystems “Freight traffic” and “System of
opening”. The entrance internal information for these subsystems are the final and intermediate contours of open cast received in subsystems “Contour” and
“Development of open cast mining”. Projecting subsystems cooperate with providing subsystems “Mathematical modeling of a deposit and open cast”, “Bases of the
information data”, “Influence of open cast mining on an environment”, “Diagram”.
Such design of system most full allows to take into account specificity and features of the automated designing open cast and planning of open cast mining to carry
out steady reproduction, the organization and realization of design actions; to provide construction about calculations, identification, registration, and also an estimation
of alternative decisions. Quarry cargoes and their quality indicators are formed during drillexplosive and dredgingloading works in mining face on working horizons
and reloading reclaim warehouses according to the planned schedule of development of a deposit. Mining face (places of loading) we shall name points of departure or
sources. In the general case addresses quarry cargoes are waste piles, reloading averaging points for stabilization of quality of ore and an overload of mountain weight
from one type of transport on another; warehouses of a useful mineral and reception devices of concentrating factories and factories on a surface which we shall name
drains.
Transport networks on which move quarry freight traffics both which connect sources and drains, are formed according to system and circuits of opening pit fields,
system of mining method of a deposit and parameters of the accepted loading, transport and unloading means. Transport communications consist
Figure 1. Structural schema of system of CAD of open cast.
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of separate sites which are characterized: in a structure—corners of rise (descent) and horizontal sites; in the plan—rectilinear and curvilinear sites. They settle down on
working horizons, pit edges, in open and underground mountain developments and constructions, on a surface and waste pile. The beginnings and the ends of all sites of
a network if they do not belong to set of sources and drains, we shall name intermediate nodes or sources with zero values intensity.
The choice of a kind and type of open cost equipment enters into functions of a subsystem “Freight traffic”, transport and their combinations, and also system of
opening open pit fields, sites and ways refuse disposal. The allowable set of transport communications (a transport network) of open cost is represented as oriented
graph G=(N, L), where N≠Ø—set of nodes (tops), L≠Ø—set of arches. To each vertex i N there corresponds the real point, being border of two and more complex
sites of network G. Each arch (i, j) G forms rather homogeneous site of the transport communications of the certain kind (opening development, a reloading point etc.)
which either functions, or may be created again and is described by function of expenses Fi,j(xi,j, ri,j) from a freight traffic on the given arch and capacity ri,j.
Task of optimization of transport networks and open cast freight traffics we shall formulate as follows: on the given superfluous network of transport communications
from mining faces to points of reception of rock mass to find an optimum freight traffic of ore and stripping, providing optimum of criterion function:
(1)
under condition of
(2)
(3)
where
Fij(xij)=cij*xij+pij*h(xij)
(4)
(5)
where —freight traffic on an arch (i,j), caused by transport communication from a point of departure s up to point of reception t; P—set of all correspondence of
network G.
The given task is a multiproductive nonlinear transport task on a network with the limited throughputs. The method of stepbystep distribution of streams of a
network is applied for its decision on a minimum of total integrated costs which basic idea consists in distribution of the certain share of streams to each step λi(Σiλi=1).
One of advantages of a method of stepbystep distribution is visibility of a sequence of filling of arches the graph (sites of roads) that may give an occasion to increase
of traffic capacity or, on the contrary, to removal of some arches.
The allowable superfluous network of communications including alignments of road on horizons from mining faces (sources), rise on opening developments and
further on a surface up to points of reception of rock mass (drains), is set by the designer. At formation of a network the set of sources and drains is fixed only, and
between them the designer may investigate anyone technically and technologically allowable transport circuits and their communications for any kind and such as
transport, including the various reloading points opening developments etc. for fixed positions of open cast mining. The network of transport communications may
develop and be supplemented in development of open cast mining with dynamics of change of a site of sources (mining faces).
The Algorithm of the decision of a task represents the consecutive redistribution of a stream reducing value of criterion function. Redistribution of a stream carries out
in the elementary cycles constructed on arches of a tree of a network.
The Algorithm of the decision of a task consists of the following steps:
1. Initial distribution of all streams is carried out for a usual transport problem without the fixed surcharges pij in Fij (4).
2. Then on received to the graph is under construction sub tree of the “basic” arches, i.e. arches, in which 0≤x ij≤rij.
3. Sub tree it is supplemented up to a tree not with the “basic” arches.
4. From the arches which were not including in a tree, constructed on the previous step, and arches of the tree cycles are under construction and are analyzed on
improvement of criterion function. If the way with a new arch has improved value of criterion function on arches with positive orientation redistributed value stream is
added, and for arches with negative orientation decreases on its value. The new arch is added in a tree, and the arch with negative orientation and a zero stream
leaves. If the new arch has not improved criterion function we pass to the following cycle.
5. After check of all cycles work of algorithm comes to an end.
Page 540
Figure 2. Distribution of freight traffics to the graph of roads.
Figure 3. Graph of roads central deposit open cast “Akjal”.
Page 541
Figure 4. A database of a subsystem “Freight traffic”.
Figure 5. Result of imitation of work of excavator—railway complex.
For the decision of a task of the automated designing open cast mining, including optimization of transport networks and open cast freight traffics us it is developed the
programfunctional complex including the following subsystems “Contour”, “Rational development of open cast mining”, “Planned schedule” and a considered
subsystem “Freight traffic” (figures 2 and 3) and its information base (figure 4). The choice of final decisions is accepted by a subsystem “Coordinator” or the designer
on the basis of received optimizing decisions in an interactive mode, by means of graphic constructions with use of volumetric—digital model of a deposit and open cast
and imitating modeling mining transportation works in a technological zone of open cast.
After acceptance of decisions on above listed subsystems check of feasibility and economic calculations on a subsystem of imitation (figures 5 and 6) will be carried
out.
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Figure 6. Result of imitation of work of excavator—automobile complex.
2 CONCLUSIONS
By us it is developed program—functional complex of optimization of subsystem of opening of openpit field and working levels development of system CAD of open
cast with using of economicmathematical model, which classified as nonlinear multiproducts transport problem in network with limited transport capacity. CAD
system including the following subsystems “Contour”, “Rational development of open cast mining”, “Planned schedule” and a considered subsystem “Freight traffic” and
its information base.
Page 543
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Analysis of possible alternatives for the exploitation and hauling system in a marl
mine (Tavernola BG, Italy)
M.Cardu
DIGET Politecnico, Torino, Italy; IGAG CNR, Torino, Italy
I.Sacerdote
DIGET Politecnico, Torino, Italy
A.Magro
Lafarge Adriasebina, Tavernola Bergamasca (BG), Italy
M.Crosa
Mining Engineer, Torino, Italy
ABSTRACT: The Ca’ Bianca mine, located near the Iseo lake (Italy), produces approximately 630,000 t/a of marl for cement by explosive loosening
and mechanical excavation. The hourly production is approximately 200 m3 and a size of crushed rock between 0 and 250 mm is required. The
present method consists of exploiting by horizontal descending slices, handling by backhoe excavator and hauling to the crushing plant by dumpers.
The paper analyses the system of transportation from the primary crusher to the cement plant by vertical raises and horizontal drifts: the primary
crusher feeds the first (upper) ore pass, from the bottom of the first ore pass the crushed material is transferred to the conveyor belt by an apron
feeder; the conveyor belt runs in a tunnel and feeds the second ore pass, from which the material is transferred on the second conveyor belt, also
running underground; the second belt feeds the third ore pass which feeds the last belt in a tunnel which gets to the cement plant. This system has a
critical point which is studied in the paper: the first ore pass, inappropriately located, crosses the abandonment profile at 810 m a.s.l. and can not be
exploited down to the toe, at 778 m a.s.l. Therefore the system of transportation from the present yard to the second ore pass has to be modified.
Four alternative designs are carried out:
1. conveyor belt installed at the surface, sloping along the track;
2. hauling by dumper;
3. new ore pass and tunnel system (with apron feeder);
4. new ore pass and tunnel system (without apron feeder).
The four alternatives are described, analysed and compared.
Technicaloperational enquires and valuations about economic parameters and safety have been carried out to identify the better solution.
In the concluding remarks the result of such analyses is presented: the solution 3 has been found to be the best one.
This paper is based on a thesis for Bachelor of Environmental Engineering degree by Massimo Crosa (Ing. Cardu, Ing. Magro, Ing. Sacerdote as
supervisors) in the Politecnico di Torino.
1 THE CA’ BIANCA MINE
1.1 The exploited body
The mining area lies in the Bergamo Province (Italy) and covers a surface area of approximately 3 km2.
From & morphological point of view? it can be described as a ridge whose crest line is about 3000 m long.
In the surrounding area the relieves, with very mild profiles, do not rise above the altitude of
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1100 m a.s.l., and are formed essentially by Triassic limestones, with undulated morphology and small differences of altitude. Slopes are frequently covered with grass
and gently sloping; steep slopes are almost never observed and also the altitudes of the saddle points are homogeneous, with the top hills points no more than 100 m
above.
The permit area is entirely comprised in the Domaro limestone, more than 1000 m thick. The basis of that geologic formation is represented petrographically, by
marly limestones, grey or brownish grey, at places spotted due to the presence of cherty nodules of different colours. Above the rock changes to a more or less marly
limestone, strong and blocky, with thickness of the blocks varying from 10 to 60–70 cm, mainly light brown. This kind of rock is known as “cement marl” and is
intercalated at even internals with schistose marl layers, with a thickness ranging between 1 and 10cm and greygreen colour.
The currently operated Ca’ Bianca Mine started in 1998.
Yearly production is about 630,000 t and the exploitable volume (from the present level, 860 m a.s.l., down to the designed bottom level of the exploitation, 778 m
a.s.l.) is about 2,614,630 m3, that represents 8,7 years of operation.
1.2 Mining method and means
The mining method adopted is by horizontal descending levels, with loosening blasts on the benches 3 to 6 m thick, loading by power shovels and transportation by
dumper to the primary breaker feeding point. The breaker is a mobile jaw crusher, and the crushed material is directly fed to a system of ore passes and tunnels
reaching the cement factory.
Two types of blasting schemes are used, A for benches 3 m thick and B for benches 5,5 m thick; furthermore each scheme is subjected to changes, depending on
the explosive supplier, so that four types of blasts are employed by the mine, as shown in the Table 1.
The charge of the holes is a continuous column, with a priming cartridge at the bottom, connected to a detonating cord. Two more cartridges are introduced, then the
hole is stemmed with drilling chippings.
The initiation is by electric low intensity short delay detonators, connected to the detonating cords at the collars of each hole. A maximum of 5 detonators of the
same delay time is used. The delay series comprises 18 delay times.
The machinery, at the exploitation stope, comprises:
– 2 dumpers trucks Perlini DP255 with a capacity of 12 m3;
– 1 wheel loader CAT966G;
Table 1. Parameters of the blasting scheme.
SCHEME A SCHEME B
A1 type A2 type B1 type B2 type
Bench height m 3.0 3.0 5.5 5.5
Hole length m 3.5 3.5 6.0 6.0
Hole diameter mm 76 76 89 89
Cartridge diameter mm 60 60 70 70
Number of holes n 80 80 40 40
Charge length m 1.2 1.0 3.3 3.2
Stemming length m 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.8
Hole inclination ° 10 10 10 10
Burden m 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.5
Spacing m 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.5
Charge per hole kg 4.8 3.9 16.8 16.1
Powder factor 0.17 0.15 0.25 0.24
kg/m3
Figure 1. Mobile crusher Nordberg 140 E.
– 1 power shovel CAT345 BL ME equipped with 3 m3 bucket (backhoe);
– 1 power shovel CAT330 BL equipped with 2 m3 bucket (backhoe);
– 1 mobile crusher Nordberg 140 E.
At the face the blasted rock is loaded by the shovel on the dumper trucks. The dumpers carry the rock to the hopper feeder of the crusher (Figure 1) where the run of
mine is reduced to 0–250 mm size.
The mobile crusher requires, for efficient production, to be installed lower than the dumping level of the dumper trucks. For this reason a difference of elevation of 6
m must be permanently maintained between the two working levels. Moreover the crushed is fed through an high voltage electric cable, crossing the yard with the risk
of dividing, in some situations, the working place in two sections.
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Table 2. Working cycle of the loadinghaulingdumping cycle.
CAT 345+dumper CAT 330+dumper
Loading time s 180 220
Dumping time s 30 30
Travel time and manoeuvres s 165 165
Total s 375 415
The mobile crusher Nordberg 140 E is composed of:
– hopper;
– vibrating feeder;
– grid for primary fines removal;
– jaw crusher;
– primary outlet belt;
– discharge belt for the fines;
– electric system;
– hydraulic driving system.
The material discharged in the hopper is screened before crushing, to remove the fines (fine rock and earth) representing a not negligible fraction (about 20%).
It has been decided to use the fines as cover material for the revegetation of the abandoned faces.
The fines must be removed in order to avoid the clogging of the ore passes, which causes problems in the raw material supply of the factory and working safety
problems in the removal of the obstructions.
The mobile crusher must be moved to a new place as the horizontal slice is fully exploited, and the switch to the new operating place implies the loss of 4 production
days. For this reason, the capacity of the haulage machinery must be overrated with respect to the daily requirement of the factory, to compensate for the production
loss due to the stops and allow for a surge stock replenishment.
1.3 Mine to factory haulage system
The crushed and screened rock is directly discharged in the first ore pass (“Fornello 3”), 65 m long, and transferred to a tunnel (“Galleria 2”), 250 m long; hence,
trough a second ore pass (“Fornello 2”), 68 m long, to a second tunnel, 125 m long and further, trough a third ore pass (“Fornello 1”), 180 m long, to another tunnel,
600 m long, from which reaches a stockpile.
The stockpile feeds the secondary crushing plant. Figure 2 shows the haulage system (Cardu et al. 2001).
The intermediate stockpile ore has an important function of compensation, allowing to feed the plant with a constant flow even in the case of clogging of the upward
part of the transportation system (blockage of ore passes or troughs) and it is shown in the Figure 3.
Figure 2. Mine to factory haulage system.
Figure 3. Stockpile.
2 PROBLEM POSED BY END OF THE SERVICE LIFE OF THE FIRST ORE PASS
Due to a mistake in the design of the haulage system by ore passes and tunnels or in the environmental rehabilitation plan, prescribing a too mild slope of the abandoned
face, the position of the first ore pass (“Fornello 3”) was not correct. Indeed, due to the collaring point which was set too much uphill with respect to a correct
placement, and to the excessive inclination (vertical instead of sloping), the ore pass crosses too early the intended abandonment profile.
According to the calculation, this will occur when the exploitation will reach the altitude of 810 m a.s.l. (while the intended bottom, set by the tunnel, is at 778 m a.s.l
To clarify the problem, Figures 4–5 show the mine plan view and the vertical section of the exploitation trough the ore pass and the tunnel 3.
3 PROPOSED DESIGN SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM
Following the above explained situation, some options for the possible way out had to be prepared.
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Figure 4. Vertical section of the exploitation trough the ore pass and the tunnel 3.
Figure 5. Mine plan view.
Upon a careful analysis of the site conditions, three options appear more likely to succeed and are here analysed.
– Option 1: to install a sloping conveyor belt, along the access road reaching the exploitation floor;
– Option 2: to effect the haulage by dumper trucks, using the access road reaching the exploitation floor;
– Option 3: to create a new ore pass—tunnel system close to the existing one.
3.1 Option 1: sloping conveyor belt along the access road
In order to install the conveyor belt along, the access road should be widened: present width is about 3,5 m, and 2 to 2,5 should be added for the belt structure
because the road has to be preserved for the traffic, in both directions, of the quarry machinery. That means that the road width should be increased to 6 m at least.
As to the materials flow, the crusher should remain at the exploitation floor because the material, due to
Figure 6. Layout of the access road, indicating the cross section lines employed to calculate the volumes to be removed.
the excessive fragment size of the blasted rock, can be fed to the conveyor belt only upon the crushing.
The crusher should be moved to a lower and lower position as soon as the 6 m thick benches are exploited, as in the present operation, but the placement of the
crusher should be close to the road, to make possible the direct discharge of the crushed material on the belt. The length of the belt should be progressively reduced.
The amount of road works to adapt the existing road have been calculated (Figure 6). The length of the road is 305 m, and the rock to be removed to obtain the
designed widening totals 1357 m3.
The length of the conveyor belt should be the same as the road. Only 105 m of conveyor belt are to be purchased, being 200 m already available (and usable) from
the dismissed tunnel (“Galleria 3”).
Two deviation points are needed along the belt path, to comply with the road layout.
It will be necessary to cover the belt to protect the transported material from rain, being the wet material very clogging.
Belt braking energy, being the average slope great enough, could be recovered as electric power.
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Figure 7. Layout of the access road, indicating the possible location of turnarounds.
3.2 Option 2: haulage with dump trucks
The crusher should be moved to the collar of the ore pass 2.
The blasted material should be directly loaded in the trucks at the exploitation floor and carried to the crusher, via the existing access road.
In this case some changes should be provided in the road: the road should be widened, in order to sustain the heavier traffic (calculation carried out for option 1 hold
also for option 2) and some turnaround should be provided to manage the unavoidable crossing of vehicles travelling to and from the ore pass 2. Figure 7 shows the
possible location of the turnarounds.
The mine already owns two dumper trucks, fully engaged in production work. Since the mine does not intend to purchase more trucks, and can not satisfy the
production haulage capacity required by option 2 with the presently available fleet, the number of trucks to be added to fill the transportation need from now to the
completion of the exploitation of the ore body down to 750 m a.s.l. level has been calculated.
The capacity features of the available dumper trucks are:
– capacity of the body
12 m2
– average speed:
downwards loaded 10 km/h
upwards empty 20 km/h
at the yard level 10 km/h
– times:
loading 135 s
dumping, manoeuvres 165 s.
To evaluate the actual productivity, two different values of the loading time have to be considered, due to the fact that the two available shovels have different bucket
capacities. Transportation cycle times for the two dumper+excavator arrangements are shown in Table 3.
From the calculation it has been obtained:
– the cycle time is 13 min
– the machines can perform 4,62 cycles/h
– the theoretical hourly production is 90 t/h
Table 3. Transportation cycle times for the two dumper 4excavator arrangements.
CAT 345 bucket 3 m3 CAT 330 bucket 2 m3
Downward travel s 240 240
Upward travel s 120 120
Loading s 180 220
Unloading s 30 30
Manoeuvres s 30 30
On the yard s 180 180
displacements
Total s 780 820
– the practical hourly production, using 50 worked minutes per hour, is 75 t/h.
For continuous operation, the required hourly capacity can be obtained with 5 dumper trucks, two of them loaded by the 2 m3 shovel, two by the 3 m3 shovel and one
to compensate the loading capacity difference of the shovels.
Being only 2 dumper trucks available, 3 units must be hired.
3.3 Option 3: to create a new ore pass—tunnel system
The proposed solution consists simply in replicating the present system, with a new ore pass and a new tunnel running close to the existing one, but correctly placed.
From an analysis of the map of the site, taking into account the slope and the placement of the electric main line and electric station, the only suitable placement of the
portal of the tunnel is due South with respect to the existing portal (see circled area in Figure 8).
Different layouts of the tunnel have been considered, having in mind the narrow available spaces and the slope of the hillside:
– a tunnel perfectly parallel to the existing one
– a tunnel in the same vertical plane of the ore pass to be excavated (which will not be vertical).
The slope of the tunnel will be 1% only, gentler than the slope of existing tunnel 3, in order to increase the volume of exploitable material above the tunnel level. The ore
pass will be sloping (75°) instead of vertical, to reduce the length of the tunnel and to better comply with the slope of the hillside.
The layout parallel to the existing tunnel implies a small deviation of the conveyor, but makes possible a more appropriate placement of the ore pass collar, closer to
the center of the floor and at an higher altitude.
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Figure 8. Plan view with actual localisation of the tunnel 3 and possible area for the new tunnel portal localisation.
Figure 9. Scheme of the new direction of the exploitation (from the hillside to the inner part).
As to the general organisation of the excavation, the working surface (crusher level) will be lowered, and the exploitation will expand from the hillside to the inner part
(Figure 9) instead of in the reverse way, from the inside to the border, as presently happens.
It has be considered, too, that the favourable placement of the crusher should allow to let the machine in the same place for a long time lapse, almost 4 years; this
could avoid the problems caused by the change of place of the crusher upon the exploitation of each slice. When the exploitation will reach a level too low to still use
the new ore pass and a tunnel, it will be possible to move the crusher to a
Figure 10. Scheme of the cross section of the new tunnel.
Figure 11. Scheme of the new ore pass system localisation.
Page 549
new working place and still effect the haulage of the blasted rock to be crushed on the quarry floor only (avoiding the need of the road) by carrying directly the material
to a site close to ore pass 2, installing a short sloping belt or placing the crusher in an intermediate position between the quarry floor and the ore pass 2 (Figures 10–
11).
As an alternative solution, it has been evaluated too the possibility of switching the extraction feeding plant from the presently operated ore pass to the new one.
4 COMPARISON OF THE OPTIONS
4.1 Operation features
Option 1 (sloping belt, along the access road) requires frequent adaptations of the belt length as the exploitation progresses and of the road along which the belt is
installed. According to our calculations, these adoptions should be made at 8–10 months intervals. Due to the marked inclination of the ground, a flat area at the
charging and discharging ends of the belt system should be prepared, in connection with the belt length changes.
It has to be considered too that the layout is not straight, but includes two deviations which could give problems in maintenance work and cause wear and
breakages.
The advantage of this option is the continuity of the operation (between the stops due to length adaptation).
Option 2, consisting in the haulage by means of a fleet of dumper trucks, poses different problems. The feature of the access road are not favourable, being the
Figure 12. Haggloader.
grade too steep and the ground becoming unsuitable to traffic in rainy weather, therefore the haulage cycle will become dependant on external features.
Moreover, being too costly to create a road wide enough to allow two ways traffic, turnout places have to be prepared and traffic regulations set. These difficulties
can be overcome, but can add to other adverse conditions and worsen the operation of the haulage cycle.
Option 3, consisting in reproducing the present system with an improved placement of the ore pass and tunnel, makes possible to continue production with a tested
method to carry the material from the face to the ore pass 2, with improvements dictated by previous experience.
The only doubtful point is the stage of switching from the old ore extraction system, at the bottom of the dismissed ore pass, to the new system.
It has to be noticed that the new ore pass, instead of being vertical as the old was, will be inclined, and very short. That should reduce the likelihood of clogging and
the connected working time wastage.
The change with the present system, where an extractor feeder is used to feed the belt, consisting in a continuous or cyclic loading machine, could make some
problem, especially if the cyclic loader is adopted, in keeping a constant and adequate feeding rate, due to the narrow operating space of the machine: high speed
manoeuvres are needed to avoid the buildup of delays.
Also the management of the draw point is a source of worry, because the slope of the heap, at the toe of the ore pass, depends on the variable features of the
material; for that reason manoeuvres could be affected by unforeseen difficulties.
4.2 Economics considerations
The costs considered for option 1 are detailed in Table 4. The cost of the widening of the access road has been calculated from the volumes to be excavated, on the
basis of an unit cost per cubic meter.
For the cost of the conveyor being available 200 m of conveying line from the dismissed plant, it has been calculated that 105 have to be purchased. The cost of that
part has been calculated on the basis of
Table 4. Costs of option 1.
Activity Costs
Road enlargement k 178,4912
Turnouts k 26,3157
Belt (materials and installation) k 2.763,1578
Old belt installation k 368,4210
Electric plant k 276,3157
Total k 3.612,7014
Page 550
Table 5. Costs of option 2.
Activity Costs
Road enlargement k 178,4912
Dumper trucks in the first 2 years k 2.684,2105
Dumper trucks in the 3rd, 4th years k 1.789,4737
Dumper trucks in the 5th year and k 894,7368
beyond
Total k 5.546,9122
an unit (per meter) cost, and the cost of the reinstallation of the old belt has been added. The cost of the electric plant has been evaluated as a fixed percentage (10%)
of the cost of the plant, supposed entirely built with new materials.
An arbitrary reference unit has been adopted (the same for all cases) to express the costs, in order to not disclose confidential data provided by the company.
The costs for the option 2 are detailed in Table 5.
The cost of the enlargement of the access road has been assumed to be the same as for option 1, being the intended end result practically the same on both causes.
The costs considered for the trucks are the hire cost and the fuel cost (based on the experience of the company).
The number of trucks needed, previously calculated, will progressively be reduced due to the shortening of the travel path, as the altitude of the quarry floor
diminishes. From an initial number of 3 trucks hired, the number falls, to one at the end of exploitation. Two trucks, it has to be remembered, are owned and their cost
is not considered in this economic comparison, because they are exploited in all the options and do not represent discriminating factor.
For the option 3 the costs have been calculated on the basis of the tunnel cross section, of the cross section of the storage room at the basis of the ore pass, and
assuming that the rock does not require particular reinforcement measures. Geometric data are:
– length of the tunnel 15 m
– cross section of the tunnel
30 m2
– volume to be excavated for the tunnel
450 m3
– volume of the storage room
1620 m3
– cross section of the ore pass
9,42 m2
– length of the ore pass 13 m
– volume of the ore pass
120 m3
– length of the belt 40 m
The costs are shown, for the option 3.a (belt feed by extraction feeder) in Table 6.
Under “extractor installation cost”, the cost of moving the extractor from the old room to the new is considered. It comprises the costs of using a mobile crane, the
modifications of the steel framework,
Table 6. Costs of option 3.a.
Activity Costs
Tunnel excavation k 236,8421
Ore pass excavation k 429,6842
Yard at the tunnel portal k 438,5965
Extractor installation cost k 2.280,7018
Storage room excavation k 14,9584
Electric plant k 105,2632
Belt installation k 73,6842
Total k 3.579,7304
Figure 13. Economic comparison between different options.
maintaining and repair costs due to the previous service life (of several years), construction work, man power.
Under “yard at the tunnel portal”, the costs of creating a manoeuvre area at the portal and of reinforcing the rock wall are considered. Costs of obtaining data on
rock quality are omitted, being the tunnel very close to the one to be dismissed, hence the already available data on the geological and geotechnical features of the rock
can be used. If needed, an exploratory drilling along the ore pass axis could be done.
In the case of the option 3.b, which means to avoid the installation of the fixed extractor feeder and to use cyclic or continuous loader to feed the belt, the costs are
the same as in table 6, apart from the cost of the installation of the extractor, which should be calculated, and replaced with the cost of the loader. Up to now it has not
been decided what type of loader should be used, and consequently no data are available for the comparison.
The result are graphically compared in Figure 13 (option 3.b is not included, for the lack of complete data).
5 CONCLUSIONS
In the case considered, it has been shown that the option to be preferred is to create a new ore
Page 551
pass—tunnel system parallel to the one to be dismissed, both for operation easiness and for cost reasons. The other options analysed are more difficult to operate and
more expensive.
The conclusion is further supported by these considerations:
– the rock mass properties are well known, and troubles are not feared during the excavation and the operation of the system
– the system is well known, being long since in use, both in the positive aspects and in the possible problems, for which the remedies, when needed, are known from
the past experience
– the economic analysis shows that the saving, with respect to other options, are very conspicuous; as to the option 3.b, not fully analysed, it seems appealing because
avoids the dismantling and reassembling of the extraction unit, but implies the purchase and the use of an extra machine.
Concluding, the option of creating a new ore pass tunnel system seems to be the most suitable, under the operation, economic, and, not last, working safety aspect.
REFERENCES
Cardu M., Fornaro M., Sacerdote I. 2001. Economic—environmental description of the exploitation method by horizontal slices and orepass in the Italian surface crushed
stone quarries. In Kozan Ofset (ed.), 17th Mining International Congress of Turkey. Proc. Symp. 561–566 Ankara.
Crosa M. 2003. Definizione ed analisi di possibili alternative all’attuale sistema di coltivazione e trasporto in un cantiere estrattivo—Impianto di Tavernola Bergamasca
(BG)—Tesi di laurea, Politecnico di Torino.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
To what extent the number of conveyors affects the operating efficiency of
haulage systems in coal mines
M.Grujic & I.Ristovic
Faculty of Mining and Geology, Belgrade, Serbia & Montenegro
ABSTRACT: In coal mines with small production there is, in the most of cases, a big number of the belt conveyors in the system. The big number of
the transportation units has a negative influence on the most of the production and economic effects. The paper deals with the analysis of these
influences and makes a comparison with the transportation systems with a smaller number of belt conveyors. In addition to that, here are some
directions of looking for the possible solutions of this problem, that is the directions of the lessening of the number of the units in transportation systems.
1 INTRODUCTION
Considering the complexity of underground coal mining it is of crucial importance to provide a highly efficient and wellorganized haulage. Haulage ways and passages
are not only used to transport loose rock but also to carry workers and necessary material and spare parts. Owing to a series of natural, technical and economic
reasons mine roadways frequently have a multipurpose use. This requires additional efforts in order to provide a satisfactory level of efficiency.
In some coal deposits after many years of mining the haulage ways became inappropriately long with a huge number of hauling units. This particularly applies to
Serbian coal mines where the ratio of coal output to haulage length is highly unfavorable and very much affects the economic viability of mining.
The objective of this paper is to analyze to what extent the number of conveyors affects the efficiency of continuous haulage systems in underground coal mines.
Particular attention is drawn to system reliability and throughput, which are parameters crucial to determine haulage efficiency.
2 REASONS FOR INCREASED NUMBER OF CONVEYORS IN THE SYSTEM
The increased number of conveyors in mine haulage systems is, apart form long haulage ways caused by:
– frequent change of direction of haulage ways,
– conveyor technical features,
– economic potentials, etc.
In older coal mines, particularly in cases where the natural conditions are unfavorable (major tectonic activity, mine pressures etc.) the direction of haulage ways change
frequently both horizontally and vertically. These changes of direction, particularly in horizontal planes require the adjunction of additional conveyors. It is not rare that,
in smaller coal mines, systems with conveyors that are long from a few to several hundred meters are incorporated within a single haulage system
The technical features expressed as output parameters also have significant influence on the number of conveyors within a system. In spite of advanced technical
possibilities there are numerous limitations and disadvantages of long conveying units. These limitations may usually be attributed to belt properties, or to be more
specific to its strength and cross section.
A study included the most frequently used belts in Serbian brown coal mines, i.e. 800, 1000 and 1200 mmwide belts with 4, 5 and 6 fiber/synthetic cords and the
most frequent cord strength. Table 1 shows maximum conveyor lengths in horizontal pathways at maximally loaded belts.
It was determined that the width of maximally loaded conveyor belts has no major effect on conveyor lengths. Table 2 presents the most effective conveyor lengths
according to tensile strength and the number of conveyor belt cords.
Motor power is one of the factors that have major effect on conveyor length. In coal mines unification of electric motors is a frequent practice even in case of electric
motors used for conveyor drives. If necessary, conveyors are relocated and installed in
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pathways, which have features that differ considerably from the ones originally designed. In these cases the motor power may represent a limiting factor for conveyor
length. Figure 1 presents the diagram that shows how the length of the conveyor depends on the slope angle and on the power supplied to the driving drum.
Frequently the reasons for using multiconveyor systems are purely economic. During the last decade, coal mines, particularly underground coal mines have been
going through serious crisis and the means for new investments and for the acquisition of new equipment are falling short. In order to solve this problem the management
of the mine is compelled to use old conveyors, which are transferred from other systems. As a result the haulage systems are usually composed of a series of conveyors
of inadequate length.
3 THE EFFECTS OF A MULTICONVEYOR ARRANGEMENT IN HAULAGE SYSTEMS
A multiconveyor arrangement in a coal haulage system has a series of negative effects of which the most important are:
– Reduced reliability and throughput of the system,
– Increased crushing and crumbling of coal, which reduces its quality,
Table 1. Maximum conveyor lengths in horizontal pathways at maximally loaded belts.
Tensile strength of belt cords, N/cm Belt width, mm
No. of cords 800 1000 1200
1600 4 950 810 710
5 1150 980 870
6 1370 1150 1020
2000 4 1170 1000 890
5 1410 1200 1070
6 1650 1400 1260
2500 4 1450 1250 1100
5 1750 1500 1330
6 2030 1750 1560
3150 4 1810 1560 1370
5 2180 1890 1670
6 2530 2200 1960
– Higher concentration of dust at transfer points, which reduces the safety of workers,
– Reduced possibility for efficient control, inspection and maintenance of the system,
– Higher automation costs etc.
Without further analysis of different qualitative, economic and safety effects of a multiconveyor system at this point we are only focusing on the effect that the number
of conveyors may have on system reliability and throughput. This problem deserves particular attention considering that some Serbian coal mines have been at a
substantial output loss.
One of the indicators of successful operation of haulage systems is the extent of loss incurred due to standstills. If pt s is used to denote the probability of haulage
system standstills and pto to denote the probability of haulage system standstill coinciding with the operation at the coalface, the daily mining loss will be:
Gd =Qho∙ts∙ns∙(1−kbt)∙kbo
(1)
Figure 1. Change of power at the drum shaft according to the slope angle and conveyor length.
Table 2. Effective conveyor belt lengths.
Time efficiency ratio kbt is one of the most important parameters to determine the reliability of haulage systems. It represents the ratio of the aggregate duration of all
the periods of uninterrupted work to the duration of all the standstills for the time observed t. The most precise results are obtained with the socalled calculation time
efficiency ratio, which also introduces the machine time ratio km (which represents the ratio of the aggregate duration of periods of uninterrupted work to the time t.)
(2)
Figure 2. Throughput variation according to the value of kbtr.
Analogue to this the calculation throughput of haulage systems with n conveying units will be:
(3)
The diagram (Fig. 2) shows the change in system throughputs with conveyors 800 and 1000mm wide that operate at the speeds of 1,31 and 1,68 m/s.
Different machine time ratios have been applied (from 0,45 to 0,55).
The value of all reliability parameters and all probability parameters is less than 1, which implies a reduced reliability and throughput of the system. The haulage
systems in Serbian coal mines usually consist of 6 belt conveyors and 5 chain conveyors connected in series. Their throughputs are on average 46% of the rated
throughput of the weakest conveyor in the series.
The analysis carried out by the Department of Mine Haulage and Hoisting and the general solution for coal transportation in 10 Serbian underground coal mines
determined the basic effects achieved with improved haulage system throughputs.
Among other things, the measures propose the reduction of the number of belt conveyors in coal haulage systems. Table 3 presents the reduced number of
conveyors and the proportional increase in their throughputs obtained in new conditions.
Name of the pit; Number of conveyors; Conveyor length; Recently introduced number of conveyors; Increased throughput.
A similar analysis has been performed for chain conveyors, where time efficiency is even more modest and therefore the rationalization of the number of conveying
units is more successful. The number of conveyors in a coal haulage system may be reduced if the following conditions are fulfilled:
– Extension of conveyor lengths wherever possible,
– Aligning of drivages and construction of shorter passageways,
Table 3. Reduced number of conveyors.
– Replacement of several chain conveyors connected in series with one belt conveyor,
– Improving of haulage routes, etc.
Fewer of conveyors apart from providing better reliability and higher throughputs also reduces finesize coal in runofmine coal for 10%, reduces haulage costs for
15% and reduces the number of workers for 25%. Besides, the improved safety of workers is a result that should not be neglected.
4 CONCLUSION
In smaller coal mines with widelyscattered haulage routes it is necessary to reduce the number of conveyors connected in series within haulage systems. In this way it
will be possible to provide better reliability and higher throughputs of the system. Apart from this it is also possible to provide effects such as reduced costs, lower
energy consumption, reduced number of workers, lower dust concentration, improved safety of workers, improved coal quality, etc. Finally, it may be concluded that
the present situation in Serbian underground coal mines requires detailed analyses of all haulage systems and serious measures to improve their operating efficiency.
REFERENCES
Grujic, M. 1992. Izbor transportnih sistema, RGF, Beograd.
Grujic, M., Grujic M., Ivkovic, M., 2000. The impact of multielement external coal transportation on relianility of the system and on environment, A.A.Balkema/
Roterdam/Brookfield.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Virtual reality lab and control of mine technological process
O.Kodym
Institute of Economics & Control Systems, Faculty of Mining and Geology, VŠB—Technical
University of Ostrava, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT: This paper deals with possibilities of usage of Laboratory of Virtual Reality in Control with focus on education in area of control and
dispatching of underground mine technological processes.
Many particular tasks were solved in Institute of Economics and Control Systems. In the moment new Lab is available, so the first steps are to
utilize existing programs and systems for education with new hardware components. This way we want to achieve new dimension in applying virtual
reality in teaching of control systems.
1 WHAT IS VIRTUAL REALITY (VR)?
Virtual Reality is generally a Computer Generated (CG) environment that makes the user think that he/ she is in the real environment.
The virtual world is hosted on a computer in the form of a database (e.g. terrain database or environment database). The database resides in the memory of the
computer. The database generally consists of points in space (vertices), as well as textures (images). Vertices may be connected to form planes, commonly referred to
as polygons. Each polygon consists of at least three vertices. The polygon could have a specific color, and the color could be shaded, or the polygon could have a
texture pasted onto it. Virtual objects will consist of polygons. A virtual object will have a position (x, y, z), an orientation (yaw, pitch, roll) as well as attributes (e.g.
gravity or elasticity).
The virtual world is rendered with a computer. Rendering involves the process of calculating the scene that must be displayed (on a flat plane) for a virtual camera
view, from a specific point, at a specific orientation and with a specific field of view. Hardware rendering is generally much faster than software rendering. The virtual
environment (also sometimes referred to as a synthetic environment) may be experienced with a Desktop VR System, or with an Immersive VR System.
With Desktop VR a computer screen is normally used as the display medium. The user views the virtual environment on the computer screen. In order to experience
the virtual environment, the user must look at the screen the whole time.
With Immersive VR the user is ‘immersed in’ or ‘surrounded by’ the virtual environment. This may be achieved by using a MultiDisplay System or a Head Mounted
Display (HMD).
With MultiDisplay Systems the field of view of the user is extended by using several computer monitors, or projectors. When using projectors, the image may be
frontprojected or backprojected onto the viewing screen. The image may also be projected on a dome that may vary in shape and size. With a multidisplay system
the user may look around as if in the real world.
A Head Mounted Display (HMD) consists of two miniature displays that are mounted in front of the user’s eyes with a headmount. Special optics enables the user to
view the miniature screens. The HMD also contains two headphones, so that the user may also experience the virtual environment aurally. The HMD is normally fitted
with a Head Tracker. As the user looks around, the position and orientation information is continuously relayed to the host computer. The computer calculates the
appropriate view (virtual camera view) that the user should see in the virtual environment, and this is displayed on the miniature displays. If the user looks forward, the
head tracker will measure this orientation, and relay it to the computer. The computer would then calculate the forward view. The orientation information may also be
used to experience stereo and 3D sound. The volume and phase will be equal for the right and left ear. Trackers that only track the orientation (yaw, pitch, roll) are
referred to as 3 degree of freedom, or 3 DOF trackers, while trackers that also tracks the position (x, y, z) are referred to as 6 DOF trackers.
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Objects in the virtual world may be manipulated by means of a Data Glove. A data glove measures the flexure (bend) of the user’s fingers. The user may grab a
virtual object and put it at a different spot. The user may also throw the object. The position (x, y, z) and orientation (yaw, pitch, roll) of the user’s hand is measured
with a 6 DOF tracker. If it is a forcefeedback data glove, the user will also be able to deform the virtual object, and feel the object (e.g. a tennis ball) resisting the
deformation.
It is also possible for different users to share the same virtual world. This is normally achieved by connecting the host computers to a computer network. Each user’s
host computer broadcasts the position and orientation of the user in the virtual world. The users may therefore ‘see’ each other in the virtual world. In fact, users will
see representations, referred to as avatars, of each other in the virtual world. They will be able to interact; working together or competing. The sharing of virtual worlds
is generally referred to as ‘shared virtual worlds’, or as ‘networked virtual reality’.
Sight and hearing are the main human senses currently used to experience virtual worlds. Touch (as in tactile and forcefeedback) is becoming more commonplace.
Smell dispensers are entering the marketplace, enabling the user to smell the virtual world as well. Taste dispensers will follow soon. [1]
2 VR LABORATORY CORE EQUIPMENT
The principal objective of the current project is a development of VR laboratory for controlling of technological processes. The laboratory will provide for students’
purposes concerning exercises of VR modeling for concrete workplaces of which realizations by other means would be either impossible or too costly.
The existing virtual technology scenery, which has been realized by students in the framework of their scholarly projects, represents high didactic value tools whose
potentials can be fully utilized only by employment of specialized HW. It is this gear that represents VR laboratory basic equipment.
The equipment will also provide for communication of VR technology scenery with actual material modeling, and PLC systems that already operate in the existing
laboratory. By employing the new facilities, students will be able to realize a kind of control system synthesis as well as their actual interaction with the material
environment.
Also exercises, which have not utilized this technology for their implementation as yet, could be worked out. Realizations of potential interest geological models are
assumed, concerning their full 3D rendering, and possibilities of material interaction, as well as 3D representation of environmentally detected and preprocessed
information, inclusive networking with GIS systems, and extending teaching of GIS courses.
Practical operations increasingly employ VR technologies for concrete task implementation, especially in environments of impaired visibility or that are either harmful
or dangerous for humans. They find their employment also in situations of either too small or too big dimensions that are difficult for human movement or orientation.
Working in the laboratory will provide for an experience accumulation that might be useful for students solving problems of practical systems.
Illustration figures are presented in following subchapters.
2.1 Workstation Dell Precision 650
Dell Precision 650 is a highly scaleable, expandable dualprocessing workstation. Including the latest Intel® Xeon Processors, dualchannel memory and top of the
range graphics capabilities, the 650 is perfect for those requiring extraordinary performance.
Features: Outstanding dualprocessor performance with Intel® Xeon Processors up to 3.20 GHz with 1 MB L3 cache (we have 2×3.06 GHz) * Microsoft
Windows XP Professional operating system * Up to 4 GB dual channel DDR 266 MHz SDRAM memory (we have 2 GB) * 533 MHz system bus * Up to 584 GB
of internal U320 SCSI storage, including an integrated, highperformance RAID 0 controller (we have 300 GB ATA).
2.2 Head Mounted Display HMD 800 stereo
The 5DT Head Mounted Display (HMD) offers the user affordable quality, high resolution (SVGA), a crisp image and superior sound quality packaged in a sleek,
comfortable and extremely light headmount design. The HMD provides for user configurable immersion levels. Other features are adjustable top/ back ratchets, a
mounting base for head trackers and a flipup mode for reality checks. SVGA, PAL and NTSC input signals are accepted.
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Features: Affordable duality * Adjustable top/back rachets * Mono or stereo models * Cable organizer * Mounting base for head trackers * Crisp SVGA image *
Extreme comfort * User configurable immersivity * Lightweight * Flipup mode for reality check * High quality headphones.
2.3 Head Tracker InterTrax2
The InterTrax2 is the smallest high performance head tracker in the world. Designed to bring 3D to life for design, game play, and web visualization, the InterTrax2 is a
fraction of the weight and size of earlier products with greatly improved performance. The InterTrax2 will change your view of motion tracking forever.
The InterTrax2 motion tracker delivers extremely fast, smooth, orientation data via the serial or USB port of a PC. Your imagination is the limit to the fully immersive
3D experiences you can explore with the InterTrax2 and an HMD. With InterTrax2, the physical flexibility in the real world is duplicated in the virtual world where
users can look up, down and around through 360 degrees as they explore and interact with their environment.
Features: Increased functionality and accuracy * Simple connection to all personal display device * 3 DOF (degrees of freedom) angular tracking * Sourceless
operation * Exceptional speed & accuracy * Zero jitter, high stability * On board processor performs sophisticated attitude compensation algorithms * Compatible
with most 3D applications * Tracking not affected by nearby objects * Attaches easily to HMD (Head Mounted Display).
2.4 Data Glowe DG 5Wr
The 5DT Data Glove 5 measures finger flexure (1 sensor per finger) a nd the orienta tion (pit ch an of the user’s hand. It can emulate a mouse and can be used as a
baseless joystick. The system interfaces with the computer via a cable to the serial port (RS 232—platform independent). It features 8bit flexure resolution, extreme
comfort, low drift and an open architecture. The 5DT Data Glove 5W is the wireless version of the 5DT Data Glove 5. The wireless system interfaces with the
computer via a radio link (up to 20 m distance) on the serial port (RS 232). Right and lefthanded models are available. One size fits many (stretch lycra). A USB
adapter is available.
Features: Affordable duality * Extreme comfort * Open architecture * Mouse emulation mode * Right/ lefthanded versions * VR and animation program drivers *
8Bit flexure resolution * One size fits many * Builtin tilt sensor * High update rate * Bundled software * Low drift
2.5 3D Desktop Digitizing System MicroScribe2
In developing the MicroScribe™ G2 system, it was Immersion’s goal to provide graphic artists, animators, video game developers, industrial designers, engineers, and
scientists a 3D digitizer with the best combination of functionality and affordability. The result is a highly refined product that looks and feels at home on the desktop
while providing the performance of a precision industrial instrument. The MicroScribe G2 system is constructed from the highest quality components using precise
aluminum housings, lightweight graphite links, and stateoftheart electronics to provide years of troublefree digitizing. The mechanical arm is carefully counter
balanced to allow effortless manipulation.
Features: Workspace 50″ sphere * Accuracy 0.38mm * Footprint 6″×6″ * Compatible software: 3DS Max, Light Wave 3D, Autodesk Viz, Pro/ ENGINEER,
AutoCAD, CADKEY * Immersion software: MS Utility Pack, SDK.
This equipment represents items needed for purposes of developing a VR Laboratory. Currently putting in operation of individual peripheral units, their functional
verification, and system integration are in progress.
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2.6 Software
Installations and configuration of SW means that the Institute of Economics and Control Systems, Unit for Mining Automation, have at their disposal for 3D scenery
modeling and rendering. Especially Microsoft products are involved, as made accessible by MSDN AA program, i.e. development environment on a .NET platform,
but also Autocad Map 6, 3D Studio MAX produced by Autodesk company that are accompanied by supportive and exporting modules, as well as other SW means
from freeware groups.
3 REALIZED VIRTUAL SCENES AND PROGRAMS
The Institute has a lot of program products at their disposal that were developed in the past and that are ready to be employed by a VR Laboratory. These products’
themes cover a wide range of underground mining subjects from visual renderings of excavation through mining workplaces configurations up to modeling and
simulations of mining technologies.
3.1 Visualization using VRML
VRML (the Virtual Reality Modeling Language) has emerged as the de facto standard for describing 3D shapes and scenery on the World Wide Web. VRML’s
technology has very broad applicability, including webbased entertainment, distributed visualization, 3D user interfaces to remote web resources, 3D collaborative
environments, interactive simulations for education, virtual museums, virtual retail spaces, and more. VRML is a key technology shaping the future of the web. VRML is
described similar to HTML as fully hypertext descriptor of 3D scene. Its main characteristics are: text format * simple 3D objects description * standard for WWW
environment * support from graphics subsystem and WWW browsers suppliers.
Basic building blocks of a VRML world are shapes. Primitive shapes are standard building blocks (box, cone, cylinder, sphere and text). Appearance of each shape
can be controlled; color, opacity and material can be defined. For text information a text object can be defined, when billboard is used, text can be read from any
direction. Placement of each shape is defined with its own coordinate system. Nodes like billboard and anchor have builtin behavior. It is possible to create own
behaviors to make shapes move, rotate, scale, blink, and more. Animation changes something over time: position, orientation, and color. Animation requires control
over time: when to start and stop and how fast to go. It can be sensed when the viewer’s cursor: is over a shape, has touched a shape or is dragging atop a shape. It is
Figure 1. Heading machine.
possible to trigger animations on a viewer’s touch or enable the viewer to move and rotate shapes.
Complex shapes are hard to build with primitive shapes. Terrain, machinery etc. are building out of atomic components—points, lines and faces. By default, there is
one light in the scene, attached to your head. For more realism, multiple lights (Suns, light bulbs, candles, flashlights, spotlights, firelight) can be added to the scene.
Lights can be positioned, oriented, and colored. Lights do not cast shadows.
Shapes form the foreground of your scene. You can add a background to provide context. Backgrounds describe sky and ground colors, panorama images of
mountains, cities, etc. Backgrounds are faster to draw than if shapes are used to build them. Sounds are important supplement of displayed information. It can be
triggered by viewer actions. Sounds can be continuous in the background or emitted from a location, in a direction, within an area.
Different types of worlds require different styles of navigation—walk, fly, and examine shapes. The navigation type can be selected; the size and speed of the
viewer’s avatar can be described.
3.2 Examples of realized 3D sceneries
Visualization of underground working places (Fig.1):
This part focuses on methods of presentation of an underground mine technologies. It shows usage of platform independent VRML client for presentation of static
and dynamic information about technological process. Bidirectional interactions between client and process information database are solved.
Database supported visualization of underground technology and equipment (Fig. 2): This program allows user to design his own technological scene from
equipment stored in database. Objects with all properties are immediately put into virtual scene and displayed. Position and orientation can be set.
Visualization of underground mine topology: Based on analysis of technological process of underground mine database structure was designed. This is
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Figure 2. Creation of technological scene from database of equipment.
Figure 3. Virtual scene of simple simulation of continuous miner.
skeleton for storing of all information about any underground mine. This skeleton can be modified in any direction. Data in this “static model” of underground mine are
used for visualization in VRML environment. This way it is possible to simplify and unify users frontend for all kinds of tasks.
All designed scenes can be interactively displayed in full view or in any detail view, so user can recognize every important part of installed equipment, its stage,
technical parameters and other information. If producers of mining equipment will supply VRML model of their real products, everybody will be able to place it into
VRML scene and learn everything about it.
Visualization of simulation model (Fig. 3): This software model concerns control of coal mining technological processes for continuous miners by means of virtual
reality technologies. In accordance with VRML97 specification, static and especially
Figure 4. Core of realized Virtual Reality Lab.
dynamic properties for VRML scenes have been employed. The DrillControl application represents a principal module, which enables real time interactive control of
continuous miner on the coal face, observing alarm and system information, as well as load trends for both driving mechanisms of the mining drums.
4 CONCLUSION
Implementing the project of VR Laboratory will provide for unique utilization of the stateoftheart gear at the Institute. Many obstacles will be removed that have
hampered realizations of virtual technology scenery. The obstacles concern mainly the magnitude of scenery object present, as well as its resolution power.
The Institute’s Unit has already tested most of the realized VR technology sceneries and applications, and the knowledge acquired corroborates these assumptions.
The VR Laboratory facility will provide for further investigation concerning utilization of VR means for control of technology processes. It will also enable extending
of possibilities for already existing sceneries and simulation modeling.
Partial extension of rendering possibilities in under development that concerns projected VR. For the time being with a single projector, but fina l soluti would employ
a stereoscopic back projection.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Presented Virtual Reality Lab was built with support of Fund for Development of Universities (FRVŠ) #1663/2003 Laboratory of Virtual Reality Means in Control of
Technological Process.
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REFERENCES
FIFTH DIMENSIONS TECHOLOGIES 2003. 5DT Virtual Reality Information [online], last update 2003–10–31. [cit. 2004–03–11]. Available: <URL: http://www.
5dt.com/virtualinfo.html >
Kodym 1999. Usage of the VRML Environment for Presentation of the Underground Mine. In Proceedings of International Conference on Engineering Education ’99.
VSBTechnical University Ostrava, Czech Rep. ISSN 1562–3580
Kodym 2001. Virtual reality in technological process. Telekomunikacja i systemy bezpieczenstwa w gornictwie, KTG200 1. vol. 39:135–143. ISBN 83–915731–0–9
Kodym 2000. Zobmzovani informací technologického procesu dolu. Sbornik vĕdeckých prací VSBTechmcké univerzity Ostrava, Rada hornickogeologická, vol.
XLVI, (č. 2), s. 47–59. ISSN 0474–8486.
Kodym 2003—Vrml Environment for Visualization of model of Underground Technological Process. In Mining of 21stCenturyProceeding s of ICAMC/19th World
Mining Congress, New Delhi, India. ISBN 81–204–1609–0.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Cauê mine primary crushing material handling optimization
L.G.M.Lança & C.C.Cabral
Companhia Vale do Rio Doce—CVRD, Itabira, MG, Brazil
ABSTRACT: This case study describes the problems lived on the new ore conveyor handling system installation on the primary crushing at CVRD,
Caue Mine, Brazil. This new set of equipment presented a wide range of problems that reflected directly on the ore supply to the beneficiating plant,
causing serious negative operational impacts. To solve these problems all the new equipment were reviewed. This was done by describing all the
problems, classifying them by importance and then proposing and implementing the solution. Solutions ranged form replacing drive units to a whole
conveyor still under warranty, which were found under dimensioned. The result of this job brought the availability first expected by CVRD on the
crushing conveying system area. Consequently the beneficiating plant becomes well assisted and the monthly budget destined to this company area
was drastically reduced.
1 INTRODUCTION
Due to the increasing demand on the iron ore market, not only for volume production, but also for a better quality product, CVRD found itself motivated to implement a
brand new projects of two crushing lines at Caue’s Mine.
Originally, it was only one primary crushing line for both types of iron ore: hematite and itabirite. Both of them were processed in the same primary crusher and
transported by a single conveyor line, one at a time. Having a single primary crushing line for both products did generate difficulties as the process flow to guarantee a
high quality final product. Aiming to solve that problem, and also to increase production volume, CVRD hired in the market, a turn key project from a brazilian
company which should deliver a whole package: the project, equipment supply, erection and start up of this both new primary crushing line. These new lines started up
its operation
Table 1. Itabirite conveyor circuit main data.
Crusher type: Jaw Crusher Description Values
Project capacity (t/h) 3600–4320
Nominal capacity (t/h) 3000–3600
Belt width (inches) 54′′ (4 conveyors)
60′′ (4 conveyors)
12′′ (4 conveyor)
Total length (m) 2500
Idler quantity 4600 units
in 2000. Refer to Table 1 and Table 2 for both lines main features:
Once the plant was finally started up and delivered to CVRD for operation, it started to appear a great number of operational problems in these new conveyors. The
impact of this in our final product became very serious once the whole production program of our plant was put seriously in risk.
2 OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS AND THE SEARCH FOR SOLUTIONS
2.1 Problems found
Listed below are the main problems that were going on in our new primary crushing line:
– Belt conveyors tearing up;
– Frequent opening on the belt conveyor splice;
Table 2. Hematite conveyor circuit main data.
Crusher type: Gyratory Crusher Description Values
Project capacity (t/h) 3000–3600
Nominal capacity (t/h) 2500–3000
Belt width (inches) 54′′ (4 conveyors)
60′′ (1 conveyor)
72′′ (1 conveyor)
Total length (m) 2500
Idler quantity 4600 units
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– Pulley spinning against the belt on both circuits, causing a low feed rate to the process plant;
– Low operational efficiency during raining seasons;
– A hydraulic coupling blow up on a the belt conveyor caused by a back stop low efficiency;
– Brand new reducers presenting a short life time;
– Impact and carrying idler lasting too short;
– Frequent rupture of impact idlers support.
2.2 Conveyors problems analysis
The first big problem was the tearing up on the belts caused by lamellar stone, which would go through the primary jaw crusher itabirite line and were not broken due to
its shape. They are thin but very lengthy, like a knife (1.5×0.25×0.05 m). Whenever they fall in the upright position in the chute and reach the belt, they would go
through it and get stick into the idlers (Fig. 1). After that, this stone works like a knife, tearing up the belt along its complete extension.
The solution for this problem was done in two steps:
– It was assembled on every feeding point an impact bed to absorb the impact of stones that would hit the belt. Around thirty impact beds were bought and placed
wherever needed.
– We also did replace the original belt, which had a 3 canvas layers plus 8 mm top cover, by belt having 4 canvas layers plus 14 mm top cover. Although the old belt
unit stress was enough, the new one had a much better capacity to absorb impacts caused by the stones.
The installation of impact bed, plus the changing of some belt conveyors by thicker ones, gave to the belt a much better protection against lamellar sharp pointed stones.
Belts tearing up were drastically
Figure 1. Belt tearing up at charging point of a belt conveyor caused by a sharp pointed lamellar stone.
reduced after these actions. This action reduced our budget in US$320,000/year and has been kept like that since so.
The new belt conveyors with a unit stress superior to the ones previously dimensioned by the hired project company also solved the problem on the slice opening,
which would happen very frequently. We could attest that the competition to win the job made the winner company to dimension belts very close to its rupture limits.
CVRD engineers recalculated the whole handling material system and found out that for this system to work fin e wou ld be necess heavier belts as far as number of
canvas layers are concerned.
The spinning problem, present in both circuits, was compromising the process plantfeeding rate. In order to solve that we was brought the following three questions
for discussion:
– The counter weight specified in the project was the most adequate one?
– Friction coefficient used to design was right?
– The material used to cover the pulleys had the fraction coefficient asked by the project design?
– Once these three questions come up, it was recalculated all counterweight of all conveyors, for both circuits: hematite and itabirite.
The results found were not very different from those find by the hired project company. This meant that the problem could be at the site. Then we started an operation
to weigh every counterweight of every conveyor at the site. Differences were found. Then a plan was established to get those weights correct taking advantage of
monthly stop for maintenance at the plant. In few months, all those problems were corrected. In some cases, also we recovered the driving pulley with ceramic to
increase the friction coefficient. With this actions these problems were definitely removed and allowed the line run stable and well balanced promoting a continuously
and trustable iron ore feeding the concentration iron ore plant with no interruption and in the right feed rate.
2.3 The blow up of hydraulic coupling
In this accident, the backstop should stop the conveyor. This did not happen, and the conveyor loaded started moving backwards, in a short while the hydraulic
coupling blew up.
At the beginning we did not agreed about the fundamental cause of this accident. From CVRD eyes, the main problem was a failure on the backlog manufacturing.
Another possibility, which was confirmed later on, was the backstop oil contamination from the reducer oil.
This problem was solved in partnership with the backstop supplier. It was established preventive
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maintenance plans to all backstops placed in every conveyor. Our procurement department was forbidden to acquire that brand of backstop. The reason for such a
radical decision is due to the following facts:
– This backstop contaminates very easily;
– It could lock again causing new problems;
– We found some better products in the market.
2.4 Reducers short life
A Brazilian reducers manufacture had just bought an international famous reducers brand. They became unbeatable in our local market with their products. The fact is
that this new international reducers brand put in the market an inferior product quality, which caused a very serious problems to our new primary crushing line at Caue
Mine. It is a great concern of ours to develop in Brazil local market some trustable reducers manufactures. Altogether, CVRD has installed and operating around 300
reducers, differing from each other in type and size, which makes around US$6 millions.
This problem was exhaustedly discussed with the supplier. This same supplier became suspended form CVRD supplier records for one year. This problem still has
no solution. We have been looking for supplier who can give the trustable equipments in a fair price.
2.5 Carrying idlers short life
The carrying idlers were sliding through the idler support structure. Doing this they were hitting against the support center point making little cracks and causing the total
breaking of the support.
Although the manufacturer idler did make a very carefully analysis on the idlers, nothing was found that could explain the idler to behave that way. However, that was
a fact, and then we negotiated eight month of extra warranty. Around 1,200 idlers were changed still under warranty with an improved sealing system. Many impact
and return idler also were changed under warranty.
The new 1,200 carrying idlers replaced by the damaged ones have a different design from the ones used by CVRD. We updated our idler drawings with this new
sealing system.
3 RESULTS
All the problems faced by CVRD technical team as far as this project is concerned brought us a great capacity in analyzing and avoiding problems in the coming
projects.
3.1 Project premise
Some premise adopted by the project company and agreed with CVRD were mistaken. Among them we found the three listed below to be the main ones:
1 The cleaner conveyors were designed to start only with the chute empty. Actually most of the time they are started with the chute full.
2 The iron ore grain size informed to design the conveyors system did not match the reality. This was the cause of many mistakes found on the fina design.
3 No one realized that the 54′′ conveyor used in these lines is not used in any other CVRD mine. This was very bad to our standardization program.
3.2 Project follow up
Taking into consideration the dimensions and the strategic importance of this project, we can say its project follow up by CVRD was extremely reduced. We fully
believe this was the main reason for most of the failure occurred during the erection period. The 54′′ in belt width nonstandard in CVRD, for example, is a good
example.
We can say the operational and maintenance area did no played its role during the project and the erection. This statement becomes very clear when we find that
most of the counterweight was under weighted. This was a unilateral decision from the engineering company.
The operation area had access to these new lines only after start up.
It is important that a hired project must have the properly follow up especially from operational area, not only by our internal project department. Just after that a
technical acceptance should be given to the hired company.
3.3 Warranty
Who should be responsible by the warranty in a turnkey project? What we have seen in when problems started arising up was a great number of suppliers together
with the erection company blaming each other for the fails and no one felling responsible for the whole system malfunctioning? Who would afford it now? The questions
brought up will be useful to avoid problems in the next project.
CVRD quitted manufacturing idlers once this was not its main activity. On the idlers supplying contracts we just started request its reliability for a certain number of
work hours. Doing this we could achieve an idler life three times greater than we in the past.
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4 CONCLUSIONS
– We can predict such a difficult time in brazilian market as far as reducers is concerned. It is necessary to move fast in order to find brazilians and foreigner reliable
manufacturers in order to catalog them as a supplier in our company. Reliability and suitable suppliers is a urgent need once the demand is increasing and our national
reducers market is presenting itself very limited.
– The work groups, working together with engineering, procurement and the operational area have the a great challenge, which is, to continue to bring a solution to the
existing problems and also lead us to a future where we can achieve the necessary reliability and also a low operational cost in our beneficiation plants.
REFERENCES
Montenergo, I. & Lellis M., 2002 Manuatenção industrial (Lettragráfica, Belo Horizonte).
Belt Conveyors for Bulk Materials (CEMA) second edition 1979.
Jundziak, L., The conveyor belt wear index and its application in belts replacement policy. Mine Planning and Equipment Selection 2000. A.A Balkema/roktterdam/
Brookfield/ 2000.
Manual de transportadores contínuos Allis Mineral Sysems. Fábricade aço paulista Ltda. 4a. edição 1991.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Application of data mining tools for scientific and economic data analysis
M.Macháčová
VŠBTU Ostrava, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT: The large volume and high dimensionality of databases leads to the breakdown of traditional analytical tools. The new generation of the
intelligent instruments based on artificial intelligence, statistical techniques, data warehousing technology, online analytical processing and next ones
could be the solution. Data mining as a part of KDD process is aimed at developing methodologies and tools to automate the data analysis process
and create useful information. The goal of data mining is very broad and can describe a multitude of fields of study related to data analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION
Over the last ten years it has become obvious that the quality of information from technological process is assumption for effective process control. It is proved, that it is
necessary to create a virtual environment which will be able to provide an elemental tools for identification and evaluation all factors, which affect technological process.
Modern automated control system produces large volumes of data, which contain valuable information about normal and abnormal conditions, about faults, about
changes in operational and control strategies. The volume of data is generally so large and data structure too complex, that it is not possible to use current analytic tools
to make analysis. The expansion of information technologies open the way for new interesting occasions for collecting saving and visualization of data in industrial
environment. Huge amount of data from different technological complexes in various form and structure necessitate creation specialized databases called data
warehouse able to save also historical data in various time granularity. Data handling in such largescale databases is very demanding process and a lot of specialized
techniques are required.
2 DATA WAREHOUSE AND DATA MART ARCHITECTURE
The idea of data warehouse is not understand jointly today. In fact, there are two different points of view for its architecture. The first one is introduced by philosophy
of R.Kimball and says, that data warehouse is united set of data marts. The second one view, made by W.H.Inmon, is characterized by only one large central data
store.
Departmental data mart is usually small multidimensional database which serves for fulfilling requests from specific group of users. Data marts can use various design
suitable for tools and technology for processing user question but all of their structures will be fed from the granular data found in the central data warehouse. Every
data mart has its own data history and its own time period of updating. Database schema is typically known as a star joins and contains fact tables and dimension. The
complex view through the data of each data mart is impossible and it is the main disadvantage of that architecture.
Central data warehouse is a subjectoriented, integrated, nonvolatile and timevariant collection of data and contains granular corporate data [Inmon 2002].
Integration is the most important of all the aspects. Data is fed from multiple disparate sources into the data warehouse. As the data is fed it is converted,
reformatted, resequenced, summarised and so forth. The result is that data has a single physical corporate image. Data is entered into data warehouse in such a way
that the many inconsistencies at the application level are undone.
The next important characteristic of a data warehouse it is nonvolatile. In the operational environment data is updated as a regular matter, but data warehouse data
exhibits a very different set of characteristics. When data in the data warehouse is
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loaded, usually en masse, it is loaded in a snapshot, static format. When subsequent changes occur, a new snapshot record is written. That means a history of data is
kept in data warehouse.
The last characteristic is that the data warehouse is time variant. Time variancy implies that every unit of data in the data warehouse is accurate as of some one
moment in time. In some cases a record is time stamped. In other cases a record has a date of transaction.
A time horizon is the parameter of time represented in an environment. The collective time horizon for the data found inside a data warehouse is significantly longer
than that of operational systems and the data warehouse contains much more history than any other environment.
Data warehouse attract huge amounts of data and provide an ideal foundation for many other forms of information processing. The main differences between data
warehouse and data mart is that the data warehouse contains a single version of the truth, data can be reconciled if it is necessary and data is immediately available for
new, unknown uses. Number of reading processes from operational environment goes down and service is more simple.
3 BUILDING THE DATA WAREHOUSE
Data warehouse cannot be designed by the same way as the classical requirementsdrivensystem. Building of new data warehouse is exacting, not only one time, but
non stop process. The requirements for the data warehouse cannot be known until it is partly populated and used. Data warehouse is constructed in a heuristic manner,
where one step of development depends entirely on the results attained in the previous step.
The design of the data warehouse begins with the data model. The data model applies to both the operational environment and the data warehouse environment as
shown in Figure 1. The model exists at three levels—high level, midlevel and low level.
The high level modelling is called the entity relationship level. The scope of integration defines
Figure 1. Relationship between different levels of modelling.
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the boundaries of the data model and needs to be defined before the modelling process. The corporate entity relationship diagram (ERD) is a composite of many
individual ERDs that reflect the different views of users. The entities found in the high level model relate to the major subject areas of the corporation.
After that the next level is established. For each major subject area or entity from high level a midlevel model is created.
The low level model relates to the physical database design of the data warehouse. The physical data model looks like a series of tables called relational tables. Each
table contains keys and attributes. The normal output produces numerous tables. At the lowest level of database design, slight denormalization can occur when the
entire organization looks at the data in the same way. Some techniques for denormalization of data include creating arrays of data, creating redundant data judiciously
and making creative indexes. The creative index does a profile on items of interest to the end user. A final technique that the data warehouse designer should keep in
mind is the management of referential integrity.
An important component of data warehouse is metadata. Metadata allows the end user to navigate through the possibilities. With the help of meta data the end user
can quickly go to the necessary data or determinate that it is not there. Metadata then acts like an index to the contents of the data warehouse.
4 DATA PREPROCESSING
The transformation that occurs as data moves from the operational environment to the data warehouse environment is complex. Data is cleansed, in some cases a
simple algorithm is applied to input data in order to make it correct. The artificial intelligence subroutines are involved to scrub input data into an acceptable output
form. There are many forms of data cleaning, including domain checking, crossrecord verification and simple formatting verification.
Operational input keys usually need to be restructured and converted. In simple cases an element of time is added to the output key structure. Nonkey data is
reformatted as it passes from the operational environment to the data warehouse environment. When there are multiple input files, key resolution must be done before
the files can be merged.
Data may be produced at different levels of summarization by the same data warehouse creation program. Multiple operational input records are combined into a
single “profile” data warehouse record. To do summarization, the detailed input records have to be properly sequenced.
The input records that must be read have various sometimes nonstandard formats. Data format conversion must be done and the logic of conversation must be
specified.
Renaming of data elements as they are moved from the operational environment to the data warehouse must be tracked and default values must be supplied.
The creation of a data warehouse record is triggered by an activity or event that has occurred in the operational environment. A profile record is a composite record
made up of many different historical activities.
The most important design issue facing the data warehouse is determining the level of granularity. Granularity affects how efficiently data can be shipped to the
different environments determines the types of analysis that can be done. The process of granularity design begins with a raw estimate of how large the data warehouse
will be on the one year and the five year horizon. After the raw data projection is made, the index data spare projection is calculated. For each key in the table or
element of data that will be searched directly, identify the length of the key or element of data and determine whether the key will exist for each entry in the primary
table. Now the high and low numbers for the occurrences of rows in the tables are multiplied.
5 THE KDD PROCESS
Knowledge discovery in databases (KDD) is aimed at developing methodologies and tools to automate the data analysis process and create useful information and
knowledge from data which is deposit in data warehouse. KDD makes use of various instruments as statistics, neural networks, artificial intelligence, machine learning,
genetic algorithms, data warehousing and pattern recognition. The goal of KDD is very broad and can describe a multitude of fields of study related to data analysis.
The KDD process is interactive and iterative, involving numerous steps with many decisions which are made by the user [Fayyad 1996]
• Developing and understanding of the application domain, the relevant prior knowledge and the goals of the enduser.
• Creating a target data set: selecting a data set, or focusing on a subset of variables or data samples, on which discovery is to be performed.
• Data cleaning and pre processing: basic operation such as the removal of noise or outliers if appropriate, collecting the necessary information to model or account for
noise, deciding on strategies for handling missing data fields, accounting for time sequence information and known changes.
• Data reduction and projection: finding useful features to represent the data depending on the
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Figure 2. Typically steps of KDD process.
goal of the task. Using dimensionality reduction or transformation methods to reduce the effective number of variables under consideration or to find invariant
representations for the data.
• Choosing the data mining task: deciding whether the goal of KDD process is logical, summarizing, classification, regression,prediction, clustering, etc.
• Choosing the data mining algorithm(s): selecting method(s) to be used for searching for patterns in the data. This includes deciding which models and parameters may
be appropriate (e.g. models for categorical data are different from models on vectors over the real domain) and matching a particular data mining method with the
overall criteria of KDD process.
• Data mining: searching for patterns of interest in a particular representational form or a set of such representations: classification, rules or trees, regression, clustering,
sequence modelling, and so on. The user can significantly aid the data mining method by correctly performing the preceding steps.
• Interpreting mined patterns, possible return to any steps 1–7 for further iteration.
• Consolidating discovered knowledge: incorporating this knowledge into the performance system, or simply documenting it and reporting it to interested parties. This
also includes checking for and resolving potential conflicts with previously believed (or extracted) knowledge.
As shown in Figure 2 it is a very complex process.
The KDD process usually contains loops between any two steps. The data mining component often involves repeated iterative application of particular data mining
methods.
6 DATAMININGS TECHNIQUES
Data mining methods and tools can be categorized in different ways. Any methods are traditional and established and others are relatively new. According to functions
and application purposes, data mining methods can be classified as clustering, classification, summarization, dependency modelling, regression, casebased learning and
so forth.
6.1 Clustering
Grouping multidimensional data into clusters according to similarity or dissimilarity measures is a goal of many applications. There is a number of observations, each of
which is described by a set of attributes. Clustering aims to devise a classification scheme for grouping the objects into a number of classes such that instances within a
class are similar, but distinct from those from other classes. The grouping often depends on calculating a similarity or distance measure. The method can be further
categorized according to requirement of end user. For example the Bayesian automatic classification can be used.
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6.2 Classification
Classification is learning a function that classifies a data item into one of several predefined classes. If the number and description of classes as well as the assignments
of individual data patterns are known, the task is to assign unknown data patterns to the established classes. The most widely currently used classification approach is
based on feedforward neural networks.
6.3 Summarization
Summarization involves a method for finding a compact description for a subset of data. A simple example would be tabulating the mean and standard deviations. More
sophisticated methods involve the derivation of summary rules, multivariate visualization techniques and functional relationship between variables. Summarization is often
applied to interactive exploratory data analysis.
6.4 Dependency modelling
Dependency modelling consists of finding a model which describes dependencies between variables. Dependency models exist at two levels: structural and quantitative.
The structural level of the model specifies which variables are locally dependent on each other. The quantitative level of the model specifies the strengths of the
dependencies using some numerical scale. For example, probabilistic dependency networks use conditional independence to specify the structural aspect of the model
and probabilities or correlations to specify the strengths of the dependencies.
6.5 Casebased learning
Casebased learning is based on acquiring knowledge represented by cases and it employs reasoning by analogy. This technique focuses on the indexing and retrieval
of relevant precedents. Usually the solution sequence is a parameterized frame or schema where the structure is more or less fixed. Casebased reasoning is particularly
useful for making use of data which has complex internal structures. Different from other data mining techniques, it does not require to have a huge amount of historical
data patterns.
7 DATA VISUALIZATION
The visualization system is an integral part of data warehouse which basic function is to give the results of analysis in comprehensible graphic form. Simple text reports
are coming to the background. Current development of graphical and multimedia environment allows direct communication user with the data warehouse by much
comfortable and userfriendly application. At the same time it is coming to multiply of usage and intelligibility of the saved data.
It is suitable for the visualization system to frame it from the top, that means as integrated control and information system. In that meaning each of problemoriented
application is realized independently, in accordance to the reason by implemented software instruments.
All design and function which are introduced from the viewpoint of control level needs is implemented through the tool especially developed with a view to integrate
information from heterogeneous source of data.
Very important role plays the architecture of visualization system, both vertical (for plantand operatorcentric manufacturing information) and horizontal (divided into
the independent logical subsystems). The main server is an infrastructure for simplifying the development, deployment, maintenance and administration of distributed
automation application.
8 CONCLUSION
These days the databases with hundreds of tables, millions of records and multigigabyte size are appeared. This type of database is called data warehouse and
contains a lot of high dimensional data sets. The data warehouse historian provides how data is acquired, stored and retrieved. Hierarchically structured attributes or
values, relations between attributes and more sophisticated means for representing knowledge about the contests of a database will require algorithms that can
effectively utilize such information.
REFERENCES
Fayyad M.U., PiatetskyShapiro G., Smyth P., Uthurusamy R.: Advances in Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, USA: AAAI Press, 199
Inmon W.H.: Building the Data Warehouse, USA, Wiley Computer Publishing 2002, ISBN 0–471–08130–2
Wang X.Z.: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery for Process Monitoring and Control, Great Britain, SpringerVerlag London Limited 1999.
Štefanik, J.: Datový sklad a vizualizace dat technologických procesů. In Informační technologie pro praxi. Ostrava: TANGER s.r.o.Ostrava, 1999, 7s.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Discreteevent simulation of a tunneling haulage system
T.N.Michalakopoulos, A.D.Kouvardas & G.N.Panagiotou
Mining Engineering Department, National Technical University of Athens, Greece
ABSTRACT: Tunneling projects have two essential characteristics: (i) their linear nature which establishes a relation of the required haul effort with
face advance, and (ii) the confined space which sets certain restrictions to truck traveling. In conjunction with the inherent stochastic nature of a
noncontinuous loadhaul system these characteristics make the analysis of the system an important factor for a successful tunneling project, in terms of
both cost and time constraints. In this paper a typical haulage system in a tunneling project is modeled and simulated using the GPSS/H simulation
language. Performance indices are analyzed which can be used to adjust the haulage system as the tunnel face advances.
1 INTRODUCTION
Materials handling is a key element in the tunneling process. In order to achieve the desired tunnel face advance rate an appropriate excavated material haulage system
has to be employed (Mathews 1996).
Typically, the excavated material haulage is part of the face advance cycle. If, for example, the excavation method used is drillandblast the face advance cycle
breaks down to the following unit operations: drilling, charging, blasting, ventilating, excavated material loading and haulage, scaling, rock mass rating and mapping,
surveying and temporary roof stabilization.
The duration of these unit operations is, generally, not related to the location of the face; i.e. it is not a function of the excavated tunnel length. This implies that when
modeling such an operation the same probability distribution can be used every time an estimate for the operations’ duration is needed, provided that there are no
dramatic changes in the geological conditions along the tunnel axis.
An exception to the above is the duration of the excavated material haulage. The equipment used to haul excavated material is classified as either noncontinuous (e.g.
rail cars, trucks) or continuous (e.g. belt conveyors). In the case of noncontinuous equipment the key for all production calculations is the determination of the cycle
time required to haul excavated material equal to the capacity of the equipment (Sweigard 1992).
If trucks are used to haul the excavated material from the face to an appropriate dump, the time required by each truck to complete a haul cycle is a function of both
its speed and the distance between the face and the dump. Given the linear nature of a tunnel and assuming that the duration of loading and dumping a truck is of
relatively low variability, the duration of the haul cycle will increase as the face advances and the travel distance increases. An immediate consequence is that the haul
rate of each truck decreases as the face advances.
If the number of trucks used to haul the excavated material remains the same during the tunneling project, the decrease of haul rate will lead to an increase of
excavated material haulage duration. This means that the duration of the face advance cycle will increase accordingly; in other words the face advance rate will
decrease.
An alternative is to add truck units to the fleet each time the haul rate drops below a preset value that ensures the desired face advance rate. Limitations to this policy
are set by the confined space in a tunnel and the capacity of the ventilation system.
In this paper a discreteevent stochastic simulation model of a tunneling haulage system consisting of a loader and a truck fleet is presented. It is used to establish the
relation of the excavated tunnel length and the number of trucks in the fleet with production indices of the system (loader utilization, average time in loader queue, and
system haul rate). This indices can be used to determine either the face advance rate that can be achieved for a given excavated tunnel length, or the location of the face
at which the addition of a truck unit to the fleet is justified.
Stochastic simulation models are widely used in the heavy construction and mining industry for analyzing complex systems under real life conditions.
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Discreteevent stochastic simulation models are more suitable for representing the dynamic and stochastic character of loadertruck systems.
A discreteevent simulation is one in which the state of the model, and consequently of the system being simulated, changes at only a discrete, but possibly random,
set of time points, known as event times (Law & Kelton 1991).
GPSS/H, a product of Wolverine Software Corp. (Henriksen & Crain 1989), has been used as the simulation modeling language.
2 MODELING A TUNNELING HAULAGE SYSTEM
2.1 System configuration and model assumptions
The configuration of the haulage system that has been modeled is shown in Figure 1.
It has been assumed that the tunnel section and truck dimensions allow truck traveling on two lanes, i.e. it is possible to have empty and loaded trucks travel to
opposite directions at the same time. Due to the confined tunnel space and safety reasons takeovers are not allowed; in other words the trucks cycle in the system in the
order they enter it.
The dump is located at a fixed distance from the tunnel portal. Only one truck can dump at a time (e.g. the dump can be a crusher used to produce aggregates from
the excavated material). Trucks can queue at the dump as well as at the loader.
At simulation start a specified number of trucks is generated and positioned at the dumpsite exit. The face is advanced (a fixed advance length per excavation cycle is
assumed) and the excavated material volume is computed. The trucks cycle in the system, and when all the excavated material has been hauled, then the face is
advanced again and a new excavation cycle starts. When all the tunnel length has been excavated the simulation terminates.
It is assumed that the drillandblast excavation method is used and a homogeneous truck fleet is deployed.
The only unit operation of the excavation cycle that is simulated is haulage. This means that after all
Figure 1. Tunneling haulage system configuration.
the excavated material of an excavation cycle has been hauled, a new hauling operation starts immediately, assuming that all the other unit operations of the excavation
cycle need zero time. The truck movement is continuous from simulation start to termination. Equipment breakdowns are not taken into account.
This approach has been chosen in order to minimize the influence of transient conditions that characterize the system when a haulage operation starts. If it is desired
to extend the scope of the model and simulate the excavation cycle as a whole in a more realistic manner, both the unit operations of the excavation cycle and
equipment breakdowns can easily be introduced into the model.
2.2 Model variables
2.2.1 Excavated material volume
The variables used to compute the excavated material volume per excavation (blast) cycle are:
–Face advance (m/blast cycle),
–Nominal tunnel section (m2),
–Overbreak (m2), and
–Swell factor (dimensionless and greater than unity).
Face advance and nominal tunnel section are treated as userdefined fixed value variables.
Overbreak and swell factor are treated as random variables, taking values by sampling from a userdefined distribution (in this model from a uniform distribution).
The excavated material volume per excavation cycle is the product of these variables; hence, it is a random variable as well.
2.2.2 Truckload
The load a truck hauls in a given cycle is the product of its nominal capacity (m3) and a dimensionless fill factor. The nominal capacity is treated as a userdefined fixed
value variable and the fill factor as a random variable, taking values by sampling from a userdefined distribution (in this model from a uniform distribution). This means
that truckload is also a random variable.
2.2.3 Load and dump time
Both load and dump time are treated as random variables, taking values by sampling from a userdefined distribution (in this model from a uniform distribution). Truck
manoeuvres at the loader and dump site are included in these times.
2.2.4 Truck travel time
Modeling the truck travel time was the most intriguing part of this simulation model. It is common practice when simulating loadertruck systems to treat the time needed
by a truck to travel on a given
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route as a random variable (actually, this is making discreteevent simulation suitable to model such systems). Usually this variable takes values either by directly
sampling from a distribution that has been determined through a time study or by calculating a deterministic travel time on the basis of truck specifications and route
characteristics and multiplying it with a random correction factor.
Both these approaches are based on the assumption that the main characteristic of the route, i.e. its length, remains constant during the simulation run. Furthermore,
takeovers, which can be tolerated in a surface operation, are prohibited in a tunnel due to the confined space and safety reasons. When sampling the travel time of a
truck, it is possible to get a value that corresponds to an exit time from the route that is earlier from the exit time of the leading truck in the route. In this case some
manipulation of the sampled travel times is necessary, in order to delay the following truck and keep the trucks in the right order, which is the order they entered the
route.
To deal with the first problem, the travel time is computed by using the definition of velocity. When a travel time has to be sampled, the truck speed is sampled
instead. Actually, the randomness of the truck travel time is a result of truck speed randomness, caused, for example, by different truck conditions, climatic conditions,
drivers’ attitudes etc. Knowing the distance that is to be traveled and the truck speed, the travel time can easily be computed.
In this model different userdefined uniform distributions of the truck speed for empty and loaded trucks are used. In general, truck speed distributions can be
defined in a similar fashion that travel time distributions are defined, provided that the travel distance for each time observation is recorded as well.
To deal with the second problem, a followtheleader approach has been used (Henriksen & Schriber 1986). The basis of this approach is to focus entirely on the
single truck that leads the other trucks in the route, in the sense of being the one closest to the route exit. In general, a truck has been traveling in the route for some time
before its turn comes to be the leading truck. When it becomes the leader, the remaining time needed for it to reach the exit has to be computed. An outline of the
approach is shown in Figure 2.
Each time a truck enters a route first its minimum travel time is computed as the ratio of travel distance to truck speed and then it joins a FIFO userchain.
Userchains are used in GPSS/H models to either speed up model execution or provide a structure to deal with userdefined queue disciplines. A transaction (in this
model a truck) is put onto a userchain with the LINK block and removed from it with the UNLINK block. There can never be more than one transaction in a model
segment defined by a LINKUNLINK pair (Schriber 1974). In this model the userchain is used to allow the trucks to exit a route only in the order they entered it,
since takeovers are not allowed.
Furthermore, it is the mechanism to concentrate on the timing of the leader with placing all the other trucks in the route into a data structure that is timeinvariant, i.e.
does not require updating over simulated time. The data structure is updated only when new trucks enter the route and when the leading truck exits the route. The
problem of identifying and dealing with delays of all the trucks in the route is reduced to the problem of identifying a delay when a truck becomes the leader (Henriksen
& Schriber 1986).
When a truck becomes the leader, there are two distinct cases:
1 It has experienced no delay and is expected to exit the route after the minimum travel time has elapsed from the moment it entered the route, or
Figure 2. Outline of followtheleader approach.
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Figure 3. Simulation clock advance mechanism. No delay case.
Figure 4. Simulation clock advance mechanism. Delay case.
2 It experienced a delay because the previously leading truck was slower and when it reached this truck it wasn’t allowed to takeover. In this case it had to maintain a
preset safety distance.
The simulation clock advance mechanism for the former case is shown in Figure 3. Truck 1 enters the route at time point a. When truck 2 enters the route at time point
b a minimum travel time is computed (corresponding to exit from the route at time point d) and is put onto the userchain. At time point c truck 1 exits from the route
after cb time has elapsed from the moment truck 2 entered the route. At this moment truck 2 becomes the leader and the simulation clock is advanced dc.
The simulation clock advance mechanism for the latter case is shown in Figure 4. Truck 1 enters the route at time point A. When truck 2 enters the time point B it is
put onto the userchain and a minimum travel time is computed, corresponding to exit from the route at time point C. When truck 1 exits from the route at time point D,
truck 2 is removed from the userchain, but it becomes the leader after time. This means that it has been delayed by truck 1, time point C that corresponds to its
minimum travel which obviously was slower. At this moment the simulation clock is advanced ED, which corresponds to a userdefined time provision for maintaining
the safety distance.
3 SIMULATION RUNS
The simulation model has been executed for truck fleets consisting from 2 to 10 trucks. For each truck fleet 8 pairs of antithetic simulation replications have been
executed, in order to reduce the sample variance of the random variables (Schriber 1991). The input data used can be seen in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Fixedvalue variables input data.
Table 2. Random variables input data.
For all the random variables uniform distributions are used for simplicity of the model. The uniform distribution can easily be replaced, if specific data are available for
these variables.
During the simulation runs, each time a truck dumps its load, data regarding its performance are collected and saved in a file. Analysis of this data provides the
required production indices.
4 SIMULATION OUTPUT
The simulation output variables of interest are:
–System haul rate,
– Average time in loader queue,
– Loader utilization, and
– Number of trucks in the tunnel.
For a given truck fleet, haul rate defines the time needed to haul all the excavated material volume, which in turn defines the duration of the excavation cycle and
consequently the tunnel face advance rate. Average time in loader queue and loader utilization are indices of the loadertruck fleet match. The number of trucks in the
tunnel can be used to determine the ventilation requirements.
The graphs of the first three output variables as functions of the excavated tunnel length can be seen in Figures 5–7. For a given desired system haul rate, Figure 5
can be used to determine the face location where a truck should be added to the fleet.
The underlying basis for the graphs shape in Figures 5 and 7 is the decrease of the haul rate achieved by the truck units as the face advances,
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Figure 5. System haul rate vs. excavated tunnel length graph for various truck fleet configurations (2–10 trucks).
Figure 6. Average time in loader queue vs. excavated tunnel length graph for various truck fleet configurations (2–10 trucks).
Figure 7. Loader utilization vs. excavated tunnel length graph for various truck fleet configurations (2–10 trucks).
which alters the matching characteristics of the loader with the truck fleet. When the excavated tunnel length is relatively short, the truck fleet haul rate is greater than the
loader rate. This results in that the loader has no idle time, its utilization is at maximum (100%), and the system haul rate is limited by the loaders’ capacity, which means
that it is equal to the rate of loading.
For the same reason, the average time in the loader queue experienced by the trucks is decreasing as the face advances. The relatively long waiting times in Figure 6
should be attributed to the uniform distributions used to model truck travel speed, and loading and dumping duration. In general, the uniform distribution is characterized
by high variability that leads to an overestimation of truck bunching at the loader.
5 CONCLUSIONS
A discreteevent simulation model of a tunneling haulage system has been presented in this paper. Ways to deal with the linear nature of tunnels and restrictions that
apply to truck traveling have been emphasized. System haul rate, average time in loader queue, loader utilization, and number of trucks in the tunnel are the output
variables of the model. These variables can be used to design the haulage system in compliance with equipment and ventilation capacity and desired performance.
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REFERENCES
Henriksen, J.O. & Crain, R.C. 1989. GPSS/H reference manual, 3rd ed. Annandale: Wolverine Software Corp.
Henriksen, J.O. & Schriber, T.J. 1986. Simplified approaches to modeling accumulating and nonaccumulating conveyor systems . In J.Wilson et al. (eds), Proceedings of
the 1986 Winter Simulation Conference, Washington, DC: 575–593. New York: ACM Press.
Law, A.M. & Kelton, W.D. 1991. Simulation modeling and analysis, 2nd ed. New York: McGrawHill.
Mathews, A.A. 1996. Materials handling and construction plant. In J.O.Bickel et al. (eds), Tunnel engineering handbook, 2nd ed.: 231–267. New York: Chapman &
Hall.
Schriber, T.J. 1974. Simulation using GPSS. New York: Wiley.
Schriber, T.J. 1991. An introduction to simulation using GPSS/H. New York: Wiley.
Sweigard, R.J. 1992. Materials handling: loading and haulage In H.L.Hartman (ed), SME mining engineering handbook : 761–782. Littletion: SME.
Page 579
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Computeraided simulation of loading and transport in medium and small scale
surface mines
C.NiemannDelius
Department of Mining Engineering III of RWTH, Aachen, Germany
B.Fedurek
Faculty of Mining Engineering of Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: In the early nineties the Department of Mining Engineering III of RWTH Aachen University developed simulation software. System
Optimierung im Festgehsteinstagebau (SOFTv1.0) was developed for application in small to medium scale mines featuring optimisation of loading and
transporting equipment, location of primary crusher and mine modelling. After many improvements it was decided to develop a newer version of the
software.
This paper gives an overview of the software with special attention to the new features incorporated into the latest version of SOFTv2.0. First the
paper presents the main features and application of the software, explaining the equipment database and input data. The second part of the paper
focuses on the optimisation of the loading and hauling stages of the mining operation taking into consideration technical and economic based
performance.
1 INTRODUCTION
The subject of rock exploitation involves a number of highly technically and economically sensitive issues among which loading and transportation play a vital role. The
methods and equipment used for extraction depend mainly on the type of deposit and rock being moved. In hard rock quarrying, the loading of blasted rock is carried
out by hydraulic excavators and wheel loaders. Further, in most cases, the transportation of material is done by heavy mining trucks. The production of desired quality
rock material at the required rate and with minimal cost depends on the selection of the most suitable equipment to match the conditions. The process of equipment
selection stays in close relation with the mine planning and scheduling, since conditions to be matched change during the life of a quarry. Nowadays, in order to make
the equipment selection process easier and faster, computer software for mine planning and scheduling is becoming more and more popular. In the early nineties, a
computer application called SOFTv1.0 was developed at the Department of Surface Mining and Drilling of RWTH Aachen University, Germany. This software
together with two other modules were combined in a computerassisted system to design open pit mines and waste dumps, to optimize the loading and transportation,
as well as to position the primary crusher. After many improvements it was decided to develop the new version of the software—SOFTv2.0. The intension was to
make the software more user friendly, allow constant control over computations and thus the confidence regarding the results.
2 OVERVIEW OF THE SOFTWARE
2.1 Main features and applications
The software offers offthejob analysis as it is often necessary to estimate production and costs before any onthejob studies can take place. Both technical and
economical analyses are supported to find the optimum performance of one machine or the entire system. It serves as an analysis tool for small and middle scale hard
rock surface mines. For larger operations more complex simulation models, involving for example theory of the queue, would have to be employed.
SOFTv2.0 supports equipment selection by calculating the optimum loader bucket size in accordance with the truck capacity and the number of passes needed to
load the truck. It deals with equipment types and their configurations such as: hydraulic
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excavators, wheel loaders, trucks, conveyor belts and the mobility of the crusher. It offers a library of presently manufactured equipment stored in cooperating
database. Available options include productivity estimations for a single piece of equipment or whole equipment fleets.
Moreover SOFTv2.0 can determine costs of loading and haulage. It helps to quantify the technical and economical effect of over and under capacities. Quick and
precise evaluation of different design alternatives makes the selection and updating of the system easier. For instance the question whether or not to apply inpit
crushing, traditional truck haulage or maybe load and carry mode can be answered. In addition the software enables complex haulage analyses including detailed
analysis of haulage routes. Data imported from others mining packages can be of use. By the detailed evaluation of route segments, including properties of it,
SOFTv2.0 can determinate the optimal route. A similar option is offered in the case of conveyor transport. SOFTv2.0 as well helps with matching existing equipment
from the compatibility point of view. It can be utilized if for instance the designed production increases, haulage routes become longer or other conditions change and
additional equipment must be applied. Results of the computations are displayed either in tabular or graphical form.
SOFTv2.0 has been developed in the Delphi language to work in a standard Windows environment. In order to utilise all features of the application MS Access
installation should be available but is not mandatory.
2.2 Equipment database
SOFTv2.0 is equipped with a database containing datasheets of currently manufactured equipment. As a result the features of the equipment to be analysed can be
either selected from that store or manually entered. Each time values are imported, the user is informed and can either confirm their validity and proceed or modify
them. To simply accept the stored values is a time saving tool, especially when a large amount of data is required for computations and/or comparison of different
design scenarios is intended.
The database has been developed in MS Access. This enables data flow between the application and database. For this function ODBT (Open Data Base
Connectivity) is employed. The database can be maintained, modified and extended by the user. In general, stored data are divided into data utilized for technical and
data for economical analysis. The technical data contain bucket sizes, installed engine capacities, weights of machinery etc. The economical data contain values used for
cost calculation purposes such as acquisition prices for equipment or spare parts as tyres. Besides the data concerning currently manufactured equipment, the database
stores certain standard equipment based on the particular equipment size classes, which as well can be redefine accordingly.
2.3 Input data
The first version of the software was characterized by a large amount of input data to be fed into computations beforehand. The importance of most required input
figures was not clear at first sight and the influence on the final result could not be observed. Consequently, the user who was to input requested values could easily get
confused. On the other hand, factors of significant influence were fixed and hidden as the efficiency factor or bucket fill factor. Therefore, it was decided to
considerably reduce the number of input values to those that are directly influencing productivity and profitability
Presently, the amount of required data are divided into three major groups. The first group is characterized by production like required annual production and annual
operating hours. By those the required hourly production of the mine can be determined. Consequently, the required hourly productivity of equipment in order to ensure
the target production is also known. The second group refers to properties of the rock being moved: loose material density, degree of fragmentation after blasting and
level of abrasiveness. Material density is an important factor when it comes to productivity calculations. Fragmentation influences the value of the bucket fill factor, and
affects the cycle time of the loaders. Degree of abrasiveness supports the determination of the working conditions which affects mostly the operating costs.
The third and last group applies to the specific resource costs like labour, fuel, energy and interest rate. Costs of resources are required in order to estimate
operating and specific costs.
3 OPTIMIZATION OF LOADING
Loading includes all means and work necessary to supply a haulage system or a crusher. These include both hydraulic excavators e.g. shovels and backholes and wheel
loaders. Proper dimensioning leads to equipment combination with the lowest possible cost per tone. SOFTv2.0 supports the searching process considerably. Both
capacities and adequate costs are computed with a transparent control over influencing factors.
3.1 Technical performance
The program enables evaluation for two basic situations. Loading equipment can be introduced
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“given” or “to be selected” to assess its suitability for defined conditions and requirements.
In addition it can be analysed individually or in combination with transport equipment.
In the later case, once the loading equipment is recommended by the software and selected by the user, the compatible truck sizes are computed and presented.
Vice versa, if the truck size is already known, the software recommends compatible bucket sizes. For matching production requirements are taken into consideration,
as well as the optimum size ratio between paired machines .
Figures presented include:
– mine “production target”
– required hourly production,
– proposed and utilized bucket capacity,
– machine cycle time,
– theoretical and real loading capacity,
– required (integer) number of loading units to reach “production target”.
Since the number of units used always is a integer value, there are different ways adopted to deal with over or undercapacity. The software also calculates the
“possible production” in case the required integer number of excavators to achieve at least the “production target” are used and in addition gives the number of surplus
hours due to overcapacity. In case an evaluated machine/number of machines only just fail/s the “production target”, the software calculates and displays the extra hours
required to reach this target. To make the consequences more obvious the “optional annual production” for this configuration is shown also.
Productivity of loading equipment depends mainly on the average bucket payload, features of the handled material, working efficiency and the machine’s cycle time.
Their relationship is utilized by the software’s algorithm.
The bucket payload is determined first, on the basis of a defined or chosen bucket capacity, the loose material density and the bucket fill factor.
The bucket fill factor is determined automatically due to an earlier defined efficiency of blasting. When it comes to bucket selection, the largest capacity bucket
applicable for heavy duty rock operation and fitting into a particular equipment class is being chosen by SOFTv2.0.
As far as cycle times are concerned, SOFTv2.0 determines the machine’s cycle time considering the size of the machine and the properties of the material being
moved. When excavators are used for loading, the software distinguishes between backholes and shovels. It is worth to emphasize that every time factors influencing
productivity such as the bucket fill factor, cycle or efficiency factors are computed a notification is displayed with the option to adjust the proposed value.
Furthermore, if loading onto trucks is assumed, the number of loading passes is being defined. Here, the optimum number of passes are assumed to be between
three to eight.
Finally in order to find the most appropriate answer to the equipment selection, all three solutions are displayed by SOFTv2.0, both for loading and transporting: the
required number of machines for the “target production”, the “possible production” and the “optional production”. “Target production” gives the equipment
configuration needed to meet the production requirements with allowance for overcapacity. “Possible production” represents the same configuration as for the target
production, however, assuming utilization of full capacity. “Optional production” result in a lower number of units just failing the requirement, however, with full capacity
utilization of the equipment. Moreover extra hours remaining due to overcapacities and extra hours required in the case of under capacities are being estimated. To give
the full picture of each design alternative, economic consequences are analyzed.
3.2 Economical performance
Cost accounting must be regarded as an important element in decision making processes. The direct costing method was selected to be applied in SOFTv2.0, which
means that costs are split into fixed and variable. This procedure is in line with the normal cost accounting method used in the mining industry. Fixed costs are those
which are incurred to make a machine or system ready for operation. These are expressed by allowing for depreciation and the capital cost of money. SOFTv2.0 uses
the straight line method of depreciation over a fixed period of time for writing off capital costs. Variable costs are only incurred during the use of the machine and are
proportional to the period of use. These are for example: fuel and labour. The capital costs are computed as the sum of the allowance for depreciation and interest
costs. For this purpose SOFTv2.0 requires only two variables from the user. These are the value of the investment outlay, which can be either introduced manually or,
in many cases, imported from the equipment library and the value of interest rate. The next important value the useful service life is derived and proposed by the
software on the basis of equipment size and job conditions. Moreover, SOFTv2.0 introduces the option to include a residual value at replacement into the cost
accounting. SOFTv2.0 determines and proposes the residual value chiefly on the basis of equipment type and size.
The operating portion of the costs consists of elements which are quite difficult to be estimated
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accurately without an onthejob analysis. However, SOFTv2.0 strives to compute them precisely. Only cost of labour and installed engine capacity—which in many
cases can be imported from the database—are required as input values. As the meaning of the first one is obvious, the second is utilized to estimate the average hourly
fuel consumption, which depends mainly on the job being performed. Again, the control over computed values is available in order to match with user experience. Both
ownership and operating costs are derived on an hourly basis.
Finally, the software determines the value of unit cost per tone. It should be noted that special attention is paid to the issue of over and under capacities as in the
capacity calculation. On one hand, it is obvious that a machine with a certain level of overcapacity is available for work for the entire assumed annual operating time. On
the other hand even when the machine is not utilized it is losing value anyhow. So total annual ownership costs are calculated on basis of annual operating hours, but
distributed to actual operating hours only. For calculating the operating costs actual operating hours are taken into account.
4 OPTIMIZATION OF HAULAGE
An average of 60% of the capital and operating costs in an open pit solid rock mine operation are accrued by transportation. That is why the optimisation of
transportation should be given special attention. SOFTv2.0 offers complex technical and economical analyses for truck haulage and belt conveying.
4.1 Technical performance
Option for technical and economical performance analyses are similar to the case of the loading equipment, having two main possibilities. The transport tool can be
calculated either individually or in combination, and be entered into the optimisation as “given” or “to be selected”. In the case of truck haulage the transport equipment
analysis consists of the cycle time estimation, determination of productivity, and derivation in the number of required units.
SOFTv2.0 determines the cycle time of a truck traditionally by estimating fixed and variable times. Values of the fixed time, consist of truck loading and unloading
time, and truck manoeuvring time in loading and unloading points which are estimated and submitted for the user’s consideration. Next, variable times such as hauling
and return times are being computed. In order to determine the haulage and return times the truck’s velocity at each particular stage must be estimated. Maximum
velocity, is determined first, and must then be adopted and corrected to an average value for the particular road segment in question. Determination of the average
speed on the based on the maximum speed depends on factors such as haulage distance, load or empty travel, velocity at which the truck enters the road segment,
velocity with which the truck leaves the road segment, influence of the road’s grade on the acceleration, and power reserves on the graded segments. The algorithm of
SOFTv2.0 takes all these into account.
The calculations are being carried out on the basis of traction rules. Roads are split up different segments as presented in Figure 1. Each segment is characterised by
a certain name, length, grade and rolling resistance. A special manager was developed for administrating the route’s segments, offering default values for the rolling
resistances. The option to import routes from mine planning software is particularly useful, when the influence of changing haulage distances is to be assessed. The
former version offered the possibility of importing haulage routes only from its own CAD based module. However, due to the fact that nowadays mine planning
software is utilized broadly a general import option was established. For testing SURPAC™ was selected. Here the string representing a transport road is used for
import. An example of the digitized string used for transportation route analysis is shown in Figure 2.
A String consists of a certain number of single segments, which ensures a relatively high precision for calculations. Due to this, most important features such as
distances and gradients can be easily
Figure 1. Example of a transport route representation utilized in SOFTv2.0.
Figure 2. Example of digitised string used for a transport route analysis.
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transferred to the computational process. A digitised string has properties expressed in the form of coordinates which are assigned by SURPAC™. These coordinates
are saved as a data file and are being converted into adequate distances and gradients. The information about whether the truck is travelling loaded or empty may be
obtained from the string file as well. For this reason the string digitalisation must be started at the loading point. The software assumes that from the loading point to the
dump site, the truck is travelling loaded and consequently coming back empty. There are only two features that can not be obtained from the string properties. These
are: the rolling resistance and information about turning.
Currently SOFTv2.0 is adapted to cooperate with SURPAC™ but in the same way it could work with any other mining package.
Due to the applied methodology many interesting figures characterizing the haulage can be obtained. These include: length of the haul distance, truck travel time, total
cycle time or estimated productivity. As far as the number of required trucks is concerned, the same approach as in the case of the loading equipment has been
introduced. The software offers the possibility of fleet size optimisation by including over and under capacity options.
A similar algorithm for the haulage analysis is also utilized in cases, when a wheel loader performs the transportation work in a load and carry application.
Inpit crusher and belt conveyor have become an alternative to the conventional truck haulage system, especially for mines with large dimensions. Hence, modules
for belt conveyors and crushing plants were also integrated into the SOFTv2.0 application. Belt conveying routes are also represented in the form of segments for
which a special manager is available. Each segment is characterized by: belt length, difference in elevation, max feed size and type of belt. On the basis of inputs and
algorithm theoretical and real capacities, required belt width, belt velocity and required drive capacity are calculated.
4.2 Economical performance
To measure the economical performance of haulage again direct costing is used as for the loading equipment.
As a result of the economical performance analysis values are displayed such as: ownership and operating portions of cost, predicted useful service life, value at
replacement, fuel consumption and tire cost in case of truck haulage and finally unit cost.
At the end the software presents a wide range of design scenarios regarding different equipment combinations that match the defined production conditions. Each
scenario is accessed from a technical and economical point of view.
5 FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS
SOFTv2.0 now gives an overview of possible design solutions. There is no longer a single result produced, but rather a whole set of scenarios. SOFTv2.0 strives to
quantify the economic effect of over and under capacities. Therefore it distinguishes three production ranges that can be achieved with each particular equipment type.
Moreover SOFTv2.0 analysis the consequences of applying the different equipment classes. This leads to numerous output data which are submitted for user
consideration. For this reason, besides tabular presentation, visualisation of results has been developed. Two of the most important selection criteria are possible to
visualise: achievable productivities and unit cost of each particular design scenario. Moreover an option to save those outputs in the form of a text file is available.
6 EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION
In order to present the potential application of the software a hard rock mine being planned with the production range of 1.5 Mt and 3500 operating hours per year
were assumed. Traditional shovel and truck operation has been preliminary proposed. Input data, characterizing operating time, cost of resources and material
properties has been entered into the SOFTv2.0.
Software starts with analysis of particular excavator classes in terms of defined conditions. On the basis of relevant production and cost related parameters, which
are computed and presented for each class, excavator with bucket capacity of 4.6 m3 turns out to be the most profitable. In the next step equipment match process
takes place. SOFTv2.0 analysis the whole range of truck sizes to match the most compatible equipment combination. Three trucks with the payload of 27 tonnes are
matched to cooperate with the earlier selected excavator. In one side three 23 t trucks can deliver the targeted production. The 27 t trucks are selected here, because
they show lower unit costs and provide a production reserve of some 10%. The analysis of the equipment is shown in Tables 1, 2 & 3.
Table 1. Input data.
Data Value
Labour cost 8 €/h
Diesel cost 0.5 €/l
Interest rate 8%
Type of the material hard rock, regularly blasted
Haulage distance 1300 m
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Table 2. Excavator classes analysis.
Table 3. Compatible trucks analysis.
7 CONCLUSIONS
As far as equipment selection and matching is concerned, the decision making process should be given special attention. The proper optimization using balanced cost
and performance may lead to significant cost savings. SOFTv2.0 offers a wide range of options to assist the job of a mine planning engineer, when loading and
transportation systems for open cast surface operations are being assessed. The software endeavors to ensure confidence of the user by making the algorithm
transparent, giving a constant control over input values and the process of computations. The algorithm was designed in a way that none of the importantinfluencing
factors are used without prior notification, so that the user’s own experience may be of use. The integrated database offers the broad selection of manufactured mining
equipment.
The option to import data from mine planning software enables a precise assessment of the influence of changing mine layouts. SOFTv2.0 is meant to support all
possible loading and transport solutions in small scale open pit mining. A wide range of equipment configurations can be analysed. Each loading or transport unit can be
calculated individually or in combination The units can be introduced into the process as “given” or “to be selected”.
Results are not based on a single mathematically based optimal solution, but display a number of solutions meeting the required conditions within a defined range.
Available visualisation of results makes the overview of alternative solutions transparent. A decision of the equipment combination can be based on technical and/or
economical performance. Moreover, the decision making process stays interactive with the user’s experience.
REFERENCES
Caterpillar Performance Handbook Edition33 Publication by Caterpillar Inc. USA (2002)
European Mining Course 2003—Lecture Notes, Department of Mining Engineering III of RWTH Aachen (2003)
Schmitz & Stoll & Platzek, “Optimierung von Transportsystemen”, Institut für Bergbaukunde III der RWTH Aachen (1990)
Page 585
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Fuzzy model for truck allocation in surface mines
K.Oraee & B.Asi
University of Tarbiat Modarres, Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the model introduced in a previous work has been adopted as the basis. Several modifications have been applied to this,
in order to produce a new model with enhanced applicabillity.
It is then argued that, in practice, the daily output expected from a mechanical shovel is subject to variations caused by technical, operational and
environmental factors. A model that uses fuzzy numbers for this important parameter would therefore optimize the process more realistically than those
that are based on random numbers derived from probability distributions. Fuzzy logics have therefore been introduced into the model. The model was
finally tested in Sarcheshmeh copper mine of Iran. It is concluded that, with an improved truck allocation system, prescribed by the model, the total
output of the mine will increase by 15%. The ore received by the processing plant would also have grade values that have lower deviations from the
ideal grade value.
1 INTRODUCTION
From the middle 1980s optimization of truck allocation has been considered as a significant issue for increasing productivity and reducing operating costs of loading and
haulage system in open pit mines. There are several models for truck allocation. Use of these models in the mines results an increase in production of about 5 to 12
percent [1]. These systems are usually based on mathematical programming models, which are used to determine a shortterm mining plan for achieving production and
quality targets set by management.
2 MODELS OBJECTIVES
The most important factor in every mining operation is profitability. Productivity of mining component is an important Determinate of profitability. Profitability can be
increased by optimization of equipment in used. Therefore the first goal in this model is to maximizing productivity and hence increased production, which in turn will
result in cost reduction.
In metalliferous mine the ore grade dispatch to the crusher is important and therefore in this paper it will constitute the second target.
3 MODEL CONCEPTS
The goal of this research is to optimize several factors simultaneously. Goal programming is able to analyze such situation where numeric goal are in contrast with each
other. In this case, allocation of equipment is carried out in such a way that production volume increases to its highest level while maintaining the idle grade of ore
required by the processing plant.
Goal programming is one of the many models that have been developed to deal with multiple objectives decisionmaking problems. The basic approach of goal
programming is to establish a specific numeric goal for each of the objectives, formulate an objective function for each goal, and then seek a solution that minimizes the
weighted sum of deviations of these objective functions from their respective goals [2].
Different algorithms exist for solving a goal programming model. In this paper Desirability Function approach is used, where, the degree of importance in each goal is
recognized by attaching coefficient determined by AHP1 approach or experience of expert people.
Dimensions of different goals may not be the same. This will make mathematical operation impossible. The objective function in this model must therefore have goals
in it, that is characterize by common dimension or be without dimension. In this paper attempt are made to make goals dimensionless.
4 FUZZY UNCERTAINTY
When data used in the model are accurate the results produce are similar to real situations. In certain
1
Analytic Hierarchy Process.
Page 586
circumstances where accurate data are not available, Fuzzy models and probabilistic models are appropriate tools for programming. Probabilistic models in stochastic
situations and Fuzzy models when uncertain data are used. Micholapoulos & Panagiotou [3] present a probabilistic model for truck allocation. They related the shovel
output to a stochastic parameter and also used probabilistic distribution function for prediction of the values.
In this paper, Fuzzy models are used for optimizing haulage system in open pit mines. For maximization of production, the haulage capacity demands from shovels
must be satisfied since the shovel output is the primary determinant of the production system. In most situations, several adverse condition such as weather, presents of
water in the working faces etc. may limit the possibility of determining the objective function and constraints.
Fuzzy sets are used to insert shovel production values in the model and hence make it closer to reality. In this research, goal programming is combined with fuzzy
constraint technics in such a way that fuzzy constraints are converted to accurate constraints. In fuzzy approach, whenever the parameters are less accurate variation
range is more spread and decisionmaking become more complicated and risky. Therefore this kind of model is named fuzzy goal programming model.
Problems whose decision making parameters are not exact can be solved by fuzzy programming. Since the 1980 decades, fuzzy logic has been applied increasingly
in the field of the operations research, management science and expert systems. There are several approaches for solving fuzzy programming problems. Lai et al. [4]
suggested an approach for solving linear programming problem with sources as nonexact constraints which data are assumed as triangular fuzzy numbers. One of the
disadvantages of this approach is that for each fuzzy number, there is only one exact answer.
In this paper, an alternative method based on αcuts of constraints is present to the possibilistic linear programming problems. To do so, after determining the αcuts,
the resulted intervals are substituted by bounded variables. Then, a nonlinear programming problem is converted to a linear programming problem.
5 FUZZY GOAL PROGRAMMING MODEL FOR OPTIMIZING HAULAGE SYSTEM IN OPEN PIT MINES
Modeling is the process of simulation of real world problem to quantitative models. Whilst solving the model is none a complicated procedure, the most important depth
is making the appropriate model. A quantitative model is a structure that connects the inputs (controllable and uncontrollable variables, constraints and parameters) to
the outputs (criteria values that are defined by goal function).
5.1 Variables and parameters of model
Sets, decision variables, technical parameters, fuzzy parameters, complementary parameters, auxiliaryparameters are introduced.
Sets:
i sources(shovels)
j destinations(dumps/crushers)
k ore quality
h truck type
Decision variables:
X ijh
feed quantity to assign from source i to destinationy j per shift by truck h
Technical variables:
ns number of shovels
nos number of ore shovels
nxs number of oxide shovels
nls number of low grade ore shovels
nd number of destinations
nc number of crushers
nxd number of oxide dumps
nld number of low grade ore dumps
nq types of ore quality
nh number of truck types
M i
maximum output from shovel / per hour
Cj maximum available capacity of dump/ crusher j p er h
Rl prescribed lower limit of stripping ratio
Ru prescribed upper limit of stripping ratio
Htijh average travel time of shovel i to destination j by truck h
Djh average dumping time at destination i by truck h
SDjh average spotting time at destination i by truck h
Rjih average traveling time from crusher/dump j to shovel i by truck h
S ih average loading time at source i by truck h
SSih average spotting time at source i by truck h
Nh number of truck h
Th weighted average payload of a truck h
Gik value of ore quality k at source i
Qkj target value of ore quality k at crusher j
Lkj prescribed lower limit of ore quality k at crusher j
Ukj prescribed upper limit of ore quality k at crusher j
Wt hours per shift
pessimistic output from shovel i per hour
normal output of shovel i per hour
timistic o utput of shovel i per hour
Fore least required ore production per hour
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Fwaste least required waste production per hour
Fuzzy Parameter:
Oi out put of shovel i per hour
Complementary Parameters:
W priority factor for production goal
1
W priority factor for quality goal
2
α confidence level specified by the decision maker
Auxiliary Parameters:
positive deviational variable for output of shovel i
negative deviational variable for output of shovel i
positive deviational variable of ore quality k at crusher i
negative deviational variable of ore quality k at crusher j
y empty truck capacity to assign from destination j to source i by truck h
jih
For the above variables the following nonnegative constraint holds.
5.2 Fuzzy production maximization goal
The first goal of model is to maximize the systems production. Production maximizing has a direct relation with the shovels production. Since the shovel’s production is
related to some factors such as rock type, exploration quality, existence of water in working faces and weather conditions, therefore it is not possible to count on this
factor as a crisp parameter in the model.
Therefore the parameters related to the shovel productivity average are assumed as triangular fuzzy numbers. The head angle of triangular fuzzy number shows the
state that the parameter value is completely crisp. In other word, it has a number 1 membership in the set. Reduction of the membership degree means that by the
increases of the uncertainty of the parameters value, in a linear way. The value on the right corner of the triangle is the optimistic limit of these parameters when the
membership degree is zero and where the uncertainty is high. In such cases the variation range of shovels’ production is the vastest possible range. In this situation
mentioned model is converted to fuzzy model.
In this paper, αcut [5] utility is used to make the model defuzzy. This approach has the ability to calculate the goal function with different membership degree rate in
the method that is based on the membership degree rate of parameters to a fuzzy set (uncertainty of the decision maker). The fuzzy goal can be calculated to exact
variable range. Bounded goal of shovel’ s producti on is defi ne d as l oade rate from each shovel to different sources with different trucks, which is less than the
production average of that shovel. This constraint is shown in equation (1).
A fuzzy linear constraint can be stated as follows:
(1)
Since the shovel production average is a fuzzy number, then triangular fuzzy parameters of shovel’s production is shown in equation (2) as follows:
(2)
where, Õi may be uncertain values with fuzzy distribution.
Equation (1) is converted to equation (3) by substituting fuzzy numbers of the shovel production.
(3)
αcuts concept is used to crisp the constraints. With regards to uncertainty rate from shovel production rate in every shift, it is possible to draw different αcuts. For
each cut, the upper and lower limit of the variation ranges are distinguished. The parameter related to each shovel production is shown in figure 1 with the concept of α
cut in the form of fuzzy number.
Equation (3) is converted to equation (4) by substituting alternatives rate.
(4)
i=1,2,…, ns
Then Wi is defined as a variable in following interval [0−, 0+].
Note that these coefficients are stated as intervals. This implies that equation (4) involves treating a nonlinear problem and hence, cannot be treated by standard
methods without further transformation.Equation (5) can be made linear as follows:
(5)
i=1,2,..., ns
Figure 1. Shovel production parameter in the form of triangular fuzzy number with αcuts.
Page 588
This is equivalent to a parametric programming, when is a parameter. With the use of parametric programming the fuzzy model in equation (1) is converted
to a crisp linear parametric programming problem. It is noted that for each value of a, we have an optimal solution. Therefore the solution with a grade membership is
actually fuzzy. We can now provide the decision maker with a solution table bearing different values for a in the range 0–1.
By substituting the new variable, Wi, equation (4) can be written as:
(6)
Both negative and positive components of the deviation values from the goal are used in constraint (7). This is because it is desirable to allocate haulage capacity on
required basis in order to avoid both shovels idle periods or truck waiting times. Constraint (7) describes the production maximization goal, and demonstrates the
stochastic nature of the truck/shovel system operations.
(7)
Equations (8), (9), (10) and (11) show goal constraint related to shovels that load ore, oxide, low grade ore and waste respectively:
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
5.3 Ore quality goal
Goal constraint of the ore (dispatched in to crusher) quality is in the form that goal object is determined by its right hand side variable. It is necessary to determine the
positive and negative deviated variables for the goal of ore quality in equation (12).
(12)
5.4 Constraints
The haulage capacity allocated to each shovel should be less than the shovel’ s maxim um capac it production. This is fulfill by following deterministic constraint.
(13)
Additionally, the deterministic constraint equation (14), ensures that the haulage capacity allocated to a certain destination is less than its capacity.
(14)
Constraints in equations (15) and (16), maintenance the balance of the haulage capacity flow at each source and destination node of the haulage network respectively.
(15)
(16)
In order to meet the required stripping ratio, constraint in equation (17) is defined.
(17)
Note that the sources and the destinations are ordered in such a way that ore sources and crushers respectively, are numbered first.
Finally, constraint in equation (18) ensures that the total production of shovels does not exceed the available trucks or the production target.
Page 589
(18)
Constraints in equations (19) and (20) fulfill the least required production per shift.
(19)
(20)
Constraints in equations (21) and (22) limit the quality deviations of ore dispatched to crushers with a prescribed range of acceptable values.
(21)
(22)
5.5 Objective function
The objective function is to minimize the sum of the deviations from the goals, which are volume and quality of the ore produced. In order to devise the objective
function, the undesirable deviation values are minimized. For instance, in the case of the first target, maximization of mine output, positive deviations from the goal are
not desirable. Therefore for this goal, the sum of only negative deviations is maximized. As for the second goal, the sum of both positive and negative deviations must be
minimized. Equation (23) presents the general structure of the objective function in which goals have been allocated appropriate weighted coefficient according to their
importance.
MinZ=W1(h1(d−))+W2(h2(c−,c+))
(23)
Since the production and ore quality goals in the objective function have different dimensions, an exact answer cannot be obtained model. In order to be able to
compare the goals, they must be made dimensionless. In this model, utility function is used to normalize the objective function. The equation (24) shows the exact
structure of the new objective function.
(24)
Norm of the deviation vector from goal quality
Norm of the deviation vector from goal production
Coefficients of the decision variable in goal constraints
With the use of different a and weighted coefficient values the optimum decision for the allocation of resources in haulage system is achieved.
6 HAULAGE SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION IN SARCHESHMEH COPPER MINE
The case study of this model is Sarcheshmeh copper mine of Iran. In this mine, truckshovel system is used for ore and rock transportation. The mine is in possession
of 10 shovel units and 52 trucks.
Particulars of these machines are listed in Table 1.
As it is shown in Table 1, the capacity of wabco trucks is 120 tons, but these 32 trucks were bought 28 years ago and therefore cannot operate with their full
capacity. In most cases the maximum payload on these trucks does not exit 90 tons. The 20 Dresser trucks are about 12 years old and the maximum useful capacity of
each truck is about 110 tons. Therefore to adapt the model to these conditions, the real capacity of the trucks, i.e. 90 and 100 tons, are used.
The model was tested in 6 days in sarcheshmeh copper mine. The analysis a calculation for test carried out in one of these days is explained here. In all the 6 tests
the production values obtain from the model were higher than the mine real production.
Table 1. Machinery available in Sarcheshmeh copper mine.
Figure 2 shows the general operations in Sarcheshmeh copper mine.
6.1 Testing the model in Sarcheshmeh copper mine
Output volumes obtained from optimizing the model and those produced in the mine are showing in the figure 3. It is shown that the output values obtained from the
model are higher than those produced by the fixed dispatching system in the mine.
That trucks allocation with regards to model output is more that actual production by fixed dispatching in
6.2 Possible transportation paths in Sarcheshmeh copper mine
Possible paths for truck allocation in Sarcheshmeh copper mine is like figure 4.
As it is shown in figure 4, more than 80 methods exist for trucks allocation. After running the model trucks travel optimized path is obtained for achieving mine
objectives in different planning periods. This is shown in figure 5.
Figure 2. Schematic view of Sarcheshmeh copper mine.
Figure 3. Output volumes from the model versus actual output.
6.3 The results of optimization model in Sarcheshmeh
Haulage system optimization model was been tested in Sarcheshemeh copper mine several times. Results obtained show that according to the model out put, tucks
allocation increases production by 15.39 percent.
Figure 4. Possible haulage routes in Sarcheshmeh copper mine.
Figure 5. Optimized haulage paths from model in Sarcheshmeh copper mine.
Page 591
6.4 Analysis of Fuzzy shovel production parameters
In this section, rate of mine production is considered with regards to the uncertainty of shovel production. Since the output produced by the shovel is uncertain,
therefore a triangular fuzzy number has been given to this parameter. The number on the triangular represents the average shovel production whilst those on the right
and left corner show the optimistic and pessimistic limits respectively. Optimistic limit of shovel production based on job efficiency of 90%, fill factor of 95% is
calculated to be 2200 tons per hour. Pessimistic limit of shovel production based on least favorable conditions such as undesirable blasting, adverse weather conditions,
water present in working faces are worked out to be about 450 tons per hour.
Experience, familiarity with the system, local knowledge and many other factors help the decision maker to estimate shovel production rate with high degree of
confidence. The coefficient production in the fuzzy model and system production rate, both with different membership degrees (α), based on different quantitative
weights of goals model, are shown in figure 6. According to this figure, whenever uncertainty rate of the shovel production is higher (α is nearer to zero), the range
produced by the model is wider and the decision taken in this way is more risky. On other hand, whenever the parameters are more crisp and hence the membership
degree is nearer to one, the decision will be taken more exact.
7 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
Sensitivity analysis on the model shows that the production rate is most sensitive to the number of hours worked per shift, truck capacity, number and the traveling times
of the trucks. As regards the quality of ore dispatched to processing plant, the most
Figure 6. Mine production variations with different quantitative weight.
effective factors are shown to be the number of trucks and the deviation in the estimated quality of ore.
8 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper a model is presented that can optimize haulage system by using fuzzy sets in special circumstances where the data available for decision making are
uncertain. The ability to optimize the mineral haulage system that includes different types of trucks is one of the important virtues of the model. Also the model can be
used in processing plants with several production lines. In other words, the model has the capability of dispatching ore with different grades to several crushers. Up to a
maximum of 4 different types of ore and waste can be considered by the model.
In situations where a shovel is in contact between two different types of rocks, the model can be programmed in a way that the shovel loads from both types of the
rocks. With regards to above information, the model is called Fuzzy goal programming model for optimizing the haulage system in open pit mines.
The case study in the paper is Sarcheshmeh copper mine. Haulage system optimizing model has been tested in Sarcheshmeh copper mine several times and its
validity was verified.
The results of testing the model shows that it can provide the required grade of crusher while production rate increases by about 16 percent. Shovel production
parameter is taken in fuzzy form because of uncertainty of data. αcut concept has been used to defuzzy the shovel production parameter rate.
Whenever α is near zero the range produced by the model is wide and therefore the decision hence taken is associated with high risk. On the other hand, whenever
the production parameter rate is more exact, the membership degree is nearer to one, the decision taken is more certain.
REFERENCES
[1] Howard, L., Hartman, & Jan, M.Mutmansky, Introductory to mining engineering, 2002, 2nd ed, John wiley & sons, USA.
[2] Agharpour, Mohamad javad, Multiple Criteria Decision making, 2002, 2nd ed, Tehran university, Iran.
[3] Micholapoulos, T.N. & Panagiotou, G.N., Truck Allocation using Stochastic Goal Programming, 2001, MPES, 965–970.
[4] Lia, Y.J. and C.L. Hwang, A New Approach to Some Possibilistic Linear Programming Problem, Fuzzy Sets and Systems 49, 1993.
[5] Saati, S., Memariani, A., Jahanshahloo, G.R., Possibilistic Programming with Trapezoidal Fuzzy Numbers, 2000, Elsevier Science, Mathematics & Computer
Science, Amsterdam.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Prediction of loading system (shovel) productivity based up on large fragmented
rock caused by blasting operation in GoleGohar iron mine of Iran
M.Osanloo & A.Hekmat
Department of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: GolEGohar iron mine is located 50 Km southwest of Sirjan in 300 km of south west o of Iran. The main loading system of this mine
is mechanical shovel manufactured by P&H Company with 7.6 m3 capacity. Bad fragmentation as a result of high water table, unsuitable use of
explosives and the large number of discontinuities of rock mass, extremely affects the efficiency of loading system and mine productivity. The aim of
this paper is to develop a mathematical model to predict shovel productivity due to oversize percentage. For that purpose the image analysis methods
were used to determine degree of fragmented rock caused by blasting operations. The fragmented rocks were divided into two groups; (1) equal or
less than optimum size (≤40cm), (2) greater than optimum size. The fragmented size greater than 40 cm is named oversize. Then the effect of oversize
on cycle time, bucket fill factor and finally on shovel productivity was measured. Based upon these data the mathematical model is developed. The
results of this study shows that if the fragmented rock size (d80) becomes 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% greater than optimum size, the productivity of
shovel will reduce by 10%, 20%, 29%, 38% respectively.
1 INTRODUCTION
The properties of blast fragmented rocks, such as size and shape, are very important factors for the optimization of production. Loading is a crucial stage in excavation
of mine production. The major factors affecting this important stage can be listed as loading period, digging time, swing angle (Taksuk et al., 2000). The review of the
relevant literature indicated that the interaction between the size distribution of the muck pile and the shovel productivity is not fully comprehended.
In this study, various factors affecting loading productivity of the excavators in GoleGohar iron mine are investigated. GoleGohar mine is located 50 km south
west of Sirjan in 300 km of south west of Kerman in Iran (Figure1). The main loading system of this mine is mechanical shovel manufactured by P&H company with
7.6 m3 capacity. Bad fragmentation as a result of high water table, unsuitable use of explosives and the large number of discontinuities of rock mass, extremely affects
the efficiency of loading system and mine productivity.
The GoldSize software is used to determine the size of blast rocks by capturing images of fragmented rock in muck piles and on haul trucks. The resulted size
distribution data was then used to predict the shovel productivity. Thus various data such as cycle time, bucket fill factor, job efficiency and shovel productivity were
collected.
Figure 1. GoleGohar iron mine in Kerman province of southern Iran.
Page 594
Finally, a mathematical model is developed to predict shovel productivity based up on size distribution of muck pile.
2 SIZE DETERMINATION
An effective method to assess fragmentation at the present time is to acquire digital images of rock
Figure 2. Measurement process; (a) Input image, (b) Object contours, (c) The result of image processing.
fragments and to process these images using digital image processing techniques. In the case of postblast fragmentation, this is the only practical method to estimate
fragmentation, since screening is impractical on a large scale (Kemeny et al., 2001).
To estimate the size distribution, images were taken from muck pile of GoleGohar mine during loading times. Having digitized images, the distribution of rocks after
blasting was obtained by GoldSize Software (Figure 2). Muck size distributions were calculated by the following modified RosinRammlerBennett equation (Singh et al.
2003).
(1)
Where: y=cumulative weight fraction passing size d, d50=the 50% passing size (or the mean particle size), and n=size distribution constant that represents the steepness
of the size distribution curve. Larger the n value, steeper the curve, i.e. narrower the range of particle sizes in the given material. In the majority of cases, this model fits
the actual size distributions quite well, with correlation coefficients of 0.99. Figure 3 shows a typical example of an actual muck size distribution of GoleGohar iron
mine with a fitted curve obtained by equation (1).
The particle size distribution of muck piles can be characterized by two parameters (d80 and n), which can be used with various loading parameters to construct the
model. Table 1 shows the results of rock size distribution in several blasting patterns in GoleGohar mine. According to this study blast pattern of 9–75 producing the
largest d80, with the least uniformity coefficient whereby the uniformity coefficient
Figure 3. Example of RosinRammlerBennett fit to size distribution data.
Page 595
of blast 10–7 is maximum as a result of its minimum d80 (Figure 4).
3 MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTING SHOVEL PRODUCTIVITY
3.1 Bucket fill factor
Theoretically bucket fill factor is dependent on particle size, operator skill, blasting efficiency, material compacting power of machine and rock properties. During the
calculation of this factor, production of each shovel and the number of trucks loaded per shift were recorded. Then the average loaded volume of each truck was
calculated. Knowing the number of shovel bucket required to load a truck, nominal capacity of bucket was estimated.
Particle size distribution of muck piles have a significant influence on the bucket fill factor. The following equation is given the step by step multiple regression analysis
that describes the relationship between the bucket fill factor and d80.
Ff=103.4−0.6 d80
(2)
Where: Ff=fill factor and d80 is the 80% passing size. In this equation coefficient of determination, R=0.94 and standard error of estimation, SE=7.35.
Real and predicted fill factor versus different d80 of the muck pile has been shown in Figure 5. It appeared that the bucket fill factor decreases with the increase in the
value of d80. Figure 5 also shows that the value of fill factor calculated by equation 2 can be a good estimation of the real one.
3.2 Swing time and angle
In this research swing period and angle of shovel were measured for filled and empty bucket (Table 2). Swing angle is affected on swing time. The angle between
shovel and truck can cause a 15–18%
Table 1. Rock size distribution in several blasted patterns of GoleGohar mine.
Figure 4. Comparison of size distribution in blasts 9–75 and 10–7.
Figure 5. Fill factor measurement with different d80.
Page 596
Table 2. Swing times and angle at GoleeGohar mine.
Figure 6. Frequency of swing angle data.
increase or decrease in the swing period (Taksuk et al., 2000). The smaller of swing angle, the less the loading time and the more cycles of operation completed per
hours. The optimal swing angle is 90°. As the angle deflects from 90°, the period becomes longer. So, truck drivers should be well trained and organized to fulfil this
requirement of optimality. The frequency of swing angle data in Figure 6 shows that most of the time swing angle is 90°.
3.3 Cycle time
The major factors affecting the cycle time are blasting efficiency, rock properties and skill of operator. A better blasting yields shorter loading period. The multiple
regressions of 672 data of loading stages yielded the following equation for loading period:
Ct=11.28+1.15 D+0.071 S
(3)
Where Ct=cycle time in second, D=digging period and S=swing angle. In this equation coefficient of determination, R=0.88 and standard error of estimation, SE=3.3.
Between these two independent variables, digging period is affected by blasting efficiency. Equation 4 shows the relationship between digging period and d80 and
d50. In this equation coefficient of determination, R=0.96 and standard error of estimation, SE=0.93.
D=5.35+0.055 d80+0.11 d50
(4)
Where: D=digging period in second.
The relationship between cycle time and size distribution of muck pile obtained to be as follows:
Ct=17.4+0.06 d80+0.13 d50+0.071 S
(5)
Where: Ct=cycle time in second.
3.4 Job efficiency (Je)
Several factors such as waiting for truck, cleaning out environment of shovel, personal needs cause pauses. Due to inefficient blasting, broken rock can not be
decreased to desired size by shovel, which may result in interruptions in scheduled works. Blasting operation as a step of integrated works should be well studied.
According to Figure 7, in GoleGohar iron mine shovel productivity can be obtained based on d80 and job efficiency.
4 SHOVEL PRODUCTIVITY
Generally, shovel productivity can be estimated based on the type of equipment, size distribution of muck pile and mining conditions; however it is normal to see two
identical sets of equipment operating in different mines with different productivity (Al Juhani, 2001). The mining conditions vary from one area to another; as a result, the
productivity of a shovel for each zones in the mine can be fluctuated because of the physical conditions. The main factors affecting shovel productivity are: actual bucket
capacity, fill factor, swell factor, job
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Figure 7. GoleGohar iron mine shovel productivity based on job efficiency and d80.
efficiency, cycle time, swing angle and rock density. Size distribution of muck pile has a significant effect on fill factor, swell factor, job efficiency and cycle time. Based
upon these information, a regression analysis model is developed for the purpose of obtaining a relationship between shovel productivity as the dependent variable and
d80, d50, coefficient of uniformity (n) and (nd80) as the independent variables collected in GoleGohar iron mine. The model expresses the dependent variable as a
linear function of all independent variables. This model is expressed as follow:
SP=1769−9.53 d80+444.45 n−3.37 n d80
(6)
Where: SP=shovel production in tons per shift. In this equation coefficient of determination, R=0.95 and standard error of estimation, SE=193.57.
Figure 8 shows the actual and predicted shovel productivity curve based on particle size of muck pile (d80). As it shows, the more the particle size the less the shovel
productivity and also the calculated value of productivity can have a good estimation of the actual one.
5 OPTIMUM FRAGMENTED SIZE
Having investigation on shovel productivity of GoleGohar iron mine, the fragmentation distribution shows that loading of fragmented rock in the size of 20–40 cm is
quite easy. If 80% of blasted rocks are smaller than 40 cm, shovel cycle time is reduced to 28 seconds and the bucket fill factor fluctuates between 80%–88%. Shovel
productivity will also reach 2000 tons per shift with job efficiency of 85 percentage (Hekmat, 2003).
Figure 8. Actual and predicted shovel productivity of different d80.
Table 3. The effect of fragmented size and oversize percentage on shovel productivity.
Particle size (d80) in centimeter
40 50 60 80 100 120
Oversize percentage 0 25 50 100 150 200
Shovel productivity (t/h) 2053 1838 1637 1270 943 650
Production decrease (ton) 0 215 416 783 1110 1403
Production decrease (%) 0 10 20 38 54 68
6 EFFECT OF OVERSIZE PERCENTAGE ON SHOVEL PRODUCTIVITY
Unsuitable blasting operation can cause large fragmented size and also increase operation costs. The large brocken rock require second blasting operation.
Consequently rock movement will not done properly and reduces efficiency of loading and hauling system therefore mine production will decreased. Table 3 shows the
effect of fragmented size and oversize percentage on shovel productivity of GoleGohar iron mine of Iran. Figure 9 is showing the relationship between the size and
shovel Productivity of GoleGohar mine of Iran.
7 CONCLUSION
Using Goldsize image analysis software the value of d80 and n of fragmented rocks were determined. Knowing these two parameters the shovel productivity is
estimated. Fragmentation size data was used to
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Figure 9. (a) Shovel productivity versus fragmented size, (b) Productivity of shovel versus oversize percentage.
predict job efficiency to reach planned productivity. Shovel productivity curve based on job efficiency and d80 proved that the best fragmentation size to obtain
maximum production is fluctuates between 20–40 centimeter. This range has been considered as “optimum size” and more than this size known as “oversize”. Based
upon these data the mathematical model is developed. The results of this study shows that in GoleGohar iron mine of Iran if the fragmented rock size (d80) becomes
25, 50, 75, 100 percentage greater than optimum size, the productivity of shovel will reduce by 10, 20, 29, 38 percentage respectively. Although each mine has its own
conditions and required special study to find out the effect of fragmented rocks on shovel productivity, but this model can be preliminary approach and good guide.
REFERENCES
Al Juhani, M. 2001. A linear programming model incorporates multiple regression analysis model (LPMRA) to optimize production scheduling for an underground gold
mine. Mine Planning and Equipment Selection: 989–995.
Kemeny, J. & Mofya, E. 2001. Prediction blast fragmentation using digital image processing and drill monitoring data. Mine Planning and Equipment Selection: 127–133.
Taksuk, M. & Erarslan, K. 2000. Factors affecting loading performance of the excavators in grap lignite enterprise. Mine Planning and Equipment Selection: 685–689.
Singh, S.P. et al. 2003. Interactions between the size distribution of the muck and the loading equipment. School of Engineering, Laurention University, Sudbury, Ontario,
Canada.
Hekmat, A. 2003. Prediction of loading system (shovel) efficiency based up on large fragmented rock caused by blasting operation in GoleGohar iron mine of Iran. MSc.
Thesis, Department of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran: 1–150.
Page 599
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Optimization of extracting work technology at the quarries of nonferrous
metallurgy of Kazakstan
B.R.Rakishev, A.B.Begalinov & E.B.Muhamedzhanov
Kazak National Technical University named after K.I.Satpaev, Almaty, Kazakstan
ABSTRACT: Almost all the ore deposits of ferrous, nonferrous and rare metals of Kazakstan exploited by means of the opencast methods are the
complexstructural, multicomponent ones. Optimization of extracting works technology at such deposits becomes complicated because of necessity
to take account of the influence of a large number of the factors, many of which have stochastic and probabilistic character. A model for solving the
complex of technological problems must have the simple and effective algorithm, dynamics, adaptability, operativeness, and universality. The most
perspective method for these purposes is the simulation method and its applications, meeting the aforenamed requirements to the large degree. The
obtained projected and technological solutions must provide the minimum of expenses for extraction with reaching the required quantity and quality of
ore.
1 DISCUSSION AND NEW OBSERVATIONS
The work was realized in accordance with the State Allround Programme for development of miningmetallurgical complex of Kazakstan. Zhairem ore mining and
processing enterprise (OMPE), extracting ore at the Dalnezapadny and Ushkatyn quarries, was chosen as the base enterprise for approbation and introduction of some
elements of this Programme. The deposit ore bodies are the large lensformed and layerformed bodies of the complicated form. Payable ores are leadzinc ores,
baryteleadzinc ores and baryte ores.
The following questions are considered: the rational placing of excavatingloading equipment (ELE), determination of optimal loadcarrying capacity of transport
means by prescribed productivity of ELE, distribution of load on extracting faces and minimization of the cost of excavatingloading and transportation works by
reaching preset quality of ore in necessary volume.
Excavatingloading equipment layout in the extracting faces. For solving the problems of the equipment layout the method of linear programming is the
generally adopted one. In the research1 the problem was solved with the method of dynamic programming. The algorithm, based on a body of the Monte Carlo
method, seems to be the simpler and more effective one.
The initial data of the problem are: the quarry’s productivity for ore, adopted parameters of the exploitation system, technical characteristics and economic indices of
the equipment work. Equipment layout must provide the minimum expenses for realization of the works of preset volume.
The problem statement. In extracting works of the quarry the equipment of p types is used, the total amount of every type is Nj (j=1, q). Productivity of every unit
Pj of the equipment differs at every ith section. Planned volume of work Vi at the ith section, work resource Rj of the jth unit of equipment for the planning period,
the costs of machineshift Cj and of the jth equipment are known.
Total expenses for the equipment work on the unit of dispatched raw material during the planning period are made up of the expenses of all the types of equipment at
every section and may be adopted as the criterion of efficiency (optimality), i.e.
(1)
During the problem solving the following constraints must be kept: on the work volume
(2)
Page 600
on possible resources of work of the equipment of different type
(3)
on the equipment quantity
(4)
The algorithm of the problem solving can be presented in the following form. The random quantities, defining the amount and type of ELE at the first section, are drawn;
sample range is assigned, proceeding from the constraints (Rzhevsky, 1985, Jarpa, 1977, Rakishev, 2002) and the possibility of the given equipment layout at the
section.
The obtained values are subtracted from the initial amount of ELE of the corresponding type. The remaining amount of ELE is used for drawing the random
quantities, defining the amount and type of ELE at the second section and so on, till the final distribution of the equipment among all the extracting sections. The
obtained combinations are checked against the constraints (Rzhevsky, 1985, Jarpa, 1977, Rakishev, 2002); needless variants are cut off. The criterion (Rakishev,
2001) value is determined and the optimal relation of equipment is defined with the method of consecutive comparison inpairs of obtained values on minimum.
The estimation of the given method efficiency has been made at the mines of Zhairem OMPE. There are three extracting sections in the Ushkatyn quarry and the
equipment of different types, which characteristics and quantities are shown in the table 1. The volume planned for sections during the shift is 2500 m3 for the first
section, 1500 m3 for the second and 2000 m3 for the third one.
Because of the technical conditions, it is possible to use no more than two units of ELE at the first and second sections, at the third one—no more than three units.
Calculations are realized according to the aforesited algorithm. The part of combinations of the equipment layout, satisfying the problem constraints, and
corresponding values of the criterion (Rakishev, 2001) are adduced in the table 2. Variant of the optimal layout of ELE is marked out by bold type.
The following ELE layout corresponds to the minimum value of criterion 0.353: the first section—one excavator ECG5 and one loader PK15 (ECG5 is the mark
of the excavator with the bucket’s volume 5 m3; PK15 is the singlebucket loader with the load carrying capacity 15t), the second section—one loader PK15, the
third section—two excavator ECG8. One excavator ECG4,6 remains in reserve. The identical result was obtained by the method of dynamic programming in
research (Rakishev, 2001), which corroborated the correctness of the chosen method. It is obvious that the combination of the proposed method with the elements of
the method of dynamic programming (reverse running) will be the more effective algorithm.
Determination of optimal loadcarrying capacity of transport means. The problem of transport selection is solved usually empirically with the use of the multi
regressive dependences, simulation, iteration method, or probabilistic analysis. At the same time it seems to be more effective the using of an analytical model, obtained
with taking account of the condition of the correspondence of the shift productivities of the loading and transport parts of the complex.
By determination of the necessary ratio between typesizes of excavatingloading and transport equipment, the minimum prime cost of loading and transportation of
1 ton of mining mass from the
Table 1. Characteristics of the equipment types.
Table 2. Random combinations of ELE layout, satisfying the constraints of the problem.
face to the receiving station was adopted as the criterion of optimality, i.e.
C=Cec+Ctr→min,
(5)
where Cec, Ctr are specific expenses for loading and transportation correspondingly in the loadingtransport complex.
Determination of the optimal ratio of the transport unit loadcarrying capacity to the rock mass in the excavator bucket is realized proceeding from the condition,
using shift productivity of loadingtransport complex according to Rzhevsky. After corresponding transformation of the correlations, known from the miningtechnical
literature, the dependence of the specific expenses for loadingtransport works on the ratio of the transport unit loadcarrying capacity to the rock mass in the
excavator bucket will take a form:
(6)
where Cm.e—the cost of machineshift of the chosen excavator under the given conditions, US dollars;
Tc—average duration of excavating cycle under the given conditions, min;
tex—time of tiplorry (locomotivetrain) exchange, min;
Tr—time of tiplorry run with the exception of loadingexchanging operations, min;
kq —coefficient of use of transport loadcarrying capacity (0.95–1.1);
k1—coefficient of productivity lowering, caused by unevenness of loadingtransport operations (k1≤1);
qe—rock mass in the excavator bucket, t;
ξ=qt/qe—ratio of transport unit loadcarrying capacity to rock mass in the excavator bucket;
qt—loadcarrying capacity of locomotivetrain or tiplorry, (locomotivetrain is the train, consisting of 5 vans);
ts h—duration of the shift, min;
a, b—the coefficients of power function .
This function according to Jarpa is the cost of machineshift of the transport unit and depends on the loadcarrying capacity qt, US dollars.
The quantity of transport machines for effective work of the complex is determined from the ratio:
(7)
where is full time of run, including the loading exchanging operations.
The number of machines by data must round off and move down in. The largest productivity of the complex (k1≈1) is achieved with the determined quantity of
machines.
The results of the computer simulation by the proposed method under conditions of the Ushkatyn mine are adduced at the table 3 and their graphic representation at
the figure 1. The optimal loadcarrying capacity of the tiplorry was determined by mining mass transportation at the different distances and under loading by the
different excavators. The curves in the figure 1a correspond to the buckets with E=15 m3, E=12 m3, E=8 m3 in sequence from lower to up; and in the figure 1b—to the
range of
Figure 1. Dependence of the specific expenses for loading and transportation from qt/qe by tiplorries under the range of transportation of
2 km (a); the same one under the different ranges of transportation (b).
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transportation: 1 km, 2 km, 3 km by the excavator bucket capacity 8 m3. The density of rock is 3 t/m3.
As is seen from the figure 1, the optimal relation between the loadcarrying capacity of the transport unit and mass of rock in the excavator bucket under the
conditions of the Ushkatyn mine changes within 3–7 depending on the transportation distance. The range of the transportation at the uptodate quarries is within
1−4km . With in t his diap aso n for distance of haulage, the optimal value ξ is found, by which the cost of 1 ton of mining mass transportation is the minimum one. At
the distances more than 4 km, the function does not has the extremum, which means: the more loadcarrying capacity of the transport, the less expenses for
transportation (if not taking account of the cost of the road construction and maintenance).
Minimization of expenses for excavatingloading works by provision of raw material output of required quality in prescribed volume. The problem of raw material
quality stabilization is proposed to be solved jointly with the minimization of the loading and transportation work cost by reaching the prescribed volume of output
according to Rakishev. Let there be N extracting faces (blocks of exploded mining mass), G consumers of raw material in the quarry. The volumes of ore in every
block Vbl i, quality of ore in the face depending on the time (excavated volume) ΔΨtij, planned quality Ψbj, its permissible deviation ΔΨj, the content of harmful
components in dispatched ore Ψhj, planned content of harmful components Ψbhj, are known. The constraints on the quality of ore are the following:
|Ψtij−Ψbj|≤ΔΨj
(8)
It is necessary to put together an optimal plan of the dispatch and transportation of ore of the preset quality from the ith face to the gth consumer, which provides the
minimum of expenses for transportation by the known cost of transportation of raw material volume unit Cig for the planned period T. The efficiency function of the
problem will be written in form:
(9)
by the following constraints:
– total productivity of the faces in every subperiod must be no less than the target of the quarry during the same time;
– volume of output during the whole planned period in the ith face mustn’t exceed ore resources in this face
(10)
– total volume of ore output during the subperiod must comply with the requirements of concentrating mill (CM) and storehouse for ores mixing (SOM)
(11)
where —requirements of CM and SOM in the tth subperiod;
– total volume of ore output during the subperiod can’t exceed receiving capacity of CM (SOM).
The constraints (Jarpa, 1977, Rakishev, 2002) are also correct.
As the algorithm of solving the problem, the following variant of the method of directed random search was adopted.
1. The result, obtained by solving the problem of ELE layout in extracting faces, is adopted as initial variant of ELE layout. Furthermore, with taking account of the
loaders’ mobility and constraints (3–4 , 10–11), the algor it hm of s the problem of ELE layout in extracting faces is used for definin g t he opti mal var ian t f or one
2. The volumes of ore extraction from the faces are drawn. These volumes satisfy the constraints on productivity of the faces and the quarry as a whole with taking
account of the obtained layout of ELE. The volumes are checked against the constraints on the quality of the components. The obtained set of random volumes of
output from the faces satisfies the constraints on productivity as well as on quality.
3. Every volume of extraction, checked against the constraints, is divided into parts in proportion to the amount of consumers. The proportions are determined
according to the weighting fraction of each consumer in planned volume of consumption (output) for the subperiod. As a result, we have the new set of the random
volumes of the extraction from the faces, corresponding to the amount of consumers and satisfying constraints on productivity and quality as well as on providing the
requirements of CM and SOM.
4. The expenses for dispatch and transportation are determined. The criterion (9) value is calculated and minimized. The optimal variant is defined The criterion (9)
value is determined for all the calculating stages, i.e.:
(12)
Approbation of this method was carried out at the Dalnezapadny mine of Zhairem OMPE by determination of the optimal orestream during 5 shifts of
Page 603
work. The sum of the volumes of extraction from the faces is equal to the requirements of CM (SOM). In the quarry, there are three extracting faces, from which ore is
dispatched for CM (SOM). The characteristics of ores on the faces during the planned period are shown in the table 3. The first numbers in the column correspond to
zinc, the second onesto lead, the third onesto sulphur.
Quarry’s productivity for ore must be no less than 3600 m3, the requirements of CM and SOM—no less than 3000 m3 and 600m3 correspondingly. The demands
for ore quality are: percent (permissible deviation of zinc content from the planned one). The expenses for the transportation of ore volume unit are shown in
the table 4.
The receiving capacity of CM bunkers is 4000 m3 during the shift. In figure 2 the fragment of pickingout of combinations of loads for the faces, corresponding to
required quality of ore, is shown. The test quantities lay off as the abscissa, the content of components plots the ordinate (the curve 1—for S, the curve 2 for Zn, the
curve 3 for Pb).
The analysis of the results shows that the ratio of maximum value of the criterion to the minimum one for the considered therecomponent orestream is an average
8–10 percent, and a saving of means—4–5 percent.
The method introduction allowed practicing at the Dalnezapadny mine averaging inside the quarry and fully refusing ore averaging at the quarryside averaging
stockhouses, which reduced expenses in 4–6 times. Expenses for loadingtransport works were lowered significantly.
The given paper generalizes the experience of creation of the general program of technological processes control in the quarry. The proposed model considers as
well changing miningtechnological and economic conditions, serves as a means of active
Table 4. Expenses for transportation of ore volume unit from the supplier to the consumer.
Consumers
Suppliers Resources of the section, m3 CM, USS SOM, USS
1st section 25000 0.5 0.3
2d section 30000 0.35 0.2
3d section 30000 0.3 0.1
Table 3. Content of the components (Zn/Pb/S) in ore (%) on the faces during the planned period.
Shifts
Sections 1st 2d 3d 4th 5th
1st 3.7/1.2/4.6 4.4/1.4/5.1 4.0/2.1/4.8 3.7/2.3/4.2 3.7/1.9/5.1
2d 2.1/2.0/5.8 1.9/2.0/5.6 2.2/1.2/6.3 1.8/1.0/6.2 1.9/1.3/6.1
3d 3.4/1.3/3.4 3.5/0.9/3.4 2.8/1.4/3.1 3.6/1.1/3.0 3.5/1.0/3.1
Figure 2. Fragment of combinations, satisfying the required quality of raw material with providing of the required volume of output.
Page 604
control by insidequarry averaging of ores and obtaining the raw material of the required quality during the planned period4. The elaborated variant of the variants of the
algorithm is very simple, universal, and is free of rigid restnctions for application. Due to the impossibility of obtaining precise solution, the proposed numerical method
gives the set of s the most similar to the searched one. The prime experience of introduction of the method of extracting work planning at Zhairem OMPE showed its
high efficiency.
REFERENCES
Rakishev B.R., Lunkin I.V., Rakishev E.B., Auesova K.T., 2001. Expedient layout of extracting loading equipment in the extracting faces. Transactions of National
mining Academy of Ukraine. Dnepropetrovsk, No. 12, v. 2.pp. 129–134.
Rzhevsky V.V., 1985. Openpit mining works p. 2, M;Nedra, 549 p.
Jarpa S., 1977. Capital investment and operating cost estimation in open pit mining.—14th Int. Symp. Application of Computer Method in the Mineral Industry, State
College, New York, pp. 920–931.
Rakishev B.R., Lunkin I.V., Rakishev E.B., 2002. Forming of the Quarry’s OreStreams of Preassigned Quality Abstract. Eleventh International Symposium on Mine
Planning & Equipment Selection. Bouzov, Czech Republic, pp. 369–372.
Page 605
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Computer simulation technology and demonstration
S.Schafrik & M.Karmis
Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
Z.Agioutantis
Technical University of Crete , Hania, Greece
T.Henderson
Henderson Associates, Bluefield, West Virginia, USA
ABSTRACT: The algorithms for the mathematical modeling to predict productivity of underground roomandpillar mining systems are well known
and documented. These algorithms consider the timevarying relationships between mining equipment for a given geometry of operations as well as
other constraints. A userfriendly visual simulation computer tool for the Windows environment is demonstrated and shows how mine production can
be scheduled. The simulator, which is easily customized and utilized by the field engineer, can help mine operators plan the optimum mining sequence
for different mine geometries and equipment layout. Program output includes monitoring of shift data, equipment utilization indices, etc. Delays, such as
equipment failures, maintenance and chainofsupply, are also included in the simulations. This simulation technique can be used to perform simulations
in any production environment.
1 INTRODUCTION
Imitating the operations of reallife systems or processes is the main purpose of computer simulation. Operational scenarios can be tested and evaluated without the
need or expense of physical experimentation. Applications have been developed to simulate the space and time relationships between mining equipment, mainly in
connection with transport systems (Topuz et al. 1989, Zhao & Suboleski 1987, Ramachandran 1983). Zhao & Suboleski give a detailed account of the existing mine
simulators available in the late 1980s, including CONSIM (Topuz et al. 1989), FACESIM (Prelaz et al. 1968), and FRAPS (Haycocks et al. 1984) developed at
Virginia Tech and UGMHS developed at Penn State. Additionally, simulators with graphics or animation capabilities such as MPASS2 are also mentioned. SAM, the
simulator developed by Zhao (Zhao & Suboleski 1987) can be added to this list as well as FACEPROD, a simulator developed by Hollar (Hollar, pers. Comm.).
These dedicated simulation packages were developed in general purpose programming languages such as Fortran, Pascal and Basic. For the most part these
programs are written to use input information that describes the physical environment and the equipment capabilities, then use mathematical algorithms, vary the input
data, and calculate production rates, tons produced, etc. They generally have one or more reporting options that can output information in standardized reports.
Simulation scripts written in general purpose simulation languages such as GPSS, GPSS/H, Automod, etc. (Vagenas 1999, Sturgul 1999) have been applied
towards the development of discrete event simulation software packages for both underground and openpit mining operations. The GPSS (General Purpose
Simulation System) language and the event driven version, GPSS/H, are some of the bestdocumented discrete event simulation languages for use in mining situations.
Sturgul (2000) wrote a book on the topic of applying GPSS/H to mine design situations. Examples and case studies in this book as well as numerous publications by
John Sturgul demonstrate the applicability and ease of use of GPSS/H to mining and minerals engineering simulation problems. Bethlehem Steel designed a belt
simulation named BETHBELT1 written in GASP V, a programming language designed for discreteevent simulation. Another belt simulation, developed to handle 25
belts and 12 loading zones, was written in the simulation language known as PL/1.
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2
SIMULATOR OBJECTIVES AND IMPLEMENTATIONS2
This paper focuses on WebConSim a program originally developed by the authors in 1999 (Schafrik et al. 2001). Development of the program has continued and
many changes to coding and concept have been implemented. WebConSim was developed to be a FrameBased Expert System (Durkin 1994) for the prediction and
modeling of underground coalmine equipment over time. A frame is a computer concept that represents real objects, such as individual pieces of mining equipment. The
development of objectoriented programming practices has helped foster new functionality in framebased expert systems. The equipment is not controlled by
equations or queues that govern cycle or service time. Instead, the equipment frame examines the simulation environment and makes decisions about its own state
based on the environment.
Objectoriented programming also allows a program to be written using a client/server architecture for collaborative software systems. WebConSim was designed to
use the power of client/server architecture in order to allow access to the simulator irrespective of the type of personal computer utilized by the end user. The actual
simulator resides on the server and any kind of client can communicate user information to the server, i.e. Microsoft Windows, Palm Pilots, Unix, Apple Macintosh,
etc. Input data is stored in a database, which also resides on the server. A field engineer, planning engineer, mine management and holding company can all, therefore,
access the same information simultaneously. To implement this design, three separate modules were developed: the frontend module, the database module and the
simulator module.
2.1 Frontend design
One of the benefits of using a webbased frontend, is that a client/server architecture can be utilized, where the client communicates with the server by sending normal
http requests. This is easily implemented using a technology such as Active Server Pages (ASP). ASP allows a single database to be located on a server and all web
content to be generated when the browser asks for it. ASP is compatible with all popular Internet browsers that have been made in the past seven years because the
browser views normal web content and all ASP processing occurs on the server, rather than on the client. The other major advantage to the webbased deployment is
that a software upgrade need only be installed on the server, not on the many clients. The simulator module can only be hosted by Microsoft Windows 9X or NT
computer. This computer must have Microsoft ActiveX Data Objects (ADO) version 3.5 or later and Microsoft Internet Information Services version 4 or later with
Active Server Pages option installed (Personal Web Server on Microsoft Windows 9X).
The simulator itself is not an executable application; it is an ActiveX Dynamic Link Library (DLL) that is executed from an application. An important advantage of
using the new ActiveX technology is that it provides for encapsulation and inheritance. Thus, changes to the simulator can be made without the need of source code or
recompiling the simulator. This includes the addition of equipment that is not accounted for at design time. Once the operational logic has been worked out, adding new
equipment to the simulator can be accomplished using inheritance. Each user has, in effect, his or her own version of the simulator, tailored for individual, rather than
general use (Schafrik et al. 2001).
The web site is designed with maintenance and action areas. In the maintenance area, the user inputs information into the simulator database. This area has features
that help to automate the process, such as equipment copy and paste functions, thus reducing the need for repetitive entries. The report maintenance area contains all
the output from simulations that the user has not deleted (Schafrik et al. 2001).
Currently, development work is conducted using Microsoft Visio and AutoDesk AutoCAD as a graphical frontend, rather than the webbased approach. Although
the sharing of input data will be lost by using these programs, it makes the simulation environment more interactive. The target is to allow a user to link the graphical
information to the simulation in a way that has not been done before. This could also allow for the user to change variables (e.g. tram speed, cut rate, capacity, etc.)
while the simulation is running. Such interactivity could allow a user to make minor adjustments to a model without waiting until an entire simulation has been completed.
This would also help a user to identify bottlenecks visually, rather than through review of text and data reports.
2.2 Database design
The purpose of the database module is to supply information to the simulation engine. Information is stored in a Microsoft Access 2000 database and the simulator uses
ADO to connect to the database (Microsoft Access was used as the development database for convenience only). The user may override the development platform
and substitute the current
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implementation with a Microsoft SQL Server, an Oracle database, or any ODBC database. The data stored in the database is divided into the following major groups
(Schafrik et al. 2001):
–Layouts
–Cut Sequences
–Waypoints
–Travel Paths
–Teams
“Layout” information concerns only the physical dimensions of the area to be mined. These dimensions do not vary over time, depth or length. The database can include
more than one layout corresponding to different sections of a mine or different mines.
“Cut sequences” govern the movement of the miners and the roof bolters. The cut sequences are repeated between feeder moves allowing multiple shifts to be
simulated without repetitive input. Cut sequences may be generated automatically (using separate program modules) or keyed in manually (Fig. 1).
The physical movement and location of all equipment is based on “waypoints.” A waypoint is defined as the center point at each entry/crosscut intersection.
Waypoints serve as points of travel and as reference points for all mobile equipment. When
Figure 1. Example of a cut sequence.
these points are generated the inby, outby, left and right neighbor relationships are also calculated. Also, these points track of how much material is scheduled to be
mined and/or has been mined in each one of these directions. The same information is kept regarding the length of the bolted entry in each direction. In summary, the
calculation of all physical locations of moving equipment is based on the waypoints. The waypoints are stored in the database, but are generated in each simulation run
based on the layout information. This is a new feature in the simulator, accommodating sections with fluctuating pillar sizes and providing more user control over the
simulation.
“Travel paths” are critical to the overall effectiveness of the system. The database stores the travel paths as defined with reference to waypoints. The distance and
number of turns is a property of the path. For any single toandfrom pair, there must be more than one entry in the paths section of the database, unless only one piece
of equipment can travel between the two points at any given time. For instance, if a shuttle car has been loaded by a miner at waypoint 7 and would like to tram to the
feeder located at waypoint 14, it must look for an available path entry from 7 to 14, then the amount of time to make the journey is calculated (Fig. 2).
“Teams” are mining crews and may include any combination of mining equipment. This section of the database is the most complex. The design is intended to reduce
the query time and complexity, allowing information to be easily duplicated while the user is compiling a team. When the simulator is told what
Figure 2. Waypoints and travel paths.
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team to use, it obtains all the equipment by querying the equipment tables for the appropriate team identifier. Storage of teams in this manner increases the ease of
copying equipment from one team to another.
There are many pieces of information that are not unique to a specific piece of equipment (e.g. mean time between failures, mean time to repair, statistics type,
location, and initial state). This data is critical for all equipment for the simulator to operate. The statistics type can be deterministic or stochastic and is directly related to
the rate profile of the equipment. The profile includes the average, standard deviation, minimum and maximum and need only store the proper data for the chosen
statistics type.
2.3 Simulator logic, design and improvements
The simulator implements an expert system engine, where the focus is not on scenario but on equipment operations. This focus makes it truly eventdriven. Every
equipment unit maintains its own Time to Next Event (TTNE), i.e. the time to complete the current task and reevaluate its state. The simulation engine is interested in
three things:
– the original state of equipment,
– the final location of equipment, and
– the capabilities of equipment.
From these three pieces of data a complete simulation to and from any time point can be accurately performed. Specifically, this expert system approach is
implemented using equipment states. While in a state, there is a specific period that the piece of equipment will remain in that state. Its TTNE is the current time plus the
current operation time. Once a state has been completed the equipment needs to make a decision regarding the next action to begin. This decision is a function of the
current state, the time in the current state and what the next job is. Any kind of equipment can easily be added by allowing for appropriate state changes. The simulator
operates as shown in Figure 3. It is important to note that the main simulator loop sets a global time and finds the next time to set. The setting of the global time is the
point in the loop where the processing is actually done. When the time is set on a piece of equipment, the equipment checks if its TTNE (or time to state change) is
equal to the current global time. If the times are the same, then the equipment decides on what its new current state is and how long it will be in this state. Once this has
been completed for all equipment the simulator engine will “ask” all the equipment for their TTNE, then it will calculate the minimum of these values and use that as the
new global time. This allows for multiple pieces of equipment to be running different things concurrently.
Figure 3. Flow of simulation.
The type of simulation described is a new approach. It uses relatively new programming technologies to allow for multiple smart objects to be located in an artificially
confined area. Each object decides on the optimum way to accomplish its plan and then executes that procedure.
Each equipment parameter (i.e. tramming rate, breakdown rate, etc.) can be evaluated based on statistical information available for the specific piece of equipment.
Thus, equipment parameters can be estimated either deterministically or stochastically. Stochastic distributions currently support normal distribution (e.g. for tramming
rates), exponential distribution (i.e. for breakdowns and repairs), uniform distribution and userdefined distributions, where the user can enter a measured cumulative
distribution function in a table form to be used by the simulator.
Deterministic analysis uses only an average for the variable. Uniform analysis uses an upper and lower bound for the variable. Normal distribution uses average and
standard deviation, while exponential distribution uses mean rate. Userdefined analysis allows the user to create ranges of values based on a range of probabilities (e.g.
from 0% to 25% is 3, from 26% to 75% is 5, 76% to 100% is 10). While determining the TTNE, each piece of equipment will use the statistical analysis for the
specific operation. For example, the tram rate is an input variable for most equipment, where the product of the tram distance * tram rate yields the time to complete a
tramming operation. The tram rate in the above relationship will be determined based on the statistics set for the specific piece of equipment.
Breakdown times, delay times and operating times are calculated based on mean time between failures
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and mean time to repair. These are assumed to be exponentially distributed because they are interarrival times. This functionality cannot be overridden.
A delay function has been added to the simulator. This function allows for outside interference to affect the mining process. Currently, there are four different types of
delays that can be built into the system: physical conditions, outby operations, belts, and methane. The user has the option of selecting which delays affect which
equipment. For instance, the user can set a shuttle car to be unaffected by outby operations but affected by all other delays. Another good example is the roof bolter.
Typically roof bolters are more affected by lack of supplies from outby operations than shuttle cars and other equipment. This new feature allows a user to run
simulations under imperfect conditions to get more realistic results.
2.4 Reporting
The simulator itself does not generate the reports. The process, which requests the simulation, carries out this function. There are currently four reports that are
generated:
– standard report
– multicycle report
– extended report and
– verbose report.
The standard report shows the traditional information that is expected from a mining simulator. The report works by monitoring the EndofCut and EndofBolt event in
the mine object. When the cut is completed there is a summary table and a table for every piece of equipment that is generated for that cut, except the roof bolter. The
roof bolter’s table is gathered at the EndofBolt event. The summary table includes information such as tons mined and tons per minute. The individual equipment tables
show the amount of time the equipment was in each state and other equipmentspecific collected information, for example, amount cut (miner) and number of trips to
the miner (shuttle car).
The standard report also shows summary information for equipment performance in the mine. It was intended as the report that is typically used, especially for new
equipment and mine combinations. When interesting results are shown on this report, the extended or verbose report can be used to ascertain the source of the
anomalies. Those reports can also be used to identify possible modifications to the configuration in the mine design.
The multicycle report is an extension of the standard report. It functions in the same manner, except that the tables presented aren’t built during the simulation. The
multicycle report is identical in form to the standard report, but shows summary information over the course of the many simulation cycles. It is intended to allow the
user to run the same simulation for many cycles and then review the results. For equipment that is using nondeterministic statistical analysis, this type of report will
output a more accurate representation. After the last simulation cycle the report generator creates a summary of the individual tables.
The extended report shows the state of the mine at every simulation cycle. It creates an instance of the simulator’s application object and waits for the EndGetTTNE
event to begin. When this event begins, the extended report gathers the current time, current cut and bolt number. Then it cycles through all the equipment and collects
the current state, last state, location and TTNE. This report is useful in examining the state of all the equipment and their interactions throughout the simulation. This
report can also be used as input to a visualization of the simulation. Because this report shows a line only when there is a change in the simulation, a visualization
program can interpolate between locations and calculate the state of the equipment between the simulation cycles. This report is also useful in identifying equipment that
is being underutilized because it is frequently either waiting or queuing.
The verbose report watches the report object for when a new event is added. When the event is added the object adding the event is passed to the verbose report
object. The verbose object will check the mine object to get the current cut number. It then collects the current state, previous state, id, description, current time,
TTNE and location from the piece of equipment. This report is very valuable in understanding the equipment’s reasoning for altering states. This report produces a
complete log of the equipment for the simulation time. WebConSim is the only simulator that is capable of delivering such a report.
3 EXAMPLE OF SIMULATION USAGE
A case study was completed using the simulator as an analysis and prediction tool for an existing coal mine located in the Central Appalachian Coal fields. Simulator
input was based on existing mining reports and a model was generated that can be used to predict mine production and scheduling with the existing set of mine
parameters. An alternative mining scenario was executed by modifying the equipment configuration. The productivity and other changes to the mining cycle were then
calculated. In this particular case, the equipment change also occurred in the mine and the same production reports were compared to the changes predicted by the
simulator.
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The coalmine used for this study has the following basic parameters:
– A general mining height of 119 cm with a total rock parting of approximately 56cm, and high variation of both.
– The section is a 7entry section working two shifts with 8 men per shift.
– The pillar size averages 21.3 m×21.3 m with 5.5m entries (Figs 1–2).
– The roof bolter is a double boom bolter roughly equivalent to the Fletcher Roof Ranger II.
– The continuous miner is capable of 12.1 m cuts and has a 96.5 cm cutting drum.
– The mine averages approximately 55 linear meters of advance, but this number is highly dependent on shift, working conditions, and equipment.
While building the model for use in the simulator, the information above was used as general parameters and the haulage of the coal at the working section was done
using three batterypowered ramcars. Production and delay reports for approximately one month were used, in conjunction with factory equipment specifications, to
create a model. This model was run using the stochastic capabilities of the simulator in order to match the simulator output to the mine’s historical output.
The information in both the verbose and summary report from the simulator show the same trend. The simulator’s output matched the production reports in an
acceptable manner. The information used for the teams and the layouts of the mine was used as a model. Analysis of output from the simulator showed several different
bottlenecks in the mining processes:
– Ramcar batterylife and changeout time caused the most production delays.
– In many shifts it was common (i.e. for a long period of the shift) for only two cars to be in service at any point in time.
– In addition to production delays caused by the haulage system, there were significant production delays caused by mined areas that had not been supported by the
roof bolter.
Using the model created with the equipment configuration and the mine layout a change to the haulage system was made in the simulation. The three battery haulage
cars were replaced with two electric powered shuttle cars. The shuttle cars are rated for approximately a 5% capacity increase over the ramcars. Simulations were run
using the two cars and showed a similar production rate using one less piece of equipment. In the latter case it was shown that the roof bolter caused the bottleneck in
the production chain. Because there are seven rooms to be bolted and three pieces of equipment to create more rooms, roof bolting was falling behind production.
Without a safe area to work and mine coal, there can be no production.
In this case study, the same production data was used to verify the output from the simulator. It was found that the simulator results were equivalent to the real
production results.
4 CONCLUSIONS
There is a need for tools that can aid in the continuing increase in productivity for current and future mining conditions. The simulator presented, WebConSim, fulfills
two major objectives, to utilize standardized computing technology and to reflect current and future roomandpillar coal mining practices. WebConSim fulfills the first
objective, because it is built on a framebased expert system architecture, implemented as a standard client/server application. The framebased expert system
architecture allows for the system to be configured for current mining operations and to easily adapt to new mining practices, thus fulfilling the second objective.
The client/server implementation architecture, allows for the simulator to be interfaced through a webbased frontend and work is being done for nonwebbased
interaction. Two equipment types are missing from the system that are widely used in the coalmines, the minerbolter and bridge conveyors. With the addition of these
new equipment types, a form of errorchecking must also be added to insure that an equipment group has the proper equipment to mine. With these additions the
simulator itself will be made more universal.
In the example presented it was shown that a model of existing mine production can be made and a change to that model can then be analyzed. In this case,
predicted results from the simulator can be used for planning purposes. This technique can be used to aid a mine operator in making decisions regarding equipment and
mining scheduling. As continued development and use of the simulator progresses, it can more accurately reflect current and future mining practices.
The future development of the simulator will focus on increasing its interactive capabilities during simulation of mining operations. “Onthefly” changes to the model
will be possible and will give the user a better understanding of the simulator’s methodology. With greater understanding, the simulator will no longer appear to be a
“blackbox” calculator, simply generating numbers.
REFERENCES
Durkin, J. 1994. Expert Systems Design and Development. New York: Macmillan. 800.
Page 611
Haycocks, C., Kumar, A., Unal, A. & OseiAgyemana, S. 1984. Interactive Simulation for Room and Pillar Miners. In Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (ed.), 18th
APCOM, London, England, 5591–597.
Hollar, P. 2000. Personal Communication, February, 2000.
Prelaz, L., Bucklen, E., Suboleski, S. & Lucas, R. 1968. Computer Applications in Underground Mining Systems. R & D Report No. 37, Vol. I. Washington: Office of Coal
Research.
Ramachandran, D. 1983. A Simulation Model for Continuous Mining Systems, M.S. thesis. Blacksburg, Virginia: VPI & SU.
Schafrik, S., Karmis, M. & Agioutantis, Z. 2001. A Novel, WebBased, Continuous Mining Simulator. Transactions, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration,
Inc. 310:69–74.
Sturgul, J.R. 1999. Discrete Mine System Simulation in the United States. International Journal of Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment 13:37–41.
Sturgul, J.R. 2000. Mine Design: Examples using Simulation. Littleton, Colorado: Society of Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. 367.
Topuz, E., Nasuf, E. & Ramachandran, D. 1989. Consim: An Interactive Microcomputer Program for Continuous Mining Systems, User Manual, Second Revision.
Blacksburg, Virginia: VPI & SU.
Vagenas, N. 1999. Applications of DiscreteEvent Simulation in Canadian Mining Operations in the Nineties. International Journal of Surface Mining, Reclamation
and Environment 13:77–78.
Zhao, R. & Suboleski, S. 1987. Graphical Simulation of Continuous Miner Production Systems. APCOM 87: Proceedings of the 12 th International Symposium on the
Application of Computers and Mathematics in the Mineral Industry.
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Page 613
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Simulation analysis model of mining methods
J.Szymanski & R.Suglo
University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada
S.Planeta & J.Paraszczak
Laval University, Québec, Canada
ABSTRACT: The everincreasing cost of labor, energy and equipment together with low prices of most minerals on the market threaten the
profitability of most mines. It is necessary to closely monitor the performance of the system drivers in mining operations to ensure maximum system
efficiency. This paper investigates the performance of three mining models to determine the best equipment combinations and schedules that will enable
the mines meet their production targets.
1 INTRODUCTION
Rock excavation and materials handling operations constitute a significant portion (up to 40%) of the overall mining costs in most mines [1, 2]. Accordingly, mine
managements try to identify the various operations (system drivers) that have greater impacts on the profitability of the mine. System drivers are the influential factors
that affect the output and performance of a given system. The system drivers of any given system are determined by benchmarking the key factors in the system [3].
Simulation methods are increasingly being used by mine engineers and planners to help them identify the system drivers and also to optimize their operations by way of
scheduling of the operations and allocation of the required number of resources and equipment to the various mining operations to achieve the desired productivities and
ensure optimum system efficiencies.
In this paper, three mining operations are modeled using Visual SLAM with AweSim software. These operations involve a continuous surface minertruck mining
system in a strip coal mine, a continuous minershuttle car system and hoist scheduling system both in an underground coal mine.
2
CONTINUOUS SURFACE MINER TRUCK MINING SYSTEM2
2.1 Problem formulation
In this scenario, it is desired to develop a Visual SLAM model to simulate the operation of a continuous surface miner (CSM) truck system that is employed to mine a
thick coal seam in a strip mine. Extraction of the ore at the face is done by advancing the CSM which has a rotating cutter head which undercuts the layers of coal. The
material cut by the CSM is loaded into 90tonne capacity trucks by means of a pivotmounted belt conveyor. After loading three trucks, the CSM must turn around to
begin the next cutting strip of coal. The loaded trucks haul the material to a central stockpile location. The empty trucks then return to the CSM for loading. The model
is designed such that the loaded trucks can dump their materials at multiple open dumping bays at the central stockpile (i.e. there is no spotting time at the central
stockpile location). Initially, three 90tonne rear dump trucks are allocated to the CSM. Fig. 1. a section of a strip mine with the blocks of coal exposed and numbered
in layers. Each labeled block of coal is equivalent to three 90tonne truckloads.
Using the BestFit software and the stabilized probability plot method, the durations of the turn around time of the CSM, the travel loaded (haul), travel empty
(return), spotting and dumping times of
Figure 1. Section of strip mine showing ore blocks.
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Table 1. Measured duration of CSM and trucks operation components.
Type of entity Cycle component Beta (min.) Eta (min.)
CSM Turn around 4.383 2.521
Truck Spotting 2.252 0.491
Truck Loading 5.165 4.610
Truck Haul (travel loaded) 12.189 5.058
Truck Dumping 6.069 2.655
Truck Return (travel empty) 6.318 5.245
Figure 2. Visual SLAM network for CSMtruck model.
the trucks were found to fit the Weibull distribution [4, 5]. The details are given in Table 1.
The CSM experiences breakdowns during which time it can no longer perform cutting and loading operations. During such breakdowns, the truck which was being
loaded has to wait at the head of the queue to be loaded first after the CSM has been repaired. The time between breakdowns is Weibull distributed with the
parameters, beta=240 min. and eta= 132.42 min. As well, the time to repair the CSM is also Weibull distributed with beta=6.120min. and eta=0.897 min.
It is required to monitor the CSM operating time between failures over a period 100,000 minutes, expected production from the CSM, the optimum number trucks
to be allocated to the CSM, waiting times and queue lengths at the CSM location and the utilization of the resources.
1.1 Network model of CSMtrucks system
Figure 2 is the Visual SLAM network of the CSMtruck model of the mining operations [6]. In the CSMtruck model, the CSM is considered as a resource with a
capacity of one which is available to load the entities (trucks) except when delayed during the turn around time or by a breakdown of the CSM [4]. Each truck is
assigned with two attribute values which are the duration of the component operation and the carrying capacity of the truck (90tonnes).
Figure 3. Visual SLAM network for CSM breakdown model.
Figure 4. Production using different number of trucks.
Table 2. Summary of Visual SLAM simulation results for various fleet sizes.
No. trucks Total production (tonnes) Average queue length Average waiting time (min.) CSM utilization (%)
3 689580 0.053 0.692 82.5
4 793620 0.089 1.006 94.8
5 847080 0.119 1.266 99.2
6 846270 0.132 1.403 100
7 845710 0.126 1.369 100
8 844560 0.134 1.426 100
The entities cycle through the network (Fig. 2) by waiting at the CSM location in an AWAIT node (CSFM_AWAIT_1), getting loaded, traveling to the central
stockpile location, dumping their loads there and returning to the CSM immediately. Statistics on the production of the trucks, the spotting and loading times, dumping
times and return times are collected by various collect nodes in the network.
Figure 3 models the processing of the breakdown of the CSM. The Visual SLAM state variable SS(1) represents the operating time between failures. Continuous
change of the state variable SS(1) is defined in terms of the differential equation in the subroutine STATE by:
SS(1)—SSL(l)+DTNOW * OPRT
(1)
where: DTNOW is the step size of OPTR and OPTR=1 or 0 specifies the rate of change of state variable SS(1) during the time duration DTNOW.
Figure 4 is a plot of the total production against the number of trucks while Table 2 summarizes the
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Visual SLAM simulation results for production, average waiting time and queue lengths of trucks at the CSM location and utilization of the server (CSM). The results in
Table 2 show that there were virtually no queues at the CSM location (<1 truck) and the waiting times of trucks at the CSM location were generally short (≤1.43 min.).
From Fig. 4, it is clear that the production levels off when five or more 90tonne trucks are allocated to the CSM. Therefore, the optimum fleet size is considered to be
5 trucks as it results in a production of 847,080 tonnes, 99.2% utilization of the CSM and a queue length of 0.119.
However, the high values of utilization of the CSM with increasing number of trucks mean that the unit is highly overutilized and could easily lead to sudden
breakdowns. It may be necessary to make strong arrangements for leasing another CSM from an equipment vendor to quickly replace this main equipment unit on the
mine in case of a serious breakdown that could take a longer time than scheduled to repair it.
3 CONTINUOUS MINERSHUTTLE CAR MODEL
In mechanized underground room and pillar stopes, continuous miners are often serviced by shuttle trucks. As in surface mining, it is necessary to optimize the units of
mining equipment to attain the required production at maximum efficiency and safety. The focus of this section is to develop a simulation model for coal mining in a
typical room and pillar (R&P) stope. The primary objectives are to determine the system drivers that lead to superior performance and understanding of the system
components.
3.1 Problem formulation
This scenario involves various continuous miner bolter/shuttle car combinations but this could easily be modified to simulate a conventional mining operation involving
drilling, cutting, blasting, cleaning, hauling operations [7]. This single coal seam is moderately hard and can easily be cut by the continuous miner [8]. The seam has a flat
dip (<10°), averages 2.13 m in height; the floor conditions are excellent while the roof is good with roofbolting done in 1.52×1.52 m patterns with short bolts. The mine
plans to produce 2.6 milion tonne of coal yearly by the R&P method from a 15 entry panel system each measuring 2.13×6.1 m. The mine has 260 scheduled
production days per annum and the system will employ 3 to 5 continuous miners (CMs) and a number of shuttle cars each with a 10tonne carrying capacity. The
loaded shuttle car haul the coal from the working face to a conveyor mechanism called the belt feeder breaker (FB). The coal is then moved by belt conveyors out of
the mine to the processing plant at the surface. To enhance the productivity and safety of the operations, fullface extraction, roof bolting and face ventilation are
performed by the CM and crew. Management wants to use simulation techniques to determine the equipment combinations, production time duration and number of
servers at the FB that will enable the mine to achieve the targeted annual production of coal and also to determine the main drivers of the system.
3.2 Model building and simulation
The Visual SLAM with AweSim software was used to model the continuous minershuttle car system. In this system the entities to be modeled are the 3 to 5 CMs and
the shuttle cars. Three to five shuttle cars are allocated to each CM and the shuttle cars always return to their respective CMs at the end of the cycle. As scheduled
maintenance on all mining equipment is to be done at the weekends, all the CMs and shuttle cars are considered to be unfailing units in the various modifications of the
model.
The results of the Visual SLAM simulation runs for the CMshuttle car combinations over periods ranging from one 6.5hour shift to two 10.5hour shifts are
summarized in Tables 3 and 4. Cases A to C comprise a combination of 3 shuttle cars to one CM and one server at the FB location; Cases D to F have 3 shuttle cars
per CM but with two servers at the FB location; Cases G to I have 4 shuttle cars per miner and one server at the FB while Cases J to L are similar to Cases G to I but
with two servers at the FB location.
From Table 3, it is significant to note that when 3 shuttle cars are allocated to each miner, the production of 3 miners is almost the same as that of 5 miners (see
Cases A and C in Table 3). The results from Tables 3 and 4 also show that the production is directly proportional to the duration of the shift and the number of CMs
employed in cutting at the face. As well, the production per unit time is almost doubled with 2 servers at the FB (i.e. when two shuttle cars can dump simultaneously)
instead of one server in most cases. When there is one server at the FB, there is no significant difference in production of 4 or 5 miners. Thus it is not economically
viable to increase the number of miners from 4 to 5. The queue lengths and waiting times in most cases were significantly shorter at the FB location when there were 2
servers as compared to one server [7].
In addition the following observations can be made from the simulation results. The targeted daily mine production of 10,000 tonnes can be achieved with following
combinations of CM and shuttle cars (i) four CMs each with 3 shuttle cars and two servers at the FB operating over 840 min. (Case E); (ii) five
Page 616
Table 3. Summary of production and balked units.
Production (tonnes)
Case no. No. of miners 780 min. 840 min. 960 min. 1260 min.
A 3 5480 5930 6730 8780
B 4 5300 5710 6630 8780
C 5 5500 5960 6730 8760
D 3 7890 8570 9850 12890
E 4 9750 10480 11980 15710
F 5 10620 11460 13030 17210
G 3 5630 6070 6970 8970
H 4 5390 5850 6720 8750
I 5 5590 5920 6760 8840
J 3 9740 10430 11910 15570
K 4 10670 11490 13160 17460
L 5 11280 12050 13780 18000
Number of balked units
Case no. No. of miners 780 min. 840 min. 960 min. 1260 min.
A 3 0 0 0 0
B 4 47 49 51 67
C 5 216 232 276 361
D 3 0 0 0 0
E 4 0 0 0 0
F 5 10 10 11 12
G 3 36 37 43 62
H 4 297 316 364 482
I 5 613 658 750 993
J 3 0 0 0 0
K 4 25 27 28 35
L 5 168 189 215 289
CMs each with 3 shuttle cars and two servers at the FB operating over 780 min. (Case F); (iii) three CMs each with 4 shuttle cars and two servers at the FB operating
over 840 min. (Case J); (iv) four CMs each with 4 shuttle cars and two servers at the FB operating over 780 min. (Case K) and, (v) five CMs each with 4 shuttle cars
and two servers at the FB operating over 780 min. (Case K).
However, considering the number of balked units, queue lengths and waiting times at the FB, Cases F, K and L above are considered unfavourable and are
eliminated from further consideration. The optimum equipment combinations are either employing 4 miners each with 3 shuttle cars (Case E) or 3 CMs each with 4
shuttle cars (Case J) operating over a period of 840 min. in each case. With these combinations there are no balked units which require the rehandling of coal by front
endloaders at the FB location. This means that miners with cutting rates ranging from 4.17 to 5.6 tons/min. are required to allow for surges and contingencies during
production. Further simulation and cost analysis of both combinations are required to select the more appropriate one.
Table 4. Summary of queue lengths and waiting times of units at FB.
Production (tonnes)
Case no. No. of miners 780 min. 840 min. 960 min. 1260 min.
A 3 3.19 3.20 3.19 3.27
B 4 5.97 5.99 5.91 5.88
C 5 6.94 6.91 6.93 6.95
D 3 0.49 0.46 0.44 0.42
E 4 1.46 1.57 1.50 1.49
F 5 3.59 3.56 3.64 3.58
G 3 5.64 5.62 5.62 5.75
H 4 7.07 7.05 7.07 7.07
I 5 7.37 7.39 7.40 7.42
J 3 1.23 1.29 1.25 1.25
K 4 4.17 4.17 4.14 4.03
L 5 5.78 5.83 5.85 5.59
Number of balked units
Case no. No. of miners 780 min. 840 min . 960 min. 1260min.
A 3 4.49 4.52 4.51 4.66
B 4 8.67 8.70 8.45 8.40
C 5 9.74 9.63 9.79 9.90
D 3 0.46 0.45 0.42 0.41
E 4 1.16 1.21 1.20 1.19
F 5 2.62 2.60 2.67 2.61
G 3 7.73 7.66 7.67 8.01
H 4 10.09 9.98 9.98 10.08
I 5 10.21 10.32 10.38 10.46
J 3 0.99 1.04 1.00 1.01
K 4 3.03 3.03 3.01 2.91
L 5 3.97 4.03 4.05 4.10
4 HOIST SCHEDULING MODEL
In underground mining operations, men, equipment and supplies have to be sent to various working levels to work and ensure that all the underground operations and
services are operating at optimum levels. As most underground operations are conducted around the clock, the underground hoisting system is required to operate
around the clock as well. With the increasing costs of energy (liquid fuels and electricity), it is important to reduce the number of runs of the cage down the shaft and
eliminate all unnecessary and unproductive runs. In this section, the single hoist system of an underground coal mine serving 20 working levels is modeled and simulated
using Visual SLAM with AweSim. The problem is divided into two parts. First the existing operation of the hoist system is simulated (Phase I) and secondly a
scheduling algorithm is incorporated into the Visual SLAM model (Phase II).
Data was obtained on the current operation of the hoist system. No times were provided for loading and
Page 617
Table 5. Frequency and duration of requests for the cage.
Down Up
Level Frequency Cum. frequency Frequency Cum. frequency Time
400 0.0017 0.003 0.0017 0.004 0.78
600 0.0135 0.03 0.0106 0.034 0.92
800 0.007 0.043 0.0065 0.052 1.05
1000 0.0082 0.06 0.0065 0.07 1.11
1200 0 0.06 0.0006 0.072 1.32
1400 0.0153 0.09 0.0054 0.087 1.45
1600 0.0106 0.111 0.0059 0.104 1.58
1800 0.01 0.131 0.0054 0.119 1.61
2000 0.0029 0.136 0.0012 0.122 1.72
2200 0.0423 0.22 0.0241 0.189 1.85
2400 0.0117 0.243 0.0047 0.203 1.98
2600 0.0787 0.399 0.0499 0.342 2.12
2800 0.0352 0.468 0.0235 0.408 2.38
3000 0.0188 0.505 0.0153 0.451 2.65
3200 0.0047 0.515 0.0024 0.457 2.78
3400 0.1955 0.901 0.1503 0.878 2.92
3600 0.0041 0.909 0.01 0.906 3.18
4000 0.0217 0.952 0.017 0.953 3.24
4160 0.0235 0.998 0.0159 0.998 3.29
4330 0.0006 1 0.0006 1 3.4
Total 0.506 — 0.3575 — —
unloading of the cage or the average size of the loads being transported. The information provided included the frequencies of requests and the duration of the trips to
the 20 working levels and surface. The raw cage data is presented in Table 5 [9].
4.1 Network modeling of hoist system
The operation of the cage is complicated by a series of interruptions involving scheduled maintenance, blasting, crew changes and inspections. These interruptions are
summarized in Table 6. As there was no information on equipment breakdowns, the units were modeled as unfailing units in the simulation model.
Requests for trips from the surface to the working levels are exponentially distributed with a mean of 15 min. while the requests for trips from the working levels to
surface were exponentially distributed with a mean of 10min. In the network model of the hoisting system, it was assumed that all interruptions were independent and
could not be combined, that all down trips originated at the surface while all the up trips terminated at the surface. As well, all interruptions were given equal weighting
and do not interfere with a trip in progress.
4.1.1 Phase I
The hoisting simulation was created using basic network modeling in Visual SLAM [6].
Table 6. Hoist delay times and durations.
The cage was modeled as a RESOURCE block, with a single unit available. Two possible methods of modeling the requests for the cage were considered. The first
method employed two CREATE nodes—one node to generate cage up requests and the second for the cage down requests. The request would then be routed
to/from the appropriate level based on the frequency of the requests in Table 5. This makes each of the CREATE nodes to have twenty probabilistic branches
emanating from it and all (total of 40) converging to a single AWAIT node to seize the cage.
The second method involved using the cumulative probability for each of the trip requests. Once the cumulative probability is known for a given request, a random
number (between 0 and 1) is generated, and based on this distribution, a trip destination assigned. This method involves creating an array of the requests. The array has
the first row containing the destinations, the second row is the up request cumulative probabilities, the third row has the down request probabilities and the fourth row
contains the trip times. Two CREATE nodes are used to differentiate the up and down requests. The entities created are assigned attributes to identify them as they
move through the network. These attributes store the direction (an up or a down entity), and the random number used on the entity to determine the destination.
The interruptions in the hoist scheduling system were modeled using a combination of PREEMPT nodes and a user written allocation subroutine (ALLOC) in the
AWAIT node. The user written ALLOC subroutine is similar to the default one provided by Visual SLAM [6]. The difference is that the resource is not seized until
after the activity following the user written ALLOC routine is completed. The interruptions are stored in file 1 and the load requests in file 2. This gives the interruptions
Page 618
Table 7. Performance of the hoist system with scheduling and no scheduling.
a higher priority to the resource and ensures that they are carried out first before the loads. The model was simulated for a period of one week (168 hr.) to
accommodate all the scheduled interruptions.
4.1.2 Phase II
The second phase of the model involves modifying the model to incorporate a scheduling algorithm. This is accomplished by inserting an ASSIGN node and a
FINDAR node into the network in Phase I (not included due to lack of space in this paper). The assign node is used to set a global variable LL(1) to the opposite type
of entity to the current one. The FINDAR node searches the queue nodes for any waiting requests for trips and if there are any requests from intermediate levels
between the present location of the cage and the final destination level of the cage in the direction of movement, the requests will be serviced by the cage on that trip.
Table 7 summarizes the performance of the cage with and without scheduling. The ‘move time’ in Table 7 is the time that a load is actually engaged in the hoisting
operation, and the ‘time in system’ is the time between the creation of the load (entity) and when it arrives and is released at its destination. Since no change was made
in the way the hoist operates, the ‘move time’ is the same in both scenarios.
The results show that the number of loads moved through the system increased by 9%, from 1617 to 1764 with scheduling. The average time in the system dropped
from 725.844 min. to 104.922 min. while the utilization of the cage decreased from 99.6% (with no scheduling) to 96.2% (with scheduling) thus making available some
potential extra capacity of the cage. The average queue lengths for loads decreased from 122.096 in the no scheduling scenario to 17.754 with scheduling of the cage.
This accounts for about 85% drop in queue lengths. As well, the average waiting time of loads for the cage dropped from 697.297 min. to 101.393 min. These clearly
show that the efficiency of the hoisting system can be drastically improved with scheduling using Visual SLAM simulation techniques.
REFERENCES
[1] T.S.Bishop, Trucks in E.P.Pfleide (Ed.), Surface mining, 1 (New York, NY: SMEAIME, 1968) 553–583.
[2] Anonymous, Caterpillar Performance Handbook, (Peoria, USA: Caterpillar Inc.,1993).
[3] A.B.Litke, D.Laroche, D.Strong and J.Szymanski, A computer simulation model of underground production mining: a tool for benchmarking, XXIVth Int. Symposium—
Application of Computers and Operati Research in the Mineral Industry, Montreal, Canada, 1993, 402–409
[4] W.H.Griffin and J.K.Szymanski, A simulation analysis model for a continuous surface miner and trucks operations using SLAM II, Proc. of the Second Int. Symp. on
Continuous Surface Mining, Austin, USA, 1988, 189–199.
[5] Anonymous, @RISK: Risk simulation and analysis for spreadsheets, (Newfield, NY: Palisade Corporation, 1997).
[6] A.A.B.Pritsker, J.J.O’Reilly and D.K.LaVal, Simulations with Visual SLAM and AweSim, (West Lafayette, IN: Systems Publishing Corp., 1997).
[7] R.S.Suglo and J.Szymanski, Computer simulation of underground room and pillar mining, Proc. of Underground Operator’s Conference, Kalgoorlie, Western
Australia, 1995, 1–4.
[8] C.B.Manula and S.C.Suboleski, Study of interrelationships and constraints in underground coal mining, in W.A.Hustrulid (Ed.) Underground mining methods
handbook (Littleton, CO: SMEAIME, 1982) 325–336.
[9] D.Booth and J.Szymanski, Simulation of an underground hoist with scheduling, Proc. of AmericanPolis Mining Symposium, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, 2000, 291–
300.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The control of mining operations at OJSC “SSGPO” with due account of
distinctions of simulating the preparation processes
M.M.Turdakhunov, O.S.Isatchenko & V.D.Scherba
Open JointStock Company “SokolovoSarbaiskoe miningandprocessing industrial complex” (OJSC “SSGPO”)
S.I.Petrovitch, M.A.Faizulin & N.G.Stukalova
RSE “Complex Processing of Mineral Raw Materials National Centre of the Republic of Kazakhstan”
(NC CPMRM), Almaty, The Republic of Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: The paper describes the method of the technological balance calculation of ore masses in processing and iron they contain, and the
determination of technological characteristics of the preparation1 of different types of ores simultaneously processed at the preparation plant. In the
mathematical model of the balance calculation, the casual delays of the entry of some ore mass portions in accumulative bins are taken into account as
the incomplete production. It leads to decreasing the values of corrections in the given problem and significant approximation to the real representation
of the movement of the ore masses at the preparation plant. The technological characteristics of the preparation of various ore types, obtained on this
base allow one to forecast, with a high degree of reliability, the indexes of the preparation plant operation at different variants of feeding of the ore raw
material from open casts. Their use in mathematical models for forming the week24hourly schedules of mining and processing the ore, increases the
indexes of the preparation plant work.
1 INTRODUCTION
Today in the JointStock Company “SSGPO”, the continuous increase of volumes of working out commodity output takes place, which demands widening the mineral
raw material base, involving in mining and processing ores from various by mineral composition, physicalmechanical and preparation properties of ore bodies. The
increase of requirements, under modern market conditions, to quality and terms of the shipment of working out commodity output makes it necessary to study
preparation properties of ores from each of working out deposits more carefully, bringing to light the opportunities of their participation in forming the ore flows,
directed to processing. It requires, besides the use of known methods of the laboratory analysis of preparation properties of ores by ore testing, the modern
geoinformation systems to
1
Under technological characteristics of preparation of special ore, processed at preparation plant with using of the common technological scheme we mean a set of functional dependences,
representing with high degree of reliability, changing of extraction of metals into products of processing of raw material and of yield of products of processing on content of metals in a feed
of separation processes.
be applied to study the miningandprocessing enterprises using the mathematical methods of technical problems solving for the analysis of the preparation plant work
and technical and economic problems of rational control of ore flows from open casts.
2 DETAILS OF THE STUDY
As far as in the technological scheme of mineral raw material processing (Fig. 1) unforeseen delays of ore, coming from various sources of ore masses, and middlings
received from them take place in bins and technological chains, the necessity to define these masses as some volumes of a work in process appears.
Technological preparation characteristics of ores from various open casts can be received when processing enough arrays of the statistical data about shifts
parameters of preparation plant operation during some period. However, it is required to evaluate before, what masses from entering to processing ore of various
sources of mineral raw materials and middlings received from them were processed correspondingly in this or that shift by dry and wet magnetic separations (DMS,
WMS).
Page 620
Figure 1. Technological scheme of processing of mineral raw material at preparation plant of JointStock Company “SSGPO”.
Figure 2. Dependencies of the technological preparation characteristics of iron extraction into middlings on metal content in ore from
various sources at a stage DMS.
Otherwise, it is necessary to restore dynamic representing ore masses movement in each shift from various sources and received from them products of processing,
which allows saving the balance of processed masses of mineral raw material and iron, contained in them, at all technological chain for some allocated period. This
problem cannot be solved with the help of using known methods of calculation of technological balance at the preparation plant (Braun et al, 1991). JointStock
Company “SSGPO” together withRSE “NC CPMRM” worked out the method and the complex of software for its solving (Turdakhunov et al, 2003, Methodical
manuals…, 2004), allowing one to obtain very close to reality the results in the automated mode. The practice of using this method and the complex of software
showed, that representing with their help the imitation of processing the mineral raw materials and the forecast on this basis with due account of the industrial
experimental data of the technological preparation characteristics of processed ores from various sources allows displaying very precisely actually received parameters
the preparation plant work during the subsequent periods.
On figure 2, dependences of iron extraction into middlings of DMS on its content in ores from different open casts are presented. They essentially differ from each
other.That shows their distinctions in mineralogical composition, structure of ore masses and enclosing rocks, magnetic, physicalmechanical and other properties,
which differently influence the process of metal extraction when simultaneous processing of ore by common technological scheme takes place. The similar distinctions
are observed in the dependences of the yield of middlings for the same ores on the iron content in them.
Page 621
Figure 3. Dependencies of concentrate yield from ores from different open casts on iron content in them.
Figure 4. The graph of the remainders, obtained by comparison of calculated and actual indexes of preparation plant work (by mass of
concentrate) for August, 2003.
Using this method and the complex of software when processing the actual shifts parameters of work of the preparation plant during some time interval allows one to
receive such dependences for WMS stage, and also generalizing the dependencies for all technological chain of ore processing as a whole. Figure 3 presents such
generalizing dependencies for the concentrate yield for ores from various open casts, received when processing the actual shift data about the preparation plant
operation over the period MarchMay 2003 year.
Practice has shown, that the dependencies, received by worked out method, long time after their determination allow one to predict with a high degree of accuracy
the results preparation plant of work on the mineral raw processing, entering from the same sources. So, in figure 4, the schedule of the remainders is presented, which
is constructed on the basis deviations of calculated indexes from the factual indexes of the preparation plant work during 62 shifts in August 2003. Calculated indexes
were received based on earlier determined dependencies of technological preparation characteristics of ore, using the method of technological balance calculation
worked out by us. It proves high level of the model adequacy, used for forecasting.
The deviation of the calculated data from actual average indexes of the preparation plant work for August 2003 year as a whole is: by mass of a concentrate:
(1090122−1088918)=1204 tons (0,11%); by mass of iron in concentrate: (723256−723788)= −532 tons (−0,074%); by iron contents in concentrate: (66,35−66,47)
=−0,12% (−0,184%).
The achieved high level of adequacy of models used for the technological balance calculation at the preparation plant and forecasting the parameters of its work, and
the stability long enough in time of received generalized dependencies of the technological preparation characteristics of ores from various open casts allows one to use
them for timely
Page 622
week24hourly planning of the interaction between the mining enterprises and the preparation plants. JointStock Company “SSGPO” and in RSE “NC
CPMRM” (Petrovitch et al, 2000; Complex processing, 2003) worked out the method and the complex of software for solving a problem of forming the rational
week24hourly schedules of mining and processing the ore at the preparation plant in the automated mode, where in the mathematical model, which will be presented
below, the forenamed dependencies are used. The nonlinear form of these dependencies proves the presence of extreme values. The rational value mass of the
concentrate of required quality is received when realizing the following mathematical model.
Find maximum function:
(1)
when realizing the following restrictions:
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
where:
I—number of working blocks (face) taking part in forming the planned schedule at realization of mining operations;
K—number of excavators working in the open cast in planning period;
T—number of fixed length of time in the planned schedule;
Ik—set of blocks, mined by kth excavator;
Qt—planned volume of ore, which is necessary to ship in tth time interval for processing at a preparation plant, thou. ton;
αt—weighed mean content of iron in ore arriving for processing in tth time interval, %;
f(αt)—function of the concentrate mass extracted from one thousand tons of ore from specific open cast depending on its content in mineral raw materials,
corresponding with depending on concentrate yield, presented on figure 3 for this open cast, t;
xi,t—volume of ore of mined in ith working block (face) in tth time interval, thou. tons;
—maximum possible volume of shipment of ore in tth time interval, thou. tons;
—minimum necessary volume of shipment of ore in tth time interval, thou. tons
—maximum possible volume of ore mining in ith working block (face) in tth time interval, thou. tons;
—minimum necessary volume of ore mining in ith working block (face) in tth time interval, thou. tons;
maximum possible volume of ore mining in ith working block (face) for all planned period, thou. tons;
—minimum necessary volume of ore mining in ith working block (face) for all planned period, thou. tons;
αi—content of iron in ore of ith working block (face), %;
Qpl—planned volume of mining of ore during planned period, thou. tons;
—isolated flows on the specially constructed graph of a sequence of operation of kth excavator, representing possibility of its operation in ith the block
accordingly in tth or(t+ 1)th periods;
—isolated flows on the same graph, representing possibility moving of kth excavator after finishing of tth period according from jth to ith block or from ith
to jth block;
—maximum possible volume of iron in mined ore,
When realizing the worked out mathematical model with the help of the function of the purpose (1) mass of concentrate is maximized obtained at preparation plant.
With the help of restrictions (2), the ore flow is formed from ith of blocks in every fixed tth time interval. With the help of restrictions (3), the
Page 623
Table 1. Comparison of separate parameters of work of preparation plant when forming of schedules of mining and processing of ore of Katcharskiy
open cast from January 30, 2004 up to February 5, 2004 by various methods.
When using of traditional method of schedule When schedule forming with using of the established technological preparation
forming characteristics of ores
Fe content in ore, % Fe content in ore, %
Date Ore, Middlings, Concentrate, Ore Middlings Concentrate Tailings of Ore, Middlings, Concentrate, Ore Middlings Concentrate Tailings of
dry dry mass, dry mass, wet dry dry mass, dry mass, wet
mass, thou. t thou. t magentic mass, thou. t thou. t magentic
thou. t separation thou. t separation
30.01.04 35,35 29,28 12,87 31,4 36,0 66,58 12,01 36,0 28,54 9,93 26,00 30,80 66,95 11,50
31.01.04 26,89 22,1 9,37 30,44 35,11 66,58 11,94 30,43 24,20 8,58 26,38 31,16 66,87 11,53
01.02.04 26,89 22,1 9,37 30,44 35,11 66,58 11,94 30,43 24,20 8,58 26,38 31,16 66,87 11,53
02.02.04 36 29,82 13,11 31,4 36,02 66,66 11,97 32,03 26,96 14,30 36,00 41,25 67,05 12,09
03.02.04 36 29,82 13,11 31,4 36,02 66,66 11,97 32,03 26,96 14,30 36,00 41,25 67,05 12,09
04.02.04 33,2 27,58 12,55 32,17 36,91 66,69 12,04 33,30 27,88 13,96 34,47 39,53 66,91 12,07
05.02.04 33,2 27,58 12,55 32,17 36,91 66,69 12,04 33,30 27,88 13,96 34,47 39,53 66,91 12,07
227,53 188,28 82,93 31,40 36,05 66,64 11,98 227,53 186,62 83,63 31,40 36,51 66,94 11,80
Page 624
planned volume of mining is set for all periods. The restrictions (4) and (5) do not allow exceeding the maximum possible or undervaluing the minimum necessary
volume of ore mining in every tth time interval. With the help of restriction (6), the weighedmean content of iron in ore mined in tth time interval is defined. The
restrictions (7)–(8) give the minimum and maximum volumes of ore mined in the block in every fixed time interval, and restrictions (9)–(10)—the minimum and
maximum volumes of ore mined in the block for all planned period. With the help of restrictions (7)–(10), it is practically possible to control completely the block work,
distributing volumes of mining from them in different time intervals or, if necessary, generally excluding them from the plan. The equations (11)–(13) insure the condition
of a technological sequence of mining the blocks by excavators. The equation (14) restricts the volume of iron in mined ore with the exception of mining the blocks only
with the rich content of metal.
The forenamed mathematical model represents a task of nonlinear, partially integer programming with nonlinear expressions in the goal function and equations (6).
For its solution, the special methods and complex of the software were worked out.
The rationally formed calendar plan based on the mathematical model (1)–(16) promotes the realization in time by the sort delivery and processing of ores in the
preparation plant, the increase of concentrate yield. The realization of any other plan decreases the economic indexes of the operation of miningandprocessing
enterprise.
In table 1, the comparison of the separate parameters of the preparation plant work when forming the schedules of mining and shipment of ore for Katcharskiy open
cast by various methods (earlier existing and newly worked out with using the established technological preparation characteristics of ores) is given. As we can see from
the presented data, the various order of mining and shipment of the ore from the same blocks on separate days of the week allows one to receive different from each
other indexes of preparation plant work. Thus, the use of the new method raises the work efficiency of the preparation plant. From the data in table 1 we may see that
when realizing the schedule, worked out by the new method, for the same mass of ore shipped from Katcharskiy open cast to the preparation plant (227,53 thousand
ton) with the same quality (31,4% Fe) the concentrate yield will increase by: 100 * (83,63−82,93)782,93=0,844%. Thus, the decrease of iron loss in tails WMS by:
100 * (11,98−11,80) * 11,80=1,525% takes place and the quality of concentrate increases.
3 CONCLUSIONS
The use of the worked out geoinformation systems for solving the problems of the process analysis of the mineral raw material processing and the work control of the
miningandprocessing enterprises allows increasing the level of reliability and objectivity of the information flows, representing the pattern of mining and processing of
mineral raw materials, and increasing the yield and quality of the commodity production without additional expenses.
REFERENCES
Braun V.I., Djumin V.G., Protsuto V.S., Milin I.M. Balance of metals. Calculations on the COMPUTER: The Handbook—M.: Bowels, 1991.–192.
Turdakhunov M.M., Kuksov A.P., Bukeikhanov D.G., Petrovitch S.I. Opportunity of use of technological preparation characteristics of the mining enterprises of JSC
“SSGPO” for increase of efficiency of its work. The Industry of Kazakhstan, 2003, No4. P. 86–87.
Methodical manual on using of programs of control of database, solving problems of calculation of technological balance at the JointStock Company “SSGPO” processed
at the preparation plant of ore masses and iron, contained in them, and of definition of technological preparation characteristics of ores from various open casts
(underground mine). AlmatyRudnyi, 2004.– 42 p.
Petrovitch S.I., Mukusheva A.S., Stukalova N.G., Smailova R.G., Faizulin M.A., Streltsova G.A. Forming of rational flows of ores with due account of coproducts
extraction into copper concentrate. The International Scientificpractical Conference “Mining in Kazakhstan. Modern condition and prospects”, Almaty, September, 4–7,
2000. Issue II, P. 103–106.
Complex processing of mineral raw materials of Kazakhstan (modern condition, problems, decisions). In 10th volumes. (Group of authors). Volume 9. Information
technology in mineral raw materials complex. Section 5.— Astana, 2003, 400 p.
Page 625
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The attempts at the integration of information from different levels of coal mines
J.T.Wojciechowski
Research and Development Centre for Electrical Engineering and Automation in Mining EMAG, Katowice, Poland
ABSTRACT: A high level of complexity of a coal mine structure as an object of the process control and dispatcher’s monitoring results in appearing
automatization islands in coal mines in the past. They were heterogeneous in their structure and applied technologies, from hardware, through
communication logic, to the way of recording and displaying data. The supervision of coal extraction, transport, staff location, machine diagnostics,
facility management, natural hazard and safety condition are just only some areas of control in coal mines. They were implemented over different
periods of time and at different levels of technology development. The aim of nowadays integration of information is to facilitate the process of decision
making and support the crisis situations. The way of depiction of information at different levels of monitoring and supervising coal mine has the
fundamental meaning in this matter.
1 INTRODUCTION
Developing and maintaining software for largescale dispatching systems for coal mine where a high degree of coupling exists between the software and its environment,
and where the environment changes with time, is a difficult and timeconsuming task. Many causes contribute to the difficulty, with some being more prevalent than
others. The system collects and stores data from hundreds or thousands of points within the mine, and reduces those data into various realtime and historical
production and status reports for use by production control, process and mine management.
The term “dispatching system” invokes different ideas for each individual case when it is applied to the mining industry. For some, dispatching may mean amonitoring
process such as conveyor transport, material handling, ventilation networks, pumping systems etc. For others, it may mean realtime management of information
systems such as inventory control, equipment status, location of personnel, predictive maintenance. Yet another view of dispatching as an advanced way of presentation
is to give uptodate information of the entire underground mining process. For EMAG the goal of dispatching system is to take realtime decisions that allow to change
the process on the fly and to make strategic decisions affecting the longterm results of the mining operations underground of coal mine (Mironowicz & Wojciechowski,
2000).
Short and longterm decisions concerning the following areas of mine interest:
1.1 Energy
• efficient switch off systems of electric energy in emergency and breakdown conditions,
• power supply systems, energysaving, intrinsically safe and environmentally friendly systems to control electric devices.
1.2 Production
• increasing the effectiveness and output of coal face systems which refers to both cutterloaders and heading machines in order to control and diagnose the local
system, with the purpose of guiding repairs and inspections of equipment,
• longwall automation which increases the reliability of equipment, with the purpose of removing people from a potentially hazardous environment, especially important
in gassy and dusty faces.
1.3 Quality
• to control coal quality and weight, which is essential not only for quality management in preparation plant but for the control of flow of coal through complex mining
and transport phases on belt conveyors, underground.
Page 626
1.4 Economy
• cost reductions by automating some of the underground processes such as hoisting, material handling (conveyors), ventilation networks and pumping systems.
1.5 Safety
• to monitor and control environmental risks and hazards e.g. roof collapse, gas explosions and outbursts, coal dust and dust explosions, mine fires, and underground
floods, rock bump as well as safety of work of miners, being underground, and the system of their localization in mine.
Safety has become a priority. It is no longer optional, it is mandatory, and when safety functions are automated they result in less machine downtime in relation to
manual methods. This increases production, throughput and provides a returnoninvestment on adding safety equipment. So adding safety equipment to all types of
mining processes is not only the right thing to do, it is the profitable thing to do as well.
2 BACKGROUND
As very often the data acquisition systems in different sections of a mine come from different vendors, have different level of technologies, and are not interlinked, we
have to deal with the idiosyncrasies of these implementations. Being able to capture this information in one data structured models help the integration effort
considerably. Quick and reliable information flow between tillnow separate subsystems, unified graphical method of visualization,
Figure 1. Dispatcher’s control room in Bogdanka coal mine.
presentation of the largeformat images from the various processing systems in dispatcher room are expected features of the dispatcher system (Fig. 1).
Moreover information has to be shared horizontally across each manager of the coal mine in order to provide effective integrated control. The screens to the EMAG
integrated control environment consist of operation, collaborative monitoring, control connectivity workstations. The operator workstation delivers comprehensive
operation information including output and production data, process status, equipment schematic, remote diagnostics module. The collaboration monitoring workstation
delivers broad scope of information to the mine supervision staff (safety manager, energy manager, methane metering manager, rock bump manager, etc.) The
information is aggregated from the control and monitoring systems, as well as from point solution modules (like scheduling of miners, asset management, historian) within
the mine dispatching system execution database.
Therefore, the system must not only provide a clear picture of mine’s condition but also to do this with the proper level of details and then selection for specialist
mine service (dispatchers, supervision staff and machine operators). Some control decisions or assisting suggestions on safety must be automatically matched because
they require correlation of information coming out from different processes by means of algorithms being more complicated than the dispatcher’s commonsense or
intuitive activity.
On the other hand the system should also support a process of making decision not only on the basis of knowledge included in mine database, but in their
experience.
The spatial structure of a mine and mine areas with sources of extractions and disturbances therein located in the form of events and their effects connected with one
another allow us to consider the mine as a complex spatial system with strong mutual structural and functional correlations. Observation and control of mine in such a
way, requires a new look at the problem of presentation and visualization.
Dispatcher’s management of those dynamic processes in a coal mine is a challenge even for a skilled and trained person. Due to the high amount of critical process
values this application is predestined to be used as interactive, dynamic information presentation based on computer graphics. The ability to present information through
dynamic images and to change them interactively has been a mile stone in technical development of coal mine systems. Because there is a limited area of space available
on a graphic display, it becomes difficult to present abstract information in a graphical user interface; so the designer must be careful to determine where abstraction is
useful and where more information is required.
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3 APPROACH
The dispatcher interface has been simplified and automated for easy status viewing. The screen shows the current status of all alarms and control functions. A quick
glance shows outstanding alarms i.e. unacknowledged ones. The status screen has been organized for more concise visual information, usually without scrolling.
Greater flexibility was added for customizing and prioritizing events by color changes, shapes, etc.
But watching dispatcher’s work in a few mines come us to conclusion that in order to make a profit from this technology, the design has to be based on human
requirements instead of a technical feasibility. At a first glance, requirements are well known. But requirements describing the necessary information, the way
information is presented for an easy and fast bring event to dispatcher’s notice, in other words perception is not always sufficient to ensure the right interpretation of
circumstances. Dispatcher’s cognitive requirements have to take into account to resolve spatial problems (Helmetag, 2000). Spatial cognition overcomes the lack of the
knowledge about places unseen and path unraveled e.g. in the underground working network where technological activity in mining areas such as: shooting, welding or
stopping auxiliary fans causes a lot of disturbances in air, smoke flow velocity, concentration of gases or flowing dust.
Uncertainty of knowledge where, when and what the values of certain parameters of phenomenon are, becomes serious problem for dispatcher.
It is the result from the fact that sensors are not placed in the continuous way along in all mine galleries. Information about smoke appearance or CO increase on the
background of mine map doesn’t determine the place of source of danger e.g. a fire. As a consequence it is very hard to propose and indicate escape ways for miners
from dangerous zones and show optimal roads for rescue teams or avoid running into the “methane trap” (Wasilewski, 2002).
It is most important in situations of astress disturbance, or in the face of other difficulties and impediments. It takes place in early stage of recognition symptoms and
location of hazard e.g. fire.
Learned from the experience (Brake, 1999) the key problems regarding fire fighting are, among others, as follows:
• buying time, “Enormous confusion and conflicting reports occur in the early stages of a mine fire…a good strategy is to get people safe quickly”.
• targeting search and rescue resources, “Simultaneously fighting a fire and searching for and rescuing workers requires a large number of highly trained personnel. It is
crucial that search and rescue resources can be targeted and not sent off looking for workers in wrong place, or workers who are already safe”.
This results that traditional personnel tagging system should be changed into active tracking and identification of miners system. Fire dispatcher who is under great
pressure and not necessarily thinking clearly should see visual “memory prompts” reminding him of the sorts of activities he should be doing or monitoring during the
course of the emergency.
Information taken from the spatial environment (e.g. galleries configuration, localization of sensors, workers, measurement data etc.) is presented on screen, stored in
computer disk and associated in dispatcher’s brain.
Maps of coal seams, outlines of technological processes, charts of ventilation network are the backgrounds of presentation of synthetic vision of circumstances and
measure parameters (Fig. 2) (Wojciechowski, 2001).
The right connection and graphical presentation methods on the dispatcher’s screen makes the impression of using the pictures of dimensional structure. Using proper
logic for given situation, the dispatcher can be helped by means of ready made whattodo algorithms using maps, charts, lists of phone numbers set in order of their
importance, the description of escape routes etc.
An example may be a wayfinding process which describes the activities of dispatcher and movement of a miner from one location in underground to another on the
surface. The process supported by software can be distinguished into same sequential steps:
• giving information to supervisors,
Figure 2. Graphical interface of dispatching system SD2000.
Page 628
• location of miners and orientation of direction of spreading the source of danger e.g. fire,
• planning escape route using socalled “strategy for emergency egress books” including emergency procedures and heuristics knowledge that is rules of thumb,
• control of track (telephone, loudspeaker system, electronic identification of miners), monitors the execution of the route plan and changes it when obstacles are met.
The most important is that the problem solving, above mentioned has not only be reliable and accurate, but also as fast and flexible as possible. It is extremely important
for the dispatchers working at night’s shifts or weekends where there are relatively less people to support his actions or simply to help him.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Nowadays productivity improvements have been realized by the closure of old mines with large infrastructures, closure of less productive mines, improved management
approaches, technological advancements, improved information systems, and reengineering of mining plans.
EMAG’s goal for integrated architecture information system for coal mines is to offer the users a choice of open technologies; an architecture capable of realtime
control, communication, and visualization; and an integrated control and information database that would be both backwards compatible and capable of forward
migration.
EMAG’s architectural strategy includes premier integration with other EMAG’s automation products families for faster, lowercost design, higher network
throughput and greater network flexibility, but in the typical coal mine where there are few separate multivendore environments, subsystems coming from different
vendors, which are not interlinked, the system architecture must take it into account.
Integration of information takes place in the data base servers and through dispatching system reaches every point of mine, and screens contents of data base
according to different profile and expectation of users.
The presentation of information for an easy and fast bring events to dispatcher notice require to bind functions and structures of subsystems on the mixture of maps
of coal seams, outlines of technological processes, charts of ventilation network forming semispatial schemes significantly improving and facilitating perception and
cognition of the dispatcher.
Attempts to use such an approach to the presentation an integration of information can be seen in Bogdanka, Murcki, Wesote coal mines.
REFERENCES
Brake, R. 1999. An Integrated Strategy for Emergency Egress from an Underground Metal Mine. Proceedings of the 8th U.S Mine Ventilation Symposium, Rolla,
Missouri, USA: 649–659.
Helmetag, A. 2000. Improvement of Perception and Cognition in Synthetic Spatial Environments. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Darmstadt. Germany.
Mironowicz, W. & Wojciechowski, J. 2000. Monitoring and visualization of mining processes and safety condition in the dispatching system SD2000, Proceedings of 28th
Conference on Automation and Telecommunication in Mines and Processing Plants—Coal and Minerals, Szczyrk, Poland: 124–128.
Wasilewski, S. 2002. Time of Gas Disturbances Propagation in the Mine Ventilation Network Proceedings of the North American 9th US Mine Ventilation Symposium,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada: 557–562.
Wojciechowski, J. 2001. A New Approach to Monitoring in the Advanced Dispatching System for Coal Mines, Proceedings of 17th International Mining Congress and
Exhibition of Turkey, Ankara, Turkey: 251–257.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Rope shovel productivity improvements—site trials experimental design
E.WidzykCapehart
The University of Queensland, Division of Mining and Minerals Eng., CRCMining, Brisbane, Australia
A.McDonald
Organisational Psychology and Human Behavior Consultant, Brisbane, Australia
ABSTRACT: The optimum performance of an electric rope shovel relies on the machineenvironment and machineoperator interactions. The
operator’s performance and behavior change may significantly improve or worsen shovel performance affecting downstream processes. Previous
research indicates that the operator’s behavior can be significantly influenced by realtime feedback. The feedback assists an operator by indicating the
specific movement patterns, which need changing for performance to meet a particular standard or goal. This paper focuses on the design and
implementation of the site trials: from the selection of the feedback model and the design of feedback device via determination of operating conditions
and methodology strategies to results verification. Two case studies illustrate the importance of thorough understanding of all variables influencing the
operator’s performance prior to trials being carried out. The site trials experimental designs are scrutinized in terms of the shovel productivity
improvements.
1 INTRODUCTION
Behavior change to improve operator performance on industrial manual tasks, such as operation of mining equipment, is an important research focus as operators’
performance may have a considerable impact on organisational productivity and maintenance costs.
In organizational literature, feedback has been identified as an important tool in behaviour change, with both informational and motivational effects on performance
(Hackman & Oldham, 1976; Ilgen, Fisher & Taylor, 1979; Northcraft & Earley, 1989). The selection and design of feedback model influences the development of
strategies for infield application. Testing of a prototype device in a reallife situation requires an understanding of operating conditions in which the operator must
perform.
Laboratory testing provides knowledge on how well the mechanism might function once it is installed and commissioned on the machine. However it does not
provide sufficient information on how the human operator will react to provided stimuli and process the information to achieve the desirable outcome in reallife
situation.
There were two major dependent variables of interest in the study: frequency of swing stall and feedback acceptance. Frequency of swing stall was measured using
continuous realtime sampling as the percentage of cycles in which a swingstall was detected, reportedly the most powerful and rigorous method of behavior
observation (Primavera et al., 1997).
This was generated using the joystick reference coordinates and motor currents recorded from the shovel. Acceptance of the feedback was assessed qualitatively,
during postintervention interviews, and quantitatively, through the amount of time the monitor was switched ON in the feedback phase.
This paper provides a description of various factors considered before implementation of the visual feedback device on electric rope shovel was undertaken and
how those parameters influenced the trial outcome. The variable targeted during feedback was a SwingDuringDig condition or SDD. That is, the operator attempts to
swing the boom while the dipper was still engaged in the bank.
2 SHOVEL OPERATING CONDITIONS
2.1 Digging conditions
The importance of “constant” digging conditions cannot be underestimated when the influence of a prototype feedback device is being assessed. While mining operation
is characterised by ever changing excavation conditions; there exist; however, a possibility of achieving sufficient constancy during the trial period by assuring that the
shovel remains in the same/similar geological conditions, the blasting parameters are kept constant (if applicable), and the weather conditions are being monitored.
Page 630
2.2 Material density
Changes in material density during feedback testing can have a detrimental effect on the entire field trial. For example, if the density of the material increases during the
feedback phase of the trial, the dig time might increase and the feedback influence on cycle time might be countermanded.
2.3 Participants and setting
The trial participants vary between mining operations. It is advantageous for the feedback testing that there is a spread in age and experience among shovel operators.
The benefits stem from the fact that each operator has his/her own unique digging technique and may approach the use of the feedback device differently. By
demonstrating the effectiveness of the feedback device across different operators with different operating styles, we can be more confident of the general impact of the
technology.
3 FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Feedback system design includes selection of an appropriate model to suit operating conditions and the design and installation of the feedback device to ensure the
operator can assimilate provided information and take action without undue stress. This approach provides a basis for the continuous use of the feedback device, which
is extremely important for system acceptance by the operators and equally vital to the successful implementation of any new technology introduced in an environment
that does not readily accept change.
3.1 Feedback model
The notion of a negative feedback loop, during which the individuals engage in a continual process of matching their behavior to a particular standard or goal is the
Closed Loop Model approach (Kanfer, 1971). Corrective feedback, which indicates when an individual’s performance is not meeting a specified standard, is
consistent with the Closed Loop Model of feedback and has been demonstrated in many situations to be more effective than providing positive reinforcement
(Waldersee & Luthans, 1994).
Corrective feedback in a form of augmented feedback is an extrinsic feedback “built in” to a task, when the task inherent feedback is not sufficient for behaviour
change. Augmented feedback may be classified as knowledge of results , whi ch is feedb about the outcome or consequence of performing a skill, or knowledge of
performance , whi ch i s a f back about the actual movement or action pattern underlying the outcome (Swinnen, 1996).
3.2 Trial methodology
The rope shovel studies used a corrective knowledge of performance feedback in a singlecase experimental design with multiple baselines across participants. Komaki
(1986) suggests the use of a multiplebaseline design as an effective, withingroups design for organisational field research. A particular strength of the design is that it
allows causal inferences to be drawn about an intervention’s effectiveness without requiring a control group or reversal phase. This is especially important when it is
difficult or undesirable to introduce a reversal phase to a baseline design in field research. For example, if the intervention has produced a significant change in
behaviour, it is possible that this change may be enduring or permanent, resulting in little reversal when the intervention is removed. Alternatively, it may be undesirable
to introduce a reversal phase, particularly when the target behaviour is related to safety or productivity in an organisation (Luthans and Davis, 1982).
During feedback studies, each operator experienced three conditions (IVs): baseline, instruction, and feedback, where:
1 Baseline provided levels of swing stall before intervention. Note that the operators were aware that data was being collected.
2 Instruction was a presentation of information about swing stall and a description of how to change the behavior.
3 Feedback was a realtime corrective knowledge of performance information, coupled with hourly summary data.
Each monitored condition included at least one day and one night shift to remove possible effects of shift time.
3.3 Trial procedure
The studies were conducted during routine rope shovel operations with data acquisition equipment installed on the shovel during routine maintenance shutdown.
Operator’s commands were measured using joystick reference coordinates and electrical signals, such as armature current and voltage, and field current for the hoist,
crowd and swing systems. It was also possible to determine when the monitor was switched on/off and, therefore, obtain a measure of frequency of use.
Knowledge of performance was used in the rope shovel studies conducted by CRCMining (CMTE) as
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the necessary behaviour change involved altering a particular movement pattern in the operation of the joystick (Sheppard et al., 2003). Knowledge of performance
can direct the operator’s attention to the part of the movement pattern critical for performance and can provide specific information about what is needed to improve.
The position of the joystick controlling the swing and the hoist operations of the shovel was monitored together with other machine parameters described in more
details in the “Data acquisition and analysis” section of the paper. The swingduringdig condition, occurring while the operator attempted to swing the boom while the
bucket is still engaged in the bank, was the targeted variable for operator feedback. When this condition occurred, the operator was provided with feedback. The
feedback included information on duration and severity of swingduringdig condition. It also indicated that the operator was not meeting the specified goal, i.e.
avoiding swingduringdig operation, and provided information on how to rectify the problem.
3.4 Feedback device
The first feedback device consisted of a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) and a 12.1″ daylightreadable, SVGA, LCD flatscreen graphical display, mounted in
the operator’s cabin (Fig. 1). The fina design of the display was conceived to present realtime knowledge of performance feedback to operators during the dig cycle.
Repositioning of the joystick was required to correct the target behaviour. The targeted duration of the SDD component of the cycle was 2 seconds or more. With the
dig component of the shovel cycle lasting, on average, 12 seconds,
Figure 1. Visual feedback device installed in operator’s cabin.
the operator had to receive feedback and act upon it in a very short period of time. Therefore, the visual feedback had to be designed to be immediately interpretable.
The corrective knowledge of performance represented the operator’s current joystick position in realtime, with a red “wedge” forming during the target behaviour
highlighting incorrect placement (Fig. 2). The horizontal and vertical white lines within the defined feedback square represented joystick motions during swing and hoist,
respectively. The duration of SDD was represented by how long the red wedge remained on the screen and the severity of the stall was represented by how large and
bright the wedge became, i.e. the larger and brighter the wedge the more severe the SDD condition.
Any combination of swinghoist commands would fall within the outlined square shown on the display. If the operator moved the joystick to engage the hoist system,
the cross (representing the joystick reference) would move up and/or down along the vertical line. If the operator attempted to swing the bucket to the right while
hoisting up, the cross would move into the 1 st quadrant of the feedback area. Similar action would take place during hoisting (up) and swinging to the left but the cross
would move to the left of the vertical line to quadrant 2.
The feedback design followed the principles of corrective feedback, in the form of knowledge of performance. That is, the operator was provided information on the
target behavior (joystick position resulting in SDD) and the movement required to correct this behavior.
The display represented the area through which the joystick may move and the moving cross represented the actual position of the joystick. This was to provide
information that was immediately able to be
Figure 2. TouchScreen snapshot of “Swing Stall” page.
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interpreted by the operator. The red wedge was designed to highlight the area between the actual joystick position and the preferred joystick position for digging (i. e.
“6 o’clock” or centre bottom). To remove the red wedge, the operator was required to correct the joystick position.
The operator could monitor the progress of reducing the SDD along the left edge of the display (Fig. 2). This information was presented as green bars on an hourly
basis with a number showing a percentage of stall free cycles. The summary feedback (% of “correct” cycles) was introduced primarily for motivational purposes, so
the operator could monitor progress across time. It is difficult for people to maintain a “mental tally” or record of progress when using realtime feedback; however,
summary progress feedback when provided can be intrinsically rewarding and may assist the individual to engage in selfregulation, for example, by using goal setting.
3.5 Parameters’ selection
Prior to feedback studies, extensive shovel monitoring studies were undertaken to evaluate shovel performance and to determine how individual operators command
the machine (Sheppard and Jessett, 2001; Sheppard and Jessett, 2002). These studies allowed the establishment of operating limits for monitored variables, such as,
swing motor armature current.
The identification of stall events, such as, swingstall is dependent on a combination of operator command and machine drive responses. Therefore, the limits for
swing stall detection were expressed as:
Joystick Reference: Greater than 50% of maximum
Swing Torque: Greater than 90% of stall
Swing Velocity: Less than 5% of maximum
Duration: Greater than 2 seconds.
4 OPERATOR TRAINING
When introducing a new technology to be used in an existing environment, it is crucial that those who will be using it become familiar with its operation to take full
advantage of the presented information. Therefore, the familiarisation process was prepared in such a way as to provide the operators with enough information to use
the device and to appreciate the presented information without adding another variable. For instance, that of a highly influential trainer.
The operators’ familiarization process was planned as follows:
1 Participation in an initial interview prior to field trials to assess reasons for swing stall, operators’ mental model of joystick operation and the existing feedback
environment.
2 Participation in an information session during which the use of the feedback device and a demonstration of the display took place. The operators were shown how to
interpret the summary results included in the feedback monitor and were asked to use the feedback as much as possible but to switch it off when not in use.
3 Participation in postintervention interviews to gather exploratory qualitative data on the operators’ acceptance and use of feedback, as well as their suggestions for
further refinement.
5 DATA ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS
The data acquisition and analysis section of the onsite trial had to be closely scrutinized in order to acquire a statistically viable data set and limit the effects of variables
that may confound the results. This section examines how the trial duration was determined and how the final data set was arrived at.
5.1 System installation and commissioning
Since the electric rope shovel is normally placed in an operation vital to the achievable production goals, it is imperative that interruption of shovel operations is
minimised. Therefore, the Data Acquisition System was planned to be installed during shovel maintenance day during which the shovel is inoperative for 8–12 hours
(the shut down duration depends on the mine site schedule).
In order to achieve this goal, extensive preparation took place, which included:
1 Visit the designated coal mine to discuss the trial with mine personnel. Discussions with mine site personnel aimed at gaining valuable information on the mining
operation; familiarization of mine personnel with the proposed system and scope of work; gaining valuable input on system installation, commissioning and testing
procedures; and conducting risk assessments to ensure all safety requirements are met prior to work commencement.
2 Visit the designated shovel to determine and agree on system installation: location, mounting, cables’ connections, and others.
3 Develop system installation and commissioning procedures to account for final inspection of materials/equipment; hardware mounting requirements; installation of
cables and continuity testing; software verification procedure; full system commissioning, when shovel returned to routine operation; system calibration during shovel
operation; data collection; and system decommissioning.
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5.2 Data acquisition
The determination of the amount of data to be collected during the trial was given considerable attention, as the sample data must be sufficient for a valid statistical
analysis. Several aspects of shovel operation were closely examined, such as, number of cycles per operator per trial phase, number of operators, shift type, and
others. The final outcome of these deliberations was to determine the duration of the trial.
5.2.1 Number of cycles
All trials had to be designed to obtain sufficient number of cycles to be statistically significant and viable for mathematical analysis. An understanding of coal mine
operations was necessary to determine trial duration. Generally, the coal mines operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Shovel operators work 12 hour shifts with 2
(sometimes 3) operators per shift. For example, while one operator commands the shovel, the other operates the dozer to clean the shovel operating area. Usually, the
operators change their function halfway through the shift. Provided the shovel is in continuous operation and cycle duration is on average 35 seconds then an operator
can perform 103 cycles per hour. Taking into consideration short delays, such as, waiting on truck, one can assume that an operator can complete 80 cycles per hour
and for 6hour operation that would amount to 480 cycles per shift.
Based on the number of data points needed for each 30 min block for reporting of frequency and the minimum number of shifts required per operator, it was
estimated that a minimum of 700 cycles was required per operator per trial phase to be considered sufficient for statistical analysis. That is, if the trial involved the entire
spectrum of testing conditions, i.e. baseline, instruction and feedback, it was necessary to acquire a minimum of 700 cycles per each phase of the test for the total of
2100 cycles per trial per operator (minimum). Therefore, minimum two shifts were required for each phase to provide viable data for statistical analysis.
5.2.2 Number of operators
In addition to number of cycles, consideration had to be given to the number of operators commanding the shovel during the trial. As a minimum, four (4) operators
were considered sufficient to operate the shovel during each phase of the trial. Of course, the same four operators had to be involved in the baseline, instruction and
feedback phases of the trial. Other operators might also participate in the trial and use the feedback device; however, only those operators’ that met the “number of
cycles” criterion would be included.
5.2.3 Shift type
Since the electric rope shovel is operated 24 hoursaday, it is important to take into consideration that machine operation at night might be different to machine
operation in the daytime. Thus, the acquired data must come from both day and night shifts to determine whether the type of shift (day or night) has a significant
influence on operator performance, and whether that influence would affect the validation of the feedback.
5.2.4 Operators’ roster
During trial preparation, operators’ roster was referred to specify operators who would fulfil all necessary criteria. These operators were not informed that their
performance was being specifically targeted for analysis as such information might have had an influence on their behaviour. All operators were treated equally in each
study undertaken.
An example of a crew roster is: two (2) day shifts followed by two (2) night shifts and three days off before commencing the day shift again. Assuming the trial is to
last two (2) weeks then, depending on the trial start date, there would be operators with both night and day shifts and operators with day or night shifts only. To
determine the actual operators working the machine during trials, operators’ login data was provided by the mining operation since the operators must logon to the
machine monitoring system before commencing work and logoff the system before leaving the machine.
The current feedback device is equipped with login capabilities and only in uncertain circumstances it is necessary to check operator’s presence on the machine
against the shovel monitoring system.
5.2.5 Trial duration
After considering the various factors influencing the data acquisition process, it was concluded that each phase of the trial must last approximately two weeks to fulfil the
set of criteria necessary for a viable statistical analysis.
5.3 Data selection for analysis
Data collected during the visual feedback device trial period consisted of various electromechanical signals associated with the shovel’s main drive systems (hoist,
crowd, and swing). For the subsequent analysis, this data set was broken down into individual shovel cycles, (a cycle being one digswingdumpreturn maneuver) in an
effort to perform analysis on a cyclebycycle basis. This breakdown was followed by a filtering process, which sought to remove any outlying shovel cycles that might
unduly skew the final results.
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Figure 3. Frequency of swingduringdig event during baseline, instruction and feedback phases for operator B.
The data selection process involved choosing cycles according to the following criteria:
1 Cycle time between 20 and 60 seconds in duration.
2 Dig time between 2 and 20 seconds in duration.
3 Swing time between 2 and 20 seconds in duration.
4 Waiting on haul truck delay less than 5 seconds.
Where shifts or parts of shifts have been excluded from analysis, one of the following applied:
1 Data for shovel/screen logins did not match.
2 Timing of operators’ training coincided with data acquisition, i.e. shift was a “training” shift.
3 Large amount of missing data.
4 Large number of shifts for either Baseline or Feedback; a smaller data set was selected to make similar sized data sets for individual operators.
5.4 Data analysis
The study used a single case experimental design with multiple baselines across participants. There are a number of statistical analyses that could be performed on data
gained from this type of methodology. Visual inspection of timebased data presented as graphs baseline—instruction—feedback (Fig. 3) for each individual is a typical
method. In addition to visual inspection, Kazdin (1982) suggests the use of statistical analyses to supplement rather than replace visual inspection. To compare the
means of different conditions, i.e. Baseline vs. feedback, ttests were chosen, as they provide a means of determining whether there is a reliable difference between the
means of two samples of data.
6 CASE STUDIES
The issues addressed during the pretrial period are commented upon and their possible influences on the trial outcome are appraised in the two case studies presented
in this paper. Testing of the shovel feedback system were conducted at Coal & Allied Hunter Valley Operations Cheshunt Mine on a P&H4100A shovel from
February 2002 to April 2002 and at BMA Goonyella Riverside Mine on a P&H4100XPB shovel from November 2002 to February 2003. Extensive data sets were
acquired during both trials for a quantitative “before” and “after” style assessment of the effectiveness of the system. The results of the analysis were also augmented
with a qualitative assessment of the system’s performance using operators’ ratings for system performance and acceptability. The CRCMining personnel involved in the
onsite trials remain the same; however, the mine site personnel and the shovel operational conditions were entirely different, as shown in Tables 1 and 2.
From the data presented in Table 1 and 2, it is evident that the preparation for first trial was extensive and the mine site personnel had a good understanding of the
criteria to be fulfilled to provide viable data in a relatively short period of time. The second trial was undertaken as the opportunity arose to install the feedback system
on the production machine. Due to time constrains, the trial preparation was not as thorough as for the first trial. For instance, the difficulties encountered with signal
transfer to the display monitor had several consequences, such as:
1 There was no instruction phase undertaken due to time constraints;
2 There was a twoweek period between baseline and feedback data collection while the machine was shut down;
3 Large number of operators were controlling the machine, due to holiday period;
4 Not all operators were trained in the use of the feedback monitor; and
5 Information on operators’ training prior to trial commencement was not collected and thus some operators did not see the benefit of using the feedback system as
they were trained to swingduringdig.
Those and others factors influenced the data selection and the amount of time used to conduct data analysis. In addition, as shown in Table 1, the operators at Coal &
Allied mine were better prepared to use and accept the device (100% utilization, goal setting to achieve 100% stall free cycles) as compare to the operators at BMA
mine (some operators did not use the device, some did not understand the benefits).
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Table 1. Case study 1—Coal & Allied open cut coal mine operator feedback system on P&H 4100A shovel—trial preparation and outcomes.
Pretrial preparation Feedback system considerations
factors
Site & shovel visit Conducted prior to trial, necessary info gathered
Operating conditions Similar mining and geological conditions for all trial phases
System installation During scheduled maintenance shutdown—no interruption to production
Trial duration From February 2002 to April 2002
Baseline phase 5 days
Instruction phase 5 days
Feedback phase Approximately 10 days (8 shifts per operator)
Number of cycles 7064 valid cycles out of 7500 total
Shift types Both day and night shifts for each participating operator, unequal number
Number of operators 6 participants
Gender Male
Age Between 38 and 55 years
Operating experience Between 6 and 20 years
Initial operator training Interview 4 months prior to field trials—operator input into device design
Feedback operator Display demonstration based on operators’ data acquire during baseline phase
training
Postintervention All participants interviewed, all use the device 100%
interviews
Swingduringdig SDD frequency decrease from 35.8% of all cycles to 8.2% of all cycles
reduction
Other benefits Cycle time decrease by 3.3 seconds (average); dig energy consumed decreased by 16.9% (average); hoist stall frequency decreased from
7.6% to 4% of all cycles
Table 2. Case study 2—BMA open cut coal mine operator feedback system on P&H 4100XPB shovel—trial preparation and outcomes.
Pretrial preparation Feedback system considerations
factors
Site and shovel visit Conducted prior to trial, necessary info gathered
Operating conditions Environmental conditions changed during baseline and feedback stages
System installation During scheduled maintenance shutdown, no interruption to production
Commissioning Difficulties with signal transfer to display monitor, additional time allocated for baseline data collection
Trial duration From November 2002 to February 2003
Baseline phase From November 2002 to December 13 2002 (14 days)
Instruction phase No instruction phase
Feedback phase From January 7 2002 to February 2003
Number of cycles 12,986 valid cycles out of 14,579 total
Shift types Both day and night shifts
Number of operators 20 operators controlling machine, only 6 operators in baseline and feedback phases
Gender Male
Age Not noted
Operating experience Between 2 months and 20 years
Initial operator training Operators advised of the system installation during preshift briefin
Feedback operator Instruction on feedback use given to some operators only due to large number of operators commanding the machine
training
Postintervention Conducted with 7 operators, one didn’t use the device due to prior training, another was not trained, yet another reported screen brightness
Interviews inadequate in the daylight
Swingduringdig SDD frequency of 56% (average), reduction of SDD from 1 in 4 cycles to 1 in 10 cycles
reduction
Other benefits Inconclusive results
Despite these differences between mining operations, the goals of the trials, that is, an introduction of new technology and validation of feedback system were achieved.
This manifested itself in the reduction of swingduringdig events at both site trials. In addition, the results of feedback system testing at HVO Cheshunt Mine clearly
showed that the decrease in swing stall events reduced the duration of dig time, cycle time, total energy consumed during cycle, and the number of hoist stall events
(Sheppard et al., 2003).
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7 CONCLUSIONS
The importance of thorough preparation for testing new technology in reallife situations cannot be overemphasized; especially, when the equipment viability is
assessed in the harsh mining environment. There is no readily available “recipe” for successful testing of prototype devices rather it is a learning process. However, a
combination of sound technological principles applied in the development of the prototype device, an understanding of mining processes, and participation of all parties
involved in the system evaluation process provide a good start to achieving the set goal.
The introduction of new technology must bring about human behavior change in order to achieve the desirable outcome. Therefore, the knowledge of how humans
perceive the surrounding environment and absorb information is fundamental to the successful completion and validation of any studies involving operator’s feedback.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the research funding provided by ACARP (ongoing). This research would not have been possible without the support of Rio Tinto
Coal (NSW) Pty Ltd—Coal & Allied, BHP Billiton and P&H MinePro Services Australasia personnel.
The authors would like to also acknowledge all CRCMining and UDDTek personnel involved in the electric rope shovel research and thank them for their dedication
in opening up new frontiers for the mining industry.
Appreciation is extended to Dr Andrew Neal for his invaluable assistance in feedback design.
REFERENCES
Hackman, J.R. & Oldham, G.R. 1976. Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organisational Behavior and Human Performance 16:250–279.
Ilgen, D.R. & Fisher, C.D. & Taylor, M.S. 1979. Consequences of individual feedback on behavior in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology 64:349–371.
Kanfer, F.H. 1971. The maintenance of behavior by selfgenerated stimuli and reinforcement. In A.Jacobs & L.B.Sachs (eds) The Psychology of Private Events: pp 39–
57. New York: Academic Press.
Kazdin, A.E. 1982. Singlecase Research Designs: Methods for Clinical and Applied Settings. New York: Oxford University Press.
Komaki, J.L. 1986. Applied behavior analysis and organizational behavior: Reciprocal influence of the two fields. Research in Organizational Behavior 8:297–334.
Luthans, F. & Davis, T.R.V. 1982. An idiographic approach to organizational behavior research: The use of single case experimental designs and direct measures.
Academy of Management Review 1:3 80–3 91.
Northcraft, G.B. & Earley, P.C. 1989. Technology, credibility, and feedback use. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 44:83–96.
Primavera, L.H. & Allison, D.B. & Alfonso, V.C. 1997. Measurement of dependent variables. In R.D. Franklin & D.B. Allison (eds) Design and Analysis of Single
Case Research: pp 41–91. New Jersey, Lawrence Earlbaum.
Sheppard, G. & Jessett, A. 2001. P&H4100A Rope Shovel Field Trial. CMTE Interim Report. Brisbane: CMTE (Confidential).
Sheppard, G. & Jessett, A. 2002. P&H4100A Rope Shovel Field Trial. CMTE Interim Report. Brisbane: CMTE (Confidential).
Sheppard, G. & Jessett, A. & WidzykCapehart, E. & McDonald, A. 2003. Real Time Shovel Operator Feedback System. ACARP Report C11047. Brisbane: ACARP.
Swinnen, S.P. 1996. Information feedback for motor skill learning: A review. In H.N.Zelaznik (ed.), Advances in Motor Learning and Control: pp 37–66. Illinois:
Human Kinetics.
Waldersee, R. & Luthans, F. 1994. The impact of positive and corrective feedback on customer service performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior 15:83–95.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Application of genetic algorithm to optimize the number and size of equipment of
surface mine
Li Xinchun Zhao Weicheng
School of Management, China University of Mining & Technology, XuZhou, P.R.C
Zhang Youdi
China University of Mining & Technology, XuZhou, P.R.C
ABSTRACT: The principle and procedure of genetic algorithm based on the optimization of the number and size of surface mine equipment are
introduced. The case of application proves that the genetic algorithm can better optimize the number and size of equipment in surface mines.
1 INTRODUCTION
As the surface mine has the advantage of large scale, high safety and litter waste, the proportion of the surface mining has become larger and larger in the mining
resources, both in domestic and foreign. Therefore, how to optimize the various questions of surface mining will be very important. Optimizing the surface mining
equipment is the key to solve this problem mainly because the pieces of the equipment are very large and the investment in the equipment is of a high proportion in the
total investments. As soon as the equipment is settled, it will serve for a long time even for the complete mining period.
J.H.Holland from Chicago University U.S.A was the first to put forward the genetic algorithm in 1975. It is a new optimizing method, adopting the principle of
selecting the superior and eliminating the inferior, which imitates the process of genetic, duplicating, crossing and sudden change. In fact, the genetic algorithm is a
method for searching the excellent, which can compare various conditions of the problem for certain goals to achieve the best scheme. Therefore, the genetic algorithm
is especially suitable for solving the complicated problems, which have many kinds of schemes.
The genetic algorithm is extensively used abroad. Although it is now in boom in our country, it has already been applied preliminarily in natural science, engineering
and social science, becoming another study focus following expert system, the artificial nerve network.
At present, the optimization of equipment usually adopts the method of analogy, both at home and internationally. In practical application, the compared mines must
have relatively similar natural geological conditions. Otherwise, there is no possibility of making an analogy. The computer simulation method adopted in recent years
often simplifies many conditions in the process of simulation; sometimes the result is not very accurate. The genetic algorithm based on a goal function can save
optimizing time by programming the capital. However, the degree of accuracy of the genetic algorithm relies on the credibility of its goal function.
The equipment in domestic surface mines is mostly the power shovel and truck at present, so this paper will use the genetic algorithm to optimize mainly the model
and quantity of them.
2 THE PRINCIPLE AND STEPS OF GENETIC ALGORITHM
The genetic algorithm is divided into 6 main steps as follows.
2.1 The code of the variable
To express the variables the algorithm often adopts the string of certain length, which is like the chromosome in heredity. The string transmits the information through
various hereditary measure steps. Usually the variable adopts the binary system to its codes.
2.2 Defining the colony
In the genetic engineering, every calculating step is participated by many individuals, who compose the colony of genetic engineering. There are usually 50–100 colonies
in the genetic algorithm, if there are too many colonies, the calculating time will be very long, and if too few, the optimizing result will be not good. At the beginning, the
colony is often produced at random that is to get colony numbers at random from the given range, which is regarded as the basis of the genetic algorithm.
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2.3 Determining the function of sufficiency
The function of sufficiency is the goal function of the question, which is the standard of judging the scheme.
2.4 Duplication
According to the principle of “select the superior and eliminate the inferior” or “survival to the fittest”, the genetic algorithm chooses some fine individuals in every
generation of the colony to duplicate and import into the future generation, to increase them twofold and to eliminate the inferiors at the same time. The proportion that
the individual occupies within the colony is called the probability of duplicating, which is usually between 0.1 and 0.3.
2.5 Exchanging
In the genetic algorithm, it imitates the hybridization of the biological evolution, exchanging the individual code in the colony, and producing the new individual. The
exchanging and the sudden changing are the main methods to produce new individuals in the genetic algorithm.
Exchanging is to exchange some codes of each individual. The individual exchange and the position to exchange the codes are produced at random. The proportion
of exchanging individuals to the colony is called the exchange ratio, which in the genetic algorithm is 0.6.
2.6 Sudden changing
The sudden change and exchange mentioned above are the means to produce some new individuals. The socalled sudden change is to turn the original string 1 into 0
and to turn 0 into 1. The proportion of individuals to the colony becomes the sudden change rate.
3 THE OPTIMIZING PRINCIPLES AND STEPS IN THE EQUIPMENT IN THE SURFACE MINE
According to the above optimizing steps of the genetic algorithm, the steps are as follows.
3.1 The code of the variable
According to the type and quantity of the power shovels to be optimized, we adopt 24 binary system bunch to express variables. In the system, the first five digits stand
for the shovel types, the 6–10 digits stand for the quantity of power shovels, the 11–18 digits stand for the models of trucks, and the 18–24 digits show the quantity of
a truck. For example, there is a truck scheme: 10 ms 3 power shovel 12 of one and 60 for 108 t rucks, the corresponding binary system code is:
010100110001101100111100
If the type and quantity of a power shovel and truck are big, the length of binary system code will be longer correspondingly.
3.2 Determining the calculating colony
The initial colony number is between 50–100 at random.
3.3 Determining the function of sufficiency
We use here the producing and running fee for the optimization issues of power shovel and truck to show the sufficiency that can be calculated as follows:
Min YYF=Y1+Y2+Y3+Y4+Y5+Y6+Y7+Y8
where: YYF stands for the fee of producing and running, Y1 stands for the depreciation charge of equipments, Y2 stands for the maintenance cost of equipments, Y3
stands for the fee of oil consuming, Y4 stands for electric expense, Y5 stands for the expenses of the tire equipment, Y6 stands for the road maintenance costs, Y7
stands for salary expenses, and Y8 stands for other expenses.
As the genetic algorithm is mostly to solve the problem of maximizing, the function of sufficiency is usually expressed by the answer of the maximum. Thus, here we
need to transform the goal function and express it as follows:
Max f=−Min YYF
The F in the formulas is the goal function of the genetic algorithm.
3.4 Duplicating the individual
Usually the method for duplicating the individual adopts the method of a law of wheel, which is a method of choosing the best individual at random, based on the
function of sufficiency. The principle of producing the duplicated individual is to produce and duplicate features of the individual and the accumulative total value of the
individual’s degree function of the meeting and producing the similar individuals. The maximum ranges of individuals produced at random are the range of accumulative
value of all individuals’ function of sufficiency. The individual probability duplicates and reaches 0.2.
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3.5 Exchanging individuals
Producing the exchanged individual at random still adopts the abovementioned method of a law of wheel. The position where the code exchanges is to produce an
integer at random within the range of the code length. The number is the position to exchange the code, but the position cannot be the foremost code. The rate of
exchanges adopts 0.6.
3.6 Individual sudden changing
The rate of individual sudden change adopts 0.003.
3.7 The prerequisite of optimizing stop
The genetic algorithm is a project carried on repeatedly. The colony approaches the optimum result gradually through duplicating, crossing, and sudden change and
therefore the process needs stopping prerequisite.
The oftenused stopping prerequisite is to stipulate the generation of a genetic code, but sometimes the result of optimizing cannot be got in a fixed number. Here the
computer program is used to check the change of the function of sufficiency. When the value of the function is too small, it will stop calculating.
4 CASE STUDY
Taking the Anjialing mining in Pinshuo as the example, this paper uses the genetic algorithm to optimize the model and quality of the power excavator and track. Based
on the condition of mines, before calculating the range of power excavator should be between 10 m3and 20 m3, and the range of tracks should be between 50 t and 70
t according to the similar mines’ conditions.
Adopting the genetic algorithm by C++ language, we calculate the economy index offered by the mine. In addition, we find that when the degree function changes no
longer we get the following code of optimization results:
100010001101000101010011
Commuting the code into the decimal system, the result is as follows.
The type of the power shovel is 17 m3 and the quantity is 3; the type of truck is 691 and its quantity is 19.
Sometimes the manufacturer does not have the types got by the genetic algorithm and then we should adjust the results. The principle of the adjustment is to find the
type of equipment similar to the result of the genetic algorithm.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The genetic algorithm is a new technology to search the best, which adopts the principle of selecting the superior and eliminating the inferior or of the survival of the
fittest. It achieves its desired results, optimizing, from beginning to end of the process, the duplicating, crossing the variable codes of question and repeatedly calculating
the processes of sudden change. The crucial part of the design of the surface mines is to confirm the model and quality of the equipment, which involves much
calculation. Using the genetic algorithm to optimize the equipment will be a new way, and the example of the case application shows that it is feasible.
REFERENCES
Holland, J.H. 1975. Adoption in natural and artificial system. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor.
Haidar, A.D. & Naoum, S.G. 1996. Opencast mine equipment selection using genetic algorithms. IJSMR No. 4, 165–171.
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Management, mine economics and financial analysis
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
A computerized evaluation of mining project
J.Čech & V.Bauer
Technical University of Košice, Faculty of the BERG, Košice, Slovakia
ABSTRACT: The paper presents a computer system that has been developed to simulate the core of mineral or mining project economics in general.
It was designed in order to enable to meet mainly the mine valuation and planning purposes at anytime we need to investigate either a preliminary mine
project or a running project during decision making of the next policy. It respects specific features of mineral or mine projects in deposit particularly
their spatial dimension. In addition, the data links with the spreadsheet tools and the advanced project planning software packages can provide a high
standard during scheduling, resource and cost management as well as promote the presentations and reporting on such projects.
1 INTRODUCTION
There are various types of simulation, suited to the modelling of different types of systems. The view we take of simulation is a generally accepted one (Dahl, 1966;
Pritsker, 1984; Law, 1982; Neelamkavil, 1987). It focuses on the concept of a model, which is a description of a system that is intended to predict what happens if
certain actions are taken. Any system has a state, which is that collection of variables which describe the system. The values of these variables will change as a result of
system operation. There is a distinction between discreteevent simulation and continuous simulation. In the case of a discrete system chosen, simulated time changes in a
discrete fashion where the clock is updated with respect to the next event.
It was decided to develop the system in a conventional programming language rather than using a specialized simulation language, currently available in the world
market. The main reason is that there were no significant advantages attached to the use of a such simulation language, and that if we did use one, encoding many
aspects would be made more difficult and obstructive.
A typical feature of the system is the use a sceneoriented approach to the modelling of mineral project or mine as the most convenient from user’s point of view,
taking into account the rapid advances in computer graphics and the possible linkage in the future. The next feature is the objectoriented approach at analysis and
design of the system with regard to the leading position of objectoriented programming at the moment.
Application of the simulation method in the mining industry all over the world is timely observed within the international symposium of Application of Computer and
Operation Research in the Mineral Industry, socalled the APCOM, (e.g. Kalasky & Mutmansky, 1996) and occasionally in the mining journals (Sturgul, 1995).
Generally, in the other industries, there have recently been very interesting attempts to master the problem of simulation of all the business system, socalled whole
business simulation, WBS, e.g. (Barton et al., 2001). The chief purpose is to support the strategic decision making as for the engineering design and its impact on the
overall economic results represented by the financial statements. The aim and subject is in such a way very close to the mission of the system here, regarding the
specific traits of the mining business.
2 BASIC FEATURES OF THE SYSTEM
The best way how to describe essentially the functions of the system is in terms of the tools for model building (a), the tools for model control of a mining project
development (b) and the tools for a simulation running job (c).
2.1 The model building
It supposes a stock of instruments available to user to define as truthfully as possible any mining situation we need to describe. There are such facilities as follows:
– block of reserves or rock, for the approximation of deposit situation and its environment, which can be
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structured vertically by levels and horizontally by different strips.
– activity, a system of operations with a specific purpose (like exploration, opening, preparation, exploitation and so on) to be deployed for the individual blocks and
to be carried out there in certain sequence.
– operation, an elementary activity resulting in a mine working, as its visible or invisible consequence in deposit environment, and transforming it into a new state.
– mine working, generally including the works of different kinds within developing, opening, stoping and so on, representing always a catalogued construction element
with a flexible size setting, to be assigned to a certain operation, taking thus on a concrete technical appearance.
– medium, an abstract term for all the kinds of the resources and products streaming into or out of a mine working during its driving, building and using. It can include
different materials, energy, fuel and workforces on the input side, and rock, ore and waste, air, water, exhaust fumes on the output side, according to the user’s
definition and intentions. Each of the mine workings has in such a way its specific consumption or production of given media listed as a parameter in the catalogue.
– route, as a path, through which a stream of medium is realised. Every medium can be assigned its own or a common route for flowing in or out of a given mine
working.
– tree of operations, an abstract term for encoding different technological and organisational relationships among the elementary operations within an activity. Every
activity within a block is modelled by such a tree. A block can be assigned several trees of operations representing all the activities planned in a given site of mine.
There are possibilities to define the relationships among the elementary operations themselves as well as among the succeeding or cooperating activities as a whole.
The aim is to enable to formalise a technologically correct mining advance in a given mine field.
2.2 The model control
Clearly, there must exist decisions on placing such trees within a deposit environment by the assignment to the appropriate blocks. Also there must exist decisions on a
choice of spatial advance in a deposit. All the aspects are then up to the model control tools of the system. The control during a simulation session includes two phases.
The first one is control of exploitation as a core activity within framework of a mine project, taking into account given mining restrictions and requirements for the final
mine’s production. The second one is control of all the cooperating activities together, respecting already the approved control of exploitation. That control has already
worked out an optimal spatial advance within given deposit with certain selection of reserves. Consequently, it also determines a pace of the overall development on
deposit, resulting in certain life expectation of whole project
2.3 The simulation run
The simulation of a variant of mine project can be performed immediately after the user’s control setting, described above, is completed. The run itself consists then in
the generating a sequence of changing states, according to the defined control setting. Such a process is perceived as a series of economically significant events in
deposit environment due to the certain development in reserves and in mine workings, which consequently cause changes in the flows of input resources and output
products.
A complete dynamic development of the proposed mine project can be presented by advancing through the time horizon with regard to the use of computer
animation in the future. The states being mentioned can be displayed:
– on reserves, depicting their transformations into a higher category by exploration, or depleting their amount by extraction,
– on mine workings, depicting their building and expansion in given mine field,
– on routes of streaming resources and products, especially in the bottlenecks of mine, depicting their quantities found out there in certain simulation time.
The more realistic assessment such flows is enabled, the more objective analysis of a such mine project is provided.
3 CHARACTERISTIC OF THE INPUTS AND THE OUTPUTS
All the data for input entry as well as output reports are designed to be easy formatted into spreadsheet files. So e.g. the MS Excel spreadsheet tool can create an
excellent interface between user’s work and the simulation model. Thus the data take always a form of tables that allows their high portability and convertibility. In
terms of modelling, all the tables define essentially a collection of parameters assigned to the particular objects such as are the blocks, the mine workings, including the
time steps as a calendar within existence of given project, all that in the intentions of objectoriented analysis.
On the input side, for example, there are forms for the description of reserves inside blocks, forms for
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the encoding the activities planned to be carried out in given block. On the output side, for example, there are such forms for depicting certain states, displayed on
reserves and on mine workings in certain moments of timescale. The overall courses of many possible indicators are also available, as e.g. the estimation of reserves
over time, the total mine production over time, the resource demands, costs, revenue over time and so on. In such a way all the simulated existence of a mine project
under study takes always a form of table slides to enable the use of builtin chart galleries and other visualization tools for a next convenient presentation.
Finally, a complete economics outcome report is available to encompass such useful and key design, evaluation and decision support analysis data as follows:
–natural flows and balances over time,
– integrated dynamic income statement, cashflow statement and balance sheet over time,
–investment and financial analysis over time,
– financial ratios over time,
– sensibility and risk analysis,
– and whatif and scenario analysis.
The statements provide an abundant report on a mineral or mining project proposal in any stage of its development.
Apart from the spatial aspects of mine project progressing, it seems to be good idea to utilise also the brilliant facilities offered by the renowned project planning
software packages in order to present results of the simulation in the most impressive way, particularly as for the time developing. The export is possible by means of
the spreadsheet formats, which are available for import into such systems. Certainly, a project manager can then choose a continuation in the use of those standard
project management procedures until a new request for resimulation of the mine under study arises. In the subsequent stages then a mine planning can be secured in the
standard project management planning fashion.
4 AN EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION
One of the first case study that was done by the system, having dealt with a feasibility assessment, was simulation of mining the Maria Mine ore deposit on the base of
new emerging economic circumstances (Bauer & Čech, 1997), resimulated in 2000 and 2002. Despite of the generally accepted and lasting depression in the world’s
ore mining industry and particularly the copper metallurgy production, the given deposit is still an attractive and unique polymetal deposit in the Eastern Slovakia region
with a dominated and hopeful grade of silver averaging 400 g.t−1 in the proved reserves up to date.
The study had assumed to reopen currently conserved deposit and to produce the flotation polymetal concentrate with a finalization into Cu concentrate and Fe
concentrate, using there already existing equipment available. To some extent there had been counted on a modernization of the mine itself as well as the mineral
processing plant through the additional investments.
The viability in question had been supported by the last results of deposit’s geological survey, the renewal ore treatment technology and a positive prices movements
of the pertinent useful metal components as Cu, Ag, Au, Sb and Hg, on the international metal exchange (LME) in London. A foreign serious customer had been ready
to take over the 110 kt all year produ ct ion of the Cu conc according to the current LME prices of the key components at the certain additional negotiable terms. The
noteworthy conditions had been represented particularly by the penalties for not meeting the quality limits for the individual components, FOB transport to the nearest
port and shipments in larger amounts before winter. A domestic customer had been willing to buy the all economically side product, Fe concentrate, according to an
price agreement.
In the next research, there had been investigated the investments into a new treatment technology with a possibility of increasing recoveries of the useful components
and reduction of the harmful ones that would enable the elimination of the penalty payments. For a risk analysis it had been important to investigate also the impact of
the random movement of the USD exchange rate, the inflation trends and the often unpredictable volatile behaviour of the metals prices in the market. In case of a lost
venture, there had been possible to take into account also a government subsidy, thereby needed to specify, all that with an intention to keep up at least the
socialoriented production, regarding the unemployment rate in the given region.
5 CONCLUSION
The development of the system has given a good input into what would be desirable, useful and feasible for, a future ideal system. Certainly, a lot of work could be
done in providing features that make the model more valuable. It was successfully tested on some deposits in Czech and Slovak Republics, as mentioned in the
example of application to the Maria Mine project in Roznava. The purpose was to obtain an appreciation of the issues in computer simulation of mineral and mine
projects in practice and generally. In the future it would be useful to accept an intensive assistance of the advanced project management planning software tools in order
to create a more integrated and comfortable interface between the two sorts of systems. The system can serve as a platform also for a more generally meant valuation
of projects, particularly the environmental related ones (Bánoci et al., 2004).
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REFERENCES
Bánoci, D. et al. 2004. A model valuation of technological investment effectiveness in the production industry regarding environment. Trenčine: TU A. Dubčeka v
Trenčíne.
Barton J.A., Love D.M. & Taylor G.D. 2001. Evaluating Design Implementation Strategies Using Enterprise Simulation. Int. J. Production Economics 72:285–299.
Bauer V. & Čech J. 1997. TechnicalEconomic judgment and study of optimum exploitation expansion including mining activities advance control within POPD
in Roznava silver vein deposit by computer. Košice: TU Kosice.
Dahl, O.J. 1966. Discrete event simulation languages. Oslo: Norsk Regnesentralen.
Kalasky D.R. & Mutmansky J.M. 1996. Computer Simulation in the Mineral Industry: Analytical and International Trends. In APCOM 96. Colorado: SME: 141–145.
Law A.M. & Kelton W.D. 1982. Simulation Modelling and Analysis. New York: McGrawHill.
Neelamkavil, F. 1987. Computer Simulation and Modelling. New York: Wiley.
Pritsker, A.B. 1984. Introduction to simulation and Slam II New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sturgul J.R. 1995. Simulation and Animation Comes of Age in Mining. Engineering and Mining Journal. Vol. 196, No. 10:38–42
Page 647
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The breakeven point in the case of a curvilinear function of exploitation costs
K.Czopek
AGH—University of Science and Technology—UST, Kraków, Poland
ABSTRACT: In the paper the method of modification of the CobbDouglas function has been given. In this method the necessity to make use of the
mentioned rule of the varied profit of the scale as well as the operation costs as a sum of fixed and variable costs are taken into account.
The procedure leading to the final form of exploitation costs as a multinomial of the third degree has been carried out. The method of determining
the points characteristic for the function and indispensable for the economic evaluation of the correctness of the assumed function has been discussed.
The method of determining the breakeven point of a mine has been presented assuming a curvilinear course of the function of exploitation costs.
1 THE BREAKEVEN POINT IN THE THEORY CVP
The essence of the theory CVP (CostVolume Profit) consists in the application of the division of costs into fixed and variable ones according to the criterion of their
reaction to the change of the scale of production and, next, establishment of interdependence between the six economic parameters (Czopek 2003, Fischer & Frank
1985):
– operating profit,
– volume of production (quantitative breakeven point),
– value of sale (value breakeven point),
– price of sale,
– fixed costs,
– variable costs.
Application of CVP theory allows to determine:
– boundary values of variable economic parameters,
– margins of economic safety with the application of boundary values.
The boundary value of the volumes of production, volumes of sale, price of sale, fixed costs, variable costs means such their value at which the operating profit equals
zero.
In general, we understand the margin of safety as a boundary of freedom of possible and allowable changes of the present state without the danger of crisis.
The margin of economic safety will thus mean the value (volume) by which one of the five economic parameters may change (decrease, increase) so that the
operating profit will not become negative.
The breakeven point denoted by the symbol BEP (BreakEven Point) in the world literature has been determined at the simplifying assumption that the costs of
operational activity of every enterprise are the sum of the fixed and variable costs:
Ko =KS+Kz
(1)
where Ko =operational costs; Ks =fixed costs; Kz=variable costs, while the variable costs themselves change proportionally according to the equation:
Kz=Kjz∙x
(2)
where kjz—unit variable cost; volume of production.
Thus we assume that the function of operational costs is a rectilinear function of the equation:
Ko =Ks +kjz∙x
(3)
As a result of this simplication the formula determining the breakeven point reads as follows:
(4)
where p—unit price of the sale of a product.
The breakeven point defined by formula (4) called a quantitative point. We also deal with the
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valuable breakeven point BEP, when denoting such a value of price at which the operational profit equals zero.
The valuable breakeven point is determined according to the formula:
BEP’=BEP∙p
(5)
2 CURVILINEAR FUNCTION OF COSTS
2.1 Boundary conditions of the curvilinear function of cost
If we denote generally the function of costs by:
k=f(x)
(6)
then, from the economic understanding of costs it follows that this function, both rectilinear and curvilinear, must be an increasing of fixed function in the whole area of
determination.
Since the volume of production cannot assume a negative value, the following expression is the area of determination of the function of costs:
(7)
Moreover, the function of costs (6) must satisfy the following condition for the above area of determination:
f(x)≥0
(8)
The function f(x) is increasing in fixed interval if the greater values of the function correspond to the greater values of the argument x in this interval, i.e. if:
x1<x2 is followed by f(x1)<f(x2)
(9)
and:
(10)
and
(11)
It means that the first derivative of the function f(x) must be greater than zero:
f’(x)>0
(12)
In particular cases , i.e. for:
– the function increasing proportionally, the first derivative is greater than zero, whereas the second derivative is equal to zero:
f’(x)>0, f’(x)=0
(13)
– the function increasing progressively, the first derivative is greater than zero and the second derivative is greater than zero:
f(x)>0, f’(x)>0
(14)
– the function increasing degressively, the first derivative is greater than zero and the second derivative lesser than zero:
f’(x)>0, f”(x)<0
(15)
The function of costs is steady if:
x1<x2 is followed by f(x1)=f(x2)
(16)
and:
(17)
and also:
(18)
what means that the first derivative of the function of costs is equal to zero:
f’(x)=0
(19)
2.2 Selection of the curvilinear function of costs
Besides the above mentioned boundary condition in the curvilinear function of costs there must also be taken into consideration the condition expressed by formula (1)
i.e. the function must contain the component of the fixed costs (Ks ). Taking it into consideration we can say that the curvilinear function of costs can be expressed by
four modified functions:
a) the power function (Fig 1a):
f(x)=Ks +ax2
(20)
b) the exponential function (Fig .1b):
f(x)=(Ks −1)+ax
(21)
c) the CobbDouglas function(rys.1c):
x=ALα∙Kβ−Ks
(22)
where A=parameter determining the number of production units that we obtain at the unit expenditures K of the capital and labour L; α,β=coefficient determining
the reactions of the level of production at the increase of the factor L or K,
d) the function of the third degree:
f(x)=ax3+bx2+cx+Ks
(23)
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Figure 1. Curvilinear functions satisfying the boundary conditions.
However, when selecting the proper function, the knowledge of total costs expressed by formula (20)– (23) is not satisfactory. Determination of the behaviour of the
boundary costs kk and the mean costs kj of each of these functions is necessary.
The boundary costs kk are the value of the increase of total costs brought about by the increase of production by a unit. Thus we can express them as derivatives of
total costs:
(24)
The mean costs kj, called unit costs express the mean value of incurred total costs at the production of the number of x units:
(25)
Both the boundary and the mean costs can have the character of increasing, or decreasing fixed costs. Either of them allow to evaluate the profitability of an increase of
production above the established level (Leidler & Estrin, 1989).
Taking into account the following items obligatory in the theory of costs (Leidler & Estrin, 1989):
– the law of the profit of the scale (Increasing Returns to Scale) referring to a decrease in the participation of fixed costs in the mean cost, as the result, a decrease in
the mean cost to the optimum level of the scale of production,
– the law of decreasing revenues saying that effectiveness of additional expenditures decreases after exceeding a certain level of production, while the boundary costs
increase then,
– the notion of economic optimum (Economic Optimum) denoting such a volume of production at which the boundry revenue is equal to the boundry cost, and then the
maximum value of profit,
we can say that the only function that satisfies these requirements is the function (23) of the third degree (Czopek, 2001, 2002).
3 METHOD OF DETERMINING THE BREAKEVEN POINT
As it was stated before by the breakeven point we understand such a volume of production (sale) at which the obtained revenue from the sale of this production is
equal to the costs incurred for the making of this production, i.e. such prodution at which the operating profit equals zero. If we denote the operating revenue by Po and
the incurred
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operating costs by Ko , then the above condition means that
Po −Ko =0
(26)
At the same time it is known that the operating profit Zo is the difference between the operating revenue and the operating costs. Thus in the case of the breakeven
point the condition reads as follows
The value of the operating revenue depends on the unit price of a product p and the amount of the sold products, i.e.:
Po =p∙x
(28)
The operating costs, according to the earlier assumption, can be expressed by a function of the third degree:
Ko =ao x3+a1x2 +a2x+Ks
(29)
For the breakeven point the condition then reads as follows:
After devolopment we obtain:
Multiplying the above equation by (−1) and introducing the denotation
a=p−a2
(32)
we obtain the equation of the third degree
ao x3+a1x2−ax+Ks =0
(33)
According to the basic theorems of higher algebra we can say that for the polynomial of the nth degree denoted by Wn (x) of the form (Wrona, 1971):
Wn (x)= ao xn +a1xn−1+…+an−1∙x+an
(34)
every real or complex number that after substitution satisfies the above equation is the root of this equation. It means that in the case when the value x1 is the root (zero
place) of equation (34), we obtain
Wn (x1)=0
(35)
Moreover, we can state that:
– number x1 is the root of the equation then and only then when the polynomial (34) is divisible by (x−x1),
– equation of the nth degree has n roots,
– every polynomial of the nth degree can be presented as a product of root factors multiplied by the coefficient ao at the greatest power x:
Since equation (32) is an equation of the third degree, it can be expressed in the following way:
Figure 2. Graphic interpretation of the breakeven point at the curvilinear function of costs.
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Thus the numbers x1, x2, x3, that satisfy equation (34), are the roots of this equation, i.e. these are such values x, at which the curve of costs intersects the straight line of
operating revenues (26) and (27), that is, they are values at which the operating profit is zero. From the above there follows the conclusion that the roots of this
equation are thus the quantitative breakeven points in the case of a curvilinear function of costs , i.e.
(38)
The quantitative breakeven point must, obviously, satisfy the condition
BEP≥0
(39)
The graphic interpretation of the breakeven point at the curvilinear function of costs presented in Figure 2 shows that for the positive values of costs, profit and
production, the fimction of costs intersects the function of revenues only at two places, thus we deal with two quantitative breakeven points. Assuming (conventionally)
that the root x1 and x2 are breakeven points, then we can write:
(40)
The valuable breakeven points will be denoted then
(41)
It means that the area of the profitable activity of a mine will be the volume of the output x within the field:
BEP1<x<BEP2
(42)
4 CONCLUSIONS
In the case of a curvilinear fiinction of costs we deal with two breakeven points. This induces the necessity of a different treatment of the remaining boundary values
than in the case when the classical method CVP is used. The margins of economic safety must also be determined in a different way.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work has been carried out within the research project No 5 T 12 A 02923.
REFERENCES
Czopek, K. 2001. The Establishing Method of Characteristic Points of Curvilinear Costs Function. School ofEconomics and Management in Mining: 47–58. Kraków:
AGHUniversity of Science and TechnologyUST, Polish Academy of Sciences.
Czopek, K. 2002. Selection Criteria of the Function of Exploitation Costs. Archives of Mining Sciences: 275–287. Kraków: Polish Academy of Sciences.
Czopek, K. 2003. Fixed and Variable Costs. Theory and Practice. Kraków: ARTTEXT.
Fischer, P.M. & Frank, W.G. 1985. Cost Accounting. Theory and Applications: Cincinnati: SouthWestern Publishing Co.
Leidler, D. & Estrin, S. 1989. The Introduction to Microeconomic. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International.
Wrona, W. 1971. Mathematics. Krakow: State Scientific Publishing House.
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Activity Based Costing (ABC) in the conditions of a mining enterprise
K.Czopek & B.Tyrala
Faculty of Mining and Geoengineering, AGH—University of Science and Technology—UST, Kraków, Poland
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
ABSTRACT: The total exploitation costs of a mineral comprise both the costs of the exploitation process and the costs of organization, supporting
and service units. Calculation of a reliable unit cost of exploitation is then complicated since the currently applied method of overhead of the indirect
costs is not accurate enough. The presently applied register of costs based exclusively on the functional units of a mining enterprise makes the
presentation of the dependence between the height of the incurred costs and the origin of their occurrence difficult. Moreover, the lack of a clear
system of collecting and processing of data about the costs demonstrating the existing relations in the enterprise makes the analyses of the processes
complicated. The calculation that reflects the real structure of the activities in the values indirect of costs and thus helps to show the dependences
between their height and the factors influencing them is the activity based costing ABC. The method of the activity based costing ABC allows for a
more reliable calculation of indirect costs than the traditional calculations. In many cases it helps to show significant differences in the calculations of the
unit cost of the produced assortments.
1 INTRODUCTION
The existing market conditions force enterprises to concentrate constantly on the analysis and efficiency improvement of its activity. This aim is possible to reach only
thanks to the information, which enables the company’s management to make the right decisions. The crucial data must reflect real correlations, which exist in the
company. Basing the decisions on imprecise information makes effective functioning of the company more difficult. Such a situation results in the fact that companies
need to have systems to gather, process and control cost data. Such systems enable obtaining real data on the company’s situation. Product costs, activity costs,
organisation units’ costs, as well as dependencies between the causes and changes of these values is an important piece of information for managers. They must take
into account both direct, and indirect costs which in many companies comprise a major group in the overall costs. Obtaining information, which through the costs reflect
existing dependencies in the company requires adapting cost systems to specific features of particular companies.
2 SPECIFICITY OF A LIGNITE OPEN PIT INFLUENCING THE FEATURES OF THE COST SYSTEM
Lignite open pits are companies of specific production character. Major features of this production are:
1 Mines have permanent (regular) customers, which are professional electric power plants. In such a situation it is necessary to adjust the extraction to their direct
needs. This relationship results in inevitable seasonable nature of demand on the provided coal. The consequence of this is the necessity to adjust extraction works
as well as to stockpile coal reserves for winter periods. In the consequence, the pits extract more overburden in the summer, while the biggest coal excavation is
connected with the winter periods. This results in the time shift of the lignite extraction and the cost of the corresponding overburden.
2 The major item in the unit costs of lignite extraction are costs connected with mining and haulage of the overburden. The changes of the N:W ratio affect unit costs
and profits of the pit.
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3 The pits perform many additional activities to coal exploitation, which costs add up to the overall costs of the basic activity, which is the coal extraction. One of these
is the deposit dewatering.
4 The products of the open pits, besides the coal, are the ancillary minerals. Their supply exceeds the current demand by several hundred times. In order to protect
them and use, pits dump them in separate deposits baring the costs of the work connected with it.
5 Open pits are frequently connected with legal units composing separate enterprises, depending on the dominant unit. These units may provide services for the pit,
external customers and for each other.
6 Lignite open strips may operate on different strips. The overall costs of the pit correspond to each strip in a different proportion.
The features mentioned above emphasise a very specific production process, which is comprised of numerous activities. Their character creates conditions, which make
it difficult for traditional cost systems to present reliable, necessary data. Basic data, which need to be reflected:
1 High participation of the overburden in the extraction cost, as well as the time shift of its mining in relation to the lignite deposited under it requires application of
appropriate cost calculation of the final product, which is the coal. In the calculation it is necessary to take into account a very important factor, which is the
overburden unit and its features influencing the costs of extraction. This activity is necessary both during the analysis of the current situation of the pit as well as during
planning.
In reality the costs C of the coal unit compose costs of actions connected with mining C units of coal and obtaining L units of overburden of a particular structure.
Traditional calculations don’t reflect the presented relationship (Fig. 1).
2 The impact of activity costs on the overall costs of the pit such as dewatering requires separate recording and calculating. Only thanks to the separation of all
expenses connected with particular processes
Figure 1. The cost of mining of C units of coal.
there is a chance to analyse the effectiveness of the mine.
3 Ancillary minerals along with the coal constitute the final product. It requires the possession of the means, which will enable reliable cost analysis of mining and
stockpiling. The costs connected with them should not debit the lignite unit costs because according to the principles of balance sheet law, they should be activated.
4 The existence of separate enterprises cooperating with the mine requires appropriate calculation of services.
5 Possession of several strips by a mine makes it necessary to calculate costs of some departments according to particular strips. It is very important strategically to
possess information on the costs of coal at each strip. It is also crucial to obtain data on the costs of activities performed at different strips, enabling application of
benchmarking.
The remarks presented above emphasise principal requirements that cost systems should meet in a lignite open pit.
Activity Based Costing is the tool, which adaptation to the conditions of lignite open pit and implementation will enable the management to solve these problems. It
enables concentration on the performed actions, products of theses actions, their application in calculations, and thanks to it, monitoring of the existing correlations with
the use of costs.
3 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING IN A LIGNITE OPEN PIT
Traces of principles of Activity Based Costing, as presented Emblesvage in Activity Based Costing and Economic Profit—Theory and Case (2004): can be found in
the 60 s when General Electric started considering linking activities with costs. This form of calculation was developed in the 80 s, accompanying the criticism of existing
methods of cost calculations. Authors of publications such as Goldratt, Kaplan, Cooper, and Fox, presented negative impact of traditional cost calculation on the
obtained cost data. In 1986 as presented Miler in Zarządzanie kosztami działań (2000): a special CSM group appeared, within the framework of CAM1, which
aim was to define a method to calculate the product cost, with development of which there is no direct labour. The first results of the work of the CSM (a group of
specialists from various enterprises) were published in 1988 in a book “Cost Management for Today’s Advanced Manufacturers (Berliner and Driston) 1988. Their
opinion was that it’s not the products that result in occurrence of costs, but activities, which the company performs for products.
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The final shape of the Activity Based Costing was expressed for the first time in Harvard Business Review: “One Cost System Isn’t Enough” by Robert S.Kaplan,
January, February 1988, and by Robin Cooper and Robert S.Kaplan “measure Cost Right. Make the Right Decision”. September–October 1988.
The concept of Activity Based Costing concerns the method in which indirect costs are calculated. It differently views costs and their influence on the obtained
results. It emphasises precise determination of the occurrence of costs sources and their relationship with the cost level fluctuation.
The main assumption of ABC is treating activities as direct causes of costs. According to it, the level and the features of costs depend on the activities performed.
The activities are performed for products (or other cost objects), which means that products influence the costs indirectly, by determining demand for activities (Fig. 2).
In accordance with the ABC, indirect costs are calculated in relation to the products, on the basis of numerous calculation drivers, which can be divided into two
groups:
– Resource Cost Drivers,
– Activity Cost Drivers.
They enable managers to perform calculations, based on activities, and thus link real causes with the value of the costs the company bears.
Figure 2. Elements relationship in accordance with the ABC.
ABC is based on three principal elements of an enterprise
– Activities,
– Resources,
– Cost objects.
Costs of theses elements are related to each other, which enables both determining object costs as well as monitoring their mutual influence on the occurring elements
(Fig. 2).
Activities can be defined as actions, or more generally, as a set of operations which take place in an enterprise and which consume resources. These operations
reflect what takes place in the company. They are distinguished and analysed separately from the organisational units, thus enable calculation of total costs of particular
cost objects. Depending on the needs, you can defme detailed activities. Usually detailed activities form more complex production processes.
Basic production processes, which take place in a lignite open pit:
– Dewatering,
– Overburden extraction,
– Mining,
– Auxiliary activity,
– Strip administration,
– Pit administration,…
Each of the above processes consists of more detailed activities. According to the needs, these processes may possess several levels of minuteness of activities (Fig. 3,
Table 1).
There are two basic aims of distinguishing various minuteness levels:
1 Calculation of activity cost for cost objects through activities on the level, on which it could be defmed by the factor, which acts in a similar way on the activity and
the cost—activity cost driver.
2 Possibility of the concentration on the effectiveness of the realized activities, through the analysis of activities on the adequate minuteness level.
Resources, according to the ABC method, are the sources of costs occurring during realization of activities. Resources, which a company most often possesses, are:
– Employees,
– Machines,
– Materials,
– Production, storage and office area,
– Means of transportation,
– Outside services,
– Electricity, ...
Traditional resources are gathered in organizational units. In order to determine the total cost of
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Figure 3. Activities minuteness levels.
Table 1. Division of principal processes into detailed activities.
Fundamental process Specific activity
Dewatering Surface dewatering
Groundwater dewatering
Overburden extraction Overburden mining
Overburden haulage
Overburden dumping
Mining Mining
Coal haulage
Auxiliary activity Engineeringbuilding activities
Refurbishment activities
activities, it is necessary to calculate resources in relation to the activities, which consume them. It requires association of the overheads of ftmctional units or distinction
of resources of units to perform activities (Fig. 4).
Ascribing resources to activities will enable determination of total costs of realised activities, and after their conjunction, more general processes. Calculated activity
costs are the foundation for cost object deduction.
Activity cost calculation requires application of rates reflecting consumption of resources for performed activities. The following can be resource cost drivers:
– Cubic metres,
– Kilowatthours,
– Hours,
– Percentages,…
They show what share of cost of a particular resource is used to perform a particular activity (Table 2).
Cost objects in a lignite open pit can be divided into final cost objects and calculation cost objects. The first group of objects are objects like:
– Lignite,
– Ancillary minerals,
– Strips,
– Pit.
Calculation Cost objects are:
– Type A overburden,
– Type B overburden,
– Surface water,
– Groundwater.
This distinction is very important as the knowledge of the calculation objects is important in obtaining fmal object costs and is crucial for effective company
management. Treating them as activity products only and concentrating on final objects cost calculation
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Figure 4. The relationship of units and activities.
Table 2. Ascription of resource costs to activity costs.
Table 3. Ascription of activity costs with cost object costs.
Table 4. Ascription of calculation cost objects with corresponding activities.
Cost object costs Activity costs
Type A overburden Type A overburden mining Type A overburden haulage Type A overburden dumping
Type B overburden Type B overburden mining Type B overburden haulage Type B overburden dumping
Groundwater Groundwater dewatering
Surface water Surface dewatering
would be equal to neglecting an important level of nalysis, which is available thanks to the ABC.
4 COST OBJECT COST CALCULATION
Cost objects are linked to activities, which are performed for them. Activities pass their costs on to object costs with the application of ratios—activity cost drivers,
expressing, to what extent, activities are performed for one cost object. It enables calculation of cost objects costs.
The above calculation (Table 3) first deals with calculation cost objects. A sample connection between cost objects and activities are shown in Table 4.
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Table 5. Ascription of final cost objects with the corresponding activities.
Cost object costs Activity costs
Coal Coal mining Coal haulage
Ancillary mineral of Type A overburden Type A overburden haulage Type A overburden dumping
Industrial importance mining
Table 6. Relationship between final cost objects and calculation cost objects.
Unit cost of a final cost object Unit number costs of a final calculation object corresponding to a final object unit
Coal Type A overburden Type B overburden Groundwater
Ancillary minerals Type B overburden Groundwater
A similar calculation must be done for fmal cost objects is shown in Table 5.
Determining final values requires additional determination of the relationship between final object costs and calculation costs.
Final cost objects, such as strips, in case of a multiple strip mine includes costs for all cost objects occurring within it, as well as costs connected with the fimctioning
of the strip, which according to the ABC are directly linked with it.
5 SUMMARY
Lignite open pits are characteristic companies. Their specific activity can be reflected by application of Activity Based Costing. Deduction of activity costs and
subsequently calculation cost objects makes it possible to link them with final object costs. It gives the foundations for ascribing real overall extraction costs with a
particular coal unit or ancillary mineral. The simultaneous calculation of activity costs gives an opportunity to analyse them and focus on the efficiency improvement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work has been carried out within the research project No 5T12A02923.
REFERENCES
Emblesvage, J. 2004. ActivityBased Costing and Economic Profit—Theory and Case. Cost Management no 1 (vol. 18).
Miler, J.A. 2000. Zarządzaine kosztami dzialań. Warszawa: WIGPress.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Valuation of longterm postmining activities
C.Drebenstedt & D.Slaby
Technische Universitdt Bergakademie Freiberg, Germany
ABSTRACT: Remediation and aftercare jobs in the mining industry are often characterized by their longterm nature. The commercial evaluation, e.g.
behavioral alternatives, are therefore based on an intertemporal valuation approach. As the evaluated objects usually do not create revenue, the
valuation criterion will be the expense parameter that is expressed as the cumulative cash value of all costs and the investments still to be decided upon
and thus relevant for the payments to be made. This expense parameter will have to be interpreted as a negative revenue item, so that the valuation
approach introduced herein is a special case of the approach used to determine the capitalized value of potential earning, which is dominating in the
mining industry. This paper introduces typical reasons for a valuation, the valuation model and the conclusions for the model drawn from a sensitivity
analysis. Problems arising when the model is applied are highlighted in a case study.
1 PRELIMINARY REMARKS
The research work as well as training and further training at the TU Bergakademie Freiberg have focused for years now on problems concerning the commercial
evaluation of deposits, of mining technologies, of mining projects and of mining companies, but the same problems have also been the subject of the consulting services
and expert opinions provided by the Academy on behalf of governments, authorities and of the mining companies themselves (Slaby & Drebenstedt 2000a, 2000b,
2003, Steinmetz 1993, Wilke 1993).
The results of this work have been published on numerous occasions and in different forms, e.g. as part of the Freiberg Stone and Earth Colloquium on the conflicts
between economics and ecology in mining as well as on the commercial assessment of this conflict in decisiontaking areas under entrepreneurial aspects, such as in
regional planning, during the permit procedures and in decisions on utilizing deposits.
If the insights are summarized that have been gained on different objects of valuation, during different occasions for such a valuation and by considering the different
valuation targets, the following three conclusions and the recommendations derived from them will turn out to be of fundamental importance:
– The fundamental approach to any kind of valuation in the mining industry is to consider the capitalized value of potential earnings. Alternative approaches to the
valuation, such as to consider the net asset value as it is favored elsewhere, are either completely unsuitable for the valuation of deposits, inventories and projects or
only partly suitable for the valuation of mining companies and plants.
– The evaluation strategy must take into account the valuation of deposits, projects and companies in their entirety.
– Conflicts existing between a mining company’s internal economics (the pursuit of profit), between external effects (caused by interfering in the environment and in
natural habitats) and with the duty to protect the deposits (caused by high extraction rates) can and will have to be considered in the decisiontaking process to a
reasonable extent on the basis of opportunity or alternative cost accounting.
Triggered off by the declining rate of the mining output (e.g. in the hard coal and lignite industry) and by the elimination of entire mining sectors (such as the Wismut), we
have been increasingly confronted in recent months with the problem of a commercial evaluation of the ecological consequences of these mining activities as well as with
the search for measures required to ward off the dangers arising from this situation and to secure a sustainable development. The relevant efforts have been focused on
remediation, postclosure and longterm projects in connection with the Wismut and lignite mining activities. In view of the fact that the problem is of fundamental nature
and that it concerns or affects all mining sectors, the work results and the experience gained during this work are to be made known in the following paper.
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2 THE PROBLEM
The production of mineral raw materials from the geological substance of the Earth’s crust will always affect the natural balance. Regions where raw materials are
produced by surface mining are particularly affected in this respect. The changes in nature caused by mining activities are most varied. They include changes in
agriculture and thus to the biosphere, the temporary withdrawal of arable land and living space as well as their devastation, at least for some time, infrastructural
changes in the region and the interference in natural and anthropogenic water systems. In order to secure the chances of fiiture generations for a sustainable
development, the natural balance affected by mining activities will therefore have to be redressed and the living space once given over to mining will have to be
revitalized (Slaby 1992, 1998, Gerhardt 1994, 2000).
The allocation of the professional, legal and commercial responsibilities will have to be based on the principle of causation. This means that the mining industry, i.e.
the mining company causing the postmining damage, will have to assume responsibility, as it is also stipulated in the FRG’s mining law. The general principles of
providence and causation will then have to be complemented by the principle of burdensharing, by the user principle and by the principles of feasibility and
reasonableness, depending on the overlapping and distinguishing interests of other parties involved, especially as a result of the ongoing social development processes.
One will have to bear in mind that, often enough, the mining companies causing the damage do no longer exist at the time when remediation and postclosure measures
will have to be implemented (postmining reconstruction) and when the contaminated sites will have to be recultivated (longterm obligation).
A major feature of the postmining consequences caused by the elimination of former mining locations is their longterm character and the special risks as regards the
expected and the actual scope of work. This applies particularly to remediation, postclosure and longterm objects in the field of water management, such as to
objects for the collection, treatment and disposal of contaminated seepage water from mining slopes, dumpsites and disused industrial facilities, as well as to objects for
controlling and limiting the rising ground water levels in old mining locations affected in this respect. Alternative technological and commercial options to solve the
problems as well as specific technological and commercial risks are typical of these longterm objects, and they often seem to require an infinite duration to complete
them, when one looks at these problems from today’s point of view. These specific risks concern the insufficient knowledge of the effectiveness and the reliability of the
technological solution applied, the time it will take to reduce the contamination, the required consumption of production factors (such as energy, chemicals etc.) in the
course of time, the time involved to treat the relevant quantities of water or the inflow of water and, last but not least, the uncertainties as regards the development of the
valuation parameters (such as prices and rates) for the consumption of these production factors during that time. The commercial valuation of such objects requires
necessarily an appropriate evaluation of the time factor and makes it necessary to take the various risks and trend factors into account. In other words, it is necessary to
apply an intertemporal valuation approach (Slaby & Drebenstedt 2000a, 2003).
In the current practice of remediation mining, the general problem of the commercial valuation of longterm remediation objects is embedded mainly in two fields of
the decisiontaking process.
First of all, as a prerequisite for determining the most suitable option of technological and commercial behavioral alternatives. The problem to take a decision in this
respect is above all characterized by the fact that the available technological options may oppose each other: one of them may require no or hardly any aftercare, but is
costintensive, while the other one may require fewer investments, but more aftercare. The problem is here to make an intertemporal comparison of the expenditure
involved (i.e. the investments and the operating costs required), depending on the time when these amounts become due. The problem can only be solved by applying
financial and mathematical valuation models.
Secondly, the progress made with the remediation creates the prerequisite for transferring the object into the responsibility of a third party. This transfer often comes
along with a change in ownership, i.e. the local authority becomes the new owner, so that the supervision by the mining authority ends, as intended. It might be
necessary to pursue the longterm jobs, such as monitoring and water management jobs, also in the future and under the auspices of the new legal owner, in order to
contain or ward off postmining damage affecting the general public.
The readiness of the future owner to accept the commercial responsibility for the project will depend on a reasonable funding. The volume of the ftmding depends on
the services and costs for the relevant object still outstanding at the time of transferring the ownership. The calculation of the amount needed, e.g. a oneoff payment to
the future owner, will be based on a mathematical valuation model of the financial investments required, i.e. on the calculation
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of the cumulated capitalized cash value of all outstanding financial obligations.
A suitable approach to a solution of both problems is to mathematically determine the financial investment costs.
3 PROBLEM SOLUTION
3.1 Valuation approach and valuation model
This approach makes it necessary to establish the cumulative cash value of all financially assessed expenses required for the valuation projects over a limited or
unlimited time horizon (T) and in accordance with the required safety and remediation standards. These “mathematically calculated financial investment costs”, referred
to hereinafter as the expense parameter (AW), act as criteria when the commercial advantages of alternative options are compared and when a oneoff payment is
made to the future owner after the financial responsibility has been transferred. The calculation of the expense parameter AW is determined by the cashlayout costs
(operating costs requiring payments) to be established for the period t=1…T as well as by cyclic and noncyclic investments that may become necessary. These
payments are the input for the calculation. Should payments be received during the period T, such as in the form of revenue or investments, they will have to be offset
against the payment made in the same period. Any balances from the liquidation are to be included in the calculation at the end of the project period T.
3.1.1 Valuation approach
Calculation of the cumulative cash value of the periodic payments (the mathematically calculated financial investments) related to a base year (0) by taking into account
– the period required for the relevant measures (T),
– the cashlayout costs at valuation level 0 by taking into account the possibly changing consumption of resources (such as energy, labor etc.) and investments during
this period that might become necessary,
– the inflationadjusted imputed interest (the real rate of interest),
– trends concerning the changes in the valuation parameters and in the prices for the expense parameter, such as for energy, labor, replacement investments and
material,
– a general inflation rate,
– the specific technological and commercial risks concerning the valuation objects.
Investments made and operating costs expended before the base year (0) will be disregarded in the calculation of the cumulated cash value for the payments due, they
are irrelevant for the decisions (to be) taken in this respect, they are “sunk costs” by their very nature.
If the expense parameter AW is used as a basis for a oneoff payment in the case of transferring the responsibilities, it will be assumed that this capitalized oneoff
payment made in the base year (0) will be capitalized as an annuity with a safe nominal interest rate over the limited or unlimited time horizon. This periodic annuity is
then available with the required amounts to cover the payments, including the calculated trends in the expense and valuation level as well as for specific technological
and commercial risks.
3.1.2 Valuation model
(1)
where AW=expense parameter; At(0)=periodic amount for the cashlayout costs and investments in period t at the valuation level in base year (0); q=imputed interest
(the real rate of interest).
(1)=constant, the following applies:
(2)
where KF= capitalization factor.
The required cyclic and noncyclic payments, such as for replacement and oneoff investments, are included in annuity At(0) (as an investment annuity) of equation
(2). The capitalized expense parameter AW will then be determined by the product of the largest period annuity of all payments and of the capitalization factor. The
valuation model shown in Figure 1 illustrates the suggested valuation strategy.
Prerequisites for calculating the expense parameter AW on the basis of equation (2) are therefore:
– The calculation of the payment/expense annuity At(0)
Figure 1. Scheme of case study options: pump station (left) or free outflow (right).
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This includes the preliminary calculation of the cashlayout for the operating costs and other cyclic and noncyclic payments that may become necessary as well as
their calculation as representative expense annuity over the period T.
– The calculation of the capitalization factor KF This requires decisions to be taken over the period T, decisions as to the rhythm of the cyclic investments (renewal
cycle) and the determination of the imputed interest rate q.
If the object to be evaluated is subject to price increases for the consumption of production factors (such as prices and labor rates) to and specific technological and
commercial risks, it is recommended to calculate a modified interest rate q, which will then have to be taken into account, and the expected inflation rate as well.
Assuming that there is a continuous and steady development over the period T (with the same percentage), the imputed basic interest rate (the real rate of interest) will
have to be modified as follows:
(3)
where q=imputed interest rate now modified; qR=original imputed real interest rate; qlnfl.=inflation factor; qV=summarized objectrelated modiflcation factor of the
valuation criteria (prices) for the expense factors, such as for labor, energy etc.; pR=discounted interest rate in % p.a. to take specific technological and commercial
risks into account.
The calculation of the expense parameter AW on the basis of equation (2) with the given capitalization factor KF and an expense annuity At(0) that remains constant
over the period T is recommended, when payments for the objects remain unchanged over the period T and when the expense parameter AW does not change, either.
In the case of any deviating conditions, such as changing expense curves and liquidation balances, the calculation regulations will have to be modified further. Should the
expense curve fluctuate, the calculation will have to be made on the basis of irregular amounts being paid over the period T according to equation (1). In practice, it
may be typical that the trend of expenditure is decreasing which can be mathematically described by a digression of the changing amounts. The expense parameter AW
will have to be interpreted as a negative revenue item.
3.2 Demonstration of the model application and general conclusions
The following input data have been assumed as a basis for demonstrating the valuation model by way of an example:
– expense annuity of the operating costs at level (0) ABt(0)=100
– cyclic replacement investments amounting to I(0)=500 over a period of 8 cycles (years)
– project duration T=20 years
– real interest rate p=3.5% p.a.
– modification factor of the valuation parameters (prices) for the operating costs expended and the investments made qv =1.020
– inflation factor qlnfl.=1.015
– interest discounted for technological & commercial risks concerning the project pR=0.5% p.a.
Based on the assumption that the scope of services remains the same at valuation level (0) and over the period T, i.e. the operating cost annuity ABt(0) = constant, the
following calculations are required:
– Calculation of the operating cost annuity AIt(0) at valuation level (0) on the basis of the renewal cycle n for replacement investments (I0=500, n=8 years), of the real
interest rate p=3.5% p.a. and of the relevant annuity factor AF
AIt(0)= 500*AF (q=1,035,n=8)=500 * 0.1455= 72.75
– The expense annuity made up of the operating costs and investments at valuation level (0) therefore amounts to
At(0)=ABt(0)+AIt(0)=100+72.75=172.75
– Calculation of the modified interest rate q according to equation (3) and of the capitalization factor KF depending on it
KF (q=1.025, T=20)=15.589
– Calculation of the capitalized expense parameter AW on the basis of the expense annuity At(0) and of the modified interest rate q according to equation (2)
AW=172,75*15,589=2693
Based on the assumptions used in the above example, the expense parameter capitalized in the base year (0) amounts to 2693. If one assumes, deviating from the
assumptions used in the above example, that the operating costs over the project duration T decline to a liquidity balance LT at the end of the project duration, the
capitalized expense parameter AW required on the basis of this assumption will be lower than the one achieved, when the operating costs remain at a constant level
over the entire period T. The expense curve, i.e. the degree of the declining operating costs over the entire project duration T, now becomes the determining and
additional influencing factor.
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As a result of the sensitivity analyses carried out and depending on the model input, the following conclusions are generally valid and can be drawn with regard to the
sensitivity of the target parameter “capitalized expense parameter” (AW).
– AW responds rather sensitivity to changes in the modified interest rate q and shows an exponential growth with a declining interest (rate). AW’s sensitivity is
therefore felt more strongly in areas with a high interest rate than in areas with a lower interest rate. This, in turn, makes it necessary to define q thoroughly, i.e. the
influencing factors must be taken into account in this respect.
– The decisons on the structure of these parameters, including the capture of detailed data for individual cost items, will be pushed in the background, while the
decisions on the rate of the inflationadjusted basic interest (q) and on the interest rate for risks involved (pR) will be given much more priority, although the
cause/effect relationship between price increases (qV) and inflation (qInfl.) as well as the adjustment between the effects of this relationship on q will have to be given
due consideration.
– The influence of T on the amounts involved in AW is considerable over a 20 to 30years. This fact points to the necessity that T for the objects with a limited
duration must be determined very carefully.
– The safe knowledge of the amounts involved in the expense parameter and of the espense curve in the case of projects with a long (T longer than 30 years) and an
infinite duration as well as the required knowledge of possible liquidation consequences is less important and fades in the tackling socalled permanent mining
damage on commercial valuation when T=50 years. The oneoff payment in the case of a constant expense annuity over the period T=∞ and a modified interest rate
q=1.05 amounts to only 9.55 percentage points above the amounts which would have been due if T was 50.
– The expense curve over the period T (either constant or declining) is of decisive influence especially on objects with a limited duration. This explains the demand to
determine the expense curve for these projects over the period T very carefully, apart from the demand to also limit this period T to a reasonable duration.
– Irrespective of the project duration T, the state ments about the expense volume and the development of the expense volume and the develop ment of the expense
curve for a period of up to 20–30 years are of the essence.
– In general, AW shows a higher sensitivity in areas with a lower interest rate, also when T, LT and the expense curve change. Consequently, the claims for funding of
these parameters will be higher at a lower interest rate than at a high interest level.
– Should AW be used as a criterion for determining the commercial advantages of (different) options, any variations in the interest level may change the
advantageousness of the option hitherto preferred. A higher interest rate favors options and makes them more advantageous, where most of the required expenses
become due in the faraway future. In other words: a low interest rate promotes behavioral alternatives requiring higher investments.
4 CASE STUDY
The following example is meant to a practical explanation of the valuation method presented in this paper, while it is used for the most different applications in practice.
4.1 The problem
The residual hole of a disused opencast mine is filled with water and used for local recretion. In order to ensure the safety for the general public, it becomes necessary
to regulate the water level in the lake and prevent it from rising beyond a specified level. A water level higher than the specified onecould cause geotechnologocal
dangers, such as landslides. In order to regulate the water level permanently, two technically feasible solutions are available(Fig.1):
– Option 1: The permanent operation of pumping station. This option requires comparatively little funding in form of a oneoff investment, but incurs comparatively high
costs for the cylic replacement investments and the operating costs.
– Option 2: Construction of a free outflow from the lake. The advantage of this option is that the operating costs and the cyclic replacement investments are fairly low
once the free outflow has been constructed, although the initial funding requirements are comparatively high.
4.2 Intial data and calculation
In order to compare both options under commercial aspects, all expenserelated facts will have to be reviewed.
4.2.1 Option 1
A stationary pump will have to be installed for permanent operations.
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– Investments: The investments made in recent years comprise electrical connections, a passage under the road and a building for discharging the water into a nearby
creek and have a reinstatement value of some € 21600. The renewal cycle for these plants has been fixed to be 40 years. Further supplementary investments
amounting to approximately € 71300 are required for the pump station (€ 40900), the pumping equipment (€ 20200) and the site mobilization (€ 10200). As the
pump is only used periodically, a reserve pump will not be required. In order to establish the recurring expense items, a distinction must be made between cyclically
renewable and oneoff investment costs. The oneoff investment costs include the site mobilization. The pumping equipment will have to be replaced every 12 years,
while a useftil life of 40 years is assumed for all other investments.
– Operating costs: The operating costs of € 18,600 can be broken down as follows: energy (€ 0.03/m3 of water), labor costs for the supervising personnel (10
hrs/week @ € 23/hour), service and maintenance (2% p.a. of the investment sum over a useful life of 40 years and 8% p.a. of the investment sum over a service life
of 12 years) as well as charges and fees (insurance, rental of the land etc.).
– Risk: In order to dimension the pump, a 50day pump test has been carried out. This period is not considered to be sufficient for making a reliable forecast as to the
water quantities to be pumped. This uncertainty will be taken into account by a risk discount of 0.5% on the interest rate.
4.2.2 Option 2
The water will be discharged partly into an open trench and partly into a pipeline. The different piping sections lead to the suboptions “open trench” and “piping” (Tab
1.).
– Investments: The earth work, the vegetation work, the surveying and engineering services as well as the permitting costs will be taken into account as oneoff
investment costs (€ 524500 or € 537300, respecively). The pipelines and the trench construction will have to be renewed cyclically (every 40 years) at a cost of €
19400 and € 264800, respectively.
– Operating costs: Checks are necessary in the interest of public safety and to maintain the reliable ftinction of the discharge installation (8hrs/week, € 10000 p.a.).
– Risk: The water outflow to be constructed runs across an old dumpsite. As no hydrological assessment of the water level in the dumpsite has been prepared, no final
statements as to the required construction of the water discharge installations can be made. These risks will also be reflected by an interest rate discounted by 0.5%.
Table 1. The project costs broken down in accordance with the options considered.
The two options will be commercially evaluated on the basis of the expense parameter AW as applied in equation (1). All necessary payments over the entire project
duration will be taken into account, the cyclic investments as investment annuities. The project duration of both options is infinite.
The mathematical calculation of the investment costs assumes a real interest rate of 4% as well as a price and inflation adjustment.
4.3 Results
The input data and the result of the mathematical/ financial calculation of the expense parameter AW on the basis of equation (1) are summarized in the table below.
A comparison of the options based on the above assumptions shows that the construction of the pump station ensures a relative advantage of about 18.9% over the
option with a free open trench outflow. The option involving the free outflow with a pipeline is clearly much more unfavorable due to the high proportion of replacement
investments. When looking at the effect the real interest rate has on the expenditure, the following statement can be made: Based on a real interest rate of 3% p.a., both
options (with the pump station and with the free outflow) are commercially equivalent. If the real interest rate rises, the option with the pump station will become more
advantageous. A relative advantage of 36.4% is already achieved with option 1 when the interest rate rises to 5% p.a., as compared with the other option. These
statements underline and confirm how urgent it is to determine the interest rate exactly, i.e. to establish the real interest rate, the price modification rate, the inflation rate
and the riskrelated interest rate (equation 3).
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REFERENCES
Gerhardt, H. & Slaby, D. 1994. Bewertung von Maßnahmen zur Beseitigung von Bergbaufolgen aus technologischer und betriebswirtschaftlicher Sicht am Beispiel des
Erzbergbaus. Berg und Hüttenmännische Monatshefte Heft 12:431–441.
Gerhardt, H. & Slaby, D. 2000. Optimierung des Mechanisierungsgrades in Abhängigkeit vom Lohnniveau beim untertägigen Lagerstattenabbau. Erzmetall Heft 12: 721–
733.
Slaby, D. 1992. Ökologische Lasten und Bewertung von Lagerstätten und Bergbauunternehmen. Neue Bergbautechnik Heft. 11:391–395.
Slaby, D. & Drebenstedt, C. 2000a. Wirtschaftliche Bewertung langfristiger Bergbaufolgen. Freiberg: SMWA.
Slaby, D. & Drebenstedt, C. 2000b. Wirtschaftliche Bewertung des Freispiegelabflusses für das Restloch Pahna zur Absenkung des Wasserspiegels im Vergleich
zur vorhandenen Pumpvariante. Freiberg: LMBV.
Slaby, D., Drebenstedt, C. & Ohlendorf, F. 2002. Gutachterliche Stellungnahfhe zur wirtschaftlichen Bewertung der WismutAltlasten, der Langzeitaufgaben, der
Nachsanierung und der Sanierung im Bereich der Wismut GmbH. Freiberg: SMWA und SMUL.
Slaby, D., Drebenstedt, C. & Sablotny, B. 2003. Wirtschaftliche Bewertung von langfristigen Bergbaufolgen—Grundlagen und Konzepte. Erzmetall Heft 10:583–594.
Slaby, D. & Krasselt, R. 1998. Industriebetriebslehre: Investitionen. München: R. Oldenburg Verlag.
Steinmetz, R. & Slaby, D. 1993. Wirtschaftliche Bewertung der Braunkohlenlagerstätte Nochten. Freiberg: Regionaler Planungsverband Oberlausitz.
Wilke, L. & Slaby, D. 1993. Gutachten zum Förderverbund Merkers/UnterbreizbachHattorf. Berlin/Freiberg: BMBF.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Sensitivity analysis of production plans of mines to changes in demand using the
Monte Carlo method
Dariusz Fuksa
University of Science and Technology (AGH), Cracow, Poland
ABSTRACT: This paper shows the matter and the means of using postoptimal analysis in management of group of mines (company, etc) at present
economical and organizational terms in the coal mining industry. The usefulness of the postoptimal analysis is shown mainly through the following:
– adaptation of production decisions to present internal and external conditions
– sensitivity analysis of mines (company) to changes in demand
– support in investment and liquidation decisions
One of the stages in the postoptimal analysis is the sensitivity analysis of production plans of mines to changes in demand. This analysis is based on
the Monte Carlo method. This paper shows the theoretical reasoning as well as practical applications of the analysis on a coal mining company. The
results of the above analysis can:
– apply production plans of mines to realistic conditions
– reduce sensitivity of production plans to erroneous demand prognosis
– reveal certain phenomenon using this method
1 INTRODUCTION
The analysis presented in this paper is based on the Monte Carlo method and it covers the research of effects of fluctuations in demand on efficiency of coal mines. This
is one of the stages of the postoptimal analysis described in production decision rationalization method, presented and discussed in paper (Fuksa 2003). Due to the
extensiveness of the presented analysis, the discussion is limited to selected practicaluse examples.
Changes in the demand have a deciding effect on the amount of mines’ production and at the same time on the efficiency of the company. Since the demand can
either increase or decrease, the results of the above analysis can reveal certain strategies with respect to further operations of the company. For example, if demand
increases to the point that the mines cannot extract enough coal to meet the demand, this might indicate the need for increased production through increase in investment
activities. In an opposite situation, when demand decreases, this might lead to decrease in the extraction amount, liquidation of some production units or in certain cases
the liquidation of the whole mine. The information obtained in this way might be helpful in investment and liquidation decisions.
Commonly used tool that helps to analyze the effects of changes in demand on the efficiency of mines is the “extreme cases” method (scenario analysis). This method
is based on identifying three alternatives: optimistic, pessimistic and one that is most likely to represent actual conditions. The optimistic alternative assumes highest
performance, the closes to actual assumes that everything will go as planned and the pessimistic outcome will take place when all factors are least favorable. This
method is not fully conclusive due to two reasons. First of all, the likelihood that all factors that are based on chance will be characterized as either most favorable or
least favorable is very slight (the effect of factors that are not due to chance is taken into account in the prognosis formula). Second of all, the method is limited to only
three scenarios, whereas the evaluation of sensitivity of the efficiency of a company to the fluctuations in demand would need to be analyzed for all possible scenarios.
That is where the Monte Carlo method comes in (Brandt 1998, Sadowski 1976, Zieliński 1974). This method is extremely helpftil in practical applications because it
lets us
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solve even the most complicated probabilityrelated issues. The Monte Carlo method is able to demonstrate the most realistic situations that can occur and it presents
robustness of the results due to large number of scenarios used.
The advantage of the Monte Carlo method, as compared to other methods, is the ability of generating, at the same time, a large number of values that represent
demand. Due to the reasons mentioned above, it seems appropriate to use this method in the analysis of production plans.
2 ALGORITHM OF VALUATION OF EFFECTS OF FLUCTUATIONS IN DEMAND ON THE EFFICIENCY OF
COMPANY
The application of the Monte Carlo method in this analysis is based on generating a value of demand for all groups of consumers. The generated vector of demand
determines the subvector for the right side of condition, limiting the net amount of extracted coal to an amount that is equal to or less than the demand for consumers in
group k:
(1)
(2)
where cijk=price of ij type of coal; kzijk=variable cost for mine j; Ksj=fixed cost for miney.
Based on this, the results of the analysis can be presented in histogram form which shows the profits for the company as a whole and for each mine separately. It also
assists in figuring out the likelihood of obtaining a given level of profits for the company and the mines that make up that company. The results obtained using the above
method provide information about economic consequences that result from fluctuations in demand. The sensitivity analysis was conducted in three variants which
include: retrospective dispersion, most probable prognosis error, and effects of correlation in demand fluctuations to efficiency of mines. In each case:
– a random number generator based on the Monte Carlo method was used
– to obtain the most comprehensive results, the calculated values were the average and the maximum profits that a firm and each mine could obtain as well as the
likelihood of attaining the optimal amount of profits as shown in the optimization plan and attaining 2/3 of that value
– there were 1000 randomly generated values, which give a good estimation of the likelihood of obtaining expected profits.
The computations were performed in the following way:
1. The randomly generated value for the demand is transferred to the initial solution while at the same time modifying the appropriate factors that weaken the solution.
This will lead to selecting the weakening factor with the smallest and negative value (least acceptable). It is reduced to zero in such a way that does not reduce other
negative, weakening factors. The above process always leads to an acceptable solution because it allows for storing of coal reserves.
2. Next step is to find the optimal value for the allowable solution. To accomplish this we use the SIMPLEX method that uses linear programming to find optimal
solutions.
3 EXAMPLE OF CALCULATIONS AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS
Generated values of demand, have a normal distribution, with the expected value (nominal value) equal to planned amount of demand for year 2002 (Fuksa 2003).
Standard deviation (with dispersion σo ) results from changes in demand of individual groups of consumers (Tab. 1). The analysis of the generated values allows for the
evaluation of the sensitivity of firms and individual mines’ efficiency to the fluctuations in the planned demand. For each value of demand, an optimal value of profits for
the firm and each mine was obtained. Achieved results were presented in the forms of histograms and in Table 2. The interpretation of results was based on intuitive
concept that subjectively evaluates sensitivity. Sensitivity is understood as a multidimensional measurement of uncertainty of profits for mines and for company as related
to fluctuations in demand.
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Table 1. Nominal value and dispersion σo for every group of consumers.
Table 2. Average and maximum value of expected profits and the likelihood of achieving that profit with dispersion σo.
Dyspersja σo
The nonlinear problem causes distortions in the histogram of profits for mines and company in relation to market conditions. When looking at the histogram of the
company it is evident that the distortions are not large. The likelihood of achieving nominal profits (black, perpendicular line) is slight, but the likelihood of achieving
average profits is even smaller (Fig. 1, Tab. 2).
This is mostly influenced by large sensitivity of mines “A”, “D” and “F” to changes in demand levels (bold figures in Table 2).
Even though distortions in the histogram that represents the company are not large, they are much more significant when looking at individual mines. For example
when looking at histogram that represents
Figure 1. Histogram showing frequencies of achieving given profits for the company with dispersion σo.
Figure 2. Histogram showing frequencies of achieving given profits for mine “D” with dispersion σo.
mine “D”, we can see that the likelihood of achieving the planned level of profits (black, perpendicular line) hardly passes the 50% mark (Fig. 2, Tab. 2).
It also needs to be noted that with unfavorable conditions, mines “A” and “D” might not reach their planned level of profits (Figs 2–3). These occurrences can be
identified using the Monte Carlo method and due to this justify its use as well.
The other mines are characterized as having small sensitivity to changes in demand, for example mine “E”, which has the likelihood of achieving its planned profit
equal to almost 1 (Fig. 4).
For the most likely error in prognosis, the error was computed by (Barnett 1982, Bobrowski 1986, Gnot 1991, Goryl 1996, Grabiński et al. 1982, Rocki 2002):
1. Estimating parameters of conjectural structure (parameters of distribution of factors due to chance), which help in making an assessment regarding the correct fitting
of the model to empirical data, through definitions of:
– variation (estimator) in the remainder factor:
(3)
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Figure 3. Histogram showing frequencies of achievir given profits for mine "A" with dispersion σo.
Figure 4. Histogram showing frequencies of achieving given profits for mine "E" with dispersion σo.
(4)
where
(5)
2. Estimation of variance in prognosis model:
(6)
where
u=[1 x n+2]
(7)
where xN+2—time, during which prognosis is prepared.
3 Defining dispersion (standard deviation) of prognosis and taking into account (3) and (6) according
Table 3. Nominal value and dispersion σyprog.
Table 4. Average and maximum value of ex pected profits and the likelihood of achieving those profits Wlth σyprog.
Dyspersja σyprog
to the following formula:
(8)
Achieved results are presented in Tables 3–4.
After comparing the results for both analyses we can state that:
1. Situation of the company has not improved significantly. The likelihood of achieving nominal profits increased to almost 50% (Fig. 5, Tab. 4).
2. Sensitivity of mines “A” and “B” to changes in demand has not decreased significantly, which is evident by looking at Figure 6 and Table 4.
3. Sensitivity of other mines to changes in demand has stayed almost at the same levels, which is still not a favorable situation when referring to mine “D” and “F” and
leads to further considerations
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Figure 5. Histogram showing frequencies of achieving given profits for the company with dispersion σyprog.
Figure 6. Histogram showing frequencies of achieving given profits for mine “A” with dispersion σyprog.
Figure 7. Histogram showing frequencies of achieving given profits for mine “D” with dispersion σyprog.
with respect to improvements in their situations (Figs 7–8, Tab. 4).
Research was also conducted to examine the effects of correlating fluctuations in demand to efficiency of the company and mines. To do this, the nominal value of
prognosis for each group of consumers was first decreased (N1) and then increased (N2) by the value of the error (formula 4). The results are presented in Tables 5–7.
Figure 8. Histogram showing frequencies of achieving given profits for mine “F” with dispersion σyprog.
Table 5. Nominal value of prognosis N1, N2 and dispersion σyprog.
After comparing these results with results of previous analyses, it is observable that with higher levels of demand (N2), the financial condition of the company has
improved significantly (Tab. 7, Fig. 9). The likelihood of achieving its planned level of profits is almost equal to one. However, with lower levels of demand, the
likelihood of that is slight (Tab. 9). This is caused mainly by large sensitivity of mines “C”, “D” and “F” to changes in demand (Figs 10–11).
4 CONCLUSIONS
The presented analysis reveals inabilities of mines to adjust its quantity and quality based structure of production to the needs of the market. As a result, optimal plans
of production become very sensitive to
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Table 6. Average and maximum value of expected profits and the likelihood of achieving those profits using N1.
Dyspersja σyprog
Table 7. Average and maximum value of expected profits and the likelihood of achieving those profits using N2.
Dyspersja σyprog
Figure 9. Histogram showing frequencies of achieving given profits for the company with nominal value N2 and dispersion σyprog.
fluctuations in demand, which is evident in histograms that represent mines “D” and “F”.
The application of this method and its results provide very useful tools that assist in investment as well as liquidation decisions.
Figure 10. Histogram showing frequencies of achieving given profits for mine “C” with nominal value N1 and dispersion σyprog.
Figure 11. Histogram showing frequencies of achieving given profits for mine “D” with nominal value N1 and dispersion σyprog.
REFERENCES
Barnett V.: Elementy pobierania prób. PWN, Warszawa 1982.
Bobrowski D.: Probabilistyka w zastosowaniach technicznych. WNT, Warszawa 1986.
Brandt S.: Analiza danych, Metody statystyczne i obliczeniowe. Wydawnictwo Naukowe. PWN, Warszawa 1998.
Fuksa D.: Analizapostoptymalnajako metoda racjonalizacji decyzji produkcyjnych w spółce wgglowej. Praca doktorska. Kraków 2003.
Gnot S.: Estymacja komponentów wariancyjnych w modelach liniowych. WNT, Warszawa 1991.
Goryl A., Jędrzejczyk Z.: Wprowadzenie do ekonometrii w przykładach izadaniach. PWN, Warszawa 1996.
Grabinski T., Wydymus S., Zaliaś A.: Metody doboru zmiennych wmodelach ekonometrycznych. PWN, Warszawa 1982.
Rocki M: Ekonometria praktyczna. SGH, Warszawa 2002.
Sadowski W.: Teoria podejmowania decyzji. PWE, Warszawa 1976.
Zieliński R.: Metody Monte Carlo. WNT, Warszawa 1974.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Tandem lignite opencast mine & power plant as a bilateral monopoly
L. Jurdziak
Institute of Mining Engineering, Wroclow University of Technology, Poland
ABSTRACT: It has been proposed to treat tandem: mine & power plant as a bilateral monopoly and analyze it using game theory methods. At first
the standard model is presented in which upstream monopolist (mine) sells intermediate product (lignite) to downstream monopsonist (power plant),
which sells final product (electric energy) on competitive market. The model allows to find optimal quantity of intermediate product, which maximizes
joint profits. The contract curve with a range of possible prices has been presented. The negotiated price determines the division of profit between
both parties and shows their bargaining power. The classical model requires modifications because the upstream seller is an opencast lignite mine. The
application of open pit optimization techniques (on the example of the “Szczerców” deposit study conducted in NPVScheduler+ program) is proposed
to show influence of the base price of lignite on it’s long run supply, average quality, overburden to lignite ratio and costs of mine & power plant. It
was shown that the adjusted bilateral monopoly has the determined solution in both domains: the lignite price and quantity.
1 INTRODUCTION
Energy market in EU is no longer regulated locally and there is no common, stable price of electricity on it. It has been written in Lisbon Strategy that since 2004
enterprises are going to have full possibility to choose energy suppliers and since 2007 such freedom will have also households. Energy is going to be sold as any other
commodity. Demand and supply will decide about its price, which already today differs significantly between summer and winter, working days and holidays and even
between days and nights. Activity of a power plant has to be adjusted to the changing market and decisions in mine has to follow power plant requirements to provide
both of them attractive profits nevertheless they operate as separate firms or vertically integrated energy producers. In order to sell more energy power plant will need
to lower its price to get more contracts from energy users interested in maximization of their own utility.
This new and more competitive situation requires joint action of power plants and mines as well as integrated planning and control of the whole chain of value
creation from the Life of Mine Plan up to the daily management of lignite production based on its quality. This aim could be more easily attained by creation of bilateral
monopoly model of tandem mine & power plant and its analysis in different time horizons. Here the long run solution is presented.
2 ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE TANDEM: MINE & POWER PLANT
2.1 Definition ofbilateral monopoly
A lignite (or coal) opencast mine and connected with it minemouth power plant creates specific system of two mutually interdependent firms. Such situation on the
market is called bilateral monopoly.
A bilateral monopoly is a market structure with two firms from which one being an upstream monopolist (the only supplier or producer) sells its output—intermediate
commodity (resource, product or service) to a downstream monopsonist (the only buyer) which after processing it sells the final product to end users. In its output
market single buyer may be price maker (monopolist) or price taker (a firrn competing on a free market).
Both firm in described system are mutually interdependent. Some negotiation between buyer and seller is necessary for exchange to take place. It is the interest of
both parties to come into agreement in other case both firm can go bankrupt. A seller cannot sell his output to other customers and a buyer has no capability to find
elsewhere other sources of input. Such situation frequently leads to lengthy, repeated and thereafter costly negotiations over the price and quantity of intermediate
product. The firms cannot leave the negotiation table and it is difficult to
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attain agreement due to both parties feel the bargaining power implicating by the fact of being a monopoly or monopsomy.
There is a conviction, wrong anyway, that such situation is not resolved—indeterminate (Blair et al. 1989) and that the final result depends on bargaining power of
both sides. This could increase temperature and time of negotiation. Willingness to avoid such difficulties is a main argument for vertical integration. It removes
contradiction of interest and lowers, sometimes very high, transaction costs. Analysis of such market (Blair & Kaserman 1987) shows that it is possible to construct the
contract in such a way to avoid negative effects of bilateral monopoly bargaining and attain economic results similar to ownership integration at the same time saving
separateness and independence of both firms.
2.2 Classical solution ofbilateral monopoly
Liberalization of electric energy market will confront power plants with elastic demand for electric energy. In order to sell more energy the power plants will need to
lower its price. Let us assume that demand for energy is represented by curve DE (Fig.l). For convenience it is assumed that lignite/coal to energy ratio is constant and
equal to 1 (this assumption is not critical for the analyze). Due to power plant will have to be competitive in the energy market, the derived demand for the lignite/coal
will be equal DL=DE− CTE, where CTE is the constant cost of transforming one unit of input X (lignite/coal) into one unit of output E (electric energy). Thus DL
represents the average net revenue as a function of quantity of input x (lignite/coal) employed.
The curve DX (marginal to DL) would be the derived demand for X if a power plant were a monopoly in the sale of electric energy E. Thus DX
Figure 1. Demand and costs curves of a power plant and lignite/coal mine (Jurdziak 2004b).
represents the net marginal revenue product of lignite/coal X—the additional revenue generated by employing an additional unit of lignite. The curve MRX is marginal to
DX and represents the marginal revenue associated with selling lignite to a power plant that has monopoly power in E but not monopsomy power in X. Note, however,
that DX cannot constitute the power plant’s derived demand in the bilateral monopoly situation because a monopsonist is not a price taker and does not have a demand
curve (Blair et al. 1989).
The cost curves are presented on Figure 1. ACX denotes the average cost of producing lignite and MCX is appropriate marginal cost. If the lignite supplier were to
behave as a perfect competitor (what in fact is not true) MCX would correspond to its supply curve. Then, if the power plant, as a monopsonist, were hiring this input
from competitive mine, MFCX would be the marginal factor cost of the input.
In popular approach, incorrect after all (Blair et al. 1989), authors assumed that in extreme situation both firms could behave competitively (showing its own
weakness in bargaining) what would lead to two border solutions fixed by points “s” and “b”. In point “s” (MCX=MRX) mine taking advantage of its monopoly power
would sell power plant quantity xs of lignite at a price Ps determined on demand curve DX. In point “b” (MFCX=MRPX) power plant, showing monopsonist power,
would buy quantity xb of lignite from mine at the price Pb determined on supply curve MX. These two results sets the bounds on the indeterminate equilibrium price
quantity combination within the (Ps ,xs )−(Pb ,xb ) range (the area of gray rectangle on Fig. 2).
The classical bilateral monopoly shows that there is an incentive for cooperation of both parties, which can assure maximization of joint profits since none of previous
solutions is Pareto efficient. It is possible
Figure 2. Popular but incorrect solution of bilateral monopoly (Jurdziak 2004b).
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to make one or even both parties better off without making someone else worse off. Joint profits will be maximized at the point “bm” (Fig. 3) where MRPX is equal to
MCX, what corresponds with the sale of xbm quantity of intermediate product (lignite) and only for this amount joint profit will be maximized for a given demand for
electricity DE.
Vertical line between points “B” and “S” represents the contract curve—the set of all points (combinations of prices and quantities of intermediate product) from
which no further mutually beneficial trading is possible. Blair (1989) using the contract curve approach concluded that the price in a bilateral monopoly is indeterminate.
The contract curve for bilateral monopoly is vertical and is restricted by prices PB and PS. At the price PB, the whole profit is taken by the buyer (power plant), and at
the price PS all profit goes to the seller (mine). Each price from the range [PB, PS] represents more or less accepted compromise reached during negotiation and
determines the split of profit between parties of bilateral monopoly what reflects their bargaining power.
It is worth to stress that optimal quantity xbm is greater than xs and xb , what means that more lignite will be sold to power plant than in previous variants. Mine in
optimal bilateral monopoly will extract more lignite from the ground (more effective usage of resources) and will operate longer providing local community with
workplaces for longer period and despite these gaining greater profit (Jurdziak 2004b).
In classical solution the price of intermediate product has no influence on the choice of produced quantity, which is determined based on knowledge of marginal cost
of lignite production MCX (data known in mine) and marginal revenue product of lignite MRPX (data known in power plant). Determination of optimal quantity
maximizing joint profit requires mutual cooperation and disclosure of costs. Without
Figure 3. Correct solution—maximization of joint profits (Jurdziak 2004b).
trust and honesty both sides can not take optimal decisions, lower their profits or even have losses. In the case of vertical ownership integration taking optimal decisions
is therefore more probable.
It was shown (Blair et al. 1989) that joint profit maximization solution could be attained nevertheless bilateral monopoly acts as the vertically integrated firm or as two
independent firms maximizing their own profit. In the latter situation application of formula price contracts can be an attractive alternative of ownership integration (Blair
& Kaserman 1987) if there is no agreement on merger of both firms. The contracts between both sides are based on price formulas taking into account from above
assigned share of profit. Thus the price itself is not a matter of negotiation but the parameter deciding about division of profit. Once accepted profit can be further
mechanically adjusted to changes in resource costs in mine and power plant. Disclosure of own costs and their mutual control are necessary to proper operation of
formula price contracts.
2.3 Analytical solution ofbilateral monopoly model
In a classical bilateral monopoly model, the seller (here an opencast lignite mine) produces x amount of the intermediate product (lignite/coal) at total cost cS (x), while
the buyer (power plant) purchase it at price p, and uses it to produce, at cost CB(x), e(x) amount of output (electric energy) which is sold at the price pe.
The buyer (B) and seller (S) profits (II) are as follows:
ΠB (p, x)=pee(x)−px−cB (x)
(1)
Πs(p,x)=px−cS (x)
(2)
where CB(x) is the total cost of production the final good (electricity) except the cost of bought input (lignite) px.
If the bilateral monopoly is organized into a vertically integrated firm (V), its profit is given by (3)
Πv(x)=ΠB+ΠS =Pee(x)−cs(x)−cB(x)
(3)
and is independent of the price p.
Having (3) we can find quantity x bm of intermediate product which maximizes joint profits. The amount x bm is the determined solution of equation:
pee′(x)=c′B(x)+c′s(x)
(4)
It was shown (e.g. Blair et al. 1989) that both bilateral monopoly and vertically integrated firm optimally produces the same amount of intermediate product. The result
of equation (4) defines the Paretoefficient contract curve between points B and S along
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which both parties transact the intermediate product efficiently (see also Fig. 3).
(5)
3 NECESSITY TO ADJUST CLASSICAL SOLUTION
3.1 Main restrictions and assumptions
The classical bilateral monopoly model of tandem: opencast lignite mine & minemouth power plant operating on liberalized electric energy market have to be modified
in order to include restrictions introduced by the fact that the seller is an opencast lignite mine and the power plant will have to compete with other suppliers.
The list of restrictions include (Jurdziak 2004a):
1. Uniqueness of deposit implicating:
– limited amount of mineral determining maximum possible output (capacity constraint),
– influence of the mineral price (between the break even price and the price maximizing output) on the optimal production—long run supply determined trough
parameterization process (creation of nested pits/phases),
– spatial variability of mineral quality and its influence on mineral value and price.
2.Specificity of electric energy market.
The price of electricity is far more volatile than any other commodity normally noted for extreme volatility. Demand and supply are balanced on a knifeedge because
electric power cannot be economically stored, end user demand is largely weather and time dependent, and the reliability of the grid is paramount. Forecasting of
energy demand and energy price risk management is still in its infancy and the possibility of extreme price movements increases the risk of trading electricity.
Deregulation & liberalization of this market increases the risk of failure to deliver energy by a seller. There is a need to use advanced, stochastic risk management
techniques. Unfortunately, a number of standard fmancial tools, known from metal markets, cannot be readily applied. The use BlackScholestype models should be
applied with great care and a doze of skepticism. Rather certain interest rate models to pricing and hedging electricity derivatives e.g. the meanreverting property
should be considered (Weron 2000).
3.2 Example datafrom the “Szczerców” deposit
The data and results from the LerchsGrossmann optimization study of the “Szczerców” deposit, described in (Kawalec & Specylak 2000), has been used for
sensitivity analysis of the ultimate pit size and its parameters on change of lignite base price. They were also used for determination of the base price indirect influence on
the size of ultimate pits (lignite supply) and decrease of lignite quality (Jurdziak & Kawalec 2004).
The lignite price, used by power plants in Poland to clear accounts with mines, has a form of a product of the base price and a function of the quality parameters.
The base price pn is the subject of negotiation between mine and power plant and represents the value of standard lignite for the power plant. Due to power plant’s
furnaces were specially designed for this kind of lignite the quality deviations from standard parameters are penalized (see the second part of Formula 6 placed in
square brackets):
(6)
where p=the price of lignite paid by power plant; pn =the base price of the standard lignite—the subject of negotiation between mine & power plant; QB=calorific value
of the standard lignite (kJ/kg); QR=actual calorific value (kJ/kg); AB=ash content in the standard lignite (%); AR=actual ash content (%); SB=sulphur content in the
standard lignite (%); SR=actual sulphur content (%).
The lignite quality/value model used for optimization was created in Datamine software using the following base values:
pn =21.3168 (zloty/ton); QB=7786 (kJ/kg);
AB=10.1 (%); SB= 0.61 (%). (7)
The start point of the pit optimization, conducted in NPVScheduler+ program, was the analysis of sensitivity of the ultimate pit to costprice variations. Cost has been
kept constant (4.50 zl for removal of 1 m3 of overburden or lignite) while the calculated base price has been raised twice to the level of the reference price. The ultimate
pit has been generated with set of 35 nested pits (phases)—ultimate pits for reduced base price. The first phase has been generated for 70% of price reduction.
3.3 Long run supply curve ofan opencast mine
There is a direct influence of the lignite price on the amount of lignite inside the optimal ultimate pit and phases. This dependency is determined through parameterization
process and has a form of monotonically ascending discontinuous curve (Fig. 4). We can assume that this dependency is the long run (for a life of mine period) lignite
supply curve x=x(pn ). The value of the coefficient R2 on figures shows that presented dependencies can be approximated using
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Figure 4. Longrun lignite supply curve—amount of lignite inside ultimate pit and phases for given prices of lignite shown as a part of
reference price (Jurdziak & Kawalec 2004).
polynomials with sufficient accuracy. This possibility can be very helpful in fmding optimal solution using analytical methods.
3.4 Thefunction e(x) and the indirect influence of base price on average calorific value
The transformation function e(x) shows how much electric energy can be produced in a power plant from one unit of lignite. Roughly we can assume that e(x) is a linear
function of heat contained in lignite (calorific value). It is estimated that 1 GJ of heat energy is transformed into 0.075MWh of electric energy. Due to the average quality
of lignite changes among phases we can show the indirect influence of the base price pn increase on the decrease of calorific value (Fig. 5). The function e(x) has
therefore the same, nonlinear character as QR(pn ).
3.5 The current price of lignite
The base price of lignite pn , which is the subject of negotiation between mine & power plant, represents the price of lignite having the most suitable parameters for
power plant’s furnaces. The current price of lignite is calculated according to Formula 6 and depends of quality parameters of lignite supplied to power plant. The value
of average lignite in phases decreases together with the decrease of its quality in enlarging phases—the consequence of increase of base price pn (Fig. 6).
3.6 The total cost of electric energy production cB
It is obvious that the total cost of electricity production should consists of the cost of lignite
Figure 5. The decrease of average calorific value of lignite contained inside phases as an indirect consequence of increase of lignite base
price (Jurdziak & Kawalec 2004).
Figure 6. The relative decrease of price of averaged lignite inside nested pits as a consequence of its quality decrease with the increase
of the base price—changes of the second factor (in square bracket) in Formula 6 (Jurdziak & Kawalec 2004).
Figure 7. The overburden to lignite ratio as a function of the base price p n (Jurdziak & Kawalec 2004).
amounts as a consequence of increase of the base price pn can be presented in a popular form of overburden to lignite ratio (Fig. 7).
3.8 The demand for electric energy
We can assume both: the stable price of electric energy pe (power plant as a price taker in long run) or downwards sloping demand for electric energy (power plant as
price maker) pe=pe(x(pn )).
3.9 Analytical solution ofadjusted bilateral monopoly model
Previous consideration allow us to present the new formulas for buyer (B) and seller (S) profits (II):
The joint profit can be therefore presented as the function of only one argument pn .
Having (10) we can find the best base price pbm of lignite which maximizes joint profits. The price pbm is the solution of equation:
Figure 8. Joint profit of mine & power plant as a function of lignite quantity when the electric energy price pe=0.13 zł/kWh.
Figure 9. Joint profit of mine & power plant as a fiinction of the lignite base price pn when the electric energy price pe is decreasing from
0.13 down to 0.11 zł/kWh.
quantity x are determined x bm=x(pbm) so there is no place for negotiation if both sides (or one integrated firm) want to maximize their profits.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The tandem opencast lignite mine & minemouth power plant as oppose to classical bilateral monopoly has the determinate solution not only in the quantity of
intermediate product (lignite) but also in its price (Figs 8–9). This means that the division of profit is determined and there is no room for price negotiation. Joint effort
and disclosure of own costs is necessary to find solution maximizing joint profits.
Pit optimization and parameterization process is required in order to determine the long run supply of lignite to the power plant and the influence of the
Page 679
lignite base price on averaged lignite quality parameters and total costs of mine & power plant.
Presented dependencies for the “Szczerców” lignite deposit have only indicative character and should not be used in taking real decisions.
The whole value model of the deposit and economic calculation should be redone again using actual data about mine and power plant costs and revenues.
Further development of the model is required in order to find not only the optimal solution for the long run (the best ultimate pit) but also optimal annual capacity of
mine and power plant as well as optimal schedule of pit excavation for different time horizons taking into account the electric energy market influence (e.g. demand
prognosis and risk management) and bilateral monopoly relation.
Proposed solution can be applied also in other bilateral monopoly situations in mining such as: limestone mine & cement works, iron mine & metallurgy plant, kaolin
mine & china clay works etc.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Publication sponsored by the Polish State Committee for Scientific Research, grant project No. 5T12A00823
REFERENCES
Blair, R.D. & Kaserman, D.L. 1987. A Note on Bilateral Monopoly and Formula Price Contracts. The American Economic Review, June 77;3.
Blair, R.D., Kaserman, D.L. & Romano, R.E. 1989. A Pedagogical Treatment of Bilateral Monopoly. Southern Economic Journal 55, 831–841.
Jurdziak, L. 2004a. About the need of detail control of lignite quality on liberalized energy market—proposal of building bilateral monopoly model: mine—power plant (in
Polish). Górnictwo Odkrywkowe (Opencast Mining) No.1.
Jurdziak, L. 2004b. Opencast lignite mine and power plant as a bilateral monopoly in classical solution (in Polish). Mining and Geology VII, Scientific Papers ofThe Inst.
of Mining, Wroclaw Univ. of Tech. No.106 Stud. & Research No.30.
Jurdziak, L. & Kawalec, W. 2004. Sensitivity analysis of lignite ultimate pit size and its parameters on change of lignite base price (in Polish). Mining and Geology VII,
Scientific Papers of The Institute of Mining of the Wroclaw University of Technology No.106 Stud. & Research No.30.
Kawalec, W. & Specylak, J. 2000. Open pit design optimization of a lignite deposit. Proceedings of the Int. Symp. on Mine Planning & Equipment Selection, Athens:
Balkema.
Weron, R. 2000. Energy price risk management. Physica A 285 (2000) 127–134.
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Page 681
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Possibilities and barriers in the utilisation of rock mining for economic
development of municipalities and area planning
Urszula Kaźmierczak & Jerzy Malewski
Institute of Mining, Wroclow Technical University
ABSTRACT: Using the example of the Wroclaw agglomeration, this working paper presents the results of studies of the role of rock mining in local
economy. The rock reserve deposits are discussed, as well as the quantity and value of produced minerals, and the potential resources located in the
Wroclaw agglomeration. The contribution of rock mining to the local labour market as well as the municipal budget has been analysed. It has been
concluded that the exploitation of mineral resources brings profit to the municipalities in form of exploitation fees, charges on commercial use of land,
and income tax. Additionally, it has been shown that mining, especially in the final exploitation and liquidation phase, is an element of area planning and
developing, as the process of exploitation and use of deposits should provide for the future utilisation of the mining voids already at the planning stage,
which in turn depends on area planning policy and practice.
1 INTRODUCTION
Rock is one of the main minerals extracted through open pit mining1. From an administrative perspective, management of such raw material belongs almost entirely to
the local government, with different powers and functions related to different authority levels, as presented in Figure 1.
By recognising the meaning of exploitation of mineral resources for their budgets, the local authorities support mining projects in order to increase the municipalities’
incomes on exploitation fees as well as charges for the commercial use of land (Kaźmierczak 2002). Moreover, they hope that the industry based on local mineral
resources will create additional jobs on one hand, while on the other hand boosting the inflow of external capital by activating the economy (Czaja, Fiedor & Halasa
1997).
Despite their economic viability, mining operations are in constant conflict with the natural environment, as they violate the condition of the environment to a different
degree depending on the technologies used and the scale of output. A characteristic feature of the mining operations is the creation of voids and waste dumps, which
dramatically change the shape and original fimctions of the land. As part of the generally adopted principle of the entrepreneur’s liability for the environmental damage,
after closing of the mine the mining company is legally bound to restore the original functions of the transformed land (natural restitution), or otherwise its functional
qualities (if the original functions cannot be restored), as per the appropriate provisions of the area development plans made by the local government bodies
(Kaźmierczak & Malewski 2003).
Figure 1. Hierarchy and functions of administrative bodies related to management of environmental resources.
1
Brown coal mining ca. 59.5 M t/year, rock mining ca. 178.3 M t/year (Balance of resources 2001).
Page 682
Figure 2. Area of research shown on the physical map of the Wroclaw region (Geographical atlas 2002).
2 RESEARCH AREA
The analysed area consists of the Wroclaw agglomeration of ca. 6700 km2 (Kaźmierczak 2003a). It has been assumed that the borders of the agglomeration
correspond to the borders of the former administration unit, as they have shaped quite naturally, considering Wroclaw’s spatial development needs and its social,
economic and cultural relations with other satellite towns (and municipalities). These borders were slightly modified taking into account the physiographic shape of the
Wroclaw agglomeration, determined with Strzelińskie Hills from the south, Barycza Valley from the north, Średzka Upland from the west and Twardogórskie Hills from
the east (Figure 2).
The aforementioned administrative area (6722.8 km2) is located in the Dolnośląskie (Lower Silesia) Voivodeship and includes nine poviats (Milicz, Olesnica, Olawa,
Strzelin, Środa Śląska, Trzebnica, Wolów, and Wrocław Poviats, as well as the City of Wroclaw) and 41 municipalities.
3 ROCK DEPOSIT RESOURCES
The research and analysis of the resources and the condition of deposit utilisation was performed during years 2000–2002 on the basic of historic data2 from 1953–
2001 and direct field studies.
In the analysed area, from 1953 until 2001 as many as 1853 deposits were recorded and documented, with
Figure 3. Location of rock deposits in the Wrocław region against legally protected areas.
minerals such as sand, gravel, runofmine, quartz sand, silt, granite, basalt, quartzite, quartz schist, kaolin, vein quartz,, serpentinite and feldspar. Their location is
shown in Figure 3.
The documented and recorded mineral deposits were grouped and divided into three categories:
– breccia—natural aggregate, quartz sand,
– silty deposits—ceramic clay and silt, fire clay, kaolins,
– compact deposits—other minerals such as granite, basalt, serpentinite, quartzite, quartz schist, vein quartz and feldspar.
The total onbalance deposits of documented and recorded rocks on the analysed land amount to 1 262 million tonnes. The most common are breccia deposits (140
sites), which have 53% of the total documented and recorded rock resources within the discussed area. Silty and compact materials account for 41% and 6% of the
documented and recorded resources in 25 and 20 deposits, respectively (Figure 4).
4 OUTPUT AND POTENTIAL RESOURCES
Out of the total 185 of documented and recorded deposits, 132 (57% of total resources) were further developed. Until 2001, as many as 182.8 M tonnes
2
Data provided by the Department of Environment Protection and Agriculture, Dolnośląskie Voivodeship Office.
3
Despite providing the geological documentation, two deposits have not been officially acknowledged.
Page 683
Figure 4. Resources of recorded and documented rock deposits.
Figure 5. Volume and structure of the output of resources.
Figure 6. Summary of the documented and exploited resources, and the potential rock material base in the area of Wroclaw.
were exploited out of the total number of developed voids, which constitutes 14% of the documented onbalance resources (Figure 5).
The highest output was achieved in the compact deposits category, where 72% of documented resources were extracted. On the other hand, the lowest output was
observed in the breccia category (6%). In the case of silt, nearly 22% of the documented resources were mined.
When analysing the data related to the documented and recorded as well as exploited rock deposits in the Wroclaw region, it was estimated that the potential raw
material base amounts to 1077 million tonnes. Of this, 59% is breccia (115 documented deposits), 35%—compact material (18 deposits) and 6%—silt (23 deposits).
See Figure 6.
The documented onbalance resources of the potential material base are quite substantial and will probably last for tens or even hundreds of years. Assuming the
output on a constant level, as in years 19992000, it was calculated that the breccia resources will last for 212, while the silt resources will last for 207 years and the
compact material for 293 years.
5 CONTRIBUTION OF MINING SECTOR TO LOCAL EMPLOYMENT MARKET
The mining companies extracting the mineral resources create new jobs. However, there are no detailed records on the employment as the entrepreneurs in this sector
tend to hide their actual employment. To estimate the headcount, the author used the figures obtained from the Poltegor Institute in Wrocław. Based on the figures, it
was assumed that one person was employed to extract the following amounts of the particular rock materials:
– breccia: 8 094 tonnes,
– silt: 12 690 tonnes,
– compact materials: 3 143 tonnes,
and that the traffic managers are only employed full time by mining companies extracting basic minerals, while in the case of common minerals they are employed for a
quarter of time (Art. 68 of the Geological and Mining Law, §4–9 of the Regulation of the Minister of Industry and Trade of 12 October 1994 on health and safety,
operation and special fire security measures in opencast mines).
The calculations show that the total number of 53 mining companies operating in 1998/1999 employed as many as 920 people, which corresponded to 0.23% of
people employed in 1999 in the area of the study and 1.03% of the employed after excluding Wroclaw, where the mining industry is negligible (1 deposit) compared to
the number of inhabitants. Most employment opportunities were offered by the compact material mining sector (544 jobs), while the lowest number of jobs were
available in silt mining (23). In the breccia category, as many as 353 people were employed.
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6 IMPACT OF MINING ACTIVITY ON MUNICIPAL INCOME
The incomes of municipalities on the exploitation of local mineral resources mainly come from the exploitation fees and taxes for the commercial use of land. Pursuant to
the law, entrepreneurs extracting mineral are obliged to pay the exploitation fee for such extracted mineral. According to the amended Geological and Mining Law, the
entrepreneurs determine the fee at their own discretion on a quarterly basis and pay it to the appropriate bank accounts no later than one month after the end of each
quarter (Art. 84 of the Geological and Mining Law). Such fees contribute to a 60% of the income of the municipality where the operations are conducted, and to 40%
of the income of the National Environment Protection and Water Management Fund (NFOŚiGW). Municipal incomes on exploitation fees are defined in the Act on
Local and Regional Governments (Art. 54.1) and constitute assets of a particular municipality. The municipality may dispose of such assets at its own discretion, as no
restrictions are imposed in this respect by the Geological and Mining Law.
Pursuant to the Tax Ordinance, every entrepreneur is also obliged to pay a mandatory allowance on its income (the income tax). The amount of the income tax will
vary depending on whether the taxpayer is a private individual or a legal entity (Art. 8 of Tax Ordinance 2000). Detailed calculations for the area in question was
presented by Kaźmierczak (2002, 2003b). The income tax is a source of the income to the State budget, in which the municipal budgets have their share, such as:
– 27.6% of the earnings on personal income tax paid by the private individuals living in the municipality,
– 5% of the earning on corporate income tax paid by legal persons and other organisational entities, with their registered seats located in the municipality (Art. 3.3 of
the Act of 26 November 1998 on incomes of local government units in years 1999–2002).
All incomes of local governments are collected by tax offices, deposited on a tax office bank account and transferred to appropriate budget accounts of the individual
local government units no later than within 14 days from the day the money was paid to the tax office account (Art. 15.1 of the Act of 26 November 1998 on incomes
of local government units in years 1999–2002).
The third category of municipal income on exploitation of mineral deposits is charges for commercial use of land4 in the area of a given municipality. Table 1
compares the impact of such charges on the municipal budgets, as well as the impact of the income tax paid by the mining enterprises and their employees, and the
exploitation fees in 1999. The results of the analysis of the figures presented in the table show that the income to the budget may vary for different municipalities, from
negligible 0.0025% in Wrocław; 0.15% in Trzebnica; 0.87% in Dłigołęka, through 1.13% in Kobierzyce; 2.71% in Czernica; up to high 9.60% in Sobótka; 13.36% in
Kondratowice or even 62.78% in Mietków. However, in 50% of the municipalities the income is negligible (less than 1%).
7 AREA PLANNING AS A TOOL FOR SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT OF POSTMINING AREAS
Mining operations must observe the rules of area planning and development. Exploitation of mineral may not be possible without earlier assignation of the land in the
adequate area development plan (Lipiński 1997). This has been regulated by the Act on area development planning of 7 July 1994, pursuant to which the purpose of a
given land and the principles of development of such land are defmed in the local spatial development plan. Also the Geological and Mining Law puts an entrepreneur
under obligation to develop a local area development plan for a mining site. Such a plan determines all activities related to the startup of the exploitation (Art. 53 of the
Geological and Mining Law). A similar situation occurs once the mining activities have been terminated and the mining site is adapted for other purposes than mining.
The void and the adjacent area must be reclaimed and prepared for redevelopment, so that it could function in accordance with the area development plan of a given
municipality. The reclamation obligation is introduced in form of an administrative decision. Pursuant to the Geological and Mining Law, such decisions are issued by
starosts, who are obliged to consult at least the management of a given municipality. Therefore, the municipality becomes one of the decisionmakers in terms of
reclamation and management of mining voids. It also has vast possibilities of influencing the directions of reclamation, as these are strictly connected with the future area
development, which in turn is dependent on local and regional spatial development planning—as the spatial location of objects of different natural and economic
functions is determined by area planning. The outcome of the process is the local spatial development plan for a municipality, which defmes where, when and how to
utilise a given space (Figure 6). Through such plans, the municipal authorities determine the desired function of the reclaimed area. Therefore, it is
4
For the purpose of calculation, it has been assumed that enterprises pay for the commercial use of land within a mining area.
Page 685
Table 1. Contribution of the exploitation fees, taxes on commercial use of land and the income tax to the municipal budgets in 1999.
Income to
the
municipality Income to
on
the
Income to exploitation municipality
the fees and
on Percent Percent
municipallity Percent taxes on exploitation share of share of
Incom to the on commercial Total fees
share of fees and income exploitation
minicipal exploitation exploitation use of land taxes on Income tax in the and taxes fees and
Poviat Municipality budget [PLN] fees[PLN] [PLN] Tax [PLN] [PLN]
fees in the commercial municipal taxes in the
Milicz Milicz 24866773.19 6204.31 municipal 0.025 use of land 93429.68 budget 99633.99 municipal 12462.74 0.05 112096.73 0.45
Oleśnica Dobroszyce 7496923.36 7859.53 budget [%] 0.105 [PLN] 31684.80 [%] 39544.33 budget [%] 16503.38 0.22 56047.71 0.75
Syców 1527984.48 8550.90 0.560 16330.46 24881.36 16966.85 1.11 41848.21 2.74
Oława Jelcz 26 130 645.98 3 959.99 0.015 84 246.24 88 206.23 4 745.93 0.02 92 952.16 0.36
Laskowice
Oława 53216894.50 5119.18 0.010 294981.90 300101.08 10381.29 0.02 310482.37 0.58
Strzelin Borów 5457749.70 33792.32 0.619 28174.08 61966.40 60908.10 1.12 122874.50 2.25
Kondratowice* 5 585 097.60 47 773.00 0.855 249 120.36 296 893.36 449 352.60 8.05 746 245.96 13.36
Strzelin* 22186344.18 50070.00 0.226 599691.88 649761.88 713982.54 3.22 1363744.42 6.15
Wiązów 11828269.78 89335.16 0.755 98851.70 188186.86 172483.44 1.46 360670.30 3.05
Środe Malczyce 6562841.65 4246.66 0.065 18726.60 22973.26 5907.69 0.09 28880.95 0.44
Śląska
Miękinia 13918896.94 49507.10 0.356 63161.68 112668.78 89711.23 0.64 202380.01 1.45
Środe Śląska 24742222.83 271565.44 1.098 114005.94 385571.38 1043200.31 4.22 1428771.69 5.77
Trzebnica Oborniki 18 000 586.84 19 305.78 0.107 22 794.84 42 100.62 34 550.32 0.19 76 650.94 0.43
Śląskie
Trzebnica 20568228.46 1932.77 0.009 24041.44 25974.21 4831.08 0.02 30805.29 0.15
Wisznia Mala 8726680.00 21975.24 0.252 96654.28 118629.52 43837.71 0.50 162467.23 1.86
Zawonia 4718272.60 3797.10 0.080 4293.18 8090.28 7283.47 0.15 15373.75 0.33
Żmigród 15960398.43 6071.14 0.038 17303.36 23374.50 20155.29 0.13 43529.79 0.27
Wołów Brzeg Dolny 24103512.18 971.77 0.004 367163.26 368135.03 1208.02 0.01 369343.05 1.53
Wrocław Czernica 9578266.85 50571.02 0.528 108676.84 159247.86 100361.71 1.05 259609.57 2.71
Długołęka 21 282 655.59 39 379.84 0.185 69 547.40 108 927.24 75 537.09 0.35 184 464.33 0.87
Kąty 23744601.92 4783.26 0.020 216231.69 221014.95 8127.95 0.03 229 142.90 0.97
Wrocławskie
Kobierzyce 37230813.64 117014.03 0.314 46458.62 163472.65 255607.12 0.69 419079.77 1.13
Mietków 5751538.86 364936.39 6.345 2543757.22 2908693.61 702067.86 12.21 3610761.47 62.78
Sobótka* 14925740.06 215096.00 1.441 762446.78 977542.78 455651.13 3.05 1433193.91 9.60
City of Wrocław 1302160480.00 5584.04 0.000 25703.42 31287.46 1425.70 0.0001 32713.16 0.0025
Wrocław
TOTAL 1710272419.62 1429401.97 0.084 5997477.65 7426879.63 4307250.55 0.25185 11734130.18 0.69
* The information has been provided by the Accounting House in Wrocław and refers to the funds incoming to the municipal accounts in respect of
exploitation fees.
Page 686
Figure 7. Diagram of actions related to documents required for implementation of the area development policy.
important to define the future function of the mineral exploitation site. Determining such functions often proves difficult as the exploitation of minerals may extend over
several decades, during which the social, economic and political aspects may change. This may be proved by the analysis of municipalities and entrepreneurs’
preferences as to the directions of reclamation, presented in the working paper of Kaźmierczak (2002). The basic problem in this respect is to defme the fmal date for
an entrepreneur to apply for a decision that would set forth a direction for reclamation. It seems that the legal regulations fail to define such date; therefore the fulfilment
of the said obligation is often postponed until the mining operations are closed. As a matter of fact, the relevant decision should be issued once all social, economic,
natural and spatial aspects have been accounted for both on a local and regional scale. Recognition of such aspects is critical, as the mining voids may fulfil different
functions for the benefit of the economy and the environment. Moreover, the reclaimed and properly utilised mining voids may become very valuable sites for
municipalities, which the latter could not have afforded if the investment had to be run separately. Therefore, the appropriate revitalisation of the mining voids may have
a significant impact on implementation of the municipality’s vision and strategic development goals.
8 CONCLUSIONS
1. The rock deposit base in the Wroclaw agglomeration is quite substantial and amounts to 1077 million tonnes. Out of this amount, 59% are breccia, 35% compact
deposits and 1% silt.
2. For a municipality, exploitation of rock brings in profits in form of exploitation fees, charges for the commercial use of land and income tax. The earnings differ for
different municipalities, reaching from 0.002% (Wroclaw) to 63% (Mietkow) of the total income to the municipal budgets. However, 50% of them are negligible
(below 1%). The contribution of the mining sector to the labour market represents 1.03% of the total employment in the examined area (excluding the City of
Wroclaw).
3. A small impact of mining on the local economy is a serious argument for local administration bodies for abandoning projects of exploitation of the local resources
unless justified by beneflts of future development of the mining voids.
4. Municipalities may influence the way the mining voids are developed by making appropriate contribution to the local area development plans.
5. The gap in the legal system that allows for exploitation of a deposit without deciding on future reclamation leads to a situation where such reclamation is often
postponed.
LITERATURE
Czaja S., Fiedor B. & Halasa J.M., 1997, Rock mining versus local ecodevelopment strategies in Lower Silesia and Opole regions, Opencast Mining, Issue 4–5,
Wroclaw.
Kaźmierczak U., 2002, Economic, natural and spatial functions ofrock mining in the Wroclaw region, doctor’s thesis, Wroclaw.
Kaźmierczak U., 2003a, Rock mining in Wroclaw and surrounding area, Opencast Mining, Issue 6, Wroclaw.
Kaźmierczak U., 2003b, Functions ofrock mining against the background of local social economic geography communities Wroclaw and surrounding area,
Opencast Mining, Issue 7, Wroclaw.
Kaźmierczak U. & Malewski J., 2003, On rationalization administration process in planning reclamation directions, Landscape shaping of the headings exploited in
the mining, Krakow.
Lipińki A., 1997, The role of area development plans in Polish Geological and Mining Law, The 2nd World Environmental Congress on mining areas, Katowice.
Page 687
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 9376
Grouping of mines using simulation
V.L.Konyukh & V.V.Sinoviev
Kemerovo Scientific Center ofthe Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia
ABSTRACT: Each mine in a mining region has own features such as annual output, cost of mining, life period, and kind of useful minerals. On the
other hand, a market price of mining product changes randomly all the time. How to unite the mines into a group to get a maximum profit annually?
Annual activity of an old mine, new mine or planned mine is simulated by “black box” with constant and stochastic inputs. Then the selected mines are
united into mass service system that is simulated by GPSS/H. During simulation experiments a decisionmaker can change a set of mines and introduce
a market price to predict a total profit after a grouping of mines. This method was used to simulate a mining activity in Kusnetzki coal basin, that is the
main coal source in Russia.
1 INTRODUCTION
Any mining region has both old mines with a short life period and new mines that were built recently. Some mines will decrease their output, some mines will increase
one. Some mines will be built later. How to compose a set of old mines, new mines, and planned mines to get both a stable total output and a maximum profit, whereas
a market price is random? A lot of grouping alternatives must be compared to select the best investment strategy. The aim of this work is to create a package for
prediction of mines group’s profitability.
2 IDEA OF SIMULATION
A considered set of mines is presented to be a dynamic model. This model has both constant (year or month, set of mines, kind of mineral, market price of mineral) and
stochastic (output of each mine, outlay of mining for each mine) inputs (Fig. 1). Total output and profit are considered to be outputs of this group. Discrete event
simulation (DES) was used to simulate a dynamic of mining activity for the group (Banks et al. 2000).
The aim of simulation is to determine total output Y and a total profit S for future, whereas supposed output and outlay of mining are unknown exactly for considered
mines. Let’s assume: any mine produces mineral α or mineral β; stochastic output and outlay have the normal distributive law.
Figure 1. Idea of simulation.
Selected mines are presented by sources of orders in mass service system. Randomized number of orders is introduced for each mine. A user introduces not only
supposed output of each mine but also range of random output.
3 SIMULATION OF MINING ACTIVITY
3.1 Modeling in GPSS/H
Each mine is simulated by dynamic model with both constant (duration of simulation k i, kind of mineral α, β) and stochastic (annual or monthly output x αi, xβt)
Page 688
inputs. A user introduced both upper and lower meanings of the outputs, that may be assymmetric respecting the outputs x αi, xβt. Total output of a mine is mining yai,
yβi for period of analysis.
After that a decisionmaker introduces both upper and lower meanings of random output z1 ,…,zn for each mine and market price of each kind of mineral Pα, Pβ
(Fig. 2) to calculate a total profit for the selected group of mines:
(1)
In addition, the total output of the group is calculated.
A total activity of the selected group was simulated in specialized language GPSS/H (Sturgul, 1997). Activity of each mine is described by 8 blocks (Fig. 3).
Filter TEST removes any random numbers beyond a given range of output. Besides, mineral α and mineral β are divided by following blocks TEST before
summarizing of output and outlay in blocks MSAVEVALUE RESA and MSAVEVALUE RESB. Total output ( ) andtotal profit (Si) are calculatedby
commands FVARIABLE in the block “Calculation” of Yai, Yβi, Si depending on market price Pa, Pβ of mineral.
3.2 Preparing to simulation experiments
Builtin means of GPSS/H (Banks, 1995) were used to verificate the computer model. Then results of simulation for normal distributive law and known output of mines
were compared. Discrepancy between data was less than 0.5%.
Figure 2. Structure of model.
It is impossible, to know exactly a distributive law for supposed output and outlay for future mining exactly. Before the real simulation we introduced normal, uniform,
exponential and lognormal distributive laws of stochastic inputs to evaluate the sensitivity of model to the kind of distributive law.
The discrepancy of the total output Yi results for various distributive laws was less than 4% (Fig. 4).
Figure 3. Program of simulation in GPSS/H.
Figure 4. Influence of distributive law on results of simulation.
Page 689
That is why, the wellknown normal distributive law for stochastic inputs was introduced during experiments.
4 CASE STUDY: KUSNETZKI COAL BASIN IN SIBERIA
4.1 About the basin
Kusnetzky coal basin is situated in the Central Siberia. There are 60% of Russian coal reserves here. Annually a lot of mines supply 40% of high quality power coal and
70% of coking coal in Russia. Last years 35 from 75 underground mines were abandoned and some new mines were built. Output of all mines has achieved 130 m.
tons per year. Mostly new mines extract the best reserves of coal in new area of the coal basin.
How to compose a set of old mines, new mines, and planned mines to get both a stable total output and a maximum profit annually? Last years all the mines in
Kusnetzky coal basin unite into numerous groups to improve mining activity. How to predict a total profit for the group? It depends on a lot of conditions such as
provision of coal reserves, cost of mining, investments in modernization of mine, market price of coal, that are known approximately only.
Simulation of a mines group activity was used to solve this problem.
Figure 5. Menu for a user.
4.2 Prediction of a group output
A set of mines is selected. Then a decisionmaker introduces a supposed output x ai, xβi of each mine with both upper +xαi,+xβi and lower −x αi, −x βi restrictions,
date of analysis k h and kind of a coal α, β (Fig. 5).
Introduced data for each mine are shown on the screen before simulation (Fig. 6).
After a simulation a total output Yαi, Yβi is presented by the table (Fig. 7).
Figure 6. Inputs of the model.
Figure 7. Results of simulation.
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Figure 8. Profit of mining depending on market price of coal.
4.3 Prediction of total proflt
A user introduces a market price of every kind of coal and supposed annual outlay for every mine in selected set of mines. During simulation an average output of each
mine is calculated to get a total output . Then a Proflt is calculated according to equation (1). After a simulation a profit for selected set of mines is
shown under the table on the Figure 7.
A dependence of a profit St on a market price of coal Pα, Pβ can be constructed using the simulation (Fig. 8).
5 CONCLUSIONS
Using this package a decisionmaker can introduce proposed annual output and outlay for each mine in a proposed group. Besides he introduces both low and upper
restrictions for these exactly unknown data. A dynamic simulation of a mining activity enables to compare both output and profit for various groupings of mines to select
the best strategy of investment in mining. This methodology was checked for current data of mining in Kusnetzky coal basin. A profit of mining depending on a market
price was determined after simulation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by NATOgrant on the project OUTR CRG 960628 “Simulation and Animation of Mines in Russia”. Many thanks to the Coordinator of
this project Dr. John R.Sturgul (University of Idaho, USA) for the longterm assistance in our work.
REFERENCES
Banks J., et al. 1995. Getting Started with GPSS/H. Wolverine Software Corporation, USA.
Banks J., et al. 2000. DiscreteEvent System Simulation. NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sturgul, J.R. 1997. Simulation languages for mining engineers. In George Panagiotou & John Sturgul (ed.), Mine simulatiom 29, incl. CDROM. Rotterdam: Balkema.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Sterilization of mineral resources by area planning and urban sprawl
K.Nielsen
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
ABSTRACT: The paper briefly describes the importance of mineral raw materials for economic and social development and discusses the long term
availability of these materials and the resources from which they are extracted. The resource base and security of supply are strongly influenced by
political and social issues often reflected in land use planning. The paper discusses some of these issues, and describes land use planning practices in a
European context, and how it can lead to sterilization of mineral resources. The paper also presents three Norwegian examples of how land use
planning can become the cause of conflicts between different users of an area with mineral resources.
1 INTRODUCTION
Mineral resources are an important basis for value creation, welfare and social development in both the industrialized and the less developed economies. Extraction and
use of minerals has, however, raised concerns about their long term availability because mineral resources are nonrenewable in terms of human life spans.
The longterm availability of mineral raw materials depends on two main factors: 1) Depletion of resources, and 2) Security of supply. Both factors are significant and
can be discussed on a global as well as on regional and local level. The two factors are not only determined by the total resource base in a region or on a world wide
scale, but there are also highly significant political and social issues that come into play, mostly on national and local levels.
Political and official authorities in most developed economies as well as the general public seem to take the availability of mineral raw materials and mineral based
products for granted.
One basic reason may be that the relative importance of minerals to national and regional economic development has been declining, and the importance of these raw
materials has become less obvious.
Another reason is that the growth of international trade has significantly reduced the necessity for individual countries to be self sufficient in minerals. Many mineral
commodities have a sufficiently high valuetoweight ratio to make it possible to mine them anywhere and sell them every where.
The only exception used to be the so called place value materials. These are lowvalue, bulk commodities such as aggregates and other construction materials that
are used in such large quantities that nearby sources are almost mandatory. (National Research Council, NRC, 2002).
However, the trend of internationalization is changing the situation. Today for instance, may the countries around the North Sea (Denmark, Belgium, Northwest
Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom) be considered as one region with regard to the supply and demand of sand, gravel, crushed rock, limestone, silica
sand, clay and fill materials (Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat, Rijkswaterstaat, 2003).
Trade growth and internationalization has obviously made significant contributions in connection with the availability and security of supply of mineral raw materials.
2 RESOURCE TERMINOLOGY
With regard to the question of depletion, it is important to realize that the term resource can be described or calculated in several ways, and the term is often used by
different people to mean different things.
In the mineral industry, it is a well established practice to differ between resources and reserves. A mineral reserve is the economically exploitable part of a
measured or indicated mineral resource. Reserves are consequently categorized as provedreserves and probable reserves. The industry also defines resources as
being a concentration or occurrence of naturally occurring mineral materials in such a form and quantity that there are reasonable prospects for eventual economic
extraction. Mineral
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resources may similarly be categorized according to the degree of certainty or specific knowledge about a known resource (Society for Mining, Metallurgy and
Exploration Inc, SME, 1999).
The industry’s definitions of various categories of reserves and resources, however, are referring to deposits that have been identified, and they represent only a
fraction of the mineral resources actually remaining in the earth’s crust (NRC, 1996).
This inevitably leads to the basic question of importance with regard to mineral supply and depletion: What are the total resources of mineral raw materials on a
world wide basis, on the national level or in a local region?
However, even if we know the total amount of resources in a region fairly well, does not mean that we can make use of them at present or in the future. A number of
constraints will come into play and can be described as follows in a progressively subjective order (Walker, 2000):
The first constraint is caused by technology. Do we have technology available that allows us to utilize the resource? If yes, the resource falls into a category called
technical resources.
The technical resources can in theory be used, but a number of practical restrictions such as buildings, roads, other infrastructure, lakes etc. will impose practical
limitations that will reduce the technical resources and what is left are the practical resources.
Accessible resources are the practical resources additionally limited by institutional restrictions such as national parks and other sites or areas of special scientific
interest. Existing and future land plans will also reduce the practical resources, even if the land is not yet utilized for a designated purpose e.g. building development.
The accessible resources will be further reduced by economic constraints. Some of the accessible resources cannot be exploited at a profit, and this leaves the
commercially viable resources.
However, the viable resources will be additionally limited by considerations about what is acceptable for society. Such restrictions may be environmental concerns,
visual impacts, public attitudes towards the extraction industry etc. What are left are the acceptable resources, and these will usually be considerably smaller than the
total resources in a specific area or region.
It is also important to realize the fact that today’s acceptable resources are not a static quantity. The definition of mineral resources is highly dynamic with regard to
time. Technology and innovation may increase the technical resources considerably and/or make non viable but accessible resources economically interesting. On the
other hand may creation of new nature protection areas, increased environmental ambitions, and land zone planning significantly reduce the future accessible,
commercially viable, and acceptable resource bases.
3 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES
Although the public needs mineral products, they very rarely buy them directly. They will recognize the benefits of products that are made with mineral raw materials but
they often fail to make the connections between their welfare and way of life, the demand for mineral products, and the mining and processing operations from which
they originate. This means that the industry starts at a disadvantage visávis the public (Mortimer, 1999).
This ignorance and lack of interest may be one of the basic reasons for a number of the political and social issues that influence the resource base and security of
supply both on regional and local levels as well as on short and long term scales. Some of these issues will be discussed in subsequent sections.
Many of the political and social issues related to mineral extraction seem to be common to most developed economies. Societal resistance and negative perception
of the mineral industry are usually found on regional or local levels but also on national levels in government and ministries.
It is therefore interesting to see that there is a growing concern about sustainable development and mineral raw materials on a European level (European
Commission, EC, 2000 & 2003).
4 LAND USE PLANNING
A land use planning system has two fiindamental components 1) Development plans and 2) Development control, and the land use planning process will normally reflect
the political system of a country. In countries like Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Norway is land use planning made on three levels (Nielsen, in prep.):
1. National planning.
2. Regional planning (counties).
3. Municipal planning.
The planning process is based on the principle of decentralized decisionmaking authority, and the level of detail increases from the national to the regional and
municipality levels. Similar planning hierarchies are found in the other EU15 countries with the exception of Ireland and Luxemburg (Department of the Environment,
DOE, 1995).
The concept of sustainability is often regarded as a basic starting point for land use planning in all the Nordic countries and the other member states of the EUl 5.
Planning on the national level, including policy
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guidance notes, planning directives, regulations and other instruments, is the key mechanism to effectively translate central government policies on sustainable
development to the regional and local levels.
One of the important aspects of sustainable development is of course the availability of mineral raw materials, seen their importance as a basis for economic and
social development, and the environmental impacts caused by exploitation of the resources. Forward planning for minerals therefore ought to be an integral part of the
land use planning system. However, the framework for mineral resource planning seems to vary considerably from one country to another. For instance is government
influence exerted in the following main ways in different European countries (DOE, 1995):
1. National mining plans.
2. Policy guidelines.
3. Through specific requirements in legislation.
4. Indirectly through other legislation which precludes mining in certain areas.
It is common practice throughout EU15 for development plans to indicate areas where mineral working may take place in the future. However, the extent to which
mineral issues are covered in the land use plans can vary markedly (DOE, 1995).
Forward planning for minerals must of course be based on specific knowledge about the existing mineral resources locally or in a region as discussed in the
subsequent section.
5 STERILIZATION OF RESOURCES
Sterilization of mineral resources does not seem to be of general political concern in some countries, even if it may be of significant importance for sustainable
development because decisions made today may have direct consequences for the availability of resources for future generations.
It is often assumed that sterilization of resources by other development is caused by direct overbuilding, but this represents a relatively small part of the problem.
Completion of a residential development, for example, will be accompanied by the creation of a cordon sanitaire to mitigate the potential effects of any mineral
workings in the vicinity, thus sterilizing a much larger area. In the UK it is common for planning authorities to specify standoff distances of up to 400 meters, which has
the effect of sterilizing a volume of potentially mineral bearing ground of 500,000 m3 or more in the case of a single dwelling (Pollock & Henry, 1996).
Another example is Norway where exploration is not allowed within a distance of 100 meters from public roads. With a total length of national and regional roads of
60,000 km, will this mean that a total area of 12,000 km2 or about 4 per cent of the land area has been sterilized by road building.
A key feature with regard to prevent sterilization of resources is the geological information available for planning purposes. National geological survey services are
the most important sources of such information, but the level of detail in connection with resource assessment will often vary both on national, regional and local levels.
The Geological Survey of Norway has for more than a decade put considerable effort into detailed mapping and description of various types of non metallic mineral
resources (Neeb, 2003; Dahl & Neeb, 2002). The information is easily available on thematic maps from: www.ngu.no in order to assist local planning authorities so
that they can take into account present and future local needs for building materials. Potentially valuable mineral resources of other types should also be taken into
consideration, because they can make significant contributions to the local, regional and national economy.
However, experience shows that this information is not used to its fullest by a considerable number of planning authorities both on regional and local levels. There are
for instance examples where local authorities have designated a locality with rock outcrops as a site for fiiture production of crushed aggregates, without checking
whether the rock is at all suitable for the purpose (Hansen, 2003).
It seems as if sterilization of mineral resources is basically a land use planning issue in Norway, because substantial geological resource information is readily available
for the planning authorities.
At the base of the problem is most probably lack of sufficient knowledge and capacity, especially in smaller municipalities. However, political and social issues and
perceptions also come into play. Negative attitudes towards the mineral industry and the NIMBY syndrome (Not in my back yard) are well known both among the
authorities and the general public. But also monodimensional or monovalue assessment, for instance by giving excessive weight to residential development or the
environment may lead to sterilization of resources.
6 NORWEGIAN EXAMPLES OF LAND PLANNING CONFLICTS
Norway is, with the exception of Iceland, the least densely populated country in Europe with only 11.5 inhabitants per km2. In comparison is the average population
density for EU15 and the ten new member states about 116 and 102 inhabitants per km2 respectively.
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The general conditions for mineral extraction in Norway ought to be favorable, assuming that a low population density should lead to less conflict of interest with
regard to the use of land. It should be room enough for mining, should it not?
But an increasing number of conflicts and potential problems have emerged, and most of them are caused by land use planning both on national and local levels. In
order to illustrate the situation will the following three cases be described and discussed:
1. Quarrying of quartzite schist.
2. Quarrying of dimension stone.
3. Production of crushed aggregate.
6.1 Quarrying of quartzite schist
The local municipality of Oppdal south of Trondheim in Central Norway is one of several places in the country where quartzite schist is being produced. There are a
number of active quarries in Oppdal operated by several companies. Oppdal is situated in a valley leading up to the Dovrefjell mountain area, and many of the quarries
are located high up on the hillside approaching the mountain region.
There has been industrial production of quartzite schist in the area for almost 100 years, and the activities have made, and still make, important contributions to the
local economy.
Dovrefjell National Park was declared by the government in 1974 encompassing an area of about 250 km2. The park has later been extended, and the last extension
in 2002 lead to a situation where the borders of the park came very close to the active quarries highest up on the hillside, and some of the known reserves that were yet
to be utilized, even fell within the national park area.
This was a final ruling by the government, in spite of concerns expressed by the local municipality and a proposal for a very minor adjustment of the plans in order to
secure reserves for fiiture schist production and creation of value and jobs.
In addition to the loss of future reserves, is the industry now facing another problem caused by (not local) environmental activists that claim, according to cordon
sanitaire thinking, that quarrying if schist should not be permitted so close to a national park.
This is but one example of how monodimensional land use planning on a general and removed level, giving excess weight to environmental issues, can go against and
overrule local political, industrial and community interests.
6.2 Quarrying of dimension stone
Larvik is a small town municipality south of Oslo where one can find one of the world’s more exclusive and expensive dimension stone varieties generally called
larvikite, which is a coarse grained feldspathic rock with microscopic lamellae in the feldspar crystals. This gives rise to the beautiful and characteristic play of color on a
polished surface for which the stone is world famous and highly priced. The best known qualities are the light colored Blue Pearl variety and the darker Emerald Pearl.
The industrial quarrying of larvikite started 120 years ago, and at present are about 20 quarries in operation. One company, Lundhs Labrador DA, accounts for
about 70 per cent of the total production. Most of the production is exported.
One of their quarrying sites is located a little north of Larvik, and produces Emerald Pearl from a large quarry that originally consisted of several smaller quarries
operated by different companies. The site was originally in the middle of a tract of agricultural land with no neighbors close by, and no conflicts with the surroundings.
Then about 10 years ago, the municipality of Larvik made a local change in their zoning plan which allowed an area just outside the fence around the quarry to be
developed for housing instead of its original use as agricultural land.
The housing zone is still a bit away from the active quarry area, but the quarry has expanded over time and become more visible.
Complaints from the home owners about noise, dust and vibrations started almost immediately after they built their houses and moved in, and the conflict has been
steadily increasing.
The residents in the area have now become so opposed to quarrying that they are trying to stop several new projects in the area, even if the proposed quarries are
much fiirther away from their homes than the existing operation.
This is one example of how short sighted local planning and a lack of understanding of the dynamics of quarrying will lead to unnecessary conflicts and substantial
loss of very valuable reserves and future creation of value for the local, regional and national economy.
6.3 Production of crushed aggregate
Feiring Bruk AS operates one of their quarrying and processing plants in the local municipality of Lorenskog just north of the capital Oslo. The annual production is
about 650,000 tonnes of which 40 per cent is delivered to customers in Oslo and the rest is for supplying local markets in the area north of the city.
The quarry and the plant were commissioned 40 years ago, and were located on private land in a forest area well away from any built up zones. The company had
to build their own road to get access to the production cite from an existing public road.
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However, an access road also means that access is facilitated for other interests, and this has lead to a development where the municipal planning authorities have
allowed an increasing number of dwellings to be built in several locations along the road. Built up areas have slowly encroached upon the production site, and the
complaints from the newcomers about noise and traffic have been steadily increasing.
The conflict has now reached a level so that the municipality chief officer has publicly declared that the aim of the municipality is to have the production facility closed
down within 20 years. This is in spite of the fact that the operation has had no problem complying with noise, dust and vibration limits imposed by the state pollution
authorities. The number of transport vehicles passing on the road has also decreased significantly due to larger size and the increased use of trailers.
The entire situation has again been created by short sighted municipal planning without any holistic view whatsoever.
This example is not unique in any way. Several other operations all over the country face similar problems, and some have even had to close down long before their
reserves were exhausted.
7 CONCLUSION
Sterilization of mineral resources is basically a land use planning issue, provided that adequate geological information is available for the planning authorities. The
geological information should both describe known resources, and make it possible to assess the resource potential on national, regional and local levels.
Political and social issues may also lead to sterilization of resources caused by an increasing degree of subjective and imbalanced assessments.
Land use planning could ideally be governed by the main objective stated in the Danish Raw Materials Act No. 569 of 1997 which is to ensure:
That exploitation ofmineral raw materials onshore and offshore is according to the principles of sustainable development. This must be assured after a
comprehensive evaluation and weighting of interests regarding the quality and supply of mineral raw materials, sound exploitation ofresources including
commercial and societal aspects, and appropriate environmental protection.
REFERENCES
Dahl, R. & Neeb, P.R. 2002. Mineral resources in Norway Extraction and land use planning. Proc. 3rd European Conference on Mineral Planning, ECMP’02:29–34.
Krefeld, D, 8–10 October 2002. Geological Survey of North RhineWestphalia.
DOE. 1995. Minerals Planning Policy and Supply Practices in Europe. Main report. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, HMSO, London, UK. ISBN 0 11 753157 X.
EC. 2000. Promoting sustainable development in the EU nonenergy extractive industry. COM(2000) 265 final. Brussels, 03.05.2000.
EC. 2003. Towards a thematic strategy on the sustainable use of natural resources. COM(2003) 572 fmal. Brussels, 01.10.2003.
Hansen, S.E. 2003. Norwegian Mining Directorate. Pers. comm.
Mortimer, J. 1999. Public need—public interest. Proc. 2nd European Conference on Mineral Planning, ECMP’99, pp. 389–395. Institute of Quarrying, Nottigham, UK.
ISBN 0 9538003 0 X.
Neeb, P.R. 2003. The Norwegian mining and quarrying industry in 2002. Report 2003.041, Geological Survey of Norway. Can be downloaded at: www.ngu.no.
Nielsen, K. In prep. Study of mineral planning policies in Europe. Country reports on Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. European Commission DG Enterprise Raw
Materials Supply Group. Tender No ENTR/03/36.
NRC. 1996. Mineral Resources and Sustainability: Challenges for Earth Scientists. Committee on Earth Resources Board on Earth Sciences and Resources, Washington
D.C. National Academic Press. Washington D.C.
NRC. 2002. Evolutionary and Revolutionary Technologies for Mining. National Academic Press. Washington D.C. Downloaded in March 2004 from: www.nap.edu/
openbook.
Pollock, S.H.A. & Henry, J.J. 1996. Mineral extraction and United Kingdom policies for sustainable development. Mineral Industry International. Bulletin of the Institution
of Mining and Metallurgy No. 1028, January 1996. ISSN 0955 2847.
Rijkswaterstaat. 2003. Construction Raw Materials Policy and Supply Practices in Northwestern Europe. Main Report (in English). Publicatiereeks Grondstoffen 2003/ 11.
Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat, Den Haag (NL). ISBN 90 369 5502 5.
SME. 1999. Guide for reporting exploration information, mineral resources and mineral reserves—an abstract. Mining Engineering, Vol. 51, No. 6, June 1999, pp. 82–84.
ISSN00265187.
Walker, S. 2000. Cost and Resource Estimating. Boyle, G. (ed.), Renewable Energy. Power for a Sustainable Future: 446–449. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
ISBN 019856451 1.
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Mine Planning andEquipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
OPCE—software developed for cost estimation of mined material in open pit
mines based on O’Hara’s detailed and escalation methods
M.Osanloo
Department of Mining, Metallurgy & Petroleum Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran
Polytechnic, Iran
H.Hamidian
Department of Mining, Azad University, Science & Research Branch, Iran
ABSTRACT: Cost estimation is a timeconsuming procedure associated with the high risk of error in openpit mines. Any changes in the commodity
price, processing and mining costs result in the repetition of calculation. The cost estimated using any recognized methods must be modified for the
realworld conditions. The correction should be made based on the data available at any particular time. In this paper the computer program called
OPCE is developed for the estimation of the mining cost in the openpit mines which is based on O’Hara’s detailed and escalation methods. The
program is written in Visual Basic programming language, the sixth edition and run by the PC with Windows system. The OPCE was tested in the Se
chahoon iron mine in the center of Iran. The results of the cost calculation of mined material with O’Hara’s detailed and escalation methods by OPCE
were compared and ranked by Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) based on the speed, inputoutput ratio, simplicity and accuracy. The results show
that the detailed cost calculation method is the most suitable method for the Sechahoon Iron mine and that in most parts of the calculation the results
of this method and the actual cost of material mined in Sechahoon mine are similar.
1 INTRODUCTION
Open pit mining has become the main mining method for many of the base and precious metal deposits in the world and with no doubt the cost parameter is reflecting
the obvious reason for this trend. One of the problem in the overall cost estimation and profitability of the material mined with the open pit mining method is updating the
present values. This problem rises because the capital and operating costs and the commodity price change over the time, primarily as a fimction of inflation. A few
methods such as O’Hara’s statistical cost estimating methods, detailed and escalation or the Updating methods are used to calculate the overall cost and profit of the
mined material. O’Hara has developed a number of important statistical cost relationships that exist in the mine industry. One of the advantages of O’Hara’s algorithms
is that he includes the relationships to accomplish the sizing of the equipment and the labor force which are the important parameters of the planning and cost estimation
process in the open pit mining operation. In the detailed cost calculation, the costs will be divided into two or three groups and the overall cost per ton of mined material
will be calculated in several stages (Hartman Howard L. 1992). In each stage, the calculation is a long process. Thus, the manual cost calculation of mined material with
these methods is a timeconsuming process with the high potential of error. In addition, the selection of the best method from a few methods is not an easy task. In this
paper, the software program will be presented to calculate the mined material cost with O’Hara’s detailed and escalation methods. Then the rank of suitability of these
methods for the Sechahoon Iron mine of Iran will be determinedby means of AHP. Finally, the results of the most suitable cost estimating method using the computer
program developed will be compared with the actual cost used in the Sechahoon Iron mine.
2 COMPUTER PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS
2.1 Language of programming
The computer program for the openpit cost estimation (OPCE) was written with the visual Basic
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Figure 1. O’Hara method form.
programming language, the sixth edition. This program is run with the personal computer equipped with Windows (Paul Sanna. et al 1997). This programming language
controls tedious details and prepossess better concentration on the special and functional program for producers.
2.2 O’Hara’s cost estimation window
The program uses a form of SS tab control and nine tabs for cost estimation in O’Hara’s method (Fig. 1). The number of tabs used in this window are based on the
cost estimation steps in O’Hara’s method. These tabs include: (1) personnel number, (2) mine associated capital costs, (3) mine equipment, (4) pit and mill services, (5)
mill associated capital costs, (6) general plant cost, (7) mine project over head costs, (8) daily operating cost, (9) cost per ton.
2.2.1 Estimation ofpersonnel number
As shown in Figure 1 the first step of O’Hara’s method is to estimate the personnel number needed for different parts of the mine. For this purpose, one must click on
the personnel number tab to activate it. Then enter required input information at the top of this tab. and push the personnel number estimation button for different parts
of the mine which include the mine, mill, services, administrative and technical personnel number. The estimation will appear in the text box at the bottom of the tab.
Pushing the chart button, the personnel number needed for different parts of the mine can be seen in the histogram (Fig. 2).
2.3 Detailed cost estimation window
For the cost estimation with the detailed method, one can use a form with the SS tab control by eight tabs (Fig. 3). For estimating the cost per ton of material mined by
detailed estimation method, the following
Figure 2. Chart of personnel number in O’Hara’s method.
Figure 3. Detailed method form.
steps must be considered and calculated (Hustrulid William A. & Kuchta M. 1995):
1. determination of daily and shift production
2. shovel selection
3. truck selection
4. secondary equipment
5. equipment cost estimation
6. personnel number required
7. building and development cost estimation
8. overall cost per ton
2.4 Escalation method window
In the main window, when one selects the escalation of cost radio button and clicks OK, the window will appear (Fig. 4).
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Figure 4. Escalation method form.
This form includes the SS Tab control with two tabs: (1) cost increasing tab (updating price) (2) cost estimation per ton tab. There is a text box namely the subject of
cost at the top of this tab. Here the subject of the increasing cost, such as the shovel, loader, truck or other must be typed. At the bottom of the text box, two combo
cadres are used for assigning the base year and the target year. In order to assign these years, one should click on the flash near the combo cadres. After the survey,
select the base and the target year.
Now enter the cost or price of the base year in the text box. Following this stage, enter the cost index in base year at the second text box and costs index in the
target year in the third text box. Then, press the compute button in the text box namely, the cost in a year of the target. A number appearing shows the cost of the target
year. If the estimated costs are more than one, the first compute button must be pressed for the new estimation. On pressing this button, the conclusion of the first case
will be sent to the print memory (spooler), but it is not printed. This procedure will continue up to the last cost estimation of each case, then press the print for printing.
2.5 Program error message system
The error message is desgined for OPCE. In case of incorrect data entered in the programme, the error message will be appear. For entering the correct data one must
click OK until the problematic point is activated automatically.
2.6 Selection of desirable money unit
The unit of money must be considered to encompass all the costs. This work is done by pressing the select
Figure 5. Money unit selection form.
unit (Fig. 5). On the left side of this form, three units of money are identified by the radio button. These are: US dollar, rial and euro. On selecting each of these buttons,
an amount appears in the text box.
3 SELECTING SUITABLE COST ESTIMATION BY AHP
3.1 AHP technique
Each mine has different conditions so there is not one universal method for calculating the cost of the mined material in all countries in the world. To select the most
suitable method for any particular mine is a difficult task. One of the most efficient techniques is Analytical Hierarchy Process. This algorithm analyzes the difficult
problems and solves them easily. This technique is widely used for the economic and social problems and was suggested by Thomas L. Saaty in 1980. This method is
based on the paired comparisons and makes possible for the decision maker to test different scenarios. Improper technique selection for the cost estimation might
dictate irrecoverable loss for the decision maker. Therefore, it is necessary to use suitable technique for each particular mine. Concerning available conditions and
criteria, AHP technique has been used for selecting the best cost estimation techniques.
3.2 Selection criteria
In the selection of the cost estimation technique, many criteria, such as the speed, accuracy, facility and input to output data ratios are influenced. The goal of this paper
was to select the best technique from O’Hara’s detailed cost estimation and escalation techniques.
In Figure 6, the hierarchy structure for the selection of the best techniques is shown graphically. In the analytical hierarchy process, the element of each level
compared with the related element of the upper level and their weight is calculated. The weights of
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Figure 6. Criteria for selection of the best cost estimation technique
Table 1. Weighting coefficient of criteria.
the parameters are determined according to the objectives and then by multiplying these weights by the score related to the weight, the final value will be calculated. All
comparisons in the analytical hierarchy process are paired and the comparisons are made by the decisionmaker judgment. To determine the weight of each parameter
(comparative weight), the arithmetic mean is used. (Table 1).
After estimating the weight of methods for each of the criteria the weight of criteria towards each other must be specified, in other words, the role of every criterion
must be specified. In doing so, the criteria must be surveyed into the pairedcomparison. For this purpose, two general following stages are considered: (1) cost
estimation for the preliminary stage, (2) Cost estimation for the final stage (Table 2).
Now, we calculate final weight of each technique in stages 1 & 2. (Table 3).
Stage 1:
Final weight of O’Hara’s technique
=0.377 * 0.738+0.052 * 0.079+0.208 * 0.746
+0.363 * 0.767=0.716
Final weight of Detailed technique
=0.377 * 0.07+0.052 * 0.571+0.208
*
0.12+ 0.363 * 0.085=0.154
Final weight of Escalation technique
=0.377 * 0.182+0.052 * 0.0.350+0.208 * 0.134
+0.363 * 0.148=0.156
Table 2. Criteria weighting coefficient in stage 1 and stage 2.
Table 3. Methods weighting coefficient in stagel and stage 2.
Figure 7. Location of Sechahoon Iron mine of Iran.
Stage 2:
Final weight of O’Hara’s technique
=0.105 * 0.738+0.678 * 0.079+0.109 * 0.746
+0.109 * 0.767=0.289
Final weight of Detailed technique
=0.105 * 0.07+0.678 * 0.571+0.108
*
0.12+0.109 * 0.085=0.417
Final weight of Escalation technique
=0.105 * 0.182+0.678 * 0.350+0.109 * 0.134
+0.109 * 0.148=0.287
4 CASE STUDY
4.1 Sechahoon mine conditions
The Choghart Iron mine complex is located 15 km to the northeast of Bafgh, 130km from Yazd, at 55° 28′ east longitude, 31° 42′ north latitude and its elevation is
1150. The Sechahoon mine is located about 35 km to the northeast of the Choghart mine (Fig. 7). From
Page 701
Table 4. Comparison of the mine data with OPCE estimation results.
Table 5. Comparison of the mine cost estimation data with OPCE costs estimation output.
1971 up to the end of 1998, the Choghart Iron mine provided iron for the Isfahan steel manufacture.
4.2 Calculation results of Sechahoon mine by OPCE
The Sechahoon mine data are collected from the report of the investment evaluation published by Kavoshgran Consulting Engineers (KCE, 1999). Using OPCE
software and O’Hara’s method, the costs of mined material and other important parameters of the Sechahoon iron mine were calculated and compared with present
mine conditions. (Tables 4 & 5).
5 CONCLUSIONS
The operation and capital costs are very important factors to evaluate the block economic value, sequence of the extraction and ultimate pit evaluation in any open pit
mines. OPCE software was written to calculate the operation and capital costs of mined material based on O’Hara’s detailed and escalation methods. The highlights of
this paper are:
1. The manual cost estimation is time consuming procedure with the high potential risk of error.
2. The AHP method shows that the accuracy of the cost estimation in the detailed technique is better than the other ones, but with the respect of the speed, facility and
inputoutput parameter ratio, O’Hara’s technique is in priority.
3. Concerning the conclusions of AHP technique for O’Hara’s detailed and escalation cost estimation methods; it is suggested to use detailed technique in the final
stage and O’Hara’s technique for the cost estimation in the initial stage.
4. The developed software was used in the Sechahoon Iron open pit mine of Iran and the results of the calculation were compared with the actual costs of the mine
and the differences are to be estimated.
5. Last conclusion is that the OPCE software will facilitate the trend of the calculation with the high accuracy and in shorten time.
Page 702
REFERENCES
Hartman Howard L. 1992. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration Inc., Littleton, Colorado, Chapter 5.
Hustrulid William A. & Kuchta M. 1995. Open Pit Mine Planning and Design, Balkema Publication, Chapter 2.4.
lan C.Runge 1998. Mining Economics and Strategy, Society for mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., USA, 33–45.
Saaty, T.L. 1980. The Analytical Hierarchy Process, Planing, Priority. RWS Publications, USA.
Paul Sanna. et al 1997. Visual Basic for Application5,Noor pubhcation, Iran.
Kavoshgaran Consulting Engineers. 1999. The Report of Investment Evaluation in Choghart, Sehahoon, 6th. edition, Iran.
Page 703
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Minecommunity relationships—the experience of Stawell Gold Mines (SGM),
Stawell, Victoria, Australia
J.M.Osborne
Department of Environmental Biology, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
ABSTRACT: Stawell Gold Mines (SGM) conducts an underground mining operation 230 km northwest of Melbourne (Victoria, Australia). First
mining was 1853 to 1920, and current mining operations recommenced in 1982. The mine site is within 1 km of the main street of Stawell and a
continuing focus on community relationships is a key factor in the ability of the mine to operate. This relationship was tested in 1999 when SGM
applied to commence an open pit mine and the State Government declined the proposal. SGM is a significant member of the Stawell community
employing 250 people of a population of 7000. The local Gun Club, in cooperation with SGM, has developed a tentrap shotgun facility as final end
use for a small tailings storage facility. A 2.6ha Tailings Experimental Research Facility (TERF) has been constructed to enable experimentation into
sustainable end land uses for an active >100 ha dam.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Location
The Stawell Gold Mine (SGM) is 230km NW of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (see Fig. 1). It is now owned by MPI Gold Pty Ltd and operated by Stawell Gold
Mines (SGM) a wholly owned subsidiary of MPI Mines Ltd.
Stawell is located in the Northern Grampians Shire. Stawell is described on the Shire’s web site as follows: “Characterised by the dominant assets of Grampians,
Gift, Grapes and Gold, the Northern Grampians boasts a diverse range of activities and attractions. Set against the spectacular backdrop of the Grampians National
Park and home to the world’s most prestigious professional footrace the Stawell Easter Gift, over 1 million people visit the Northern Grampians each year”
Whilst this prime location makes SGM one of the best situated mines in Australia, the close proximity to a significant population brings its share of benefits and
challenges.
1.2 History
Gold was first discovered at Stawell in 1853, and production from both alluvial sources and high grade quartz reefs totaled an estimated 2,670,000 oz in the 73 years
up to 1926 when the last mine closed.
The modern producing era began in 1984 when a joint venture reopened the Stawell Gold Mine. In the nine years under Western Mining Corporation, management
the mine produced 336,000 oz of gold. From 1992 to June 2003 (Stawell Gold Mines) output has been increased and a total of 965,000 oz of gold has been
produced. The total field production including the current mineral inventory of 1.62 M oz (Dec 2002) gives the field a total endowment of some 5.5 M oz. Current
production all comes from an underground decline with mining taking place from 300 to 1000 m below surface.
1.3 Community
Stawell has a population around 6500. The mine employs 250 people representing 10% of the working population. Most employees live in the town or within a 20 km
radius. The mine and other businesses support a significant number of service industries and as a result there are several primary schools, a secondary school and a
Campus of Ballarat University. There are numerous sporting and service clubs. SGM is an integral member of the diverse community that makes up Stawell and like
any organisation has its supporters and detractors. Management of both local and external have to consider the community in all its actions and decisions.
Page 704
Figure 1. Location map: Stawell Gold Mine, Victoria, Australia.
2 INTERACTION WITH THE COMMUNITY
The SGM operation is physically located behind a ridge and is hidden view from the rest of the town. The mine workings have surface expression at three ventilation
shafts and an electrical substation where power is delivered underground. The milling facilities include crushing, grinding, flotation, cyanidation, and gold recovery. The
mill tailings are stored in a 100 ha facility some 4km from the plant site. The impoundment is a valley style dam built on farmland purchased in the mideighties. Two
completed tailings dams are also located on site. The owners also hold exploration tenements stretching from Stawell 140 km to the north.
One of the reasons the residents know the mine is in operation is the daily production blasts (6 am including weekends). Mining regulations require that no blast can
exceed a vibration of lOmm/sec and 95% must be less than 5 mm/sec. There are around 200 blasts per month, about 25 production (stope) firings and the rest smaller
development blasts. The other factor that generates complaints is odours. These come from the mine ventilation exhaust and from the carbon regeneration kiln. Odours
represent 25% of complaints.
From a different perspective and perhaps less visible to the community, the mine spends $53.5 M per year. Approximately 45% is spent within the shire through
wages and the purchase of supplies and services.
During the eighties and early nineties the ridge that separated the mine and the town also represented the attitude of management. “We will do our thing behind the
hill, please leave us alone and we won’t disturb you”. The error in this attitude became apparent. In 1996 the geological team was looking at increasing gold resources.
The two obvious places were deeper in the mine and on the surface. The surface efforts resulted in a drilling programme during 1997 and 1998 which delineated
around 400,000 oz on Big Hill. The drilling passed without incident with over 200 holes drilled; many in public places and very near residences.
In mid1998 when SGM applied to commence the Victorian approvals process through the preparation of an Environmental Effects Statement (EES), an anti group
was foimed; the Big Hill Action Group (BHAG). SGM was unprepared for the level of emotion that the project created. The BHAG was driven by half a dozen
intelligent and dedicated individuals who recruited a band of some forty to fifty people. As with all protest groups their rhetoric was vivid and unconstrained.
Of the 270 public submissions to the panel the majority were against the proposal. Whilst there was much local support most of it was unspoken in public. Some
businesses and elderly people felt intimidated. SGM decided not to take part in debate in the media. It did not recognise that many in the Community formed their
opinions from what they read in the local papers. SGM did not manage the process well and failed to capitalise on local support. SGM had not developed sufficient
community contacts prior to this event through the “leave us to do our business” attitude. Management did not know the Councillors, the Council Officers nor the
community decision makers and attitude leaders sufficiently well. It was assumed that the EES process was a technical process, but whilst SGM’s technical arguments
were sound they lost the political battle.
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3 REHABILITATION—WORKING WITH AND FOR THE COMMUNITY
SGM has three tailings dams; Reserve Dam 3.2 ha, No. 1 Dam 12 ha, No. 2 Dam 80 ha (design 100 ha), with Reserve Dam and No. 1 inactive. Working with the
Stawell Gun Club the Reserve Dam is being developed into a ten trap Shot Gun Facility. This came about by talking with a wide range of people in the Community at a
variety of venues. The local Gun Club were looking for a new site that did not interfere with other people and had plenty of space. A couple of keen SGM people set
about convincing management, Council and the Mines Department that the scheme could work in harmony with mine activities. After a lot of discussion sufficient
approvals and documentation were in place for the Gun Club to commit time, fiinds and hard work developing their site. From SGM’s perspective it means a piece of
rehabilitation has been completed with a meaningful end land use that will be maintained by members of the community. For the Gun Club they have what they need.
The rehabilitation of 100 ha of sulphide bearing tailings is a requirement for the project on closure.
The previous lease conditions (pre 2000) required a 300 mm impervious layer, a 100 mm topsoil layer and a stable landform. In the current conditions the
requirement must be “subject to the satisfaction of the Chief Mines Inspector”. This is deemed to be a one metre cover at present. SGM has set its standards to comply
with regulatory requirements but to also provide something that will not be a liability to future generations and more importantly be a benefit to the community. To meet
the “subject to the satisfaction of the Chief Mines Inspector” condition SGM believes a rigorous scientific approach is required.
SGM and the University of Melbourne have formed a formal Cooperative Research Agreement to allow research into a range of disciplines
Figure 2. ProtoTERF—Oxide and topsoil treated plot 18 months growth.
associated with the mine. One project is to develop usefiil rehabilitation schemes for No. 2 tailings dam.
The project is a combined effort by the University of Melbourne and Curtin University WA. The project has two main aspects, applied ecology and geochemistry.
The aim is to demonstrate what surface treatment is required for successfiil vegetation cover and what will happen geochemically to the tailings. To assist the project
SGM has constructed two Tailings Experimental Research Facilities. The first, ProtoTERF, was built with fresh tailings adjacent to the existing No. 2 tailings dam. This
was built to allow a sighter on potential plantings that could be usefiil in the fiiture. The current TERF was a 2.5 ha facility built on top of No. 1 dam to provide an area
where research can continue for years to come.
3.1 Applied Ecology
The Applied Ecology programme is being undertaken by PhD candidate, Augustine Doronila, under the supervision of Professor Alan Baker and Assoc Professor Joan
Osborne. Major aims of the project are:
– To determine the performance of potential tree and pasture crops when growing on rehabilitated gold tailings and
– To assess the viability of a mixed agribusiness on a large rehabilitated sulphidic tailing dam. Candidate species include eucalypts for eucalyptus oil; firewood and/or
pulpwood and native grass species for pasture cover and the formation of seed orchards.
Trials are underway to evaluate the use of different combinations of ameliorants such as biosolids, topsoil and oxidised waste rock as permanent covers to potentially
acid generating sulphide bearing tailings, instead of using thin impermeable covers (see Fig. 2).
Page 706
Preliminary results indicate that:
– Weeping grass, M. stipoides, is relatively tolerant to the high levels of salinity present in the substrate materials (i.e. 10,000 TDS).
– Establishment of four Eucalyptus species was maximized over the first summer by covering tailings with oxide waste amended with either topsoil or biosolids.
– Biosolid amendments significantly increased the germination rate and biomass production of M. stipoides in tailings and in oxide waste. Herbage production with 20–
25% biosolids addition was comparable to high fertiliser application rates while 50% biosolids application produced at least 1.5 times more biomass than all other
treatments.
– The organic amendment improved the physical and chemical properties of the tailings by increasing the moisture holding capacity, improving soil texture, hydraulic
conductivity and also providing nutrients.
Biosolids produced at Stawell have elevated levels of some elements of environmental concern and, as such, they present a disposal problem to the sewage treatment
plant operators. Geochemical characterisation of this material has shown that codisposal of biosolids with the tailings will not significantly contribute to the metal
loading in the tailings, yet will contribute much needed organic matter and nutrients essential for successful plant growth. The biosolids are an excellent soilconditioning
agent for tailings rehabilitation. There has also been geochemical characterisation of tailings, overburden and historic mine waste and topsoil. The use of these
components as cover materials is being trialled in the
Figure 3. Geochemical sampling and root excavation—TERF.
field at TERF (Tailings Experimental Research Facility) and is being modelled in laboratory studies, with now a final excavation to profile root development (see Fig. 3).
The rehabilitation plots on TERF have also been core sampled to track the geochemical changes occurring in vertical profiles under the different cover regimes.
Aspects of interest are the oxidation of sulphide minerals, the processes of neutralisation of the acid generated by sulphide oxidation and the mobility of metals within
the profile. The effectiveness of the various covers in preventing oxidation whilst promoting an ecologically thriving, partially open, cover will be evaluated.
4 WORKING WITH THE COMMUNITY
Following the learning experience of the last 10 years of operating at Stawell, SGM has modified its approach of working in the Community. It is a condition of the
Mining Licence for an Environmental Review Committee (ERC) to be formed. The ERC is chaired by a representative of the Department of Primary Industry (DPI)
and is made up of representatives of the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), the Department of Human Services (DHS), the Northern Grampians Shire and
Parks Victoria. Two community members are also included. SGM requested the DPI to open the meeting to a wider public audience. The quarterly meetings are now
attended by a wide range of interested and concerned people. Invitations are sent out to all clubs and societies and the public are welcome to attend as observers. This
open forum allows more people to be aware of the mine’s production and environmental performance. It is a forum where the mine can listen to the Community’s
concerns and interests.
SGM produces a Community Report every six months to inform an even wider audience of all aspects of its operations. The mine is committed to open
communication with the Community. A formal register of Inquiries/Complaints is maintained. Members of staff directly involved in production activities which give rise
to complaints are actively involved in communicating with the complainant and working towards resolution of issues. Once a month tours of the underground mine are
run for any member of the Community interested. It is amazing how many of the townsfolk have not visited the mine. Most are delighted to be invited to see more. Mine
Open days are run for family groups to learn more about the mine’s activities.
The Northern Grampians Shire and SGM have entered into a formal Council Protocol to promote the interests of both parties. Meetings are held on a weekly basis
with Council Officers and monthly with the Mayor and CEO. The meetings are designed to keep both parties abreast of ongoing activities and plans. Open and honest
communications are the aims. To promote improved communications there are occasional Community Dinners where corporate personnel from out of Stawell meet
with members of the Community in an informal environment and understand first hand the issues facing the Shire.
Page 707
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author acknowledges the support and assistance of MPI Mines and Stawell Gold Mines and the many employees that have made the paper possible. Thanks to
Augustine Doronila for providing sections on their PhD studies, and Helena Gercovich and Graham Brock for the Figures, PowerPoint slides and sections of the text.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Economic evaluation model for selective narrow vein cutandfill mining
Stefan Planeta
Laval University, Québec (PQ), Canada
Jozef Szymanski
University of Alberta Edmonton (Alberta), Canada
Jacek Paraszczak
Laval University, Québec (PQ), Canada
ABSTRACT: The mining method, selected for an underground mining project is among the most important factor influencing the project’s design and
economic success. A design selection of the mining method based on the use of the Net Present Value (NPV) and of the Equivalent of Different
Scenarios (EDS) is presented in this paper. In the first part of this paper, the mining selectivity, design dilution and different definitions of ore dilution
currently in use are also analyzed. It is demonstrated, with the help of a numerical example for a given mining condition, that dilution percentage results
vary considerably and that they depend on the definition used. This situation makes it difficult to compare different results regarding the dilution
problem, often because some of the terms used are contradictory. This paper presents the results of the economical study of the mucking
mechanisation in the cutandfill method for narrow vein gold deposit. The conclusion shows that the use of this methodology would be a definitive
asset in planning, in stoping operations followup, and in fiiture costs comparison studies between mining operations.
1 INTRODUCTION
Technically, an ore body can be extracted from the geological reserves in numerous ways. In the case of narrow vein deposit, the size of stoping equipment
(drilling/mucking) and the dip of the mineralized zone define the minimum width in stopes, all of which markedly influences mining selectivity, design dilution and
mineable reserves. In terms of technical efficiency, one or more of the applicable stoping equipment may be superior to others because of the mechanical characteristics
of the particular mining method—but the best stope design from the operational point of view may be not necessarily lead to optimum economical results. In practice
the design of a proposed mining method is often based on previous experience, or on precedents established by other operations of similar conditions. These methods
may or may not give satisfactory results. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the economic effects of the different types of mining selectivity in the cutandfill mining
method used for narrow vein deposit. Net present Value (NPV) and Equivalence of Different Scenarios (EDS) concepts will be applicable to simulate the six different
scenarios of cutand fill mining method for a case study based on the typical mining conditions in the North American context. The results of this simulation will be
analysed to select the best variant of the mining method.
2 DESIGN OF THE MINING METHOD
The choice of a mining method for ore deposits depends on a number of factors (Planeta et al., 2001). In principle, one selects a method that is both safe and
profitable. Its choice is determined mainly by the dip of the vein deposit and its nature (regular, irregular, discontinuous), the competency of the rock formations and
certain technical considerations (mechanization, equipment size, selectivity of stoping, ore dilution and ore losses). Moreover, the stoping method in a given deposit
(which is a fimction of new layouts or new equipment) may change with time. By the design of the mining methods, some ore may have to be abandoned to create
protective pillars. In the case of narrow vein deposits, it may be necessary to widen the working place and include some waste material in the
Page 710
Figure 1. Ore thickness (hm), dip (α), equipment size and stope width.
stream of production if this material cannot be moved separately (Planeta et al., 2001).
2.1 Mining selectivity and design dilution
The geometry of the vein deposit requires that, during the planning of the stope, some waste rock be included, especially when the working thickness of the stope
exceeds the thickness of the ore body (Fig. 1), primarily when we encounter lodegold deposits in quartz veins that have a general thickness of 30 cm to 100 cm (Joe
Mann and Doyon Mines, for example). This waste rock mixing with the ore constitutes ore dilution, which can be planned, and is inherent to the stoping method. In the
narrow vein deposit, the minimum stope width is determined by that of a vein, its dip and equipment dimensions which significantly affect mining selectivity and design
dilution. Knowledge of these parameters enables mining selectivity and control of the design dilution.
2.1.1 Mining selectivity
As depicted in Figure 1 (Cut and Fill stoping case study), the minimal stope with (hc) is directly related to the:
• dimensions of equipment (height and width),
• dip and the nature (regular or irregular) of the deposit.
The minimal stope width required is:
hc=(l+h×cot α)×sin α+a
(1)
Table 1. Mucking equipment and mining selectivity in the stope.
Mining selectivity in the stope; MS=(hm/hc) ×100, %
Mucking equipment and stope opening required (hc)
where:
hc: stope opening required
l: width of equipment (drilling/mucking)
h: height of equipment (drilling/mucking)
α: dip of ore deposit (0 to 90 degrees)
a: operating clearance (0.2 to 0.4 m)
The mining selectivity in the stope (Fig. 1) is a fimction of ore width or thickness (hm) and minimal stope width (hc) required and it can be defined as:
(2)
where: MS: mining selectivity in the stope (%).
It is to be noted that the mining selectivity in the stope (MS) is always (by definition) lower or equal to 100%.
Table 1 shows the mining selectivity in the stope as related to the vein thickness (hm) and minimal stope width (hc) as a function of the size of mucking equipment and
the dip (α) of the ore deposit (see Equation 2.2). The design dilution is directly related to the level of mining selectivity in the stope:
• if the MS=100%, design dilution is nil,
• if the MS<100%, design dilution occurs during design stage of the mining method for the vein deposit.
In the cutandfill mining method, the three principal machines to muck of ore can be used in the narrow stopes: Cavo loaders, scrapers and LHD Microscoop. The
prime disadvantage to using the Cavo is large stoping width required for the machine. The stopes had to be opened up to 2.4 m to allow 0.30 m of operating clearance
on each side of the loader. In the case of a 1.2 m vein, for example this represented a mining selectivity in the stope 50% (Table 1). The main advantage to using
scrapers is
Page 711
its greater mining selectivity in comparison with a Cavo. In the case of a 1.2 m vein, for example, this represented a mining selectivity in the stope of 86% (Table 1).
The principal disadvantage is the very low productivity once the scraping distance exceeded 30m. Also a hand mucking is required for fiill ore recovery. The
Microscoop is 0.80 m width and can be powered by electric or diesel motors. The machine is very stable when tramming due to its double articulation. According to
the Dome Mine (Robertson, 1986) the machine is capable of cleaning the face neatly and is very manoeuvrable in the winding sections of the vein. In the case of a 1.2
m vein, for example, this represented a mining selectivity in the stope of 100% (Table 1).
2.1.2 Design dilution
Design dilution is directly related to mining selectivity in the stope. If the latter is below 100%, design dilution occurs during the design stage of the mining method.
2.1.2.1 Definitions of ore dilution
Dilution is generally understood as the quantity of waste rock or low grade ore (below the operating cutoffgrade) added to the ore. Hence, the final diluted ore
tonnage with a lower grade and unit ore values ($/ tone) is greater than nondiluted ore. There are several definitions of dilution currently in use and their interpretation
varies depending on the author (David and Toht, 1984; Gunzert, 1983; Ingler, 1975; Mathews, 1990; Pakalnis et al., 1985). Generally, the term “dilution” can either
be expressed in tonnage or in percentage. In the technical literature, the term “dilution”, is often defined as percentage of dilution which is based either on the
tonnage or on the grade (Planeta, 2001):
• If the dilution is based on tonnage, two different definitions use are the following:
1) D1 (%)=Tonnes waste mined/Tonnes ore mined,
2) D2 (%)=Tonnes waste mined/ (Tonnes ore mined+Tonnes waste mined.
• If the dilution is based on grade, a following definition is used:
3) D3 (%) Dilution (%)=(Non diluted grade—Diluted grade)/Nondiluted grade.
Percentage of dilution, calculated for the same mining and operating conditions, accordingly to the above definitions vary in the following manner. Value based on
D1>D2>D3.
If the grade of the waste is nil (zero), the numbers obtained with definitions 2 (D2) and 3 (D3) are identical. We note that definition 1 is preferred by designers and
planners who do forecast, whereas definitions 2 and 3 are preferred by operators as they give lower “better looking” values! It is for this reason that the dilution factor
(DF) has been recommended as a standard measure of dilution (Planeta, 2001):
4) Dilution factor (DF)—[(Tonnes ore mined+Tonnes waste mined)/Tonnes ore mined]. Therefore, different percentages of dilution calculated with the three defmitions
in use, can all be represented by only one dilution factor.
3 ECONOMICAL EVALUATION
Every mining engineer endeavours to design the mining method that will prove most effective in a geological and geotechnical situation. In the choice of the most
effective mining method, the mining selectivity is without question the most serious economic consequence resulting from inadequate design of the mining method for
narrow vein ore deposit. Valuation of mining selectivity will be conducted by comparing six different scenarios (see numerical example no 1):
• Three alternatives of the mining selectivity associated with the three mucking machines used in the cutandfill mining method.
• Each alternative of the mining method will be analysed in two variants (waste grade 0.0 and 0.03 once Au/st).
Numerical example
A gold deposit is mined by cutandfill mining method. The estimated specific gravity for vein deposit (Geological reserves) and planned waste are the same values.
The vein thickness (hm) is evaluated at 1.2 m and the minimal required stope openings (hc) is evaluated for three alternatives of the mining method: the LHD
Microscoop, scraper and Overshot loader Cavo 310 are respectively, 1.2 m, 1.4 m and 2.4 m (see Table 1).
Each alternative of the mining method was analysed in two variants (waste grade 0.0 and 0.03 once Au/st). In total, the six scenarios of ore extraction by cutandfill
mining method were analysed.
The principal parameters used for the economical estimation are presented in Table 2. Investments and operating costs were determined by using formulae provided
by Camm (1994). A useful guide to the optimum mine tonnage rate is the Taylor formula (SME, 1992):
Optimum tonnage rate (T)=(4.88 Tm0.75)/D
(3)
where: “T” is short tons (2000 Ib) of ore mined and milled per operating day, “Tm” is tonnage of the mineable reserves in short tons and “D” is the number of days per
year of operation at full capacity. “D” is approximately 350 days for a mine and mil
Page 712
Table 2. Principal parameters used for the economical estimation.
Item Value
Geological reserves in the mine (Tg) 2,000,000 st
0.35 once Au/st
Vein thickness (hm) 1.2 m
Waste grade (tw)
– variant 1 0 once Au/st
– variant 2 0.06 once Au/st
Gold price (GP) 380 USD/once
Design reserve recovery factor (DRF) 0.9
Metal recovery (MR) 96%
Tax rate (t) of operating profit (O.P.) 40%
Discount rate (d) 15%
plant operating continuously 7 days week (SME, 1992).
The mining selectivity impact, for each scenario, on the economic performance will be studied based on the two economic concepts:
1) Net Present Value (NPV) of different scenarios, and
2) Equivalence of Different Scenarios (EDS).
3.1 Methodology of economical evaluation
3.1.1 Net present value of different scenarios
The NPV is the difference between positive and negative cash flows for a project discounted to the present value using a predetermined discount rate. For a single
initial investment “I”, required at the beginning of a project, a cash flow of year “i”, “CFi”, discounted rate “d” and economic duration “n”, NPV is expressed as follows:
(4)
The typical discounted rate “d” (excluding country risk) in current use in the evaluation of mineral projects at prefeasibility stage is supposed to be 15% (Smith, 1995).
When the equal annual cash flows (uniform series) are realised, the NPV will be determined by following formula:
(4a)
where: CF is equal annual cash flow.
Applying the formulas 4 or 4a to the data in numerical example no 1, we find the NPV for each scenario. The low mining selectivity increases the design dilution and
planned mining reserve and it has a direct effect of:
Figure 2. Mining Scenarios and NPV.
• increasing the mine tonnage rate and total capital cost (mine and mill),
• decreasing the unit operating cost, ore grade and mine revenues (US$/year).
For these reasons, the mining life, cash flow and NPV are directly affected. The NPV for six different scenarios are shown in Figure 2.
The best scenario, in this case, is the application LHD Microscoop. The application of the Loader Cavo 310 is not justified, because the NPV is negative: −19.7M
USD and −7.1 M USD respectively for waste grades 0 and 0.03 once Au/st. The other major parameter of economical effect is waste grade. For same mining
selectivity, increase of waste grade has a significant impact on operating profit and NPV (Fig. 2). The increase of waste grade from 0.0 to 0.03 once Au/st augmented
the NPV from ll.lM US$ to 13.2 M US$ and from −19.7 M US$ to −7.1 M US$ respectively with the Scraper and Cavo 310 scenarios.
3.1.2 Equivalence of different scenarios
In the concept of equivalence of different scenarios it was supposed that all the six scenarios have the same NPV=0; @ 15% discounted rate
(5)
Hence, substituting for NPV, we find that in the formula (5), the parameter CF represents the amount of the Net Profit (NP).
(6)
Page 713
(7)
For this amount of the NP, the value of the NPV in the formula (5) is equal at zero. The Net Profit represents the Operating Profit (OP) minus the taxes. It can be given
by following formula:
NP=OP×(1−r)
(8)
Applying the formula (7) to the data in numerical example no 1, we find the amount of the NP (US$/ year) for each scenario. In our numerical example the NP varies
from 8,774,772 to 10,306,312 US$/year, respectively for LHD Microscoop and Loader Cavo 310 scenarios of mining method.
In our numerical example the tax rate (r) is equal at 0.4 (40%) and the OP varies from 14,624,620 to 17,177,186 US$/year, respectively, for LHD Microscoop
and Loader Cavo 310 scenarios of mining method.
The following formula gives the relationship with the Mine Revenue (MR), Acceptable Operating Cost (AOC) and Operating Profit (OP):
OP=MR−AOC
(9)
We know the MR and the OP for each scenario. Hence, substituting for formula (8), we find that:
AOC=MR−OP
(10)
In our numerical example the AOC varies from 20,369,012 to 16,662,737 US$/year, respectively for LHD Microscoop (waste grade=0.0 once Au/st) and Loader
Cavo 310 (waste grade=0.06 once Au/st) scenarios of mining method.
The Acceptable Operating Unit Cost (AOC1 can be calculated from following formula:
AOC1=POC/Annual Tonnage Rate (Ty)
(11)
Finally, knowing that the Milling Unit Cost (OCmp) is estimated, the Acceptable Mining Unit Cost can be calculated:
AOCm (US$/st)=POC1−Milling Unit Cost (OCmp)
(12)
This cost is calculated for each scenario. It represents the acceptable amount of the Mining Unit Cost at the part in the Operating Unit Cost, for which the NPV=0.
These values, for each scenario, are presented in Figure 3. It is noted that the parameter “OCum”, in the Figure 3, represents the values of the Mining Unit Cost
determined, for each scenario, by Camm’s formula (1994). These values are representatives for cutandfill mining method used in the North American conditions.
Figure 3. Mining scenarios versus acceptable mining unit costs (POCm): Case The Equivalence of Six Different Scenarios.
The low mining selectivity increases the design dilution and decreases ore grade and mine revenues. For these reasons, for the six equivalent scenarios, the values of the
POCm are directly influenced by mining selectivity and by waste grade. In our case, these values must not be higher than that from 70.42 (scenario with LHD
Microscoop) to 17.97 US$/st (scenario with Loader Cavo 310 and waste grade @ 0.03 once Au/st).
For same mining selectivity, the waste grade has a significant impact on the value of the POCm, in the case the equivalence of different scenarios (Fig. 3). Effectively,
the increase of waste grade from 0.0 to 0.03 once Au/st can be justified to increase the POCm, from 55.11 to 58.11 US$/st and from 17.97 to 28.91 US$/st,
respectively for the Scraper and Cavo 310 scenarios. The best scenario, from the economical point of view, is the scenario with LHD Microscoop. Effectively for this
scenario the POCm=70.42 US$/ st can be higher than the value OCum=40.91 US$/st (Mining Unit Cost) calculated from Camm’s formula (1994) and illustrated in
Figure 3.
The scenario with Loader Cavo 310 cannot be applicable. Effectively for this scenario, the POCm= 17.97 US$/st and 28.91 US$/st, respectively, for waste grades
0 and 0.03 once Au/st. They are significantly lower in comparison with the OCum= 35.12 US$/st: the value of the Mining Unit Cost calculated from Camm’s formula
and illustrated in Figure 3.
4 CONCLUSIONS
At the design stage, a mineral deposit may be proposed to be mined by many different mining methods and their variants. In terms of technical efficiency, one or more
of the applicable stoping equipment may be superior to others because of the mechanical characteristics of the particular mining method—but the best stope design
from the
Page 714
operational point of view may be not necessarily lead to optimum economical results. At the design stage, an economical evaluation is essentially the evaluation of many
proposed scenarios of extracting the deposit.
The methodology presented in this paper can be used to select the best mining scenario of extracting the deposit from the technical and economical point of view.
The possible use of this methodology would facilitate a classification of the different mining conditions and of the mining methods used, regarding the mining method
selectivity and the efficiency of the mining design.
The principles outlined in this paper provide guidelines for optimizing the stope design, using the Equivalence of Different Scenarios concept.
REFERENCES
Camm T.W. 1994. Simplified cost models for prefeasibility mineral evaluations., Mining Engineering, June, pp. 559–562.
David M., Toht E. 1984. Grade control problems dilution and geostatistics: choosing the required quality and number of samples for grade control. CIM Bulletin,
November, pp. 53–58.
Gunzert G. 1983. Erzverdünnung—Nutzen oder Ubel ?., Erzmetall 36, No. 1, pp. 14–22.
Ingler D. 1975. Rock dilution in underground stopes., World Mining, Vol. 28, no. 9, August pp. 54–55.
Mining Sourcebook. 2003. Published by Southam Mining Group, pp. 172.
Mathews, K.E. 1990. Planning to reduce dilution Points to the future., Not published, pp. 1–6.
Pakalnis R., Miller H.D.S., Madill T. 1985. Development of a geonumerical model as an aid in stope design., 26th US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Rapid City,
June, pp. 1173–1180.
Planeta S. 2001. Sources de dilution dans les mines souterraines: Methodes de calcul. CIM Bulletin, Vol.94, no. 1048, Mars, pp. 128–132.
Planeta S., Paraszczak J., Szymanski J. 2001. Selection Criteria for Underground Mining Stoping Methods in Narrow Vein Deposits., Proceedings of the Tenth
International Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, New Delhi, India, November 19–21, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New
DelhiCalcuta, pp.233–241.
Robertson B.E. 1986. The mechanization of narrow vein mining at the Dome Mine., Mining Magazine, October, pp. 308–317.
Smith L. 1995. Discount rates and risk assessment in mineral evaluation., CIM Bulletin, Vol.98. no. 989, April, pp.34–43.
SME. 1992. Mining Engineering Handbook., 2nd Edition, Volume 1, Hartman Senior Editor, Published by Society of Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc,
Littleton, Colorado, pp. 1269.
Page 715
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The investment risk in the mineral and energetics sources
D.Rajkovic & M.Golub
Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Croatia
ABSTRACT: Managerial decisions are brought today in conditions of certainty, risk and uncertainty. Certainty refers to the situation in which there is
only one possible outcome of some decision and in which this outcome is precisely known. Risk refers to the situation in which a decision has more
than one possible outcome and the probability of each specific outcome is known or can be estimated. The maximum level of risk is uncertainty where
the result of brought decision is uncertain or even unknown. For example, the design of surface mineral operations must balance mine planning with the
principles of sustainable development of mineral sources, including the protection, environmental mitigation, restoration and ultimate post mining land
use. Sustainable development focuses on social, economic and environmental issues. In many cases, it is the public opinion that plays an overriding role
in the final success of a project. In this paper, a risk of investment is analyzed upon the example of the low temperature geothermal sources
exploitation of the geothermal potential in Croatia. A few of them have been exploited, although the percentage of utilization of their available power is
still very small. This risk in the low temperature geothermal sources can be very high, depending mostly upon their natural conditions, oil price level on
the world market, economic development and ecological integrity.
1 INTRODUCTION
The problems of risk and uncertainty in investment planning have been known for long and many researches have dedicated to this issue. Scientists’ efforts to point out
the risks they meet in the investment process are comprehensible, even during the projectplanning phase. The risks are fewer in cases of greater discrepancies
tolerated by the project. This gives a special meaning to selection of several variants of a specific project investment. The assessment of investment risk rate uses a
method of evaluating sensitivity (elasticity) of the project. It can be achieved in two ways: by static and dynamic approach. Project sensitivity evaluation by statistic
approach requires estimation of marginal discrepancy from predicted in preinvestiftent study, with the income (profit) down to zero. These factors ought to be
estimated for each year of project duration, in this case of low temperature Stirling engine. Specific characteristic of each project and significance of certain elements in
building and business activities of newly built unit determine factors that should be analyzed. Sensitivity factors indicate the highest possible change rate of all the factors
that currently do not show business losses. In order to estimate them it is necessary to select the elements and determine the limit to which these factors can change
without causing business losses (Batarelo, 1994).
During the estimation process it should presume potential change of only one element of the analyses, while the rest remain constant. Nevertheless, it often happens in
practice that more than one or even all elements change and it consequently requires an estimation of general elasticity rate. This procedure presumes the change of all
elements simultaneously by the same intensity, that is, at the same rate. This may be an offset in practice, but the estimated factor shows a correct level of project
sensitivity. This procedure is frequently used for comparison of several projects or several project variants in order to select the most favorable one, therefore this
procedure meets the demands because it points out the least sensitive project variant to potential discrepancies from the anticipated under the same terms.
2 INVESTMENT RISK ON THE EXAMPLE OF GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR “X”
Geothermal energy is used in two major forms, in its primary form as a heating source or transformed into electric energy by thermodynamic cycles, for example
Stirling’s or ClausiusRankine’s. Geothermal sources of high fluid temperatures (above 150°C) are commonly used for production of electric energy by classical
ClausiusRankine’s process. Geothermal sources of relatively lower temperature apply a binary or Stirling process (Kolin, 1983). The development of Stirling engine
with flat plate heat exchanger (StirlingKolin engine) showed that lowtemperature geothermal reservoirs could also be used in conversion of heat into mechanical work
or electric energy (Kolin, 1987). Geothermal plant using Stirling cycle has significant technical ad economic advantages comparing to classic ClausiusRankine process
because there are no evaporators, condensators, pump and other numerous appertaining machine elements. This makes it technically simpler and less intensive in
investment and costs. Therefore this study analyses technoeconomic efficiency and investment risk of applying Stirling’s plant on one geothermal field with known
reserves, existing production and reinjection wells and amount of geothermal water.
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2.1 Stirling process
In this calculation it is estimated that total investment in Stirling’s process is 30% lower than in binary process. Expenditure budget is an important part in evaluation of
investment project efficiency. Single input normative were taken into account as well as total amount of single input, unit input cost, equipment cost price, number of
workers, gross salaries and 20 years life period. Economic estimation includes only investments required for preparation of geothermal energy production. Production
from two geothermal wells can supply 1461/s of water of 135°C working temp. The basic evaluation input data are shown in Table 1. Financial expenditures include
investments, plant working costs, maintenance costs and other costs related to energy production that reduce financial result (taxes, compensations for mineral
resources use, membership fees). Economic evaluation results are shown in Table 2. With set discount rate of 10% net present value (NPV) of Stirling’s process is
positive and therefore economically acceptable.
This is also shown by Internal rate of return (IRR), relative measures of project efficiency (Golub et al., 1998). By the application of Stirling’s process a project
intern rate would be 29% that makes it economically acceptable.
2.2 Risk analysis
The investment risk is analyzed regarding marginal discrepancy (Rajkovic, 1999):
– investment costs (input expenditure)
– production costs (exploitation)
Table 1. Basic input data for geothermal reservoir “X”.
Input data Stirling’s process
Construction duration years 1
Project duration years 20
Plant power MWe 5,9
Specific investments USD/kW 1319
Net present value (NPV) % 10,00
Plant working period h/year 8000
Electric energy production MWh 47200
Employees number individuals 8
Royality (% of total income) % 2,60
Table 2. Economic evaluation results of geothermal reservoir “X”.
Basic input data Stirling process
Investments required USD 8484000
Plant power MW 5,9
Plant working period h/years 8000
Economic results
Total cash flow USD/year 3407840
Total cash flow USD/20 years 68156800
Amortization USD/year 848400
Amortization USD/20 years 16968000
Total fix costs USD/year 1116327
Total fix costs USD/20 years 22326540
Total variable costs USD/year 895530
Total variable costs USD/20 years 17910600
Gross income (profit) prior to tax settlement USD/year 1395983
Gross income (profit) prior to tax settlement USD/20 years 27919660
Average selling price of el. energy USD/kWh 0,0722
Net present value 10% USD 11299477
IRR % 29
Net present value coefficient (with 10%) 2,07
Investment return years 4,45
– selling price of produced electric energy and
– used capacity rate.
Equations 1 and 2 are results that every analyzed factor can be marginally discrepant for an amount of gross income without causing losses. In that case total cash flow
will be equal to total production expenditures, which is leveled. This is the tolerated project risk rate
UP=UT+BD
(1)
UT=VT+FT
(2)
where (in USD): UP=total cash flow; UT=total expenditure; BD=gross income (profit); FT=fix costs; VT=variable costs.
Page 717
2.2.1 Maximum acceptable increase of investment expenditure
In case of, for whatever reason, investment expenditure growth during the construction, the impact on business will be as following:
– increase of production costs related to input value, and
– increase of credit installment amount (if money required are obtained completely or partially from credit sources).
In order to determine investment growth limit to which no business losses would occur, it should estimate, according to analyses, the expenditures related to longterm
asset value and credit installment.
These costs include:
– amortization
– investment maintenance cost
– insurance premium
– interest rate from longterm asset annuity
– credit installment for longterm asset.
Following formula can show basic formulation for calculation of maximum percentage of expenditure increase in longterm asset that is the increase of construction
costs:
(3)
where BD—gross income; A=amortization; IO=investment maintenance costs; PO=insurance premiums; K=interest rate from longterm asset annuity; OZ=credit
installment for longterm asset.
For an exemplary geothermal reservoir “X” an average marginal increase of investment costs is:
That means the investment costs could be increased for 121, 17%, without causing business losses.
2.2.2 Possibility of total production costs increase
The production costs increase includes the increase of all costs presented in calculations of incomes and losses. The percentage of maximum accepted total costs
increase can be formulated:
(4)
In case of analyzed project of geothermal bed the average marginal increase of total production costs is equal to:
Total project expenditures could be increased for 69, 39%, without causing business losses.
2.2.3 Possibilities of electric energy selling prices reduction
During the business activities of newly built unit, there is a possibility of experiencing selling prices reduction for different reasons. These reasons can be numerous, but
most commonly they are consequence of competitive market race. An assumed selling price reduction of products and services leads to reduce income. It is significant
for project sensitivity evaluation to determine down to what level prices of Stirling engines could be reduced without causing losses. Percentage of maximum acceptable
selling price reduction can be determined by the use of following formula:
(5)
where UP=E×pc; E=annual production of electric energy (MWh); pc=average electric energy selling price (USD/kWh).
For geothermal reservoir “X” the selling price of produced electric energy could be reduced for 40, 96% comparing to planned price, without causing project losses.
2.2.4 Possibility ofproduction reduction and electric energy distribution
The reduction of production volume could result from different reasons, two of which are most common:
– production reduction due to decreased sale
– production reduction due to production difficulties.
The reduction of production volume usually leads to income decrease and even possible loss when production drops below certain level. The point to which planned
production can be reduced without causing losses is a point of usefulness (break even point). The level which production could be reduced to without causing losses
depends on various factors, mostly on production economy and the share of fix and variable costs in total expenditures. Various technical solutions require different
investments and have diverse expenditure structure that is reflected on breakeven point. That could be of significance at selection of the most favorable investment
variant.
For break evenpoint calculation following formula is applied:
(6)
Page 718
For geothermal reservoir “X” it is equal to:
(7)
That indicates that minimum rate of used capacity of geothermal reservoir “X”, Emin should be equal to at least 44, 43% of predicted without causing losses. The
results in:
Emin=E×TP=47200× 0,4443=20971 MWh
(8)
2.2.5 General sensitivity (risk) rate
Four previous project sensitivity indicators are frequently used in evaluation of economic liability and project risk. In cases of several variants of the same geotheimal
project or several different projects, the comparison of these indicators points the most favorable one on the grounds of economic liability. The advantage in investment
decision making should be given to the variant or project that with the same or very similar indicators has greater adjustment capacity to altered business terms, that is,
greater economic elasticity.
General elasticity rate (risk rate) can be estimate byfollowing formula:
(9)
This equation always ends in two results of which the positive one is acceptable that is between 0 and 100. Negative rate is not economically justified and the rate
above 100 is not possible because the selling price and production volume can not be reduced for more than 100%. In practice resulted rates are usually near 100. The
data needed for calculation of general elasticity rate were taken from Table 2. For geothermal reservoir “X” it is equal to 19,71%. It shows that construction and
production costs might be simultaneously increased by the same percentage as well as the reduction of selling price and production of electric energy in geothermal
reservoir, with no occurrence of business losses. If all risk elements are simultaneously changed, fix costs will be increased by the general rate due to investment costs
increase, that is:
FT1=FT×1,1971
=1116327×1,197=1336243 USD (10)
Variable costs will be once increased for the amount of general rate due to increase of total expenditures, and also once reduced for the same amount due to
production reduction, that is:
VT1=VT×1,197×0,8029
(11)
=895530×1,197×0,8029=860668 USD
Total cash flow will be reduced for the amount of general rate twice, once due to selling price reduction and once due to production reduction:
UP1,=UP×0,8029×0,8029
=3407840×0,8029×0,8029 (12)
=2196911 USD
UP1=FT1+VT1
(13)
=13362434–860668=2196911 USD
This indicates that the change of all risk elements for the amount of general rate leads to total cash flow equal to total expenditure, that is, no losses will occur.
3 CONCLUSION
Static analyses of geothermal Stirling project sensitivity indicates marginal values up to which changes of certain modules are acceptable still causing no business losses
and all obligations met. This study used an example of one geothermal reservoir. This method is adequate for comparison of several variants of one project since it
ensures the selection of the one with greater sensitivity rate that is, the one tolerating greater risk rate. Nevertheless, the project evaluation requires an estimation of
certain factors impact upon the business results.
In that case, a dynamic approach is applied with the advantage to assess period of several years even the entire project duration. Current indicator of project
profitability by dynamic approach is the Internet rate of return (IRR).
It is frequently initiated to determine the most important factor impact the project is based upon and the change of inter profitability rate. Oscillation of these values in
a way of increasing and decreasing (for example 5,10 and 15%) determines a new structure of total income, cash flow and potential calculation of IRR. These
indicators are estimated in order to compare and select the most favorable investment variant and pointing out of the most affective factors on the profitability of
geothermal Stirling project and therefore to dedicate special attention to these factors and avoid potential unpleasant surprises.
REFERENCES
Kolin, I. 1987. Geothermal Energy Exploitation by Stirling Cycle, Proc. of Alternative Energy Sources, Dubrovnik, 1987.
Kolin, I. Isothermal Stirling Cycle Engine, Dubrovnik, 1983,p. 187.
Čubrić, S. & Jelić, K. Geothermal Resource Potential of Croatia, Proc. of World Geothermal Congress, Volume 1, Florence, 1995, pp.87–91.
Page 719
Golub, M. et al. 1998. GEOEN—program of geothermal energy usage in Croatia, Energy Institute “Hrvoje Požar”, Zagreb, p.124.
Batarelo, A. et al. 1994. Upravljanje investicijama, TEBBiro za privredno savjetovanje, Zagreb, p.618.
Rajković, D. 1999. Economic Aspect of Using Stirling Engine for Moderate Geothermal Sources in Croatia, Proc. of 9th International Stirling Engine Conference,
245–253.
Layard, R. & Glaister, S. 1999. CostBenefit Analysis: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
A decision making model for lignite deposits exploitability
C.Roumpos & N.Akylas
Public Power Corporation S.A, Athens, Greece
N.Terezopoulos
National Technical University of Athens, Greece
ABSTRACT: The particular features of each ore deposit (location, geometry, quantity and quality characteristics, geology, hydrology) make each
mining project unique at technical and, consequently, at financial aspect. Nevertheless, the technical peculiarities diversify also the environmental
impacts that, combined with the broader market and competition, pose additional financial risks in the mining investments and, as a result, affect their
viability.
The development of an integrated decision making model for a lignite deposit exploitability for the generation of electricity is the subject of this
paper. The evaluation criterion, that constitutes the objective function, includes quantifiable parameters of the deposit and the mine characteristics as
well as exogenous parameters concerning the environment, the market and the main competitors.
The main decision making model is connected to the sub models factors of (a) deposit—mining characteristics, (b) environmental and socio
economic parameters, (c) competition and (d) market. In order to incorporate the interdependency of the evaluation parameters into the model, a
system approach was adopted.
1 INTRODUCTION
Lignite is the only major domestic fuel of Greece and has been extensively used for power generation. Today lignite exploitation in Greece is done in openpit mines
operated mainly by the Greek Public Power Corporation (PPC) S.A., applying the terrace mining method. This method combines the use of bucket wheel excavators
(BWE) for excavations, belt conveyors for transportation, and spreaders for dumping (Terezopoulos (2001)).
Lignite mining enterprises entail the development of both multidisciplinary and longterm projects. Although each project is a unique entity because of differences in
technical characteristics, for the analysis an open pit mine project can be divided into mining life cycle phases (Ward (1990), MMSD (2002), Roumpos & Spanidis
(2003), Roumpos & Vlachou ( 2003)) as they are typically illustrated in Figure 1.
As far as the decision making process about the investment in a lignite deposit exploitation is concerned, the model should incorporate all factors that
Figure 1. Life cycle phases of an openpit lignite mine (Roumpos & Vlachou (2003)).
can affect project viability (Vale (1998), Bardouille & Koubsky (2000), O’Regan & Moles (2003), Roumpos & Vlachou (2003)). This paper develops a general
model of lignite deposit exploitability.
Page 722
2 EXPLOITABILITY MODEL
2.1 Definition of deposit exploitability
As a general defmition, a mining deposit is exploitable if the investment in its exploitation can be profitable. Therefore, the deposit exploitability is connected with the
value of the mine that will be developed. The conventional economic criteria of evaluation mainly take into consideration the deposit characteristics and the selling price
of the product, without incorporating the dynamics of the system. As an evaluation measure of the deposit exploitability, the Net present Value of project cash flows
(ObjectiveFunction) is proposed. Mine exploitation and the power plant operation are combined and assumed as one project. Figure 2 presents the system boundaries
and Figure 3 illustrates the cash flow model of the project.
2.2 Decision making models
The classical model for the profitability of mine exploitation is expressed by the equation:
P=(p−c)∙r
where P is the net profit
p the selling price per tone
c the operating cost per tone
and r the total tons of mineable deposit reserves.
In this model the exploitability expressed by the net profit of exploitation depends on the selling price (exogenous parameter), on the deposit reserves and the
operating cost (minedeposit parameters).
Figure 2. Main components of an openpit lignite mine and power plant system.
Figure 3. Cashflow model of the mine.
Page 723
Special models, for a first decisionmaking approach, combines some critical parameters like reserve grade and tonnage or, especially for lignite prqjects, the waste
to lignite ratio and the lower calorific value of the lignite.
Monte Carlo simulation and the modern approach of real options are valuation techniques dealing with the project uncertainty (Dixit & Pindyck (1994), Armstrong
& Galli (1997), Dimitrakopoulos (2000)).
2.3 The proposed model
The decision making process is performed by formulating a model which includes the following elements:
a) The model parameters
b) Cash flow model
c) Objective function (evaluation criterion)
The parameters of the four factors of the model that affect the mineral deposit exploitability (Fig. 4) are the following:
Depositmining parameters: Reserves, quality characteristics, production rate, deposit geometry, geological and geomechanical characteristics, deposit location.
Environmental parameters: impacts from the mining and from the power plant, environmental legislation, social acceptance of the project.
Competition parameters: alternative energy sources availability and production cost, supplydemand model.
Market parameters: energy demand, technology, energy policy.
From the abovementioned parameters of the four factors that affect the cash flows of the project, the
Figure 4. The factors of the exploitability model and their interaction.
following quantified parameters of the model are calculated:
Capacity of the power plant [P (MW)] that depends on the tonnage (reserves), operating hours of the power plant [T(h/y)], investment cost (mine [I1 (€)]+power
plant [I2 (€)]), lower calorific value [H (kcal/kg)], operating mining cost [cm (€/t)]=f (mining ratio, water pumping, excavations with conventional equipment), power
plant efficiency [n (%)], production cost in power plant [cp (€/kWh)], environmental cost [ce (€/t)], construction time [k (y)], depreciations time: [m (y)] for mine and N
(y) for power plant=project lifetime, selling price of electricity [p (€/kWh)], discount rate [ε (%)], tax rate [t (%)]. The royalties can be incorporated into the mining
operating cost.
The values of the parameters are derived by applying the optimum mining exploitation strategy, and maximizing the present value of the project cash flows. In the
optimisation process a wide variety of aspects inherent in any mining development decisionmaking problem should be considered in an interdisciplinary approach.
2.4 Model equations and analysis
The cash flows, in the static model with single estimations of the parameters (assuming that the parameters remain constant through time), are as follows:
(1)
and
(2)
The objective function (value in €) is calculated in the following equation (3):
(3)
where f(k, ε) and g(N, ε) the discount factors of a single amount and uniform series amount that are defmed in the equations (4) and (5):
(4)
Page 724
Figure 5. Relationship between operating cost and mining ratio.
(5)
Normally, the mining production cost is a linear fimction of mining ratios (waste/lignite).
The regression analysis, applying for the mines of the lignite center of West Macedonia, Greece, for the year 2002, shows that there is linear relationship of the
operating cost Cm (€/t) and the mining ratios [waste to lignite (m3/t)] as it is shown in Figure 5. From the analysis the following equation is derived:
Cm=2.27355+0.831284*s
(6)
with the following regression analysis indices:
Correlation Coefficient=0,895203
Rsquared=80,1388 percent
Rsquared (adjusted for d.f.)=73,5184 percent
Similar results can be derived, by applying regression analysis for other years.
This result can also be derived theoretically.
So, for the theoretical analysis and without loss of generality, the following equation is used:
Cm=α∙S +b
(7)
In the sensitivity analysis of one parameter: Z=f1(s), the objective function (Z), written as a function of mining ratio (s), has the linear form of equation 8.
Z=α1−α2 ∙ s
(8)
where α1 and α2 are ftmctions of the other parameters of the model.
For the typical case of P=300 MW, and T=5860 h/y, the following first order expression is obtained (equation 9):
(9)
where A is constant.
Figure 6. Relationship between exploitability and mining ratio.
Figure 6 illustrates the impact of mining ratio on the exploitability of the lignite deposit.
Also, in the one parameter sensitivity analysis: Z=f2 (H), the objective function (Z), written as a function of the lower calorific value (H), has the form of equation 10.
(10)
where α3 and α4 are functions of the other parameters of the model.
From the first and the second order derivatives, theexpressions of equations 11 and 12 are obtained:
(11)
(12)
Figure 7 depicts the influence of the lower calorific value of the lignite deposit in the deposit exploitability.
From the analysis is concluded that the mining ratio has more significant impact in the exploitability of the deposit than the calorific value.
In order to examine the deposit exploitability as a function of the two main depositmining parameters, the mining ratio and the lower calorific value, Z=f3(s, H), from
the condition Z≥0 the inequality 13 is derived, defming the combinations of s and H that result in exploitable lignite deposits.
(13)
Page 725
Figure 7. Relationship between exploitability and lower calorific value.
Figure 8. Exploitability areas as combinations of mining ratio and lower caloriflc value.
Figure 8 depicts those combinations, defining two areas, for exploitable and not exploitable deposits, with a linear borderline, as it is known by empirical analysis.
2.5 Comparison with an alternative fuel
In an oligopolistic competition that is expected after the deregulation in the electricity generation market, the deposit exploitability should be examined taking into
account the value of the alternative fuels projects as well as the fuels competition.
The first approach is to compare the value of the lignite deposit to the value of an electricity generation project using natural gas, which is the lignite main competitor.
The model parameters of the electricity generation project using natural gas are:
Capacity of the power plant [Pα (MW)], operating hours of the power plant [Tα (h/y)J, Investment cost for the power plant construction [Iα (€)], Lower Caloriflc
Value[Hα (kcal/m3)], production cost in power plant [cpα, (€/kWh)], Environmental cost [ceα (€/t)], ftiel cost [cf (€/m3)], Construction time [k (y)], depreciations time
[N (y)]=project lifetime, selling price of electricity [pα (€/kWh)], power plant efficiency [n (%)], discount rate [ε (%)], tax rate [t (%)].
Annual cash flows:
(14)
Objective function of the project value (€):
The static model for the comparison of the two fuels is based on the difference between the two objective value functions: (Z−Zα).
Apart from the lignite depositmining parameters, critical parameters that affect the value of (Z−Zα) are the natural gas cost (fuel cost) Cf, and the environmental cost
of the two fuels (ce and cea).
If the environmental externalities of the lignite project are incorporated into the environmental cost ce, then the exploitability of the lignite deposit decreases.
Figure 9 illustrates the impact of the natural gas cost cf and the environmental cost ce on the value of (Z−Zα).
According to mining parameters (I1, H, s) and to power plant parameters (I2, n) the changes that lead to increase of the function Z, lead also to the increase of the
difference (Z−Zα).
For a detailed analysis, the dynamic character of the mine exploitation should be taken into account. The mine cost fluctuations through time as well as the variations
of the other parameters should be incorporated in a stochastic decision making model. That model will be based on the equations described
Page 726
Figure 9. Impact of the natural gas cost Cf and of the environmental cost Ce on the value of (Z−Zα).
above. The equations can be also used for the fiirther analysis of the fuels competition in quantity or in prices adopting a game theory approach.
It is important to note that the optimal mining strategy should be applied in all stages of mine exploitation, as they are depicted in Figure 1, considering the life cycle of
the lignite mining project and developing a policy for the postclosure phase as well as for the byproducts utilisation.
The model, which was developed in the case of one mine and the associated power plant with it, could be extended to cover the exploitation of a system of openpit
lignite mines and thermal power plants applying operations research techniques.
3 CONCLUSIONS
The planning of a lignite mine development in a certain area must be based on an integrated assessment of technical, ecological, environmental, economic, and social
impacts, in a multidimensional decision making procedure.
The decision making model for lignite deposits exploitability, which was developed, incorporates all factors that affect the cash flows of the project in an integrated
approach. The model could be extended to formulate a stochastic model as well as to cover the exploitation of a system of openpit lignite mines and thermal power
plants, using dynamic programming.
From the analysis above can be concluded that, between the two main lignite depositmining parameters, the mining ratio and the lower calorific value, the former
parameter has more significant impact in the exploitability of the deposit than the latter.
In comparison with natural gas, the main competitor of lignite deposits in the deregulated electricity generation market, apart from the lignite depositmining
parameters, critical parameters that affect the objective function for the selection between the two fuels are the natural gas cost (fuel cost), and the environmental
externalities of the two fiiels.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors kindly acknowledge the support of Public Power Corporation S.A. of Greece for the preparation of this paper.
Note: The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of Public Power Corporation S.A. of Greece.
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Page 727
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Strategy and swot analysis of humancentered mine garden
ZH.H.Yang, H.Li, X.ZH.Wang, D.ZH.Ma & J.X.He
translated by: CH.F.Zhao
Xi’an Univ. of Arch. & Tech., Xi’an, ShaanXi, China
ABSTRACT: The exploitation and utilization of mineral resources will inevitably bring considerable impact on the ecological environment in the mining
zone. In order to acquire the maximum economical benefit and to impose the minimum negative impact on ecological environment, this paper proposes
the concept of HumanCentered Mine Garden (HCMG). Such activities in the HCMG as the exploitation and utilization of mineral resources,
management of safe production and the improvement of ecological environment should all be humancentered to ensure the safe, clean and harmless
production. It also puts forward the strategy in HCMG, and probes into the following issues:—the strategy in HCMG;—the key to the strategy in
HCMG;—the index system of HCMG;—the SWOT (Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis of HCMG.
1 INTRODUCTION
Aside from the abundant wealth, the exploitation and utilization of mineral resources will inevitably bring along a series of problems, including the deterioration of the
ecological environment and of the security environment in the mining zones.
(1) The impact on the ecological environment: The exploitation of mineral resources leaves more and more solid wastes (Three major kinds of solid wastes are: the
stripped covering of the land or rock, separated waste materials and the materials in the tailings), which occupies large areas of land or even farmland, destroys the
landform and vegetation, and affects the atmosphere and ecological environment within the mineral zone.
(2) The impact on the security environment: The expansion of the mineral enterprise and its management result in more and more complicated behavior relations, among
which, the security problems not only greatly restrict the development of the mine industry, but also seriously threaten the lives of the staff engaged in the practice.
Based on the above facts, this paper proposes the concept of HCMG, which is to revolutionize the existing notions of security and environmental protection. The
emphasis of the environmental protection is traditionally put on the control of pollution, the standardizing of discharges, and the improving of emission in tailings; the
emphasis of the security keeping is traditionally put on the reduction of accident rate and of hazard, and the protection of the workers’ health. HCMG, however, being
humancentered, stresses the safety nature of the production technology, aims at forming a closedcircuit circulation of materials within the industry system through
developing a horizontal coexisting relationship between different production lines and different trades, and eventually ensures the socalled safe, clean and harmless
production. HCMG, by applying the allround precaution strategy in the production process, increases the economic and ecological benefits, decreases the risk of
human beings and environment, and enhances the overall riskresistance capacity of the enterprises.
2 STRATEGY IN HCMG
The exploitation and utilization of mineral resources is an advanced and complicated macroproduction system, which is mingled with many other factors, such as the
mineral resources, the size andthe facilities of the mine enterprises, and the staff engaged, so it is likely to change with the exterior environment. This system is a
transforming mechanism that has an explicit target: to transform the input resources (raw materials, materials, facilities, power, human resources, and funds etc.) into the
expected products (mineral stone products) with the optimal match and the highest efficiency. But at the same time, this same production system is characterized by the
shifting of working sites, the variability of working conditions, and the nonsuccessiveness of the production process
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and the strenuousness of the labor etc. Therefore, according to the different standard and the different types of HCMG can be designed and constructed, namely,
“WN”, “UG” and “V” HCMG.
(1) WholeNew HCMG (WN HCMG) refers to the HCMG planned and constructed with high standard and strict specifications for newly opened mineral
enterprises. It stresses the circulation of the mineral stone, materials, wastes, poisonous materials, water, and the recycling of such matters as biological producers
(green plants, photosynthetic germs, and chemical energy germs), biological consumers (animals that consume grass, flesh and sundries, etc.), biological restores
(microorganism) and nonbiological environment (solar energy, climate, dielectric, soil, water and air). The elaborate designing of the mining zone and the application
of cleanproduction technology could help achieve the aim of zero discharge and therefore make a green mining zone, namely, a safe and environmentfriendly
mining zone.
(2) UpGraded HCMG (UG HCMG) refers to the mining enterprises, which has been reconstructed, expanded and upgraded with the new standard and new
specifications of HCMG. In order to upgrade and transform the existing mining zones with the least investment, the planners, considering the characteristics of each
mining enterprise, can analyze the chain of the material recycling and the system of energy exchange, try to spot the mutation point, devise the “adhesive” technology
and scheme to form highly intersecting “industry lines” and “industry chains” in the mining zones. This is particularly inspiring for the construction of industrial zones in
the development of the west in China.
(3) Virtual HCMG (V) mainly bases on the existing mineral enterprises as well, only that they are reconstructed with the new standard and new specifications and that
they might not be in one real mine garden. As long as the enterprises are arranged and operated with a humancentered concept, they are not necessarily located in
one area or in several adjacent areas. Therefore V HCMG is a flexible type of HCMG which helps save the high cost on land, which is indispensable to the
construction of a new mine garden, and avoid the moving of the existing enterprises.
3 KEY TO THE STRATEGY IN HCMG
3.1 Management strategy in HCMG
Management features: the theory, system, value and science of management in the mine garden.
Group features: the structure, the task, the principle and the team spirit of the group in the mine garden.
Industrial features: the industrial differences, needs, motives, experiences, and the reinforcing factors in the mine garden.
Organization features: the structure, the responsibility levels, the culture and the art of organization in the mine garden.
Behavior features: the productivity, degree of satisfaction, rate of absence and the rate of mobility of the staff in the mine garden.
3.2 Group strategy in HCMG
Cultivated staff focuses on the staff s common belief and behavior.
Humancenteredness refers to the recognition of the individual difference, the value and the pursuit of each individual.
Relations between the enterprise and the staff shifts from employerandemployee to contractbound parties and eventually to mutually benefiting parties.
3.3 Talent strategy in HCMG
Talent strategy in HCMG involves the following: qualified managers, qualified technicians, qualified labors, qualified techniciansmanagers, qualified managerslabors,
qualified technicianslabors, qualified scientiststechnicians managers and labors. Functional relations of talent in HCMG are shown in Figure 1.
Functional relations of the talent in HCMG focus on the analysis of input, object, output, basis and methods, as shown in Table 1.
4 INDEX SYSTEM OF HCMG
The construction of HCMG should be in accordance with the specific condition and with the fundamental principles and methods. What’s more, it should help to
restore and to make use of the ecological resources to its maximum extent. As a matter of fact, to utilize, and to demonstrate the particular ecological characteristics of
the mineral zone is the key to the setting of the index system of HCMG, which majorly involves the following factors:
(1) Safeproduction factors: including safe production of plants, of animals, of microorganisms, of nonbiology conditions, of the mineral deposit (mining, mineral
separation, intensive processing of the product and waste disposal) and of economy.
(2) Environment factors: the covering tare of vegetation (trees and lawns), the covering rate of public
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Figure 1. Functional relations of the talent in HCMG.
Table 1. Analysis of the talent in HCMG.
areas, the rate of green space, the rate of blue space (achieved by purifying air, reducing coalburning using natural gas and solar energy), and the ecologically
recovering function of the construction land.
(3) Resources factors: the utilization rate of the mineral resources and of the recyclable resources, the collection rate and utilization rate of rain, the standardization rate
of the drainage, an overall reduction of resource consumption, the 3R rate (Reduce, Reuse and Return) of materials, classification rate and processing rate of the
three kinds of solid wastes.
(4) Economy factors: Gross Natural Production (GNP), the fimding, the cost of and the benefit from the mine garden, the compensation of mineral resources and
ecological resources.
(5) Ecological function factors: the quality of the air, the average velocity of the air flow; the density of all the volatile organic mixtures, of carbon dioxide, and of the
suspended particles; measures taken to illuminate the road, to reduce indoor noises, and to insulate noises, the quality of the water in the surface of the mineral
garden.
(6) Ecological service and environmental protection factors: a water supply system which provides
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Table 2. SWOT matrix of HCMG.
Strengths Weakness
SWOT matrix Abundant and highquality mineral resources; Lack of staffs, and backward notion of management;
Preferential industrial policies; Small scale of production;
Favorable financial and monetary policies; High production cost;
Weak in development and research;
Decisionmaking power of foreign trade and direct Narrowmined concept of talent deployment;
foreign trade; High funding risk in and lack of cash.
Large number of highly qualified technicians;
Lowcost labors.
Opportunities S.O. strategies W.O. strategies
Good opportunities of Setting up a mine garden, Setting up a mine garden, cooperating with foreign
Westerndevelopment; forming large conglomerates, companies, introducing oversea technology, fund and
advanced management experiences (O1, O2, O4, O5, W1,
Rapidgrowing domestic enlarging scale of production, seizing the domestic and international markets (S1,
and foreign markets; W2, W3, W5, W6, W7,).
S2, S3, S5, S6, O1, O2, O3, O5, O6).
Increased investment in the
West;
Favorable related national
policies;
Strengthened
competitiveness in
international market;
Political conditions and
need for war in other
nations;
Threats S.T. strategies W.T. strategies
High demand on ecological Setting up a mine garden, strengthening management of ecological environment Setting up a mine garden, synthetically utilizing resources,
environment and safe and safe production, taking advantage of the preponderance of resources, developing new products and intensiveprocessing
production; reducing production costs, heightening the riskresistance capacity of companies products, lowering risks of enterprises W1, W2, T1, T2, T3,
High pressure from (S1, S2, S3, S5, T1, T4, T5, T6). T4).
competitions;
The emergence of new
domestic
competitor;
Low price in foreign
nations;
Enlarged amount of
imported ores from foreign
nations;
Advanced technology and
facilities etc. in foreign
countries.
water of graded quality, the quality of water supply and power supply (the supply of the burning coal, burning gas, electricity and solar energy), information channels
(television, telephone and internet) and the percentage of healthcare doctors and psychological advisors.
5 SWOT ANALYSIS OF HCMG
In order to achieve the optional match of the internal and external environment, and to devise the most feasible strategy of HCMG, the planners of HCMG are
expected to conduct a SWOT (Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis of such strategic issues as national policies, mineral deposit, ecological
environment, conditions at home and abroad, economic analysis and function of the talent. Table 2 is a SWOT matrix of HCMG.
Based on the above SWOT analysis, we conclude that HCMG is highly practical; it is the S.O. strategies, W.O. strategies, S.T. strategies and W.T. strategies.
6 CONCLUSIONS
(1) In order to achieve the sustainable development of mineral resources, we must comprehensively consider the exploitation and utilization of mineral resources, the
management of safe production and the improvement of ecological environment. Namely, to ensure the mine enterprise the maximum industrial and ecological
benefits, setting up HCMG is necessary in that the production in HCMG is humancentered (safe, clean and harmless) and that it can help achieve the optimal effect
in both exploitation of natural resources and protection of ecological environment.
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(2) In order to devise the best plan of the HCMG, we must take into consideration the following:
– Development: The HCMG is constructed not only to meet the present demand for material, but also to make sustainable development possible.
– Coordinatability: The development of safe production, of ecological environment and of social economy must be coordinated and restricted within the loads of
resources and environment.
– Sustainability: The allocation of resources and the protection of ecological environment should be properly done for the sake of longterm interest.
(3) In order to achieve the most of both national and local benefit and to fulfill the demands of both domestic and international markets, we should speed up the
construction of HCMG, increase the investment into the advancement of technology, try to employ new techniques in reducing not only the consumption of mineral
resources and the production cost, but also the index of environmental pollution, and develop highaddedvalue products to elevate the competitiveness and risk
resistance capacity. That is to say, we should try our utmost to adjust the equipment, the technology capacity, management capacity, and environmentprotection
capacity of the mine gardens, so that they could comply with the sustainable development strategy.
(4) The humancentered ecological management of the garden, of the enterprises and of the products helps to establish the new pattern of economic development:
mineral resourcesproducts and environmentthe reuse of recycled resources. This could eventually push the standardization of the internationally accepted concept
on OSHMS (Occupational Safety and Health Management Series), and would speed up the human pursuit of safety, health and peace.
REFERENCES
Song, R.X. 2002. Ecological revolution and suitable development. Beijing: The People’s Daily Press. 42~52.
The Chinese academy of sciences. 2002. The sciencedevelopment report: Science Press.
Yang, Z.H. et al. 2002. Study on sustainable development of gold resources in Shaanxi Province. Metal Mine 7:3–6.
Yang, Z.H. 2002.Study on gold reservation resources mining. GbW23(7): 7–10.
Yang, Z.H. et al. 2000. Analysis and counter measures on sustainable development of molybdenum mineral resources in China. China Molybdenum Industry 24(1):15–
17.
Pearce, Turner. 1990. Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment. Harvester Wheat sheaf, Herefordshire, England, 24~28.
Financing Cleaner Production Programs: An Extensive Page of links. http://www.cleaner production.com/finance.htm
TERI Rural and Renewable Energy: Perspectives From Developing countries. http://www.teriin.org/pub/books/ rre.htm
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Sustainable development and environmental protection through coal bed methane
drainage in India
A.K.Agarwal
Head, Mining Engineering Dept R.K.N.E.C., Nagpur, India
ABSTRACT: World attention has recently started shifting towards methane, which can be exploited from the coal bed. Coal mining accounts for an
estimated 10% of all methane emissions. Methane, a potent Green House gas (GHG) is released into the atmosphere during and after mining of coal,
contributing to climatic changes. Technologies are now available to recover methane trapped in coal seams by drilling prior to and after coal mining.
Coal bed methane drainage will not only meet our energy demand but at the same time damage to the environment specially in the form of Global
warming due to emission of methane gas will also be reduced.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the last two decades, a worldwide consensus has been reached that the general objectives of mine planning should be management of the environment and its
resources in such a way that present needs are met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The major driving force for creating
the need of environmental management has been the growth of population and industries.
At the dawn of the 21st century, world was populated with nearly 6 billion people. According to the current projections of the Census Bureau, world population will
increase to nearly 8 billion people by the end of the next quarter century, and will reach 9.3 billion people—a number more than half as large as today’s total—by 2050
A.D.
World attention has recently started shifting towards methane, which can be exploited from the coal bed. As per an estimate, for every ton of coal produced, 3 m3 to
8.5 m3of methane is being released into the atmosphere. Methane contribution in global warming is 18%, making it the second most significant green house gas after
carbon dioxide (66%), followed by CFC (11%) and Nitrous Oxide (5%). Coal mining accounts for an estimated 10% of all methane emissions.
Methane, a potent Green House gas (GHG) is released into the atmosphere during and after mining of coal, contributing to climatic changes. The effects of air
pollution due to GHGs have recently sparked a new wave of consciousness from the international arena. Climatic change is one of the most notable effects that are
being felt today. The impact of climate change could have farreaching and unpredictable environment, social and economic consequences. Indeed the climate change
problem and the related changes it may bring about are among the most serious of the environmental issues that we face today. Technologies are now available to
recover methane trapped in coal seams by drilling prior to and after coal mining.
2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN MINING
For conservation and scientific development of mineral deposits Mineral Conservation and Development rules (1955) provide the directives and control for all minerals
(except coal and oil). Proper and computerized assessment of a mineral deposit, an optimal blending scheme by computerized technique and a rational method of
extraction is the need of the day for conserving the mineral resources.
When mineral resources are considered as nonrenewable and mining is damaging the environment, then sustainable development means the use of the minerals in
such an intelligent method that the limited resources may last for a longer period of time and also environment damage can be brought under control. Hence, sustainable
development can be achieved if mining activity keeps in mind firstly “Resource Management” andsecondly “Environmental Impact”.
The resource management involves the rate and nature of mineral exploration and national policy.
Page 736
While framing the national policy for mineral conservation, long term perspective of the country must be kept in mind for overall development of the nation.
Almost allmining operations cause environmental damage. The challenge is how to minimize and manage the effects of ecological damage. Without this sustainable
development is not possible. To achieve all these objectives some of Indian mines also started taking initiatives. One of the major step in this direction is the exploitation
of coal bed methane from the coal fields. This will not only reduce the coal consumption for thermal power generation but at the same time will also reduce the damage
to the environment due to methane, responsible for global warming.
3 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Coal mining accounts for an estimated 10% of all human related methane emissions. Methane, a potent green house gas is released into the atmosphere during and after
mining of coal, contributing to green house effect. Green house effect is the warming of the lower atmosphere and surface of the Earth by a complex process involving
sunlight, gases and particles in the atmosphere. When the long wave length radiations reflected from the land and seas strike certain gases in the atmosphere, these
gases absorb the radiation. As a result the atmosphere gets heated. Sending out infrared rays of their own then cooling them. Some of the infra red rays go into the
space. The remainder are radiated back towards the earth’s surface, adding to the warming of the surface layer of the air. This is called the natural green house effect.
Without this the average temperature of the earth’s surface would be about 59°F lower than what it is now.
The equilibrium of natural green house effect is disturbed if the composition of the gases in the Earth’s atmosphere changes as every gas exerts different effect on this
equilibrium. The Global warming potential can be defined as “the relative strength of individual green house gas with respect to its impact on global warming”. Global
Warming Potentials (GWP) take into account the different life times and abilities of various gasses to absorb radiation. As per an estimate, the GWP of methane is 62
times higher than CO2.
Since the early to mid 1800 the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased by about 25% and the methane concentration has risen by about 150%. Most of
the methane percentage increase has been due to burning of fossil fuels (Such as coal, oil and natural gas) and also due to coal mining. As per an estimate, for every ton
of coal produced, 3 m3 to 8.5 m3 of methane is being released into the atmosphere. Methane contribution in global warming is 18%, making it the second most
significant green house gas after carbon dioxide (66%), followed by CFC (11%) and Nitrous Oxide (5%).
The intergovernmental panel on climatic change (IPCC) estimates that the earth’s atmosphere will warm by as much as 5.8 degree Celsius over the coming century,
a rate unmatched over the past 10,000 years. The panel’s “best estimate” scenario projects a sea level rise of about half a meter by 2100. Climate will have a serious
impact building increased storms, flooding and soil erosion, accelerated extinction of plants and animals, shifting agricultural zones and a threat to public health due to
increased water stress and tropical disease. These conditions could increase environmental refugees and international economic migration.
However the damage to the environment can be reduced substantially by utilizing the coal bed methane, an important fiiel gas, other wise liberated to the atmosphere.
4 CBM PRODUCTION POTENTIAL ININDIA
In India, the Reliance Gas has carried out comprehensive geologic assessment of coal/lignite basins based on which about 20,000 km2 of area has been identified as
prospective for CBM with estimated in place resource of about 2000 billion cubic meters. The recoverable reserve of about 800 billion cubic meters and gas
production potential of about 105 million meter cum per day over a period of 20 years has been estimated. CBM potential is thus about 1.5 times the present natural
gas production in India, which is capable of generating about 19,000 MW of electricity. The potential of gas production in India is given in Table 1.
5 STATUS OF COAL BED METHANE DRAINAGE IN INDIA
The existence of gas in coal has been known for many decades. It is only in the last decade and a half that this gas has emerged as a viable energy source with coal as
both source and reservoir rocks. In USA, the CBM exploration was first initiated and an energy resource has also been recognized. By 1995, USA has produced
about 2.5 Bcfd (billion cubic feet per day) of CBM from 9000 wells, which is about 5 percent of the total gas consumption of USA. In CBM exploration, China is
emerging as a major player and Australia is on the threshold of commercial production.
Page 737
Table 1. CBM production potential in India.
Methane emission from coal mining depends on the mining methods, depth of coal mining, coal quality and entrapped gas content in coal seams. An estimate of
methane gas emission per tonne of coal production is given in Table 2.
The awareness of Methane drainage came to India in Nineties after Economic Liberalization Policy in India which attracted several international and national
companies to undertake initiatives for exploration of Coal bed methane. As per a rough estimate, coal bed methane availability in India is about 850 billion m3.
The Government of India has signed two contracts for exploration and production of coal Bed Methane with Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) and Coal
India Limited (CIL). The total investment in exploration will be in the range of Rs. 250 crore.
Coal India has undertaken a project for coal bed methane with the assistance from United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and General Environment Fund
with the primary objective to demonstrate the project so as to provide the latest technology, expertise and experience.
The Project is under implementation by Ministry of Coal, at Sudamdih and Moonidih Projects of Bharat Coaking Coal Limited (BCCL), Dhanbad, Jahrkhand,
CMPDIL, Ranchi is the main implementing agency with BCCL Dhanbad as the coimplementing agency.
Besides capacity building for CBM recovery in the country, the prqject shall demonstrate CBM
Table 2. Estimate of methane emission in coal mining.
CH4 emission (cubic meter/tonne)
exploration including reservoir modeling. CBM recovery from underground long holes, CBM recovery from surface vertical holes with cementation and hydro
fracturing techniques. Recovery of CBM shall also be demonstrated from worked longwall panels thorough gob holes. The project shall also demonstrate utilization of
CBM by generating on site power and compressing CBM and bottling the same for use in vehicles/domestic sector.
6 CONCLUSION
No development activity that severely depletes our natural resources or degrades our environment can ultimately benefit the people. It does not mean that we should
stop mining activity because it depletes our natural recourses and degrade the environment.
Mineral resources are non renewable and mining causes damage to environment. Mining activity, though absolutely necessary for industrial growth and prosperity,
should as far as possible to kept at low pace. Conservation of coal can be achieved by coal bed methane drainage.
Coal bed methane drainage will not only meet our energy demand but at the same time damage to the environment specially in the form of Global warming due to
emission of methane gas will also be reduced. As the green house effect leads to Global Warming, it becomes the moral duty of mine planners to take adequate steps to
protect the environment by way of utilizing the methane in place of discharging it into the atmosphere.
REFERENCES
Environmental Management: Present Status—Future Directions. Industrial Safety Chronicle, National Safety Council, 2002, Mumbai JanMar.
Paithankar, A.G. and Agarwal, A.K. (1999). “Sustainable Development in Mining” Proceedings of All India Conference on Technology for Sustainable Development. I.E.
(I), Nagpur.
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Jethwa, J.L. 2000. “Sustainable Development of India and Coal Sector” Int. Proc. Geo environmental Reclamation. Nagpur (India).
Sachdev, R.K. 1995. “Environmental Issues in Coal Mining in India” WOMEC, New Delhi (India).
Paithankar, A.G. 2000. “Are We Heading for Water Wars in the Near Future Because of Population Explosion” Int. Proc. Geo environmental Reclamation. Nagpur, India.
Paithankar, A.G. and Agarwal, A.K. 1999. “Sustainable Development in Mining” Proceedings of All India Conference on Technology for Sustainable Development. I.E.
(I), Nagpur.
Singh, A.K. 2002. “Technological, Environmental, Legal and Regulatory Issues for Recovery of Coal Bed Methane in India”. Proceedings of all India Seminar on Policies,
Status and Legislation in Small and Medium Mines’ POSTALE 2002. Central Mining Research Institute, Dhanbad, India.
Prasad, S.D. & Rai, B. 2000. “Coal Bed Methane harnessing An Environmental Risk for a fiiel source”. International Conference on Geo environmental Reclamation,
Nagpur (India).
Gautam, N.N. 2002. “Exploration and exploitation of coal bed methane—Indian Prospects”. Journal of Mines, Metals & Fuels, JulyAugust, 2002, Calcutta (India).
Kothari, D.P. 1999. “Importance of Renewable Energy Sources for Sustainable Development, Environmental Protection and Poverty Alleviation” Proceedings of all India
Conference on Technology for Sustainable Development Lifeline 2001. IE (I), Nagpur.
Agarwal, A.K. and Jha, P.K. 2002. “Coal Bed Methane: An Environment Friendly Fuel”. Proceedings of All India Seminar on Recent Trends in Automotive Fuels: Quality
Improvements and Alternatives AUFUEL—2002. Institution Of Engineers (India), Nagpur.
Climate change and EMS. http://eem.ca/english/isol4001/ climate/
“Environmental Management: Present Status—Future Directions”. Industrial Safety Chronicle, Jan.Mar., 2002.
Global warming and the Green House effect. http:// www.iol.ie/foeeire/greenhouseeffect.htm
The Greenhouse effect, targets and Kyoto information for coal industry Unionisls. http://www.cfmeu.asn.au/ mining/energy/policy/greenhou.htm
Page 739
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Method of managing the environment
M.A.Aisautov
Complex Processing of Mineral Raw Materials, National Center, The Republic of Kazakhstan,
Almaty, Kazakhstan
A.M.Aisautov
Kazakh National Technical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: Miningmetallurgical branch causes lots of pollution in the Republic of Kazakhstan. As a result, enormous flows of energy and raw
materials are polluted and useless. The use of the natural resources goes on according to a balance of material and energy at every stage of the
process. By making the balance for every stage of the process we can identify the distribution of the pollution. Our recent technologies are oriented to
maximum enterprise’s profit without taking into account the opportunities to minimize pollution inside every stage of the technologies. We cannot
accept this approach as a model for managing the environment. Our task to create an effective method for assessing different flow sheets, schemes,
equipment and so on according to the specific index. This index must include the price of the product at every stage, all costs of the product, and
ecological payments. Therefore, we developed the method of optimization within every stage of technology.
1 INTRODUCTION
Geological characteristics of deposits in the Republic of Kazakhstan are getting worse. The content of metals has decreased to 50% for the last 20 years; the share of
difficult for concentration ores has increased from 15 to 45–50%. We have to mine 3 tons of stripping per 1 ton of zinclead ore, 100 tons are prepared to produce 1
ton of copper. Every ton of produced copper causes the emission of several tons of sulfur and 60 kg of arsenicbearing gases. As a result, nonferrous metallurgy
branch throws away over 1, 2 million tons of dusts and pollutant gases annually. The existent models of the environment management do not realize the conception of
the pollution elimination at source, which is accepted in many countries. Generally, our models deal with wastes (consequences) but do not overcome pollution. Poor
ecological efficiency of many enterprises in the Republic of Kazakhstan is caused by their concerning with only technological and economical aspects. It has resulted in
increasing pollution, for example, nonferrous metallurgy enterprises produce annually over 200 million tons of different wastes. It has been estimated that total amount of
accumulated solid wastes in the Republic of Kazakhstan is about 21 billion tons. That is why our goal is to develop a criterion for evaluating the existent and future
technologies and techniques, which includes economic, technological and ecological indicators.
2 DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERION TO ASSESS THE ECOLOGICAL DAMAGE
A miningmetallurgy enterprise is complex and comprises many different operations (stages). The ecological damage caused by the enterprises of miningmetallurgy
branch consists of the sum of every stage’s payments. So, it is determined by the process flow sheet and proper distribution of weights of valuable and harmful
components. Every processing stage makes the profit and the ecological damage. The ratio between the ecological damage and the profit can serve as a criterion:
Ii=Eci/(Ci−Ei)
(1)
where Ci=the earning per 1 ton of a product, US$/t; Ei=the cost of producing 1 ton of a product, US$/t; Eci=the ecological damage per 1 ton of a product, US$/t.
The suggested criterion is universal. Means, a process, a technology, an enterprise and a branch can be estimated. Thus, we can establish the definition of the criterion
Equitation 1: the specific ecological damage is the amount of the ecological damage per one unit of the profit for a selected stage of resource processing.
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3 THE EXAMPLES OF APPLYING
3.1 Enterprise
We have considered one nonferrous enterprise of miningmetallurgy branch in our country to apply the criterion. This enterprise consists of different stages: the deposit
1, the mining process2, the ore issue3, the gravitational separation4, the floatation5, the smelting process6, the converting process7, the blister refming process8,
the electrolysis9. If we calculate different indicators for copper production via all processing stages, we will obtain the following figure.
According to the figure 1, the flotation and the mining stages cause the largest number of waste and the least amount of waste is caused by the smelting, the
converting, the blister refining and the electrolysis processes. On the other hand, the smelting, the converting and the blister refining processes cause the most dangerous
pollution. Another important conclusion—a significant amount of lost copper falls at the mining stage, the ore issue, the gravitational separation and the floatation. If we
calculate the specific ecological damage for every stage, we will get a relationship between the specific ecological damage and stage. We can make the following
conclusions from the examination:
– the most specific ecological damage is caused by the stage No. 6 (the smelting),
– the most favorable stages to throw away wastes are stages No. 2–4.
Figure 1. The relationship between different indicators and copper processing stages.
This Copper Smelter treats sulphur and arsenicbearing copper concentrates. That is why the main ecological damage is caused by gaseous emission during
pyrometallurgical processing of them. To meet environmental requirements, we can reduce the ecological damage in the following ways. The first way is the elimination
of the pollution at sources. It can be realized with several methods at Copper Smelter Terry & Sanchez (1995), Vircikova & Imris (1995).
The second one—some arsenicbearing minerals can be disposed at the flotation stage before the smelting by the selective flotation Jaime & Cifuentes (1995).
3.2 Operation
Establishing the relation between the profit at every stage (Ci−Ei) and the ecological damage (Eci) of every waste allows controlling pollution and optimizing it by
changing technological parameters. For example, if Ii=max, it is necessary to cut down the specific ecological damage. It can be achieved in the following ways:
– decrease in either the product weight or the recovery of a harmful component into the product;
– transformation of wastes into either less toxic or harmless form.
Consider another case: the ecological effectiveness of a stage is maximal, which means that Ii=min. In this case, the waste should be thrown away at this processing
stage. The developed method was applied in the metallurgy plant where we had to make a decision about a form of arsenic waste to be thrown away. Results of
applying are presented in table 1.
Table 1. Results of applying at Copper Smelter.
Thus, it follows from the ranking that the maximal specific ecological damage is caused by the gases of the furnace No. 2 (I4=5.81). The smallest specific ecological
damage is caused by the slag of the furnace No. 1, 2 (I1, I2=0). The main dangerous component at this plant is arsenic, so it is necessary to develop a technique for
removing arsenic from the slag. The authors had carried out laboratory experiments to develop a mathematical model of the furnace No. 2. The influence of the
temperature of smelting, the content of manganese and time of smelting on copper processing had been studied. As a result, the tenequitation system is obtained:
(2)
where ε1,1, ε1,2, ε1,3=the copper recovery into matte, slag and gas fractions correspondingly, %; ε2,1, ε2,2, ε3,3=the arsenic recovery into matte, slag and gas fractions
correspondingly, %; γ1, γ2, γ3=the weights of matte, slag and gas fractions correspondingly, %; βMn=the content of manganese, %; t=temperature, °C; =time of
smelting, min. It follows from the tenequitation system, that increasing in temperature of smelting, the content of manganese and time of smelting raises the cooper
recovery into matte and reduces the arsenic recovery into gas fraction.
The optimization function can be stated:
(3)
where II=the profit, US$/t; PCu, PMn=the price of copper and manganese correspondingly, US$/t; αcu , αMn=the content of copper and manganese correspondingly,
%; K=constant, US$/t; P2, P3=the ecological payment per one ton of arsenic in the slag and gas fraction correspondingly, US$/t.
The content of manganese was accepted as a main regulation parameter. On the base of this model, the optimal technological factor was determined (the content of
manganese=1.2%). As a result of the realization of our technological decisions, the profit of 100,000 US$ per year is obtained.
4 CONCLUSION
– The specific ecological damage can be used as a criterion to estimate and optimize an operation, a means, a technology, an enterprise, and a branch.
– The developed method has been realized at Copper Smelter. It resulted in 100,000 US$ annual profit.
REFERENCES
Jaime H.E. & Cifuentes G. 1995. Alternative treatment for high arsenicbearing copper ores through the modification of pulp electrochemical potential. Mineral processing
and environment, volume II: 197–202; International Conference Copper’95, Santiago, 26–29 November 1995. Quebec: Xerox Tower.
Terry D.S. & Sanchez M.A. 1995. Environmentally friendly processing of copper mineral bearing arsenic and/or sulphur by pyrometallurgical route. Mineral processing and
environment, volume II: 337–345; International Conference Copper’95, Santiago, 26–29 November 1995. Quebec: Xerox Tower.
Vircikova E. & Imris I. 1995. Arsenic distribution in copper smelter and an environmentally friendly way to remove it. Mineral processing and environment, volume II: 347–
360; International Conference Copper’95, Santiago, 26–29 November 1995. Quebec: Xerox Tower.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Environmental monitoring in the process of coal mines liquidation
Zbigniew Bzowski & Katarzyna Bojarska
Department of Environmental Monitoring Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland
ABSTRACT: The role of monitoring as a research, computeraided system used for environmental assessment both in the course and after liquidation
of coal mines is presented. On the basis of recognised consequences of coal mines liquidation to the environment, the problems related to conducting
the monitoring of various environmental elements is presented. There have been determined the methods and scope of conducting the monitoring in the
process of coal mines liquidation, together with the reference data being in accordance with the legislation in force in Poland.
1 INTRODUCTION
The monitoring of the environment is a system of measurements, assessments and predictions of the environmental condition. It is aimed at increasing the effectiveness
of actions in favour of the environmental protection and documenting and predicting the changes occurring in the environment.
The environmental monitoring currently conducted in Poland relates, first of all, to the operating mines. The monitoring conducted in these mines includes all the
environmental elements, and is realised within the framework of solutions proposed in the reports on the impact on the environment, which these mining plants have in
accordance with the operative legislation. The systems of environmental monitoring, both extended and detailed, are not justifiable at the stages of mines liquidation.
Therefore, the reports relating to the evaluation of the projects of liquidation of mines point, in general, at the need to limit the scope of the monitoring. However, it is
necessary to recognise the environmental hazards at the stage of mine liquidation and after their liquidation, to be able to propose necessary research actions
(monitoring). The obtained results of investigations can provide a basis for assessment of these hazards, and for improving and corrective actions within the framework
of the conducted liquidation.
2 LIQUIDATIONS OF COAL MINES
The problem of mine liquidation is not new and related only to Poland. Such a process of liquidation is stimulated by the law in every plan of mineable material
extraction, most frequently in the phase of getting a licence. The process of coal mine liquidation needs preparing the project of development of the deposit, which
includes:
– Information on the boundaries of the documented and exploited deposit, as well as on the abandoned resources,
–Specification of the conditions of the abandoned resources protection,
–Specification of environmental hazards related to stopping the process of mining.
The liquidation of coal mines covers first of all:
–technical underground structures,
–underground workings,
– shafts,
– structures of technical infrastructure at the surface,
– social objects,
– mining damages on the entire mining area,
– reclamation of the areas utilised by the mining plant,
– reclamation of mining waste storage yards,
– protection of the mine area after the objects liquidation,
– assessment and corrective actions,
– monitoring in the course of realisation,
– monitoring of the effects.
2.1 Causes
The principal cause of mining plant liquidation is the exhaustion of deposit resources. In the case of hard coal mines in Poland, this factor, in the period of
Page 744
economic transformation (1989–2002) related only to several mines. A much more frequent cause was the nonprofitability of coal extraction from the deposits located
in difficult geologicalmining conditions and/or with minor resourcefulness. Such a condition enforced joining several, most often, adjacent mines to restore the
profitability of the joint enterprise. With the lapse of time, the size and resourcefulness of the balanced hard coal deposits enabled to limit the costs of mining, but a new
problem appeared—that of hard coal overproduction.
In Poland, at the end of 20th century, the next cause of hard coal mines liquidation proved to be the need to lower the production capacity of the whole sector.
Finally, the new cause of liquidation appeared, which resulted from the increased ecological consciousness of the society insisting on the liquidation of damages caused
by mining activities (Chaber & Kot 1998).
2.2 Consequences to the environment
The liquidation of coal mines through the actions aimed at technological liquidation of a mining plant, affects directly the environment condition.
The consequences to the environment are, among the other things:
– changes of water conditions both of underground and surface water,
– pollution hazard to underground water,
– limitation of underground water intakes,
– reclamation of mine waste heaps,
– necessity to liquidate mining damages,
– management of the liquidated mine area.
3 PROBLEMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF LIQUIDATED MINES
The problems of environmental protection in the aspect of hard coal mines liquidation are, most frequently, connected with the occurring hazards to the environment,
both during and after liquidation of the mines. One can distinguish the following:
– changes of hydrogeological conditions,
– occurrence of mining damages,
– problems with reclamation of mining waste storage yards,
– contamination of the mine areas and problems of their renewed development.
The monitoring of the specified hazards can be assumed to be one of the possibilities of assessment of the environmental condition for conclusions relating to the
correctness of liquidation and its temporal consequences (Fig. 1).
3.1 Hydrogeology
From among many problems that may appear during and after liquidation of hard coal mines, of great importance are the changes of water conditions in the rock mass
and on the surface. The resignation of dewatering of mine workings results in flooding with water coming from natural affluents. Stopping the dewatering of an isolated
mine results in restoring the natural hydrodynamic conditions and only in particular cases flooding of the ground surface can take place. In the case of collective mines,
which is the case in the Upper Silesia Coal Basin, the liquidation of dewatering in a single mine produces the water hazard first of all to underground workings of the
mining plants adjacent to the liquidated one, but also to underground water intakes. In the area of the Upper Silesia Coal Basin, the majority of mines are those
connected one to the other, and isolated mines are individual. The liquidation of mines having a water connection with only one mine does not create problems. On the
other hand, the scale of hydrogeological problems increases with a number of mines included in the group, and with connections among them (Rogoż & Posyłek,
2000). Before the mine liquidation is started, it is absolutely necessary to make a forecast of environmental impact of workings to be flooded. The guidelines for the
monitoring system of underground and surface waters should be an element of such a forecast (Table 1). In the course of realisation of coal mines liquidation, and after
its completion, the monitoring of underground and surface water should include the observations of the course (level) of flooding, measurements of underground water
tables, and the values of the surface water flow together with physicochemical testing of the waters.
The aspect of underground water monitoring in liquidated hard coal mines, as a researchinformation system can be also considered in two categories of:
– preliminary assessment at the stage of liquidation including frequent measurements and collection of samples and wide range of analyses,
– longterm observations after the liquidation, in the course of which the aim is to limit the costs through limiting the number of samples and scope of analyses with
simultaneous fulfilment of the monitoring objectives.
The frequency of sample collection must depend on the predicted variability of quality of underground water during and after the mine liquidation. For correctness of the
conducted monitoring in the initial phase, it is necessary to collect samples frequently.
This generally results from the presence of many waterbearing strata in the Carboniferous waterbearing deposits, having a low runoff but with high
Page 745
Figure 1. Environmental monitoring of liquidated hard coal mines.
Table 1. Operations and objects of water monitoring in the vicinity of liquidated hard coal mines.
Monitoring element Realisation (operation)—object
When to investigate – in the course of liquidation,
– after liquidation (within 20 years period).
Where to investigate Laboratories that implemented quality systems
Which water types to investigate – surface waters (water courses),
– drainage waters (drainage into liquidated workings),
– underground waters—wells and piezometers.
What to investigate – principle parameters of water,
– water components connected with likely pollutants:
– Na, K, heavy metals: Cu, Cr, Cd, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn,
– sulphides, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates,
– organic substances (e.g. phenol, TOC),
– radioactivity of water.
By means of what to investigate Investigation methods:
– standard,
– instrumental:
– AAS, ICP,
– UVVIS, IRS,
– HPLC, GC,
– γ–Ray Spectrometer.
Page 746
Figure 2. Monitoring of contamination to evaluate the compatibility of the possibilities the postliquidation mines areas use with land
development plan.
macropermeability. Besides, frequent physicochemical tests of underground water at the stage of mine liquidation are required in the cases of utilisation of wastes in
underground workings. The results of these tests allow making the evaluation of pollutant amounts in the underground waters that result from contamination in
consequence of the system influence: inflowing waterwastes.
3.2 Mining damages
In the case of underground coal mines, the effect of mining damages lasts for long time after the process of mining has been stopped and after liquidation of the mine. It
is necessary to appoint a legal successor to provide financial means for liquidation of occurring mining damages. At the same time it is necessary to establish the
monitoring of the effects and consequences considered as mining damages. After the mine has been liquidated, it is necessary to monitor, first of all, the values of
surface deformations and related to them the changes of geodetic coordinates. In the urbansed areas, it is also necessary to conduct the monitoring of buildings, roads
and bridges as well as linear structuresgas and water pipelines, sewage and telecommunication systems. The researchmeasuring actions within the framework of such
monitoring enable to assess temporal environmental hazards due to mining damages. This results, first of all, in the possibilities to ensure financial means for a given time
period after liquidation of the mine. Moreover, the results of monitoring conducted enable to save the environment from sudden changes and accidents, in particular
from building catastrophes.
3.3 Reclamation of mining waste storage yards
The implementation of the monitoring of mining waste heaps results, most frequently, from the program of actions aimed at improving the environmental conditions of
the heaps left after liquidated mining plants. Such programs are an component element of assessments of the impact of hard coal
Page 747
mines liquidation on the environment, and constitute, for a long time, a direction of activities tending to improve the environmental conditions (Barteczek et al. 1998,
Woźniakowski 1990). The requirements to conduct the local monitoring for reclamation of mining waste heaps within the framework of coal mines liquidation are
included in the program and project of mine liquidation.
To conclude in the scope of conducting actions related to improving and supplementing the reclamation work, there are necessary, apart from the results of
investigations within the framework of the local monitoring, the results of specialistic examination of the area of the reclaimed heap. As such investigations should be
planned and conducted within a researchobservation system, keeping the temporal relationships, they can be assumed to be the extra environmental monitoring of
reclaimed heaps of postmining wastes.
An object of this kind of monitoring is, first of all, the surface layer of the heap end vegetation material introduced within the framework of reclamation (Bzowski
1999, Bzowski & Gwoździewicz 2000, Chaber & Bzowski 2002). The monitoring of such elements enables to control the condition of the posibilities to enhance the
vegetation with mineral fertilisers (NPK), to ensure its better growth. Besides, it makes possible to find the best kinds of trees, shrubs and grass that are necessary to
be introduced in consecutive stages of reclamation of the heaps.
3.4 Management of the areas of liquidated mines
This phase of the activities at the stage of liquidation of hard coal mines must be consistent with the land development plan of the municipality. At the same time, it
becomes necessary to carry out the investigation of the environment to assess its contamination condition and take into account the results of this investigation in the
method of land development. Subject to investigation should be, first of all, these environmental elements on which the influence of mining activity is the highest. The
following should be counted among them: soils and grounds, surface and underground water, as well as air in the case when in the liquidated plant a thermal station or
electricity generation station exist. The monitoring (investigation) system of environmental elements of the area after a liquidated hard coal mine, and the method to
compare the results to indicate (make compatible) the possibilities of management of the area is presented in the scheme below (Fig. 2).
4 CONCLUSION
The monitoring is an important element in the recognition and prediction of the environmental changes in the course of mine liquidation, and after its completion.
Within the environmental monitoring of the liquidated mines, both the existing systems and newly created ones on the basis of adequately modified analytical and
statistical methods should be used. Subject to monitoring should be hydrogeological conditions, mining damages, reclaimed areas, and particularly mining waste heaps,
as well as developed areas left by the liquidated mines.
REFERENCES
Barteczek, A. Kozłowski, S. Kucięba, K. Nowosielski, S. 1988. Evaluation of environmental effects of hard coal mining deposit (in Polish). CPBP No 04.10. SGGW
AR No. 3. Warsaw.
Bzowski, Z. 1999. Monitoring of the reclaimed mine waste heaps. In Proc. 8th Inter. Symp. on Mine Planning & Equipment Selection. Dniepropietrowsk, Ukraine,
345–349.
Bzowski, Z. & Gwoździewicz, M. 2000. Utilization of clay minerals of carboniferous claystones for waste dumps reclamation. Scripta Facultatis Scientiarum Naturalium
Universitatis Masaryk, Geology vol. 28–29 Brno; 149–154.
Chaber, M. & Bzowski, Z. 2002. Reclamation of mine waste heaps as an element of proper management of wastes (in Polish). Wiadomości GórniczeNo. 3, 107–111.
Chaber, M. & Kot, A. 1998. Problems of environmental protection in the process of coal mines liquidation In: Environmental protection in mining areas (in Polish),
Ustroń, 117–131.
Rogoż, M. & Posyłek, E. 2000. Hydrogeological problems in Polish hard coal mines (in Polish), Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland.
Woźniakowski, B. 1990. Criteriafor evaluation ofenvironmental effects of mining (in Polish). CPBP No 04.10; SGGWAR No 18, 91–97, Warsaw.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The management of former mining areas in the northeastern part of the Upper
Silesian Coal Basin (Poland)
J.M.Cabala, S.R.Cmiel & A.F.Idziak
University of Silesia, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Poland
ABSTRACT: In the paper authors show how geologists and environmentalists can support local authorities in management of postindustrial areas.
Problems are related to transformation and revitalization of areas where coal mining activity was ceased. The analysis of the present state of the natural
environment and proposals of land development of the former mining area of the Sosnowiec coal mine closed in 1998 are described in the paper.
Geological, hydrogeological, mining and geotechnical data were studied.
1 INTRODUCTION
Shallow lying productive coal formation in the northeastern part of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (south Poland) became conducive to intensive development of coal
mining in the 19th century. Before long, railway lines, steel works and other industrial plants were set up extremely changing the landscape. The exploitation of shallow
coal beds as well as zinc and lead ores let existing towns and villages develop extensively forming the large Silesian agglomeration.
The economic development of the Silesian region entirely depended on the exploitation of coal, but on the other hand the mining activity was concentrated in some
places. Therefore the urban development was spatially limited in extension. That was why the vast area around the centres remained economically undisturbed till to the
end of the 20th century.
The large industrial conurbation was similar for various reasons to the Ruhra Coalfield. In the 20th century industrial facilities such as coal mines and steel works
became unquestioned elements of the agglomeration’s landscape. However, in west Europe coal mines were closed in the 1980’s. In Great Britain, Belgium, Holland
and Germany postmining areas were brought into cultivation at a great cost and expenditure of work replacing the view of industrial objects into shopping centres or
leisure facilities e.g. Oberhausen in former Ruhra coalfield.
In Poland economic and political transformations which took place on the turn of 1980’s and 1990’s caused the change of macroeconomic conditions of coal
exploitation. The new rules of market economy and rigorous criteria of recoverable reserves, decrease in economic demand as well as comparatively small prices of
coal resulted in falling of coal output i.e. from 150m tones per year in 1990 to 100m tones in 2003. The elaborated plan of coal mining transformation in Poland
assumes that by the year 2020 the coal output diminution will have reached 80mln tones per year and gradually the employment will have been reduced to 55,000
workers (Cabala, Cmiel & Idziak in press).
Finally, during the economic restructure 23 coal mines were closed. Procedure of mining activity cessation lasted for couple of years and postmining areas have
become the property of local authorities and they could be offered to investors as interesting in consideration of further development and economic activation of
outskirts of towns. Economic conditions, the high cost of mining activity, low prices of coal as well as planned in advanced diminishing of production capacity of Polish
mining contributed to closing the coal mines, which performed in highly urban areas of towns such as Sosnowiec, Katowice, Bytom, Gliwice. In consequence the new
problem connected with elaborating of new rules according to revitalization of postmining areas and land development soon appeared.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
In our paper the features of postmining terrains and some of the environmental valuations are described basing on the study carried out in sites of former mining works
in Sosnowiec town (Fig. 1). Geological, hydrogeological and mining geotechnical data
Page 750
Figure 1. Location of mining area in the Sosnowiec coal field in the USCB. 1—areas of intensive coal exploitation.
were examined. The inventory of infrastructure elements and buildings located in the area was also made. Boreholes data were taken into consideration as well. All
analysed data allowed to draw the maps depicting the terrain morphology, the depth of the roof of Carboniferous rocks, thickness of Quaternary deposits and
geotechnical properties of base layer. The subsidence rate, ground surface deformations and stabilization of rockmass were evaluated. Hydrogeological maps of
Quaternary waterbearing horizons were plotted and an analysis of hydraulic gradient directions was done. Recoverable reserves in abandoned coal fields were
estimated. All the data mentioned above let the autors establish the present state of natural environment and predict the directions of site planning for Sosnowiec town.
3 POSTMINING AREA IN SOSNOWIEC
In the area of Sosnowiec town six collieries operated for the last fifty years but at the present moment only one coal mine is productive. Taking into account parameters
such as location, geological structure and infrastructure the former Sosnowiec coal mine belongs to the most interesting and important ones considering postmining
terrains. Its mining area was 20.45 square kms with mining works located in the centre (Fig. 1).
Since the year 2001, after the main clearing operating in excavations, the area of 31.5 ha is now being offered to be appropriately cultivated. In the area belonging to
Sosnowiec colliery for all the activity period there were about 140 shafts, drifts and descending galleries. Finally, the total length of underground excavations reached
44,703 m. Till the
Figure 2. Map of coal mining areas and hydraulic connection. 1—border of mining area, 2—direct hydraulic connection, 3—indirect
hydraulic connection, 4—depth below ground surface of hydraulic connection and coal bed, 5—nonoperating colliery, 6—
operating colliery.
last days of its performance six shafts were used. After the liquidation four of them were backfilled and plugged with concrete plates. The exploitation impact on ground
surface was significant and resulted among others in subsidence up to 8 m. The subsidence basins were frequently filled with water (Cabate & Cmiel 1999).
4 GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY
The mining areas of out of operation Sosnowiec colliery lie on the elevated geological structure called main anticline. Productive Carboniferous deposits emerge near
the surface that is why the exploitation of coal already started in the 19th century. Coal beds occur there relatively shallow in the interval from the surface down to 270
m and their dips range from 5° to 35°. The productive series contains several thin coal beds belonging to A westfal formation as well as two thick beds (4–8 m, Namur
C). The thickness of the main coal bed (mark as 510 bed) reaches 18 m. Deads of series include mudstone, siltstone, silica and feldspathic sandstone. The tectonic
structure is complex with many disjunctions mainly faults. The rockmass is highly dewatered as a result of long lasting mining water pumping. The range of depression
cone exceeds the colliery’s mining area. The abandoned mine is hydraulically connected with other operating collieries (Fig. 2). For this reason main shafts and galleries
are still being maintained to continue the pumping. At the present moment precipitation is stabilized at about 9 m3 per minute. The water table is maintained at 120
metres above sea level. Directions of infiltration and groundwater flow change. The Carboniferous waterbearing horizon is
Page 751
precipitated from overlaid Triassic and Quaternary rockmass.
After the mine cessation mining water has been changing its quality parameters overtime. The contain of chlorites has been diminishing simultaneously improving the
quality of pumped water. Ra isotopes are present in mining water (Technological documentation 1998). Maximum concentrations are:
226 Ra—0, 026±0, 004 kBq/m3
228 Ra—0, 040±0, 020 kBq/m3
These concentrations are both below the normative values. Thus the pumped water is not hazardous for the environment.
Underground water regime and the surface morphology point to that after full sinking of colliery in the future no innundated area will occur.
5 THE SOSNOWIEC COLLIERY CESSATION
5.1 Reasons of liquidation
Long lasting mining activity caused that in 1970’s easily accessed coal beds had almost been exploited. That was why some old excavations had to be liquidated and
new ones prepared. In the Sosnowiec colliery two oldest shafts were closed together with their infrastructure in the years 1974–1976. In the early 1990’s exploitation
of the thinnest beds was gradually stopped on account of poor coal quality and difficult geological and mining conditions. At the same time the Ministry of Industry
commenced to restructure Polish mining industry and planned to liquidate some of the coal mines. The cessation of the Sosnowiec colliery was assumed in 1992 but
because of numerous protests of Sosnowiec community it was suspended in 1993. Finally the exploitation was stopped in 1997 and the liquidation process still lasted
to the end 1998. Apart from the Sosnowiec colliery, four other neighbouring coal mines were also closed in the period of 1997–2001.
The main reasons of it were:
– lack of workable reserves in spite of significant developed reserves which resulted in new economic criteria,
– poor coal quality connected with high sulphur and ash content,
– hard technological conditions of exploitation causing permanent economic effectiveness of the coal production.
However, in the closed collieries 531.788 million tones of possible coal reserves were abandoned (i.e. approx. 24% of all abandoned reserves in the Upper Silesian
Coal Basin).
5.2 Infrastructure
After diminishing of the operation most buildings belonging to the former Sosnowiec coal mine was deconstructed and taken away. A hoist tower and an administrative
building and few technological objects were remained. Valuable surface infrastructure elements such as wood, rails, and other metal scrap were utilized.
Subsurface infrastructure included gas, water, sewage nets as well as electric and telephone cables were inactivate and left under ground. For example, the
abandoned sewage net set up of stoneware and concrete pipes with diameters from 150 to 1000 mm was 3500 m long (Technological documentation 1998).
The majority of underground infrastructure was well marked and mapped. Owing to it, all unnecessary elements can be easily found and removed. Furthermore,
some of them can be utilized by new users in the fiiture.
6 THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT WITHIN THE AREA OF MINING ACTIVITY
The area of the former Sosnowiec colliery had signiflcantly changed during the long lasting mining activity. The base layer, hydrography and morphology were
transformed. Postmining waste stockyards established in the area have been polluting soils and waters.
The reclamation and management of the area requires the evaluation of natural environmental conditions and possibility of investment (Chudek & Sapicki 1984,
Kwiatek 1997). The estimation should be based on an analysis of archival data and results of field research. The detailed study ought to include:
– recognition ofsoil contamination with heavy metals, oil derivatives and biodegradable substances;
– determination of ground water regime, changes of aquifers, and groundwater water contamination;
– examination of continuous deformation stabilization;
– opportunity of discontinuous rockmass deformation;
– determination of geotechnical features in base layer.
6.1 Rockmass deformation
Continuous and discontinuous displacements of ground caused by former and current mining exploitation are the most important factors determining stability of buildings
and infrastructure in mining areas.
In the area under study, the relatively shallow exploitation took place, that is why its impact on
Page 752
Table 1. Ground parameters in the shaft surrounding area.
Parameters of soil
Lithology Depth [m] wn γ n JL C φ k
Silty clay 2.5 22.3 2.14 36.5 0.06 0.55 8
Sandy loam 4.0 18.8 2.07 35.0 0.48 0.2 5
Sandy loam 5.0 21.9 – – 0.28 0.15 8
Finegrained sand 7.0 5.0 – – – – – 1.8
Sandy loam 8.5 19.3 2.08 35.0 0.42 0.2 9
Silty clay 12.0 17.2 2.12 33.9 −0.2 0.9 12
Silty clay 15.0 18.4 – – −0.16 0.85 11
2
Symbols: Wn [%]—natural water content, γ [G/cm]—bulk density, n [%]—porosity, JL [−]—liquidity index, C [kg/cm ]—cohesion coefficient, φ [°]—angle of internal friction, k [m/s]
(k*10−5 )—permeability coefficient after USBSC.
ground surface occurred pretty fast (from several days to three months just after a coal bed had been excavated). The significant part of coal reserves had already been
exploited before the Second World War. Longterm observations of benchmarks located near the shafts did not show any vertical ground displacements
(Technological documentation 1978), whereas in the area over main excavations the subsidence occurred especially in the period 1970–1980. In this interval intense
exploitation with breaking down the roof took place. Maximum total subsidence reached 7.5 m (Cabala 1994). In the final period of mining performance (1996–1997)
only coal remains appearing in the thickest bed were excavated. The remarkable impact of the activity lasted up to the end of 1999. It is presurned that final
stabilization of rockmass will be obtained in 10 to 15 years after finishing the exploitation (Cabałe & Ćmiel 1999).
In the area of the Sosnowiec colliery there were about 140 excavations, which came to the surface. Up to now only two old reminded caves, which could pose a
thread to the infrastructure have been noticed. Shallow postexploited caverns exist only in the zone of coal beds outcrop. For all that, before bringing the land into
cultivation, detailed geophysical survey should be carried out to recognize shallow subsurface with the aim of revealing old caves.
6.2 Subbase
To estimate bearing capacity and foundation vulnerability of the subbase it is necessary to determine its features such as natural water content, bulk density, porosity,
liquidity index, cohesion coefficient, angle of internal friction, permeability coefficient (Table 1). The value of these coefficients allows to establish whether the ground is
resistant to static pressure of newfounded buildings and how the water content can influence on an object’s stability.
Figure 3. Profiles of load bearing subsoil in areas Sosnowiec colliery (Technological documentation 1978).
In the area under study horizontal differentiation of subbase lithology can be observed. The upper anthropogenic layer reinforced during the colliery activity is made of
fragmented concrete blocks, bricks, slag and gravel. Its thickness ranges from 2 m to 4.5 m. Natural ground occurring beneath the layer contains different Quaternary
deposits, mainly permeable sands and plastic silts.
Plastic deposit of oozetype occurs locally. It is improper for foundation on account of high natural water content and its thixotropy. Interlayers of permeable sands
appearing in the subbase are hydraulically connected to Carboniferous deposits, thus they dewater the ground well that takes an advantage for foundation. In some
places the soil contains residual eluvium of Quaternary deposits as
Page 753
Figure 4. Map of morphology and industrial structure in area of Sosnowiec colliery. 1—shafts, 2—stockyard post mining waste, 3—post
flotation ponds, 4—railway.
well as Triassic coarse limestone and silts (Fig. 3). The ground is characteristics by low natural water content, lack of water bearing horizons and little lithological
differentiation. The ground features high bearing capacity.
In the neighbourhood of colliery’s shifts stratigraphic structure is complex up to the depth of 17 m. The natural ground consists of wet less plastic, silty clay, which is
good for fiindation. Underlaid sandy loam features relatively high plasticity and low cohesion coefficient. The layer built of silty clay which occurs in the depth interval
from 12 to 15 m has worse properties for foundation.
The upper 4.5 thick anthropogenic layer has good bearing capacity. They do not need the additional solidification and drainage. Especially, in central and western
part of the studied area the upper layer is highly altered. In the northern and eastern part the anthropogenic layer has less thickness (below 1 m). The thickness of
Quaternary deposits is reduced to 3 m and they are replaced by Triassic silty sands.
In general, soil in the colliery area is significantly drainaged what is good for foundation and it diminishes possibility of pollution migration.
6.3 Mining waste stockyard
Nowadays the influence of reminded mining waste stockyard on the natural environment is one of the most important ecological problems. The stockyard has a form of
a heap containing the postflotation rests and Carboniferous spoil rocks. It is located in southeastern part of the colliery area (Fig. 4). The primary heap area was
equal to 2.8 ha and its volume was 155,000 m3. During the process of the coal mine liquidation heap materials were used in filling shafts. The estimation of
environmental impact of the heap was done. It was assumed that the deposited materials contained a lot of carbonaceous substance and iron sulphide but they did not
include abnormal amounts of heavy metals such as uranium, cadmium, lead, zinc, arsenic etc. Nevertheless, it was alleged that the content of iron, sulphur and chlorides
was high that was why new mineral phases such as iron, calcium or magnesium sulfates occurred in the zone of water infiltration. Labile, easily soluble mineral phases
transformed into nonsoluble stable chemical compounds. Owing to these, harmful environmental impact of contained elements became limited.
Longterm deposition caused stabilization and compaction of materials. It prevented from spontaneous ignition of the heap. After covering the heap with humus layer
the waste could be chemically and biologically stabilized by cover crops.
Locally, anthropogenic and natural soil have been contaminated by hydrocarbons and their derivatives. The substances are biodegradable to some extent and
gradually neutralized.
The process of the heap reclamation has not been realised fully because of insufficient budget donation.
7 DEVELOPMENT OF THE AREA
The terrains of the former Sosnowiec colliery are situated in the immediate vicinity of the city centre. Existing road system allows to access easily highways to Cracow,
Warsaw and BielskoBiala. Municipal transport services facilitate the access to neighbouring towns.
To cultivate and develop the degradated postindustrial area, the Sosnowiec local authorities associated with research institutions from four European countries to
realise RESCUE project (Regeneration of European Sites in Cities and Urban Environments). According to the project research work and elaborations were done with
the aim of finding the most profltable economic tools and strategy of postmining areas development.
The new assignment of the area has been planned by the local authorities. In the area of 31.5 ha, where the mining plant existed (Fig. 4), the parcels of 0.3–5.4 ha
were separated to be developed in a different way including detached housing, pedestrian streets, recreation grounds etc., but 63% of the offered area should make
industrial zone. Up to the year 2003 only parcel of 1.94 ha was sold and a modern production plant was established there.
Page 754
8 SUMMARY
The area of the former Sosnowiec colliery features the high degree of anthropogenic transformation of the ground surface. It is profitable for foundation on account of
stability and dewatering of soil. Moreover, the soil meets requirements of building engineering because of the thin Quaternary overburden, reduced thickness of Triassic
deposits and lack of alluvia.
However, the occurring of old infrastructure such as gas, water, sewage pipes and electric and telephone cables is insufficient. They make ground work difficult and
they are not useful for potential investors who prefer to mount new infrastructure elements.
After cessation of coal exploitation in neighbouring collieries the pumping of mining water will be stopped and finally all excavations are going to be flooded. It can
cause rebuilding of waterbearing horizons and change groundwater regime.
Existing mining waste stockyard is not seriously hazardous for the natural environment. Mining waste can be used to fulfill the shafts and shape the terrain surface.
Frequently, investors are afraid of founding in postmining area because of assumed occurrence of old cavings and unstable subsidence. The least risky areas seems
to be the ones in the vicinity of shafts or located over pillars.
Geophysical surveying to detect old cavings or loose zones of rockmass should be carried out in the region of coal bed outcrops.
Mining areas are not always so degradated as it used to be thought. Environmental contamination in such areas is less in comparison with the vicinity of large
chemical factories and steel works. Therefore reclamation and cultivation of the area do not require large financial efforts.
REFERENCES
Cabała J. 1994. Wielkość osiadania powierzchni terenu w obszarze miasta Sosnowca. Rocznik Sosnowiecki: 23–30. (in Polish). UM Sosnowiec.
Cabała J. & Ćmiel S. 1999. Dynamics of ground surface deformation caused by mining in the period 1973–97 in USCB on the example of Kazimierz trough. In
Documenta Geonica Akademie Ved Ceske Republiky: 243–252. UGN Ostrava.
Cabala J.M., Ćmiel S.R. & Idziak A.F. The environmental impact of mining activity in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (Poland). Geologica Belgica (in press).
Chudek M. & Sapicki K. 1984. Environment protection in the UpperSilesian Basin and in the Donets Basin (in Polish), Silesia, Katowice.
Kwiatek J. (ed.) 1997. Protection of building objects in mining areas. (in Polish). GIG, Katowice.
Technological documentation. 1978. Dokumentacja techniczna badań podłoża gruntowego w rejonie szybów “Ostatek”, “Sosnowiec”, “Anna”, “PowieTrzny” KWK
“Sosnowiec”. (in Polish). Kombinat Geol. “Południe”.
Technological documentation. 1998. Plan Ruchu Zakłedu Górniczego w likwidacji na rok 1999. (in Polish). KWK “Sosnowiec” S.A.
Page 755
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Minewaste impact on soils in the Olkusz ZnPb ore district (Poland)
J.Cabałe, E.Teper & L.Teper
University of Silesia, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Sosnowiec, Poland
ABSTRACT: Flotation tailings collected in sedimentary tailing ponds in the Olkusz ZnPb district have been continuously relocated by winds to soils
surrounding the storage area. Soil samples were examined by means of ESEM Philips XL30 using BSE detector, and analysed with EDS (EDAX)
analyser. Parental and secondary orebearing minerals were recognised as the most common heavy metals carriers. The contents of Zn and Pb
sulphide ores in the soils locally range 3%. Gangue minerals, such as iron sulphides, clay minerals, ankerite and orebearing dolomites are significant
toxic contaminants of the soils. ZnPb oreoriginated hypergenic minerals are mostly represented by Fe oxides, hydrated sulphates and gypsum. As
sulphosalts, Cd carbonates, Mn oxides and phosphates with REE were found. Fe, Zn, Pb, As, Cd, Tl and some other metals, which come from the
waste material are thought to be released by processes of chemical and/or biochemical weathering progressing in the soils.
1 INTRODUCTION
Extensive underground mining of zinc and lead ores has been carried out in the Olkusz district of southern Poland since 1960s. Flotation wastes, which come from ore
processing, have been stored in sedimentary tailing ponds constructed on local tectonic elevation: the OlkuszBoleslaw horst. The finest fraction of the tailings has been
continuously relocated by winds to the north and northeast onto the areas of the Jurassic Landscape Park, the Bledowska Desert and the Ojcow National Park (Fig.
1).
The tailing ponds, owing to their location as well as mineral and granulometric composition of the stored material, are the most important source of metallic
substances occurring in local soils. Heavy metals are provided to the soils mainly with gangue components: iron sulphides, clay minerals andpoorly floatable finegrained
particles of ZnPb sulphides. These minerals abound with trace elements, mostly arsenic, cadmium, thallium, germanium, zinc, silver, indium and selenium (Cabałe 1996,
Mayer et al. 2001). They reveal further chemical and biological activities in soil environment.
Heavy metals have an impact on both local vegetation and animals, which inhabit surveyed area. High concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cd, Cu and As characterise a
number of plant species growing in postindustrial habitat (SzarekŁukaszewska & Niklińska 2002, Dmowski & Badurek 2002). Some of plants colonising mine
waste impacted soils have adapted to extreme environmental conditions (Wierzbicka & Panufnik 1998, Wierzbicka & Rostański 2002, Załęcka & Wierzbicka 2002).
Large heavy metal quantities were also traced in hyphae of some fungi (Turnau et al. 2001) and in feathers of some birds (Dmowski 2000).
The goal of the present study was to identify mineral components of soils in areas adjoining
Figure 1. Sketch map of Olkusz ZnPb ore district.
1—flotation waste ponds, 2—closed ZnPb strip mines,
3—study area and sample site locations, 4—pit shafts,
5—main tectonic faults.
flotation tailings pond, which had their origin in ZnPb ores processing. An attempt was also made at recognising secondary mineral phases found in soils that point to
mobilisation of ions of heavy metals (Cd, Zn, Pb, Mn and As).
Page 756
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study based on soil samples, which were collected in the surroundings of the flotation tailing ponds. Sampling sites were located at a distance of 10 m to 3000 m
from the storage area (Fig. 1). The materials were taken from 5cm thick surficial layer, each time after dry periods lasting several days. The samples were protected
from loss of natural humidity. Laboratory research was done in the University of Silesia, Faculty of Earth Sciences at Sosnowiec. Both soils and flotation wastes were
subjected to analysis using stereo microscope. For each sample a few hundred of representative particles were placed onto carbon adhesive base and observed using
Philips XL30 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope. Metalbearing phases were identified by means of BSE detector. Electronprobe microanalyses and
observations were performed with EDS analyser (EDAX). Mineral composition of flotation tailings was determined in terms of quantity on the basis of chemical
analyses, which had been performed by the “Bolesłew” oremine laboratory in 1980–2000.
3 SOURCES OF SOIL CONTAMINATION
More than 40 million tons of flotation wastes have been accumulated a result of longlasting ore mining and processing in the area. The disposal is progressing at a rate
of ca. 1.5 million tons per year. The tailings are pumped to the tailing ponds, which are located between the “Bolesław” and “Olkusz” orefields (Fig. 1). The tailing
ponds cover an area of 108 ha. Thickness of collected material ranges from 20 m to 34 m.
The waste material is mostly finegrained composed of poorly floatable particles smaller than 0.04 mm in diameter (Górecka et al. 1994). Due to gravitational
differentiation, which occurs in early stage of sedimentation, stored material is segregated according to size and mineral composition of grains. In the sites chosen to
detailed study, prevailing winds tend to come mainly from the SW, S and SE directions (Fig. 1). Waste grains are abundant downwind of the storage area. The amount
of windblown dust becomes limited as the top surface of the ponds is systematically sprinkled with water and subjected to successive reclamation. As the tailing ponds
are founded in an extensive water drainage zone of the “Pomorzany” ZnPb mine they also have polluting impact on local groundwater aquifers. Readily soluble
sulphates derived from the stored wastes can contaminate the mine waters.
4 MINERAL COMPOSITION OF FLOTATION WASTE
Mineralogy of the waste material is inherited from primary ZnPb ore mineralization numbered among Mississippi ValleyType (MVT) lowtemperature hydrothermal
formations (Viets et al. 1996). Mineral composition of the ores is simple, the bulk of economic mineralization consists chiefly of stratabound lead (galena) and/or zinc
(sphalerite) sulphides with associated pyrite and marcasite (Kucha & Viaene 1993, Cabate 2001).
Mineral components of the runofmine ore do not undergo significant chemical alteration during flotation process. Ferrosilicon and magnetite used for heavy media
separation together with depressants, activators, flocculents, frothers and collectors (mostly copper sulphate, calcium oxide and sodium xanthates) added to flotation
circuit are the substances which can be found in tailing ponds in small quantity.
Gangue constituents: dolomite, calcite and clay minerals compose about 80% of the mine waste material. Lowfloatable sulphides and oxidised minerals of zinc, lead
and iron make up remaining onefifth (Górecka et al. 1994, Cabałe 2000). Stored material abounds with iron sulphides, which constitute up to 17.6% of the waste
contents. There are also anhydrous and hydrated sulphates (1.6%) and ZnPb sulphides (1.05%) occurring in the tailings in significant amount. Mineral composition of
the flotation wastes has varied in analysed 20year period. Younger material contains much more zinc and lead carbonates as well as clay minerals than older one
(Table 1).
Amid carbonates, dolomite CaMg (CO3)2, calcite CaCO3 and small amount of ankerite dolomite CaFeMg (CO3)2 occur. Illite, montmorillonite and kaolinite are
clay minerals that were found. Sphalerite αZnS and wurtzite βZnS are recognised among zinc sulphides while galena PbS and rare cryptocrystalline boleslavite PbS
represent lead sulphides. Three polymorphs of FeS2: marcasite, pyrite and melnikovite are iron sulphides encountered. Iron oxides and hydroxides (both amorphous
phases and goethite) as well as unstable hydrated sulphates: melanterite FeSO4∙7H2O, rozenite FeSO4∙4H2O, copiapite Fe5(SO4)6(OH)2∙20H2O, epsomite
MgSO4∙7H2O, hexahydrites (Mg, Zn, Fe)SO4∙6H2O are the most frequent secondary minerals found. Barite BaSO4 is the main stable sulphate observed among
primary minerals while gypsum CaSO4∙ 2H2O and jarosites KFe3[(OH)6/(SO4)2] are the
Page 757
Table 1. Average mineral composition of flotation tailings stored in the Olkusz ZnPb ore district.
Mean annual contents [%]
Mineral components 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 1999
Dolomite & calcite 75.98 75.17 76.41 74.79 72.55 70.88 71.73 66.43 68.12 67.43 68.20
Aluminosilicates & quartz 2.76 3.07 5.49 7.46 7.91 8.77 8.03 9.52 11.17 11.84 11.13
Zinc sulphides 0.85 0.91 0.84 1.28 0.97 0.82 0.78 1.04 0.85 0.66 0.85
Zinc carbonates 0.69 0.92 0.92 0.83 0.77 0.96 0.92 0.94 1.04 1.29 1.04
Lead sulphides 0.12 0.09 0.10 0.16 0.22 0.20 0.13 0.22 0.17 0.15 0.20
Lead carbonates 0.45 0.44 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.44 0.54 0.7 0.71 0.61 0.71
Iron sulphides 15.48 15.46 12.5 11.72 14.6 15 13.8 17.6 13.30 15.00 14.90
Iron oxides 1.48 1.69 1.39 1.70 1.44 1.86 1.92 1.63 1.88 1.49 1.44
Sulphates 1.39 1.39 1.71 1.06 1.14 1.88 2.12 1.88 2.77 1.47 1.47
Trace elements
Cd 0.005 0.0072 0.007 0.012 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.007 0.015 0.009 0.008
Ag 0.0006 0.0007 0.0005 0.0006 0.0007 0.0006 0.0023 0.0005 0.0004 0.0009 0.0008
As 0.055 0.063 0.047 0.062 0.066 0.059 0.066 0.091 0.089 0.075 0.077
Tl 0.003 0.0024 0.003 0.0025 0.0033 0.0032 0.004 0.005 0.0032 0.004 0.0049
Ge 0.0001 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0004 0.0002 0.0003 0.0003 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002
most common stable secondary sulphates (Harańczyk 1965, Górecka et al. 1994). Secondary carbonates: smithsonite ZnCO3 and cerussite PbCO3 are less common
(Cabałe 2000).
5 MINERAL COMPONENTS OF SOILS FROM SURROUNDINGS OF WASTE STORAGE AREA
Soils in the study area are poorly developed. In incomplete soil profiles the inorganic components predominate, which is mostly quartz accompanied by smaller quantity
of clay minerals. Carbonate bedrock, underlying 40 to 60 m thick Quaternary sands, influences the soils to an insignificant degree. The soils in the Jurassic Landscape
Park, the Bledowska Desert and the Ojcow National Park are partially polluted by minerals coming from material stored in the tailing ponds. In the topmost layer of
soil in Boleslaw and Olkusz area zinc percentage ranges 5.2% (SzarekŁukaszewska & Niklińska 2002, Pasieczna 2002), which is one of the highest zinc contents
measured in soils of Poland.
5.1 Autochthonous components
Apart from organic matter, minerals affiliated to SiO2 class together with aluminosilicates and iron oxides prevail in analysed soil samples. Quartz, feldspars and clay
minerals dominate. Heavy metals, occurring sporadically in parental constituents, are related to accessory minerals: zircon, titanite and apatite with RRE.
5.2 Allochthonous components
Chemical classes listed below are arranged according to frequency of appearance of their representatives in the samples of examined soils, starting from most common.
K aluminosilicates, K and Na aluminosilicates
CaMg carbonates, Ca carbonates
Fe oxides, Fe hydroxides, Mn oxides
Fe sulphides
Zn sulphides
Fe sulphates, Zn sulphates, Pb sulphates
Pb sulphides
Ca, Mg sulphates
Ba sulphates
Pb carbonates, Zn carbonates, Fe carbonates
Cd carbonates
Zn silicates
Accessory minerals: Ce and La phosphates with RRE, Zr silicates, Ti oxides, Asbestos.
Heavy metalbearing Nb and Bi oxides, As, Pb and Sn sulphosalts, Pb oxides, Cr and Fe oxides, Cu sulphates
Mineral composition of the soils to a certain extent corresponds with mineralogy of the zinclead ore processing waste. Some minerals, however, arose just in soil
environment. Unstable iron, zinc and lead sulphates as well as gypsum result from progressing sulphides oxidation in soil habitat.
Some mineral components can derive from dustfall related to local industrial emission. Asbestos (Fig. 2), Cr oxides and spherical aggregates made up of
aluminosilicates and/or iron oxides were observed. Particles similar in size, structure and chemical
Page 758
Figure 2. Quartz, asbestos, Fe sulphates and organic matter (SEM).
Figure 3. Quartz and aluminosilicate conglomerate containing Fe sulphides and Fe sulphates (SEM).
constitution were found among components of the tropospheric dust in adjacent Upper Silesian area (Jablonska et al. 2003).
5.2.1 ZnPbFe sulphides
Polymineral aggregates which often occur in examined soil samples (Fig. 3) are thought to be relics of hypergenic disintegration of larger ore bodies. Such
conglomerates, coating quartz grains or plant roots include particles of sulphides, carbonates and sulphates cemented with clay minerals and iron oxides (Fig. 3).
Marcasite and pyrite, which were the most common sulphides present in the flotation waste (Table 1), prevail among ore minerals observed in the soil samples as
well. Occurrences of marcasite and pyrite occasionally reach 200 µm but majority of Fe sulphides consist of particles of 5 do 20 µm in size. Grains of primary
sulphides, which altered inthe course of ore
Figure 4. Grains and spherical aggregates of aluminosilicates and Fe oxides supplemented by organic matter (SEM).
Figure 5. Conglomerate Ca, Mg carbonate, Fe sulphates, Zn sulphides and crystalline forms of aluminosilicates in soil (SEM).
processing, eolian transportation and weathering, convert into concentric accumulations (Fig. 4).
Zn sulphides can sparsely be found as separate crystallites of several to 20μm in size. Occurring chiefly in polymineral aggregates, they are associated with
aluminosilicates, iron oxides, dolomite and quartz (Fig. 5). The grains are subjected to fragmentary corrosion and oxidation. Oxidised surfaces of ZnS particles are
enveloped with thin coat made of iron sulphates (Fig. 5). Fe sulphates and Fe oxides can completely cover small (1–2 μm in diameter) grains of ZnS, which become
protected from continuing oxidation.
Amidst ZnPbFe sulphides galena is the most unique. High density of PbS facilitates sinking particles of galena during waste storage and makes them difficult for
transportation by wind. Granular
Page 759
Figure 6. Fe and Pb sulphides, Fe oxides, CaMg carbonates and aluminosilicates (SEM).
Figure 7. CaMg and Pb carbonates, and Fe sulphides on plant roots (SEM).
clusters of galena, sporadically observed in the studied soils, range 70 μm (Fig. 6).
5.2.2 Products of oxidation
Iron leached from parent sulphides combine with other dissolved ore components and oxygen to form unstable hydrated sulphates. Most frequent among them are
hydrated Fe sulphates, which can develop their authomorphic platyshaped crystals that range 50 µm in diameter. The sulphates weather at a fast rate forming stable
oxides (Cabałe 2001).
Iron oxides and hydroxides are the most important secondary minerals containing metals. Aggregating with clay minerals, they form solid or discrete crusts that
surround sulphides, sulphates and carbonates. Such envelopes enable relics of marcasite and pyrite to survive in soils (Fig. 6). In number of cases, the aggregates
assume spherical shapes (Fig. 4) and are associated with aluminosilicate spherulites. Spheroidal occurrences can also be made up of mixtures composed of iron oxides
and aluminosilicates (Fig. 4).
This is necessary to remind that some part of iron oxides is originated in the tailing ponds and has been brought to soils by the wind.
Zn, Pb and Cd carbonates (Fig. 7) are less frequent in soils. As carbonates are low soluble, included metals are hardly leached from them. Small amounts of arsenic
sulphosalts and manganese oxides were also noticed.
6 FINAL REMARKS
Windblown particles of ore minerals stored in flotation tailing ponds are main source of metals (Zn, Fe, Pb, As, Cd and others) in soils surrounding waste storage area.
Oxidation of sulphides, controlled by composition an properties of parent rock and promoted by suitable humidity and redox potential of soils, results in forming new
unstable minerals, mostly Fe, Mg and Zn sulphates. The newborn minerals tend to concentrate in rhizo^phere of local plants (Fig. 7).
Mobilisation of Fe ions is the essential effect of weathering. While migrating in soil, iron combines with other dissolved substances to form sulphates, oxides and
aluminosilicates. Capacity for iron absorption increases in clayrich soils. Number of metals can be absorbed by secondary ironbearing minerals, especially hydroxides
and oxides (KabataPendias 1980). In that meaning ironrich minerals occurring in soil reduce both leaching and phytoextraction of metals.
Presence of freshlyformed Zn, Fe and Ca sulphates, in turn, evidences high redox potential of soil and oxidation dominating reduction. These agents speed
dissolution of sulphides as well as release and migration of metals. Metalenriched solutions contaminate groundwater and lower horizons of soil profile. Such conditions
favour accumulation of metals in clay minerals and organic matter. Amidst all the metals included in unstable sulphates, zinc is the most readily accumulated by plants
(KabataPendias & Pendias 1999).
Releasing hydrogen ions and organic acids, plants and well developed humus horizon acidify soils. In such conditions, carbonates can be dissolved and release metal
ions. In local situation, Quaternary sands covered by weakly developed soils contain small amount of carbonates. Thus metal concentration in fairy stable minerals is
sparse. However, presence of secondary Cd carbonates, As sulphosalts and Mn, Fe oxides suggests that certain amount of parent limestones and dolomites was once
dissolved and metals could migrate together with other soluble materials.
Page 760
REFERENCES
Cabała, J. 1996. Koncentracje pierwiastków śladowych w rudach ZnPb i możliwość przechodzenia ich do odpadow (in Polish). Prace Nauk. GIG, Konferencje 13:17–
32. Katowice: Central Inst. of Mining.
Cabała, J. 2000. Jakość oraz wtórne zmiany chemizmu rud ZnPb w olkuskim rejonie ztożowym (in Polish). Gospodarka Surowcami Mineralnymi 6 (1):117–141.
Cabała, J 2001. Development of oxidation in ZnPb deposits in Olkusz area. In Mineral Deposits at the Beginning ofthe 21st century: 121–124. Lisse: Balkema.
Dmowski, K. 2000. Environmental monitoring of heavy metals with magpie (Pica pica) feathers—an example of Polish polluted and controls areas. In B.Markert. &
P.Friese (eds), Trace elements in the environment: 455–477. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Dmowski, K. & Badurek, M. 2002. Thalium contamination of selected plants and fungi in the vicinity of the Bolesław zinc smelter in Bukowno (S.Poland): Preliminary
Study. Acta Biologica Cracoviensia Series Botanica44:57–61.
Górecka, E., Bellok, A., Socha, J., Wnuk, R. & Kibitlewski, S. 1994. Zróżnicowanie zawartości metali w odpadach flotacyjnych rud ZnPb (ZGH Bolesław, rej. olkuski) (in
Polish). Przegląd Geologiczny, 10:834–841.
Gruszczyński, S., Trafas, M. & Żuiawski, C. 1990. Characteristics of Soils in the Olkusz Region (in Polish). Zesz. Nauk. AGHKrakow 1368, Sozologia i Sozotechnika
32:113–122.
Harańczyk, C. 1965. Geochemia kruszców śląskokrakowskich złóż rud cynku i ołowiu (in Polish). Prace Geologiczne 5. Kraków: PAN.
Jablonska, M., Janeczek, J. & Rietmeijer, F.J.M. 2003. Seasonal changes in the mineral compositions of tropospheric dust in the industrial region of Upper Silesia, Poland.
Mineralogical Magazine 67(6):1231–1241.
Jędrzejczyk, B.M. 2002. Mobilność cynku, ołowiu i miedzi w wybranych odpadach przemysłu górniczego i metalurgicznego rud cynku, ołowiu i miedzi (in Polish). In
KabataPendias, A. & Szteke, B. (eds), Cynk w środowisku problemy ekologiczne i metodyczne’, Kom. PAN Zesz. Nauk. 33:221–228.
KabataPendias, A. 1980. Heavy metals sorption by clay minerals and oxides of iron and manganese. Mineral. Polonica 11(2): 3–13.
KabataPendias, A. & Pendias H. 1999. Biogeochemia pierwiastków śladowych (in Polish). Warszawa: PAN.
Kucha, H. & Viaene, W. 1993. Compounds with mixed and intermediate sulfur valences as precursor of banded sulfides in carbonatehosted ZnPb deposits in Belgium
and Poland. Mineralium Deposita 28:13–21.
Mayer, W. & SassGustkiewicz, M. 1998. Geochemical characterization of sulphide minerals from the Olkusz leadzinc ore cluster, Upper Silesia (Poland), based on laser
ablation data. Mineral. Polonica 29(2):87–105.
Mayer, W., SassGustkiewicz, M, Góralski, M., Sutley, S. & Leach, D.L. 2001. Relationships between the oxidation zone of ZnPb sulphide ores and soil contamination in
the Olkusz ore district (Upper Silesia, Poland). In Mineral Deposits at the Beginning of the 21st century: 165–169. Lisse: Balkema.
Pasieczna, A. 2002. Zawartość cynku w glebach wybranych miast w Polsce (in Polish). In KabataPendias, A. & Szteke, B. (eds), Cynk w środowisku problemy
ekologiczne i metodyczne; Kom. PANZeszNauk. 33:203–212.
SzarekŁukaszewska, G. & Niklińska, M. 2002. Concentration of alkaline and heavy metals in Biscutella laevigata L. and Plantago lanceolata L. growing on calamine
spoils (S. Poland). Acta Biologica Cracoviensia Series Botanica 44: 29–38.
Turnau, K., Ryszka, P., GianinazziPearson, V. & Van Tuinen, D. 2001. Identification of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in soils and roots of plants colonizing zinc wastes in
southern Poland. Mycorrhiza 10:169–174.
Viets, J.G., Leach, D.L., Lichte, F.E., Hopkins, R.T., Gent, C.A. & Powell, J.W. 1996. Paragenetic and minorand traceelement studies of Mississippi Valleytype ore
deposits of the SilesianCracow district, Poland. Prace Inst. Geol. Warszawa 154:51–71.
Wierzbicka, M. & Panufnik, D. 1998. The adaptation of Silene vulgaris to growth on a calamine waste heap (S. Poland). Environ. Pollut. 101:415–426.
Wierzbicka, M. & Rostański, A. 2002. Microevolutionary changes in ecotypes of calamine waste heap vegetation near Olkusz, Poland: a review. Acta Biologica
Cracoviensia Series Botanica 44:7–19.
Żabiński, W. 1964. Z badań geochemicznych strefy utlenienia śląskokrakowskich złóż kruszców cynku i ołowiu (in Polish). Prace Geologiczne 19. Kraków: PAN.
Załęcka, R. & Wierzbicka, M. 2002. The adaptation of Dianthus carthusianorum L. (Caryophyllaceace) to growth on a zinclead heap in Southern Poland. Plant Soil
246:249–257.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Safety and legislative issues on environment and mine closure in India
Samir Kumar Das
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
ABSTRACT: In India there are no separate legislation on Mine Closure. However some rules and regulations related to mine closure are depicted in
some chapters of various Indian legislations. Recently a decision regarding Mine Closure fund is formulated but not sufficient. However from the year
2003, the Government of India decided that no fresh mining project will be approved until and unless the mine closure plan is submitted along with the
project proposal. Present legislation on mine closure basically strived for awareness drive but a separate Indian mine closure law should be enforced in
the coming years for taking best follow up actions and management of post mining closure. This paper highlighted the various safety, legislative issues
on environment and mine closure and also some past unpleasant experiences of the closure of mines in India.
1 INTRODUCTION
The mine closure is a process which should begins during the prefeasibility phase of a project and continues through operations to lease relinquishment. The post
mining land use should be beneficial to the local community, should not pose any danger to man or animals and there should not be any lingering source of pollution. In
the past, in India more than 2000 mines have been abandoned with pock marked land surface, abandoned shafts, unreclaimed dumps—many of which produced acid
mine drainage for decades, fire in coal mines causing air pollution and destroying the land, unreclaimed tailing ponds and waste tips. India does not have separate rules,
regulations and acts on Mine Closure. However recently (in the year 2003) some rules regarding the mine closure are included in various Indian legislations which is
very encouraging far awareness drive for systematic closure of mines.
2 OBJECTIVES
The basic objectives of any mine closure plan are
– to create a productive and sustainable land use of the mined area after cessation of mining operations which must be acceptable to mine owners, regulating agencies,
public and local community;
– to protect public health and safety of surrounding habitat;
– to eliminate environmental damage and support sustainability;
– to conserve valuable attributes and aesthetics of the surrounding area;
– to minimize and overcome adverse socioeconomic impacts, etc.
3 BASIC REQUIREMENTS
3.1 Text and indenting
The following basic requirements (Das, 2001, 2002) to be assessed during any types of mine closure:
Landscape: The mine reclamation and closure requires that the reconstructed surface blend and mimic the natural surrounding topography and it should return as far
as practicable to agreed geotechnically stable land form.
Water quality: The water quality should comply with the agreed criteria outlined in closure plan. Mining and waste disposal methods that will have impacts on water
quality for our future generations should be avoided.
Biological and ecological resources: Biological and ecological resources should be considered as a part of normal rehabilitation program and dependent upon agreed
mine closure options. The biological stability of reclaimed land, including vegetated mine waste, increase with species diversity and habitat diversity. Facilities must be
designed to protect and conserve biological resources. The biological resources that have been listed as threatened or
Page 762
endangered; should be protected by adopting special measures. Cumulative impacts must be taken into consideration with respect to the entire ecosystem.
Land use: Mining is a relatively short term land use; therefore, it is important that disturbed lands are returned to a safe, stable and productive post mining land form
that is both suitable and acceptable to the local community. Land use plans are to be prepared for all public lands.
Health and welfare: A health risk analy sis is the must to assess the significance of environmental impacts of engineering failure, both during operations andbeyond
closure. The analysis may be quantitative or qualitative and relies upon the questions of risk assessment.
Relinquishment criteria: Relinquishment should reflect closure objectives being met. A responsible authority should be identified and held accountable to make the
final decision on accepting closure. Once the completion criteria have been met, the company may relinquish their tenement without fiirther obligations. A set of
environmental indicators which will demonstrate the successful completion of the closure process should be established. In India Indian Bureau of Mines is considered
to be the said responsible authority.
4 PROVISIONS IN VARIOUS INDIAN RULES AND REGULATIONS
4.1 Mineral conservation and development rules, 1988 (MCDR, 1988)
Before Amendment
Existing provisions are regarding abandonment of a mine and not regarding closure of a mine as such and covered under Rule 23 sub Rule (1) to (5) of Mineral
Conservation and Development Rules, 1988 (MCDR, 1988). As per this rule no mine or part of a mine shall be abandoned during the subsistence of the lease except
with prior permission in writing of the Controller General of Indian Bureau of Mines or authorized officer. The intimation of intention to abandon is to be sent at least 90
days before intended date of such abandonment in the prescribed form. The mine owner is required to submit plans and sections accurately setting forth the work done
in the mine up to the time of submission of the notice including the measures envisaged for protection of the abandoned mine or part thereof, the approaches thereto and
the environment.
After Amendment
Rule 23A states that every mine should have a progressive and final plan for mine closure. The various definitions on mine closures are also highlighted in it which are
as follows:
Temporary discontinuance: This means when the mining operations are likely to be resumed after certain time.
Abandonment of mine: This means final closure of mine or part thereof either because of exhaustion of mineral reserves therein or mining operations therein have
become uneconomic.
Progressive mine closure plan: It is a plan document which provides for reclamation, rehabilitation in day to day working of the mine and is to be prepared as per
guidelines issued by Indian Bureau of Mines. This is a component of mining plan and can be submitted as a chapter of mining plan. This is to be submitted within one
hundred and eighty days from 10th April, 2003 i.e. from the date of commencement of these rules (the last date of submission of progressive mine closure plan is 7th
October, 2003). However, extension in the date of submission of progressive mine closure plan can be considered on case to case basis. The plan will be subject to
review every five years, when it is required to be submitted again. Progressive Mine Closure Plan is to be processed within 90 days of its receipt and there is deemed
clause that in case no decision is conveyed it will be deemed to have been approved after lapse of 90 days period.
Final mine closure plan: This is distinct from Progressive Mine Closure Plan and it is plan document for the purpose of decommissioning, rehabilitation and
reclamation after mining and mineral processing operations cease and it is to be prepared as per guidelines issued by the Indian Bureau of Mines. The final mine closure
plan is to be submitted one year before the intended closure of the mine.
There is provision of modification in the already approved progressive as well as final mine closure plan in case the lessee so desires. The responsibility of ensuring
the protective measures as per approved mine closure plan including rehabilitation and reclamation lies with the owner, agent, manager or mining engineer (Rule 23E
(1)). There is also provision of submission of yearly report on or before 1 st July every year giving the extent to which reclamation, rehabilitation and other protective
works as proposed in the mine closure plan have been undertaken.
Financial assurance: It is the surety to be furnished by the leaseholder to Indian Bureau of Mines or the State Government so as indemnify the government in the form
of bank guarantee, surety bond, trust fund or in any other form of security against the cost to be incurred in decommissioning the mine. For this a flat rate on per hectare
basis has been prescribed for “A” and “B” category mines [Rule 23E (2)]. The amount of financial assurance provided is about Rs 250007 hectare of mining lease area
put to use for mining and allied activities for category A mines and Rs 15000/ hectare for category B mines for the same use. It is to be invoked in case of failure on the
part of lessee to undertake measures for decommissioning. The amount, so deposited, is liable to be forfeited by the concerned state government in case the lessee fails
to
Page 763
undertake protective measures as per mine closure plan and shall carry out those measures or appoint an agent to do so. The minimum amount of fmancial assurance to
be furnished according to clause (2) shall be Rs 200000 and Rs 100000 for A category and B category mines respectively.
There are no significant resettlement policies specifically for mine closure. Displacement occurs only if the population is provided with another steady source of
income in place away from the closure site. For such people the organization will pay compensation according to the set rules and regulations. Secondly, resettlement
may occur within during rehabilitation of the mine site, where the existing infrastructures like workshops, houses etc. has to be reconstructed in another area within the
rehabilitating site to ensure proper rehabilitation of the area. The guidelines are to be prepared by the industry in consultation with the Government.
Certificate from IBM or the State Government: As per Rule 23 (5) of these rules the lessee is now bound not to abandon the lease until and unless a certificate is
obtained by him from. IBM or the state government as the case may be that all the protective reclamation and rehabilitation works in accordance with final mine closure
plan have been carried out by him.
4.2 Mineral concession rules, 1960 (MCR, 1960)
Before Amendment
As per Rule 29, the lessee shall not determine the lease except after giving notice in writing of not less than twelve calendar months to the state government and the
surrender of the lease shall be permitted on compliance with the provision of mining plan including environment plan thereof.
After Amendment
In Rule 29, it is mentions that the lessee shall not determine the lease or part thereof. unless a final mine closure plan duly approved by IBM or the State Government
as the case may be has been implemented by the lessee. For this purpose the lessee will be required to obtain a certificate to this effect that the protective and other
works as proposed in the approved mine closure plan have been carried out by the lessee.
4.3 Indian Industrial Disputes (Amendment) Act, 1976
As per the Industrial Disputes (Amendment) Act, 1976 and also based on the further amendment in the year 1984, the following contents are important during closure
of any mine:
– The provisions are applicable to all industrial establishments employing 100 or more workmen instead of 300 or more as was written in the Industrial Disputes Act,
1947.
– An employer who intends to close down an establishment shall have to apply to the appropriate Government for prior permission at least 90 days before the date on
which the intended closure is to become effective. If the Government does not respond in 60 days, permission is deemed to have been granted. There is also a
provision for appeal to the Industrial Tribunal against the decision and the Tribunal will give the award within 30 days from the date of reference by the appropriate
Government. Closing down of an establishment when the permission has not been granted by the appropriate Govt. is illegal and the workmen affected by such
illegal closure are entitled to all the benefits under the law as if no notice had been given to them.
– Where the undertaking is permitted to close down, every workmen is entitled to compensation equivalent of 15 days average pay for every completed year of
continuous service (Industrial Disputes Act, 1976).
4.4 Mines Act, 1952
As per the Mines Acts, 1952, A calendar year’s service shall be deemed to have been completed
(a) in the case of a person employed below ground in a mine, if he has during the calendar year put is not less than 190 attendance at the mine and
(b) in the case of any other person if he has during the calendar year put in not less than 240 attendance at the mine (Mines Act, 1952).
4.5 The Coal Mines Regulations, 1957 (CMR, 1957)
The Regulation—6 states the following:
– “When it is intended to abandon a mine or seam or to discontinue working thereof for a period exceeding 60 days, the owner, agent or manager shall not less than 40
days before such abandonment or discontinuance give to Chief Inspector and the regional inspector a notice stating the reasons for the proposed abandonment or
discontinuance and the number of persons likely to be affected thereby”.
– “Notwithstanding anything contained in subregulation (1) when it is intended to abandon or discontinue for more than 60 days, any workings below ground over
which is situated any property vested in the government or any local authority or any railway or any building or permanent structure not belonging to the owner, the
owner, agent or manager shall not less than 30 days before the date of such abandonment or discontinuance give notice
Page 764
of his intention to the Chief Inspector and the Regional Inspector”.
–“When a mine or seam has been discontinued over a period exceeding 60 days, the owner, agent or manager shall within 7 days of the abandonment or of expiry of
the said period, give to the Chief Inspector, the regional inspector and the District Magistrate, notice in Form1”.
Regulation 61 states the following:
– Where any mine or seam or section thereof is abandoned or the working thereof has been discontinued over a period exceeding 60 days, the person who was the
owner of the mine at the time of abandonment or discontinuance shall within 30 days after the abandonment or within 90 days after the discontinuance of the
workings as the case may be submit the Chief Inspector two true copies of the uptodate plan and section of the workings of the mine or seam or section
maintained under underground plan and vertical projection of the mine workings. Every such copy shall show the bearing and distance of at least one of the shafts or
openings of the mine from a trijunction or revenue pillar or from any other prominent and permanent surface feature, the position of all waterdams built below
ground (with their dimensions and other particulars of construction) and also the spot levels at the ends of the workings.
– The original or a certified true copy of the plan and section submitted under subregulation (1) shall be kept in the office at the mine.
– The Chief Inspector may on such conditions as he thinks fit to impose and on payment of the cost of preparing copies as determined by him, supply copies of a plan
or section submitted to him under regulation (1) or such parts thereof as he thinks fit—
(a) to any person having a legal interest in the mine, seam or section, or
(b) to the owner, agent or manager of an adjacent mine.
This abandoned mine plan to be submitted to the Dy. Director General of Mines Safety directly in the proforma DGMS AMP/Coal/1.
The up to date Abandoned Mine Plan (AMP) should submitted on tracing cloth/polyester tracing film only bearing the index number of the original plans from which
they are traced and shall be certified to be a true copy of the original plans by the surveyor and countersigned by the manager. The AMP shall show the following:
– The bearing and the distance of at least one of the shafts or openings of the mine from a trijunction or revenue pillar or from any other prominent surface feature.
– Position of boreholes and shafts (with depth), drive, cross cut, every tunnel, air passages.
– The position of all water dams built underground (with their dimensions and other particulars of construction).
– Transverse and vertical sections as per the requirement.
– Multisection workings lying within 9 m to be shown in different colors on a combined plan separately.
– Surface contour lines at vertical interval not exceeding 5 m.
– Underground spot levels along all important drivages and at the ends of headings.
– Bench mark on the surface w.r.t. mean sea level and highest flood level mark.
– Settled and/or claimed boundary of the mine.
– Uptodate workings of all the mines situated within 60 m from the mine boundary. Pillars or blocks of mineral left for support of surface features must be shown
nicely.
– General dip and strike of the coal seam, true north or magnetic meridian with date of latter, and a scale of at least 25 cm long and suitably subdivided.
– The position of every fault, dyke and other geological disturbances with amount of throw and direction.
– End of workings marked with dotted lines and last date of survey.
– Whether the workings are connected to adjacent mines (or other seams in coal mines) and if so the connection should be shown on the plan.
– Whether the barriers with the neighboring mines are adequate—if the thickness of the barrier is not adequate the fact should be recorded on the plan and where
necessary the management of the neighboring mine concerned should be warned.
– Whether any working lie beneath railways, public roads and building not belonging to owner and are inaccessible—the fact should be recorded on the plan.
– Positions of all pumps and lodgments underground—together with the information concerning the quantity of water being pumped out before abandonment.
– In case of coal mines—1. The degree of gassiness of the coal seam, 2. The particular section of the seam being worked 3. An abstract of precautions against or fire
or explosion, if any, in the seam (D.G.M.S Circulars, 1987).
The AMP gives an idea of the extent of the underground workings with spot levels, so that efficient care may be taken by leaving adequate barriers to avoid any danger
due to the flow of liquid or gas or ingress of fire into the workings of an adjacent mine/seam.
Page 765
Besides above it is suggested that in addition to the mining leasehold areas all important surface features of permanent nature e.g railways, roads, village boundaries
(if there is any) with name, river, stream, tank, reservoir, opencast workings, buildings etc within 200 m of any part of the workings measured horizontally must be
shown in the A.M.P. Where any workings lie beneath important surface features e.g. railways, roads, etc such workings should be inspected before the submission of
the A.M.P. for their stability and if necessary protective works made, both on the surface and below ground. While submitting the two copies of the A.M.P. the
management may make inquiries from old and reliable employees, supervisory officials or surveyors regarding their reliabilities. A certificate of correctness of the
A.M.P is also to be submitted along with the plan. The A.M.P helps in calculating the volume of water. It also form the basis of laying out the workings in the adjacent
mines and are useful to guard against the dangers which might exist in the advancing galleries of holing inadvertently into the old workings carrying large volume of
gases, water, etc.
5 INDIAN PAST EXPERIENCES ON MINE CLOSURE
Indian past experiences regarding mine closure are not that pleasant. India witnessed negative effects in all the fields be it land, environment, society, economy or
aesthetic, etc. during closure of mines except a few cases.
Closure of coal mines in the Raniganj and Jharia Coalfields leads to heavy amount of illegal mining from the abandoned mines by the villagers causing several fatality
due to unscientific mining without safety (Singh et al., 2003) Closure of mines also increased criminal activities in those regions, degra"ded cultural activities and living
standard, enhanced unemployment problem and social anarchy, etc. Abandoned underground workings at shallow depth in many mining regions of the Jharia and
Raniganj Coalfields of India have resulted unstable ground conditions, delayed subsidence damaging structure and even vanishing of a number of ponds/lakes in
overnight. Many of the overburden dumps and closed unreclaimed opencast mines posing serious problems like land devastation, water and air pollution, aesthetic
problem, etc.
Sudden and haphazard closure of many coal mines initiated fire in many coal seams causing air pollution and destroying of vast land in Jharia coal fields.
Closure of copper mines in Ghatsila, Jharkhand caused total devastation of local economy. Once beautiful mine township now looks like a ghost town. Most of the
workers of these mines were either opted for volunteer retirement scheme or transferred to other mines own by the Hindustan Copper Ltd.
Presently there are great threat of environmental pollution through unreclaimed tailing ponds and waste tips in many Indian metalliferous and coal mining areas due to
unsystematic mine closure.
Closure of huge number of mica mines in KodarmaGiridih belt of Jharkhand shattered the total economy in that region, caused unemployment problem, migration of
jobless work force to the town/ city or they changed job (picking of mica waste or felling trees or other petty things) and the society in the region culturally and
economically down graded.
Closure of Lapso kyanite mine in Jharkhand caused 400 persons unemployed. Although they received the benefit of volunteer retirement scheme but the money
could not be invested in positive manner. The vast exploited mineral area is lying as waste land or degraded land unfit for agriculture or forestry.
In the Sukinda Chromite belt in Orissa, the overburden material contains small percentage of nickel which is polluting water bodies. Hence seepage from the dumps
have to be monitored for a long time even if the mines get closed or abandoned and proper mitigation measure also to be adopted.
The Tirap and Tikak opencast mines of Makum coalfields are located in the hills and the area experienced with heavy rainfall. The mines are offering siltation and
acid mine drainage problems causing serious environmental problems. The premining dense forest also vanished due to opencast mining activities. Hence aesthetic
values are also lost.
However spectacular reclamation work has been done in some of the mined out lignite blocks of Neyveli Lignite Corporation of India. These blocks were worked
out by the opencast mining technology. These post mining reclaimed lands are far better than the land of premining condition. Aforestation were done in most scientific
manner on them and there are heavy amount plantation of various kinds of fruits trees. Local community is earning revenue on selling of fruits. Reclaimed lands are also
being used for cultivation/agriculture purposes.
6 CONCLUSION
In conclusion it may be stated that a separate mine closure laws (include various rules and regulations) should be published and enforced in India forthwith to prevent or
minimization of longterm environmental damage and to create a selfsustaining natural ecosystem or other land use based on an predetermined set of objectives. From
the year 2003, no fresh mine plans to be approved in India until and unless mine closure plan is enclosed with mining proposals, it is duly scrutinized and sufficient fund
for mine closure is deposited to the appropriate authority. But a strict compliance of the rules and regulations must be obeyed by everybody without any political
pressure. The proposed Mine Closure fiind mentioned in the Indian legislation is not sufficient.
Page 766
REFERENCES
Das Samir Kumar 2002. Mines Safety and Legislation. Dhanbad, Lovely Prakashan.
The Coal Mines Regulations, 1957.
The Indian Industrial Disputes (Amendment) Act, 1976.
The Mines Act, 1952.
Das Samir Kumar, 2001, Activities During Closure of an Undereround Mme, Mining Engmeers Journal 3 (5):10–14
Singh R.K., Sinha S.K., Sinha K.M.K. 2003. Closure of Mines: Jharkhand Experience, Proc. Strategies for Mine Closure, 11–12 October, Dhanbad, CMRI.
Page 767
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Whole body vibration in road tunnel excavation
V.Dentoni, G.Massacci & A.Contini
Department of Geoengineering and Environmental Technologies, University of Cagliari, Italy
P.Mura & V.Presicci
INAIL—Direzione Regionale Sardegna, Cagliari, Italy
A. Perra
CPT—Comitato Paritetico Territoriale della provincia di Cagliari, Italy
ABSTRACT: According to the European directive 44/2002/CE, the evaluation of human exposure to mechanical vibration can be carried out either
through instrumental measurements, directly performed on the vibrating machinery while it is used, or by accurate estimations based on the vibration
data provided by the manufacturer or otherwise available. In both cases the result of the evaluation must be referred to specific working conditions.
Vibration data declared by the manufacturer are obtained by testing the machinery in standard conditions; this type of data might not be consistent with
all possible operating situations, especially in the case of whole body vibration (WBV) transmitted by excavation and earth moving machinery. The
paper illustrates the results of a WBV measurement campaign carried out in various road tunnel construction sites considering the most widely used
machinery.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Whole body vibration risk
In the mining industry and in civil engineering works involving excavation, the mechanical vibrations transmitted by excavators and earth movers pose a major
occupational health problem to their operators.
Prolonged exposure to whole body vibrations transmitted through the seat of heavy equipment can cause major complaints and skeletal disorders, especially of the
spinal column.
Risk assessment of operator exposure should rely on onsite vibration measurements or on literature data which are consistent with the specific operating conditions
observed in the site.
European directive 44/2002/CE specifies in fact that “the level of exposure to mechanical vibration may be assessed by means of observation of speciflc working
practices and reference to relevant information on the probable magnitude of the vibration corresponding to the equipment or the types of equipment used in the
particular conditions of use, including such information provided by the manufacturer of the equipment”.
Because of the variety of operating conditions encountered in civil construction and mining sites, in terms of both state of the machinery (type and maintenance) and
working practices, the acceleration value specified by the manufacturer is unlikely to provide a realistic representation of the actual vibration levels to which drivers are
exposed.
For this reason, it would be useful to have whole body vibration data available, grouped by category of equipment and relating to the conditions of use typically
encountered in civil construction and mining sites.
The purpose of this investigation was to collect information for setting up a data bank.
Acceleration measurements were taken on the seat of earth moving machinery being used in a number of road construction sites in southern Sardinia. The cases
examined were then documented in detail, entering the data on information sheets.
1.2 Health risk estimation according to European Directive 44/2002/CE
Risk assessment of exposure to whole body vibrations is based on the equivalent acceleration value calculated for a standard work shift of 8 hours (as shown in
Equation 1).
Alternatively, the daily vibration dose value VDV can be calculated (Directive 2002).
Page 768
The parameter A (8) is calculated as a ftmction of the acceleration value aw and of the duration of exposure Te and takes the form:
(1)
The acceleration value aw is taken as equal to the highest root mean squared (rms) value of the frequencyweighted accelerations measured on three orthogonal axes:
(2)
(3)
The parameter A (8) is compared with an action value of 0.5 m/s2 and a limit value of 1.15 m/s2.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Instrumentation
The instrumentation used in occupational risk assessment to measure the vibration can be grouped essentially into two categories:
– hand held devices, which monitor all the quantities established by the regulation but generally do not allow the phenomenon to be analysed in the frequency domain;
– PCbased devices which are able to record, document and analyse the phenomenon in both the time and frequency domains.
Hand held devices do not require an evaluator to be present in the vehicle during operation, except to initiate and terminate the measurements. By contrast, PCbased
devices do require an evaluator to be on hand during sampling, but offer the advantage of being able to check in real time the setting of the measuring instrument and its
dynamic range, to identify the specific working activities in relation to the measurements and, above all, to make a detailed analysis of the phenomenon in both the time
and frequency domains.
In the specific case a technique has been implemented using two radiolinked laptops: one an integral part of the measuring chain on board the vehicle, the other used
by the evaluator for configuring the acquisition parameters at a safety distance.
The measuring chain consisted of a disk of semirigid material housing a triaxial transducer with sensitivity 10 mV/g and dynamic range of 500 g connected to the
conditioning, data acquisition and spectral analysis unit, which in turn is connected and supplied by the laptop.
The dynamic range can be adjusted to suit measurement requirements on each of the three axes independently.
Remote interfacing was realised by configuring the laptop on board the vehicle in the server mode and the evaluator’s laptop in the client mode, following the
standard defmed by Netmeeting software (remote desktop) supported by a pointtopoint radio link between the two PCs using wireless LAN interfacing devices.
The band used (2.4 GHz) and the radio frequency powers (10 mW) fall into the categories which do not require a licence in Italy.
2.2 Data processed by acquisition software
The software used for data acquisition and processing (produced by 01 dB) allows the frequency weighted acceleration time history to be graphically displayed in real
time, for each of the three axes of the reference system: awx(t) awy(t), awz(t).
The frequencyweighted rms accelerations (awx, awy, awz) are calculated and displayed in the client laptop, referring to the measurement time elapsed.
During sampling it is also possible to check the linear rms accelerations in the frequency domain, for each of the three axes.
All the sampling data collected (raw data or data processed by the software) can be converted into various file formats (Excel, Mathcad, etc.) for processing,
depending on specific research needs.
3 CASE STUDIES
3.1 Working activities and machinery
The measurements were performed in a number of civil construction sites during completion of the new road link between Cagliari and the SE coast of Sardinia. A
variety of excavators and earth movers were employed for surface excavations (trenches, embankments, etc.) or for excavating tunnels.
Where technically possible, vibrations were measured for the duration of the equipment’s entire work cycle, or for the basic stages of significance.
For tunnelling operations, in particular, measurements were performed on heavy equipment used for the following phases:
– blast hole drilling;
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Figure 1. Blasthole drilling with jumbo drill.
Figure 2. Operator cab interior of jumbo rig.
– scaling;
– mucking.
In most of the construction sites, the tunnels were blasted through hard, unfractured rock (granite). However, in some cases locally intense fracturing required
preliminary consolidation of the rock.
Figure 1 shows blasthole drilling using a vehicle mounted 3boom hydraulic jumbo drill. The cab interior is depicted in Figure 2 with the operator manoeuvring into
position the booms which support and guide the drills onto the tunnel face. The laptop can be seen behind the driver’s seat connected to the accelerometer, placed
between the driver and the seat. No measurements were carried out during actual drilling as the operator remained standing while performing this task.
Scaling was carried out using track excavators equipped with breaker hammer. The same equipment was sometimes used for driving the tunnel, in those areas where
the rock was intensely fractured.
Figure 3. Acceleration time history, xaxis.
Figure 4. Acceleration time history, yaxis.
Figure 5. Acceleration time history, zaxis.
In most cases, mucking was performed using a variable number of trucks (or dumpers) and one shovel loader.
Other types of excavators and earth movers, or similar vehicles used for other operations not strictly related to tunnelling, were also monitored during various stages
of road construction, mainly trench excavation and embankment building.
3.2 Monitoring data
Figures 3 to 6 show, by way of example, some of the data processed using the data acquisition software.
The frequencyweighted acceleration time history plots recorded during scaling on a Cat 325 B
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Figure 6. Spectrum of frequencyweighted accelerations.
excavator equipped with breaker are reported in Figures 3, 4 and 5 for the x, y and z axes.
Figure 6 shows, for the same situation, the variability of the weighted rms accelerations in the frequency domain (over the 1–80 Hz range and the full measurement
time interval), for the three axes.
The same data were recorded for all the equipment monitored.
As can be seen from the graphs of Figures 3–5, the acceleration measured along the three axes is noncyclic. However, the same cannot be said of other operations
such as trench excavation and mucking, where the variations of acceleration over time can be seen to correspond to rest periods alternating with periods of high
exposure.
Comparison of the three plots reveals a prevalence of accelerations measured along the vertical axis and the horizontal axis corresponding to the direction of vehicle
travel (x axis).
4 RESULTS AND DATA PROCESSING
4.1 Measurement results
The data recorded during field monitoring were further processed in order to determine the most significant exposure parameters.
In particular, the rms values of the frequencyweighted accelerations were determined along the three axes for each measurement.
These values were then corrected using the multiplying factors k x=ky=1.4 and k z=1.
The results are summed up in Table 1.
The parameter av in Table 1 is the acceleration calculated using Equation 3.
Examination of the results shows that the trucks and the shovel loaders usually yield comparable acceleration values along at least two axes, whereas for the dumpers
and excavators one acceleration component prevails over the others.
In particular, the vertical component value is the highest for the dumpers, while for the track and wheeled excavators the horizontal component in the
Table 1. Summary of results.
direction of travel nearly always outweighs the other components.
An exception is represented by the excavator CAT 325B fitted with hammer breaker used for scaling, as for this equipment the component along the z axis yields
values comparable with the x axis. In this specific case the acceleration value to be considered is the vector sum av, which is equal to 1.83 m/s2.
Under these conditions, the action value (0.5 m/s2) would be reached after just 36 min exposure and the limit value (1.15 m/s2) after 3 h and 9 min.
The need to determine which acceleration component prevails is dictated by the specifications of the EC Directive regarding exposure assessment criteria,
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Figure 7. Wheel loader Cat 950G data sheet.
but no indication is provided as to the extent of this prevalence.
At any rate, in order to compare the vibration transmitted by the various types of machinery monitored here, it appears more convenient to refer to the combined
acceleration av given in Table 1.
Analysis of the data reveals that practically all the vehicles yield significant acceleration values, especially the excavators equipped with breaker (used in scaling
operations or for excavating rock) and the shovel loaders employed for road embankment construction or mucking.
4.2 Vehicle data sheets
The monitoring data were entered into specially designed cards as the one showed in Figure 7.
The vibration data reported in the card are related with the actual conditions of use of the vehicle and to the specific work being carried out.
Figure 7 shows the data sheet for the Cat 95OG wheel shovel loader employed for mucking large chunks of granite rock.
In addition to the technical characteristics of the vehicles and the results of the acceleration measurements, the cards also contain information about the operator, the
task being performed and the type of material moved.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Comparison of the combined three axes acceleration data av, determined for all the heavy equipments monitored, shows the excavator equipped with hydraulic
hammer used for cutting into hard rock to generate the most severe whole body vibrations.
In general, the equipment monitored was found to have fairly high acceleration values in all the work situations examined.
Measurements carried out in a number of road construction sites showed acceleration values to vary, even for the same type of equipment, depending on the specific
work being carried out and on the conditions of use and maintenance of the equipment and its parts.
The variability of the measured values suggests ruling out the possibility of using the acceleration value indicated by the manufacturer for assessing exposure of the
operator to risks deriving from vibrations.
This stresses the usefulness of setting up a data bank containing data collected when the equipment is actually operating. The results described here are intended to
provide a contribution in this direction.
REFERENCES
Directive 2002/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 June 2002 on the minimum health and safety requirements regarding the exposure of workers to
the risks arising from physical agents (vibration). OJ No L 177, 6.7.2002:13–19.
International Organization for Standardization 1997. ISO 26311:1997. Mechanical vibration and shockEvaluation of human exposure to wholebody vibration—Part 1:
General requirements. ISO: Geneva.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
A case study from the Victorian Goldfields: Australian sustainable endland uses
on tailings
A.Doronila
School of Botany, University ofMelbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
J.M.Osborne
Department of Environmental Biology, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
ABSTRACT: Mine tailings storage at Australian veingold deposits often result in features that are neither physically nor chemically stable. One
environmental issue of concern is elevated levels of arsenic in tailings (>2000 mg kg−1). The objective is to develop costeffective revegetation
protocols for sulphidebearing gold mine tailings that result in land of acceptable economic and/or environmental value, which can create an economic
asset to the former mining community once the mine has ceased to operate. Trials are assessing the performance of a partially “open” geochemical
system with the purpose of limiting acid and metal release to environmentally acceptable levels, rather than the unrealistic goal of infinite encapsulation.
Potential surface covers include thin covers (<500 mm) of waste rock with combinations of topsoil and/or biosolid amendments. Candidate
revegetation species include eucalypts for eucalyptus oil; firewood and/or pulpwood; and native grass species for pasture cover and formation of seed
orchards.
1 INTRODUCTION
A major field study is being conducted at the Stawell Gold Mine, approximately 250 km northwest of Melbourne, Victoria (Fig. 1). It is the largest operating gold mine
in the state with a million ounces having been mined in the last 11 years. Current mining activity is located in the underground development which follows the Magdala
lode system down plunge, to a depth of 1025 m. The mine and processing plant are approximately 1.5 km west of the town of Stawell. The local climate is temperate
(mean
Figure 1. Location of Stawell gold mine.
January daily maximum temperature: 27.4°C, mean July daily minimum: 4°C) with maximum rainfall occurring between May and September (mean annual rainfall 576
mm: Bureau of Meteorology 2003). From its first discovery during the Victorian gold rush in 1855 to 1920, 2.6 million ounces of gold have been recovered from the
Stawell gold field.
The underground ore body contains ca. 15% vol or more of sulphidic minerals. After gold extraction the tailings are stored in a tailings dam. At the projected time of
mine closure, this facility will contain >10 million m3 of sulphidic tailings. The sulphide mineralogy includes pyrite [FeS2], pyrrhotite [Fe1−xS], and arsenopyrite [FeAsS].
Most tailings have significant acidneutralising capacity owing to the presence of carbonates such as ankerite [Ca(Fe,Mg)(CO3)2] and other acidbuffering minerals.
Minesite rehabilitation is defined as the return of a disturbed site to a form and productivity level that conforms to a deflned end land use that may not be necessarily
be the original use (Bell 1996). Trials are being conducted to assess the performance of a partially “open” geochemical system withthepurpose of limiting acid and metal
release to environmentally acceptable levels, rather than the unrealistic goal of infinite encapsulation. Surface covers that are being investigated include thin covers (<500
mm) of waste
Page 774
Table 1. Chemical analysis of substrates used in glasshouse trials.
Analysis Units Sulphidic tailings Oxide waste rock Biosolids Analysis Units Sulphidic tailings Oxide waste rock Biosolids
NO3 mg kg−1
9.7 2.0 77.0 Cl mg kg−1
460 896 336
rock with combinations of topsoil or biosolid amendments. This project is investigating revegetation strategies based on viable agribusiness or other landuse that adds
worth to the tailings facility, and are both environmentally sound and ecologically sustainable.
This report describes the growth responses of candidate Eucalyptus, and native grass species Microlaena stipoides and Austrodanthonia caespitosa in relation to
various substrate variables such as salinity, physical constraints and arsenic mobility.
2 MATERIAL AND METHODS
Glasshouse trials determined the growth of seedlings of a suite of native plant species in various tailings/ cover materials with application of different combinations of
ameliorants. These include fertiliser, organic amendments and inert waste rock. Chemical analyses were performed on substrates and plant material at different stages of
the experiment.
Field scale experiments (total area 0.5 ha) are evaluating in situ plant performance. Three large blocks with 10 different substrate covers were planted with the
candidate tree species and sown with grasses. Individual trial plots incorporated covers of various combinations of ameliorants: crushed oxide waste rock, topsoil
andmunicipal sewage sludge (biosolids).
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Substrate characterization
Elemental analysis of tailings and amendments used in the glasshouse trials reflected the relative concentration present in the mixtures of tailings and amendment
materials (Table 1). Total Mn and As concentrations were elevated reflecting the mineralogy of the orebody and waste rock however, DTPA extracts of trace metals
were not elevated. Extracted metals give an indication of what may be bioavailable to plants. The presence of high concentrations of reactive iron could render these
two elements inaccessible and unavailable. Biosolids from the Stawell sewage farm contained the trace elements of interest at slightly elevated levels e.g. As, Cu, Zn,
however, these were not above the investigable ecological investigation levels (Imray & Langley 2001). Reactive and extractable Fe was high in tailings and biosolids.
Seedlings of Eucalyptus cladocalyx and E. polybractea were grown for 150 days. Biomass production was enhanced in both eucalypt species by the addition of
either organic (biosolids) or inorganic (NPK fertilizer) nutrient amendments (Fig. 2). Dry plant matter production was less than 0.5 g/pot for both species in the absence
of nutrients. Tailings amended only with inorganic fertilizer produced comparable amounts of biomass for both species as standard potting mix and fertiliser or oxide
plus inorganic fertiliser or biosolid amendments. E. cladocalyx produced the double the biomass of the other nutrient amendments when the high biosolid treatment was
applied (292 dry tons ha−1).
Shootbiomass for Microlaena and Austrodanthonia (Fig. 3) was enhanced by incorporating large amounts of biosolids. The highest rate of biosolid application,
50% (w/w) biosolids (equivalent to 292 dry tons/ha) produced significantly greater Microlaena dry shoot matter than all other treatments. Herbage production in this
treatment was 1–1.5 times greater than the next best treatments which were potting mix, tailings with medium levels of biosolids application (25%) or tailings with
fertiliser. Addition of inorganic fertiliser
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Figure 2. Eucalyptus cladocalyx and E. polybractea shoot biomass after 150 days. Values under each line are not significantly
different.
Figure 3. Microlaena (a) and Austrodanthonia (b) shoot biomass after 100 days. Values under each line are not significantly different.
or biosolids increased biomass production by 6–7 times compared with unamended tailings. High oxide incorporation rates (50%) with fertiliser increased biomass by
4.5 times.
Maximum biomass production in Microlaena was 3.99 g/pot compared to 0.47 g/pot in Austrodanthonia. The greatest amount of herbage in Austrodanthonia
caespitosa was produced high biosolids amendment, potting mix and 20% oxide+fertiliser. All other amendments also produced significantly greater herbage than
tailings alone.
3.2 Concentration ofheavy metals and arsenic in shoots and roots
Plant tissue from two of the species were analysed for trace metal uptake using ICPMS. The concentration of arsenic (Table 2) was elevated in the leaves of
Microlaena grown in biosolid amended tailings and in E. cladocalyx leaf tissue in tailings amended with inorganic fertiliser. Biosolids amendments increased the uptake
of Zn in both species and Cu concentrations in Microlaena only.
3.3 Field experiments
Chemical changes in the tailings cover were monitored over two summers. Soil sampling of the experimental plots was regularly performed and pH and electrical
conductivity measured. After two summers, the pH of tailings ranged from 6.4–6.7, and oxide covers pH 5.8 were still slightly acidic (Fig. 4). The surface of exposed
tailings was observed to have changed in colour from dark grey to light red in different sections of the experimental plots. Biosolid amended tailings or oxide cover were
acidic (pH 4–6). Unamended oxide cover had electrical conductivity levels which could only be tolerated by very saline tolerant plant species. Biosolid incorporation
into oxide material reduced salinity levels by increasing water infiltration and reducing capillary movement of saline tailings water (Fig. 4).
We have observed that establishment of pasture species (predominantly exotic) was successful in all the biosolid amended treatments, either biosolids directly on
tailings or amended oxide. Vegetative cover was greater than 70% in these treatments. Topsoilamended oxide had 23–25% vegetation cover with most of being
represented by the exotic pasture species. The contribution by native grasses to the pasture biomass was minimal. Cultivation of the topsoil into the oxide would
improve the soil structure and increase water collection. Initial observations of vegetation on the biosolidamended plots suggest that productivity is comparable to
improved pasture systems in the district. The pasture cover has persisted into the second growing season without any apparent decline.
Recent excavation of root profiles through the test plots have showed that shrinkage and desiccation cracks have formed in the covered tailings. These form
preferential pathways for water to percolate
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Table 2. Elemental analysis of Microlaena and Eucalyptus shoots and roots in different treatments. Values in each row followed by the same letter are
not significantly different (n=3 at P<0.05).
through as well as allowing proliferation of plant roots to the deeper levels of the tailings. The formation of oxidized cutans or skins was also pronounced where there
was extensive cracking of the tailings. Geochemical analysis of these boundary layers is currently identifying components of the secondary minerals formed through the
oxidization process. The pH of deeper unoxidised tailings were consistently >pH 7 and were oxidization had occurred it was pH 6.5–7. This indicates that there is
significant acid neutralizing capacity in the tailings. Proliferation of cracks enhance washing of the secondary minerals e.g. gypsum down the profile away from the root
zone.
The average density of different size classes of roots at different depths underneath E. cladocalyx seedlings is illustrated in Figure 5. This species is deep rooted and
the fastest growing of the eucalypts in the trial and would show greater stress responses from limiting factors after 2.5 years. Proliferation of roots in the deeper reaches
of the profile appears to be strongly related to the presence of cracks in the tailings. Preferential pathways are created for water to percolate through. Formation of fine
and very fine roots was greatest in the upper layers. These are predominantly roots of pasture species, however eucalypt roots were evident in the deeper cracks down
to almost 1 m depth.
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Figure 4. Change in electrical conductivity and pH of surface treatment on sulphidic tailings.
Page 778
Figure 5. Depth distribution of E. cladocalyx roots. Data are abundance of different size classes of roots in different abundance classes
1–10, 10–25, 25–200, >200 for very fine <1 mm and, 1–2 mm, fine roots and for medium and, 2–5 mm, and coarse roots >5
mm. Density scale is a logarithmic scale.
Tree species have been able to persist and grow successfully over two drought years. Plant growth has also encouraged weathering of the upper profile and also
created conditions which reduce release of arsenic. Biosolids amendments have enhanced the biological activity of soil flora as well as the improved soil structure which
has encouraged weathering.
REFERENCES
Bell, L.C. 1996. Rehabilitation of disturbed land. In D.R. Mulligan (ed), Environmental Management: The Australian Minerals and Energy Industries—Principles and
Practice: 27–264. Sydney: UNSW Press.
Imray, P. & Langley, A. 2001. Healthbased Soil Investigation Levels. EnHealth Council. Commonwealth of Australia.
Page 779
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Environmental impact of mining in China and control measures
L.M.Dou, Y.H.Qin & Z.L.Mu
China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, China
ABSTRACT: The mineral resources in China are abundant and 156 kinds of them have been explored. However, the high intensity of the mining
caused a series of environmental problems. Either a strip mine or an underground one caused the ground’s breakage and subsidence, the evacuation of
water from mines caused the groundwater resources to dry up. Mining development caused air pollution, water resources pollution and waste residue
pollution. Therefore, for the sake of the environmental protection, the mineral resources must be exploited reasonably and the civilization must be
practiced in mines to protect the ecosystem environment.
1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
China with its vast territory also has abundant mineral resources. There are 171 kinds of mineral resources in China and 156 kinds of them have been proved up in
reserves by now. Among these resources, some are most reserves in the world, such as rareearth elements—tungsten, tin, stannum, molybdenum, and so on.
According to the statistical data, more than 95% of energy resources, more than 80% of industrial materials and more than 70% of agriculture materials are rooted in
the mineral resources. Among these energy resources, coal occupies an important position. The output of coal exceeded one billion tons in 2000.
There are coal reserves of various qualities and quantity in the 33 provincial administrative areas of China besides Shanghai City and Hong Kong. Coal resources are
distributed throughout 63% of prefecture administrative areas of China. 5345 mining areas were detected at the end of 1996. All these indicate the abundance of the
mineral resources in China.
The exploration and exploitation of the mineral resources guaranteed the Chinese satisfying their national economic and social needs, and contributed much to the
development of Chinese economy. Simultaneously, the high intensity of the mining caused a series of environmental problems.
2 BREAKAGE OF LAND RESOURCES WITH MINING
2.1 The breakage of land resources caused by surface mining
According to the statistical data, the amount of various kinds of main strip mines is more than 1500 in China at present. The strip mines cover vast areas. Usually, a
large strip mine covers 18–20 hm2 area on average, a small mine also covers several hm2 to ten hm2 or more. To develop mining operations, the strip mine has to
remove a large quantity of overburden, which has the original stable topsoil and vegetation destroyed largely. It also makes water and soil run off easily, land become
deserted, uncovers rocks, and forms hungriness. According to the statistical data in 1994, this kind of hungriness caused by mining came to 1290 km2 only in Guizhou
province.
2.2 The breakage of land resources caused by underground mining
The breakage of the land resources caused by underground mining mainly occurs as the ground falling, cracking and deforming in a vast area. According to the inquiry,
the farmland that has already fallen reached 5200 hm2s in Xuzhou mining bureau (Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China). About 25% of this fallen farmland will never be adapted for
cultivation because the seepage comes to 3.5 m in depth, about 40% of it can only grow one quarter of the year for the two quarter seepage, the rest has its output
decreased to a different extent although the whole year is adapted for cultivation. The area that has already fallen is about 5500 hm2 in Huaibei mining bureau (Huaibei,
Anhui, China), and about 61% of it accumulates water all the year. The average plantation’s size that one person occupies has already declined from 0.133–0.267 hm2
before the construction of these mines to 0.0133–0.0267 hm2, that is, its reduction is 90%. In Kailuan mining bureau (Kailuan, Hebei, China), the fallen area reached
about 6000 hm2.
Page 780
Figure 1. The subsidence and crack caused by underground mining.
The breakage of the land resources caused by underground mining also occurs as the ground cracking and transforming. In Panzhihua mining bureau (Panzhihua,
Sichuan, China), some subsidence zone reached 3 m in depth and caused many cracks. The largest one comes to about 1 km in length and 1.5 m in width. The
following Figure 1 shows the subsidence and crack caused by the underground mining.
3 THE EVACUATING OF MINES CAUSING THE GROUNDWATER RESOURCES TO DRY UP
To make the ore body locate above the underground water level for the sake of mine proceeding, the evacuation of the underground water from the underground mine
is required, which causes the groundwater resources to dry up ultimately. The Shanxi province, which is famous for its abtmdant coal resources, has been now puzzled
by the scarcity of water because of the evacuation of the underground water from those mines, and the underground water was on the verge of drying up. The scarcity
of water caused the ecosystem breakage and tampered with agriculture and industry. In the Taiyuan, Datong and Shuozhou (three main cites in Shanxi province), about
half of the factories cannot put up normal production for the scarcity of water even though the underground water is exceedingly exploited.
4 THE POLLUTION IN MINING AREA
A mine always consists of a mining part, ore preparation plant, and smelting part. Therefore, a lot of waste is let into the environment and usually causes the largescale
pollution.
Figure 2. The groundwater resources dried up.
4.1 Air pollution
In the course of the mine production, a large amount of poisonous or deleterious gas is emitted because of blasting the explosives and the use of diesel engine
equipment, which is the main cause of the air pollution in mining areas. Moreover, the large quantity of dust and poisonous materials is another important factor. The
gangue storeroom is set up on the highway side at one gold mine in the small Qinling ridge. When vehicles pass by, the gust makes the gangue powder fly upwards.
Sometimes, the thickness of the powder in the atmosphere can attain some 100 mg/m3. In addition, the soot coming from the mining area transport, the refine factory,
the sinter plant, the power station and the coal combustion can all lead to pollution in the mining area. The following photo comes from one mining area that is seriously
polluted.
In some mining areas, smallscale refme factories are distributed here and there for the bad management. In these enterprises, the recovery ratio of mineral resources
is low and the exhaust emission is serious because of using the rough equipment and primordial technology. According to the statistical data, the recovery ratio of sulfur
is not more than 30% in these smallscale refme factories and about 60% of the sulfiir is let into the atmosphere as SO2, SO3, H2S etc.
4.2 The water pollution in mining areas
The process of production in mines can generate a large quantity of liquid wastes. These liquid wastes usually come from the mine water and the liquid waste sieved out
from the mullock or the gangue etc. They contain a mass of heavy metals ions, acid or alkali, suspended waste solids, and several medicaments for the ore preparation.
They may also contain radioactive materials at some mines. The liquid wastes usually lead to the serious environmental pollution.
The liquid wastes may threaten the health of people and the survival of plants or animals. In the Yongping
Page 781
Figure 3. Air pollution.
copper mine (Jiangxi province, China), the acid liquid waste is let into the Jiaoji River nearby with the flux of roughly 4000 t/d. As a result, the water in the river within 5
km is intensely acid, all the fish and shrimps died out and even grass cannot live in it.
The liquid wastes can also threaten the agriculture. The incursion or the use of acid water for irrigation can restrain the growth of crops as well as wither plants away
to die. At one sulfuriron mine in Anhui province in China, a lot of the acid water sieved out from the mullock in the rainy season runs into the Caishi River and is
subsequently used for the irrigation. As a result, there are about 66.7 hm2 of farmland out of production and 133.3 hm2 of the yield reduced.
4.3 The solid waste pollution in mining area
A large amount of mullock and gangue is produced in the process of mining and the environment is seriously polluted.
The accumulation of solid waste can occupy or destroy the land resources. According to the statistical data, the mullock and gangue coming from the noncoal mines
reach 900 Mt/a, the total reaches tens of billion tons, covering roughly 100,000 hm2. The solid waste from the coalmines is about 70 Mt/a, the total exceeds 1.2 billion
tons, covering roughly 6667 hm2.
The solid waste coming from the mines usually contains poisonous or harmful materials. The longterm storage of these solid wastes in an openair place can make the
poisonous or harmful materials become easily oxidized and then enter the surroundings. The incursion of the poisonous or harmful materials can pollute the water and
the soil, threaten the health of people, and ultimately restrain the industry and agriculture. There once was a smeltery in China in which the 250 thousand tons of chrome
wastes were heaped every year and caused a serious pollution to the groundwater within 70km2 where more than 1800 wells were abandoned because the water in
them was no longer adapted for drinking.
Heaping the millions of tons of solid waste usually results in environmental geologic disasters. In the Panzhihua Mining Bureau (Sichuan, China), the large amount of
piled up waste once formed a coast under the influence of the flood and caused serious damages within 160 km, the canals and culverts were destroyed, the rivers and
fertile lands were filled up, about 78.3 hm2 of farmland is no longer adopted for cultivation and 133.3 hm2 cannot be irrigated.
The solid wastes from mines always contain combustible materials such as sulfuriron ore and carbon. These combustible materials usually take a spontaneous
combustion because of the atmosphere oxygenation and as a result, a large quantity of poisonous and harmful gas is produced. According to the statistical data, about
one third of the waste dumps in some coalmines of Shanxi had once formed spontaneous combustion.
5 CONTROL MEASURES
In the face of the environmental problems caused by mining in China, the following measures can be adopted:
– Reasonable and planned mining, but no floppy, no excessive, no “blind” mining should be conducted. Miniscale mines must be abolished;
– The golf had better be filled. The careful vegetation renovation and restoration operations must be adopted and the land reclamation well done to reduce the
breakage of the land resources caused by mining;
– To control the subsidence caused by mining, the principle that prevention is the most efficient and prevention combined with cure should be adopted. In the regions
where the subsidence has not happened, prevention measures must be taken. The estimation of the subsidence hazard should be made and the hazardous regions
should be lined out. In the regions where the subsidence has happened, allocation of the residents should be well done;
– That subsidence should be considered in the design of a mine. Measures or technologies should be applied to prevent or reduce the subsidence, such as the
enhancement of supporting intensity, the adoption of stowing or strip mining method, etc;
– New crafts and technologies should be used and antiquated technologies and equipment should be updated to reduce the pollution;
– To control the pollution of the environment, the principle that “who pollutes, who cures, who develops, and who protects” should be adopted. The duty must be strict
to enhance the environmental protection work;
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6 CONCLUSIONS
The exploitation of mineral resources has an important significance for the development of national economy but the process cannot be unplanned or “blind”. For the
sake of the environmental protection, civilized mining and reasonable mining is necessary.
In the course of machining and utilizing the mineral resources, the process must be synthesized to heighten the recovery ratio. The exploitation of mullock and gangue
must be regarded as a secondary source of minerals. The techniques causing little pollution must be generalized and adopted to translate wastes into mineral resources.
The preservation of water and soil must be thought of and the control measures must be enhanced and intensified. The emission of liquid wastes and exhaust gases must
be controlled strictly to preserve the environment. It is hard to shoulder a responsibility for the environmental protection in Chinese mines.
REFERENCES
Zeng Jiannian, 1998. Safety and Environment Preserve in Mines, Beijing.
Wei Guanjun, 2001. Environmental Engineering in Mines, Beijing.
Wei Guanjun, 1990. Environment Preserve in Mines, Beijing.
Zhang Xianghua, Liu Qin, 2001. Environmental Matters Cause by Mining in Guizhou Province and Probing of The reasons, Geological Calamity and Environment
Preserve. 2001, 4.
Sun Huajiang, Li Hongwen, 2001. Environmental Matters Cause by Mining in Heilongjiang Province and Control Means, Geological Calamity and
Environment Preserve. 2001, 3.
Li Yuchang, 1999. Minal Resource Exploitation and Environment Preserve, Geological Calamity and Environment Preserve. 1999,4.
Page 783
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Development of the operative environmental monitoring system if the mine
transport complex in the open cast mines
S.Zh.Galiev & E.E.Sarsenbaev
The Mining Institute ifthe RSE “NCIMP RK”, Almaty, Kazakhstan
M.Zh.Daribekov
Ore Administration “Kazmarganets” JC TNC “Kazhrom”, Karaganda, Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: In article problems of an estimation of effect of a miningandtransport equipment on environment with application of new information
technologies are shown. Methods of estimation of distribution of polluting substances in opencasts are considered. One of variants of creation of
geoinformation systems for realization of ecological monitoring in opencasts is offered on the basis of simulation modeling.
In order to prevent and remove negative environmental impact of the mine transport complex, to create environmentally safe conditions in the mines first of all it is
necessary to obtain reliable, objective and welltimed assessment of the environmental state. Only in this case it is possible to make reasoned decisions concerning the
quality of the environment. Therefore the important task is to establish effective environmental monitoring system at the mining enterprise that will allow to control
operatively the state of the environment. The paper deals with one of the variant of the establishment of such systems.
In view of impossibility to depart from industrial activity and absence of completely reliable technologies from environmental point of view, the essential task is to
assess the contaminant dispersion, to minimize its negative impact on the human and environment. The most convenient way of analysis and modeling of contaminant
dispersion is computer geoinformation systems (GIS).
Establishing such GIS there is no difficulty to select the location map (screened or vector). Definition of contaminant dispersion (concentrations) and environmental
impact assessment represents a difficult task. There are several ways to solve this problem. The first is to meter concentrations in various points with further
approximation of the obtained data over the entire researched area. The second is the mathematical simulation allowing to forecast the behavior of the contaminants
according to the input data with the help of appropriate physicochemical models. There is also a combined approach allowing to adjust the results of the simulation to
the results of the metering. All these methods have advantages and disadvantages. Metering requires significant expenses and sometimes it is very difficult, for example
for the determination of the contaminant migration in the underground waterbearing horizons. Moreover all metering operations are made in different moments of time
that can distract the real situation considering significant speed of contaminant dispersion (for instance dispersion of dirt in bottom layer of the atmosphere). The
behavior of the contaminants is stipulated by large quantity of various interconnected processes and factors. Any mathematical model considers only a part of the
factors those which influence the most. That is why the results of the numerical computation are always approximate.
Each GIS is designed to solve definite problem in conformity with which the method for definition of contaminant behavior should be selected. It is more effective to
determine the environmental pollution resulted from longstanding work of enterprises with metering. In case of emergencies related to emissions or discharges it is
necessary to make forecast assessment of impact on population. It is possible to forecast operatively the contaminant dispersion using the problemoriented software
created on the basis of adequate mathematical models. GIS designed to determine the contaminant behavior and to make environmental impact assessment should
allow to present maximum complete information on the basis of estimate results and normative documents in order
Page 784
to make a decision concerning the elimination of emergency consequences.
As an example let us consider the application of GIS to solve the tasks related to atmosphere and soil pollution. Contaminants get to atmosphere at constant and
emergency volley emissions. The scheme of contaminants dispersion depends on the position, height and kind of source (shortterm or momentary, dotted, linear or
area, moving etc.), on the quantity and chemical composition of the emission, on the size of the particles, meteorological conditions (wind speed, solar irradiation,
nebulosity, precipitation intensity), on the landscape. The particularities of underlying surface greatly influence the contaminant dispersion. Therefore the solution to the
problems related to the impact assessment of the contaminants should be made in close connection with location map. GIS should provide the fulfillment of the
following works:
– Simulation of the contaminant dispersion in case of emergency at the enterprises or during standard operation of the production, to identify the routes of contaminant
dispersion in atmosphere, to assess the consequences of mancaused and natural catastrophes;
– To process the data of mancaused pollution of the surface and air monitoring in order to obtain the information on dynamics of contaminants in atmosphere and on
the surface, on the space and time dispersion of the elements in the researched environment;
– To conduct environment and economic analysis of the mine transport complex of the industrial enterprises.
Successful performance of these fimctions is stipulated by the electronic threedimensional map, data bases, adequate simulation model, expert system (Figure 1). Data
base including the information on the relief, kind of landscape, site development mode, position of emission sources, transportation directions of the contaminants,
quantity and chemical composition of the possible emission sources, weather conditions, is informational basis for consequences assessment in consequences
assessment in connection with location map. Parameters contained in this database are used for initialization of corresponding variables of the simulation model.
Initialization of the parameters of the model can be held using data entered by user. In present time there are multitude of models for computation of contaminant
dispersion in atmosphere. The most part of them are based on statistic methods on the basis of Gaussian dispersion. However in reality Gaussian dispersion does not
always take place. Stochastic method has advantages in comparison with other methods—it is possibility to take into account the
Figure 1. Principle scheme of GIS for emission consequences assessment.
changes of weather conditions during the contaminant dispersion, simplicity of wind profile consideration and parameters of turbulent transfer, absence of numeric
diffusion, possibility of logical extension of the model by means of introduction into the model the heterogeneity of properties of underlying surface, secondary
contaminant lift, relief, physicochemical conversions of contaminants and other factors influencing the dispersion scheme. Contaminant dispersion in the framework of
stochastic approach is represented with the ensemble of occasionally wandering particles. Particle migration is composed of deterministic and stochastic parts
corresponding to the advective transformation and turbulent mixing. The selection of the proper stochastic law allow adequately to describe turbulent diffusion at
various conditions of the bottom layer of the atmosphere, to identify contaminant concentrations in check points. Consequences of contaminant emissions are assessed
by means of calculation of inhalation toxic and equivalent doses, external equivalent doses of the polluted surface. Dose calculations are fulfilled by means of databases
for physicochemical properties of contaminants (resorbation of toxic substance, mass number, dose factors), for reactions of thermo and photooxidation. The results
of the simulations are represented by isolines of surface concentrations of the contaminants and intensity of the surface dose for various weather conditions, diagrams of
timely dependencies of intensity of inhalation toxic and equivalent doses. Calculation results are processed by expert system identifying the most adequate actions for
contaminant environmental impact minimization and measures for consequences elimination on the basis of standard data and experience of solutions to
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such problems. Obtained results can be entered in database for further usage as input data. Printed results of the emergencies at various weather conditions can be
stored as hard copy. At the development of software great attention is paid to simplicity and user friendliness. Any person who knows personal computer can easily
make forecast estimations for contaminant distribution. Visual system of data inputoutput, different helps allow quickly to change conditions of calculations
(composition of contaminants, position and intensity of source, topographical map, atmosphere parameters or structure of the waterbearing stratums etc.).
During the development of the system new technologies (satellite navigation) of positioning of transportation or adequate geoinformation models of the mine transport
complex on the basis of simulation modeling can be integrated. At that environmental and economic aspects of enterprise operation on the basis of monitoring results
can be adequately considered.
With new technologies in the field of satellite navigation there is a possibility to create automation systems of positioning and characterization of mine transport
complex at any moment.
The essence of the given approach is to identify the quantity and composition of the disposed contaminants in the source of creation and to deliver this information in
real time with satellite navigation system to the control point.
At each transport unit flow sensor is installed and if possible gasanalyzer. Data on fuel rate and speed are registered in 1–30 seconds interval and is delivered to the
north of the control office with radio modems. These data are stored, processed and archived. Thus the primary database for emission calculation is formed. For quality
monitoring it is necessary to have information on the state of roads, transport. For that geoinformational model of vehicle communications is entered into the system of
operative environmental monitoring of mine transport complex. Motorways are divided on parts in limits of which motorways parameters are constant. Parameters of
parts are entered, i.e. kind of covering, width, length, dust. Another important information is information about transported mining mass as well as characteristics of the
used transport (kind, age, state of transmission). According to this information transport emissions for the given period of time (days, month, year) are calculated with
the help of the methods developed on the basis of simulation modeling. The results of the modeling can allow to fmd the sputtering and gas pollution spots—according
to the intensity of transport movement at the parts of the roads as well as to calculate sputtering.
The operative environmental monitoring system of mine transport complex allows:
– to diagnose current state of the environment at the territory of open cast mines and to make recommendations for operation of mine transport complex;
– to monitor contaminant emissions in open cast mines and to identify payments for environmental pollution for the given period;
– to forecast the development of environmental situation in open cast mines and adjoined territories;
– to make analysis of expenditures in the field of nature preservation in the frameworks of the total financial accounting of the enterprises;
– to assess risks of emergencies for contaminant emissions in the mining enterprise.
Monitoring system can be used at the development of methodical appendixes: for systematization of the main environmental, economic and organizational factors and
impact assessment on efficacy of mine transport complex work as well as at the development of selection method for development schemes of mine transport work in
relation to environmental factors.
LITERATURE
Galiev, S.Zh. Sarsenbaev, E.E. Zhusupov, K.K. 2002. Environmental and economic matters of the operation of the mine transport complex of the open cast mines. Actual
problems of deposits of mineral resources development. Proc. intern. Symp, Tashkent. 22–24 October 2001. Tashkent.
Istomina, N.Yu. Istomin, A.D. Noskov, M.D. 2002. GIS application for forecasting of contaminant distribution and human impact assessment. Mining magazine 2002(5).
90–94.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Safety in American and Polish coal mines: a comparison
Tad S.Golosinski & Piotr M.Szmigiel
Department of Mining Engineering, University of MissouriRolla, Rolla, MO, USA
ABSTRACT: The paper presents results of a study conducted at UMR that compared safety performance of American and Polish coal mines. The
study analyzed safety statistics in Polish coal mines as collected by WUG, the Polish Mining Inspectorate, and compared those against the mine safety
statistics collected in American mines by MSHA, Mines Safety and Health Administration. Several problems were encountered: the differences in the
way the statistics are collected in both countries, differences in definitions of mine safety related terms and indices, and differences in mine organization
and technology. These were dealt with by development of common criteria that allowed reliable comparisons to be made. The results of the study
indicate that, in general, American coal mines are safer, although in some respects the Polish mines are not far behind.
1 INTRODUCTION
This paper compares safety in Polish and American coal mines. To facilitate reliable comparison coal production statistics in both countries were collected and analyzed
in addition to safety records. Safety related data for Polish mines are those collected and published by the Polish Mines Inspectorate (WUG); the data for American
mines were collected and published by Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) of the US Department of Labor. The comparison reflects mine safety during
2002.
To facilitate the evaluations following was done:
• Safety and production statistics provided by MSHA were recalculated to reflect SI units: (1 short ton=0.9072 metric tonnes).
• The statistics chosen for comparison were: number of fatalities as related to coal produced, number of fatalities as related to hours worked, and number of fatalities
related to the number of mine employees.
• The evaluations were limited to fatalities since the definition of accident and calculation of related safety indices in both countries is not compatible.
Lastly, discrepancies in definitions of safety terms and in mine organization required making a number of assumptions. These are addressed in the text of the paper.
2 POLISH COAL MINING INDUSTRY
Safety in Polish coal mines is regulated and monitored by Polish Mines Inspectorate, WUG.
Table 1. Polish coal industry production and employment statistics for 2002 (http://www.wug.gov.pl/tab.pdf).
This agency is responsible for issuance of mining permits, for development and publication of mine safety regulations, for their enforcement, for accident and fatality
investigations, and for collection and reporting of mine safety data. Table 1 shows coal production and coal mining industry employment statistics published by WUG
for 2002.
During 2002 total of 33 fatal accidents (fatalities) occurred in underground Polish coal mines. In addition one fatality occurred in a surface coal mine. As shown at
official WUG website: (http:// www.wug.gov.pl/wypadki.html) these numbers are limited to mine employees and do not include fatalities that may have occurred to
contractors working in mines or at the minesites.
Related fatality indicators for the Polish coal mining industry calculated from the above data are shown in Table 2.
Indicators presented in Table 2 were calculated as follows:
• Fatalities per million tonnes excavated:
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Table 2. Polish fatality indicators for year 2002 as published by WUG at http://www.wug.gov.pl/wypadki.html
Indicator Value
Fatalities per million tonnes excavated (underground mines) 0.32
Fatalities per million tonnes excavated (surface mines) 0.017*
Fatalities per million tonnes excavated (total coal produced) 0.21
Fatalities per 1000 underground mine employees 0.243
Fatalities per 1000 surface mine employees 0.047*
Fatalities per million hours worked in underground mines 0.15
Fatalities per million hours worked in surface mines NA
* From data shown in Table 1 and the reported number of fatal accidents in Polish Industry during 2002.
where:
F (pmf)=fatalities per million tonnes excavated;
F=total number of fatalities; and
P=tonnes produced.
• Fatalities per 1000 employees
where:
F (pte)=fatalities per thousand employees;
F=total number of fatalities; and
E=number of employees.
• Fatalities per million hours worked
where:
F(pmh)=fatalities per million hours worked;
F=total number of fatalities; and
H=hours worked.
For example the number of fatalities in Polish underground mines per million tonnes of produced coal is calculated as follows: Number of fatalities in Polish underground
coal mines was 33 while 102,060,000 tonnes of coal were excavated. Therefore the fatalities per million tonnes excavated:
The final result is rounded to 33.
3 AMERICAN COAL MINING INDUSTRY
MSHA, Mine Safety and Health Administration of the US Department of Labor is responsible for all
Table 3. American coal industry production and employment statistics for 2002 (http://www.msha.gov).
Table 4. Fatality indicators for American coal mines in 2002.
Indicator Value
Fatalities per million tonnes excavated (underground mines) 0.037
Fatalities per million tonnes excavated (surface mines) 0.012
Fatalities per million tonnes excavated (total coal produced) 0.020
Fatalities per 1000 underground mine employees 0.257
Fatalities per 1000 surface mine employees 0.185
Fatalities per million hours worked in underground mines 0.140
Fatalities per million hours worked in surface mines 0.104
aspects of coal mine safety in America. Like WUG in Poland, MSHA regulates the industry, enforces the regulations, investigates accidents and fatalities, and reports
on mine safety.
Production and employment statistics for American coal mines as collected by MSHA are shown in Table 3.
In 2002 there were 12 fatalities in the underground American mines and 8 in the surface mines. This allows calculation of fatality indicators for American coal mines
as shown in Table 4.
4 DISCUSSION
4.1 Production statistics
To facilitate fiirther discussion several relevant production statistics need to be defmed. These are shown in Tables 5 to 7.
Table 5 indicates that in comparison to Polish miners average American miner mines 9.3 times more coal in underground mines and 5.6 times more in surface mines.
In the absence of published data the number of hours worked in Polish underground mines was determined based on the published fatality indicator for 2002. The
assumed numbers are given in Table 6.
The number of hours worked in 2002 was used to calculate tonnes produced per one hour of work as
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Table 5. Tonnes mined per employee in 2002.
Table 6. Hours worked in coal mines in 2002 (millions of hours).
Table 7. Tonnes of coal produced per one workhour in 2002.
Table 8. Tonnes of coal produced per one fatality in 2002.
shown in Table 7. The data presented in this Table indicates that in comparison with American miners an underground Polish miner produces 8.3 times less coal per
each workhour.
Data presented in Tables 5, 6 and 7 clearly indicates that Polish coal mining is less productive than the American one.
4.2 Safety statistics
To evaluate relative safety of Polish and American coal mining a number of safety indices were calculated as presented in Tables 8 to 10.
Table 8 indicates that in comparison with America, underground coal mines in Poland are significantly less safe. On the other hand Polish surface mines appear to
have similar level of safety. However, low coal production and low number of fatalities in Polish surface mines does not allow for reliable comparisons.
Table 9 presents the number of coal mine employees per one fatality. Here the numbers calculated for underground mines in both countries are compatible. The
number of employees per one fatality in Polish surface coal mines appears to be much more favorable. However this may not be correct due to lack of sufflcient data to
make a valid comparison.
Table 9. Number of employees per one fatality in 2002.
Table 10. Total number of fatalities in 2002.
Table 11. Fatality indicators for Polish and American coal mines in 2002.
Finally the overall fatality count is much higher for the Polish coal mining industry than that for the American coal mining industry. This is illustrated in Table 10. This
difference is significant considering that much less coal is produced in Poland.
Table 11 summarizes the safety indicators for both coal mining industries.
The likely reason for low number of fatalities per 1000 employees in Polish underground coal mines is overstaffmg. Overstaffmg lessens the exposure of miners to the
risks inherent in mining, thus makes mining appear to be relatively safer.
It is stressed that the comparisons made for surface coal mines may not be reliable due to relatively small size of the available data pool/differences of indices
calculated for surface mines if lack of sufficient data pool, limited to one fatality.
Most striking comparison is that shown in Table 8. In relative terms approximately nine times more fatalities are faced per each million of tonnes produced in
underground Polish mines. Similar
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ratio for surface mines is 1.4. Overall, a miner looses life for each 4.7 million tonnes of coal produced in Poland, while in America it is 49.7 million tonnes.
Should Polish coal production equal that in America, the number of fatalities in Polish coal mines, projected from current statistics, would amount to 105 for
underground and 11 for surface mines. On the other hand, should the American mines produce as little coal as the Polish ones the number of fatalities would be
reduced to less than 4 and less than 1 respectively.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The statistics and indices presented above lead to the conclusion that the American underground coal mining is significantly safer than the Polish one. The surface coal
mining industries in both countries seem to have comparable levels of safety. However, the conclusion on safety in surface mines may not be correct as the data pool
used for comparison was very small.
REFERENCES
Mine Health and Safety Administration (http://www. msha.gov).
Wyższy Urząd Górniczy—Mines Inspectorate (http:// www.wug.gov.pl).
Karmis, M. Ed. 2001. Mine Health and Safety Management. Society of Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado.
Hartman, H.L. Ed. 1996. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition. Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration Engineers Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Golosinski, T.S. Ed. 2000. Mining in the New Millennium—Challenges and Opportunities, the Proceedings of the AmericanPolish Mining Symposium. Las Vegas ,
Nevada.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Dynamic models for gas flow modeling—quantifying the capacity of an
underground gas storage
J.Gottfried, H.Shimada & K.Matsui
Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
ABSTRACT: The present contribution deals with description of possibilities of models for solving problems connected with gas leakage from old
abandoned mine workings and with application of such models. Its aim is to demonstrate how these models can help when designing a degassing
system, when placing gas drainage boreholes, when establishing gas drainage regimes, control of drainage and prediction of occurrence of dangerous
situations. Furthermore, the contribution deals with potential practical applications of the models and with proposals of procedures for control of
leakage of dangerous gases.
1 INTRODUCTION
In this paper we intend to analyze possible solutions of quantifying the capacity of relatively enclosed underground spaces (for example a closed mine which had been
abandoned, etc.). One of them is by means of using mathematic models of the examined space with application of dynamic models. Advantage of using such method is
the possibility of quantifying capacity of underground spaces which had been opened by a drainage borehole withoul having to perform a suction test. As of today, the
most common method of quantifying capacity of underground spaces has been either a suction test or some other method based on assessment. (Gottfried 2003)
Indeed, the suction test is probably the most precise means of quantifying capacity of the underground space (gas storage). But it is a very fmancially costly method as
well. That is why we intend to present in this paper an alternative method. Quantifying the gas storage capacity is very useful especially if there is an interest to exploit
the gas storage commercially and no assessment exists as to the amount of the gas contained. Such situation occurred for example in Petfkovice locality where the
suction tests were performed in order to assess the yield of the gas source i.e. the capacity of the gas storage.
2 PROCEDURE OF QUANTIFYING THE GAS STORAGE CAPACITY
When quantifying the capacity of an underground space we will presume a situation when there has been at least one hole bored into it.
In an ideal situation the storage would be isolated from the outer environment (i.e. except for the bored hole there is no other connection between the storage and the
surface). Whether this condition is fulfilled we can decide from the concentration of oxygen in the gas leaking from the bore hole for an extended period of time. If the
concentration is close or amounts to zero (measured when the gas has been leaking from the bore hole for an extended period of time i.e. period of time which is longer
than the period of time during which the gas had been previously being sucked into the bore hole), than we can presume that the underground space does not
communicate with the surface by other ways (i.e. the gas from the goaf doesn’t mix with the gas from the atmosphere, namely with the oxygen). To find out whether
underground spaces communicate with the atmosphere we can apply a useful method of shutting and opening the bore hole. In order to prevent flowing of the gas into
the underground space (i.e. to prevent flowing of oxygen into the underground space in order to obtain unbiased findings as to the concentration of the gas in the
underground space) we shut the bore hole always when it tends to suck—i.e. the atmospheric pressure is higher than the gas pressure in the underground space—and
thus the atmosphere oxygen cannot mix with the underground gas. Consequently, when the atmospheric pressure is lower than the pressure in the underground space,
we again reopen the borehole and let the gas escape through it. During such periods we can start measuring the oxygen concentration in the escaping gas. As
aforementioned, if the concentration is close to zero, it is most probable, that the underground
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space does not communicate with the surface. There is one more advantage to this method. Shutting the bore hole always when it tends to suck prolongs the period
during which the atmospheric pressure is higher than the gas pressure in the underground space and thus safer conditions are maintained for a longer time when the gas
is not escaping from the storage. In order to create a proper model we need to know the parameters of the bore hole. Since in our model the capacity of an
underground space is the unknown all other parameters of the model need to be set. Since in this model the discharge flow through the bore hole is calculated via
Atkinson’s equation (1) we have to enter the values of Δp, R and n.
(1)
where: Δp=the difference between the underground pressure and the atmospheric pressure on the surface. (Pa); R=The resistance of the bore hole passage way (Pa.
(m3∙s−1)−n ); Q=Volume flow rate of the gas through the bore hole. (m3∙s−1); n=exponent defining the mode of flowing. (without dimension).
Finding out the values of Δp and Q shouldn’t be a problem because they are quite easily measurable variables and their measuring is often performed by our team.
The R and n variables are constants which characterize the behavior of the gas flowing through the bore hole. Theoretically, they are different for every bore hole
shouldn’t be changing throughout time. They need to be calculated from the measured values. After substituting the atmospheric pressure variables R and n, the model
is able to calculate Q and Δp and work further with the capacity.
The R and n values need to be calculated from the measurements. This can be done via the system of 2 equations with 2 variables.
The procedure is as follows: We take the pressure values Δp and Q from two different measurements. Thus we have Δp1 and Q1 measured at the t1 time and Δp2,
Q2 measured at the time t2. These measured values we put in a system of two equations and calculate R and n. This procedure needs to be repeated for a larger
number of measured values and for further calculations we use averaged R and n values.
As soon as the R and n values are set, we can start constructing the model. The model is illustrated in Figure 1.
2.1 Variant calculations and the general model
Firstly, a general model used for quantification of the underground gas storage capacity was created to simulate the above described situation. The model consists of an
underground storage with only one way to communicate with the surface (i.e. one bore hole connecting the storage with the surface).
Figure 1. The diagram of the model used for the quantification of the underground storage capacity.
Figure 2. Graph with the atmospheric pressure course throughout the simulation via models MOD05OBA and MOD05OBB.
It is possible to say that every such system (underground space—bore hole) has its specific transition characteristic, which is dependent on the previously quantified
variables and also on the unknown capacity. This characteristic can be simulated via the presented model. We will demonstrate the behavior and modeling of the given
system on type models with unrealistic course of atmospheric pressure (for better illustration) and later on also on a model with realistic course of atmospheric pressure.
The model specified as MOD05OBA serves to simulate a situation when the storage capacity is 100000 m3 and at the time 40000 there is a sudden steep increase
of the atmospheric pressure by 2000 Pa. Figure 2 shows the graph with the atmospheric pressure course throughout the simulation. The reaction to this sudden change
(or the transient characteristic) is shown in the Figure 3. Since the transient stage during which the system stabilizes itself into a new equilibrium last only a short time
(approximately 8000 seconds) and thus the change graphically depicted in the Figure 3 showing the whole course of simulation cannot be very well observed, there is
another graph in the Figure 4 with
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Figure 3. Course of Δp throughout the simulation via model MOD05OBA.
Figure 4. Detail of Δp course throughout the simulation for the time interval 40000–50000 sec.
the time axis limited to the interval between 37000–50000 seconds delimiting approximately the period of the transient stage. The graphs show that changing the
pressure equilibrium will cause a change of Δp by the amount which is equal to the change of the atmospheric pressure. The model then serves for observing the time
during which the system returns into the equilibrium (Δp=0, or Δp=constant). In the case of there being no source of pressure in the storage Δp=0. Δp=constant in the
case where there is a source of pressure (e.g. a gas source). The following examples simulate a situation in which there is no source of pressure, but the variable of the
pressure source (gas source) can be easily adjusted in these models.
In Figure 5 is the Δp course throughout the simulation via model MOD05OBB. In this model the capacity of the storage is set to 500000 m3. In comparison of the
two graphs in Figure 3 and Figure 5 there is a visible difference in the times the models need to return to an equilibrium. Compared to 8000 sec in the MOD05OBA
model it is 35000 sec in the MOD05OBB model.
Figure 5. Course of Δp throughout the simulation via model MOD05OBB.
Figure 6. Graph with the realistic atmospheric pressure course throughout the simulation via models MOD05OBH and MOD05OBQ.
Now we will look at the models of similar situations but this time with a realistic course of atmospheric pressure. For better illustration the simulation times were
shortened to 50000sec. These models are referred to as MOD05OBH and MOD05OBQ. In the MOD05OBH model the capacity of the storage is set to 100000 m3
and in the MOD05OBQ model the capacity of the storage is set to 500000m . Other parameters of these two models are identical. Figure 6 shows the course of the
atmospheric pressure throughout the simulation via the two models.
This course can be compared to the courses of pressure measured in the simulated underground spaces. MOD05OBH in Figure 7, MOD05OBQ in Figure 9. In
comparison of the graphs we find out that the pressure course in Figure 7 reacts to the atmospheric pressure change much faster and thus in fact “faithfülly” copies its
respective course. On the other hand, the pressure course in Figure 9 is much smoother, i.e. reacts to the atmospheric pressure changes much slower.
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Figure 7. Course of the pressure in the storage throughout the simulation via model MOD05OBH.
Figure 8. The bore hole Δp reaction to the atmospheric pressure change as calculated via the MOD05OBH model.
Figure 9. Course of the pressure in the storage throughout the simulation via model MOD05OBQ.
In comparison of Figure 8 and Figure 10 we can observe how fast Δp changes in the respective cases. In Figure 8 the Δp changes rapidly as the steep changes of
pressure show. On the other hand the pressure changes in Figure 10 are much more gradual (the system inertia is much greater).
Figure 10. The bore hole Δp reaction to the atmospheric pressure change as calculated via the MOD05OBQ model.
2.2 Quantifying the gas storage capacity
The underground storage capacity itself is quantified by performing model simulations. Realistic atmospheric pressure, bore hole resistance, and other substituted
constants are applied and variant calculations are performed—various storages capacities are applied to the model and the behavior of measured Δp or Q is compared
with values calculated via the model. If a sufficient correspondence of the transient characteristics is found, we can roughly assess the capacity of the underground
storage, which was our primary aim.
3 CONCLUSION
The model situations were intentionally demonstrated with unrealistically steep changes of the atmospheric pressure via type examples. When applying this method for
quantifying the underground storage capacity to the realworld situations we will calculate with much shorter simulation times and much smaller and less rapid changes
of the atmospheric pressure.
REFERENCES
Gottfried, J. 2003. Contribution to the problem of dangerous gasses outlet solved by computer models. Ph.D. Thesis. Ostrava: VŠBTU.
Lát, J. 2000. Výstupy plynů z dolu na povrch v oblastech s ukončenou hornickou činností. Uhlí, rudy, geologický průzkum 7/2000, p. 10–14.
Strakoš, V. 2000 Teoretické aspekty proudĕni důlních plynů na povrch. Sborník referátů 10.mezindroání konference Hornická Ostrava 2000. Ostrava:
Moravskoslezská hornická společnost ČSVTS p. 101–110. ISBN 80–02–01347–6.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Accidents in Brazilian mining waste dams
W.T.Hennies, M.Hamze Guilart, S.M.Eston, L.A.Ayres da Silva & G.R.Martín Cortés
Mining and Petroleum Engineering Department, Polytechnic School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
ABSTRACT: This paper is an approach to accidents occurred in dams of mining wastes in Brazil, evaluating the accidents registered in technical
works and information obtained from the Internet. The causes, human victims, material damages, and environmental impacts of the accidents are
related in the approached historical cases in a general way. However, each case is analyzed separately, using the tools of the risk management to
evaluate it. Following this research, it can be emphasized that Brazil still lacks a political guideline capable of reducing the potential danger of the
accidents that constitute the existing mining waste dams of a small and medium size, in spite of the norm that regulates all the processes and tasks
related to this type of engineering works.
1 INTRODUCTION
Generally, dams can be classified as concrete dams, embankment dams or waste dams. The embankment dams are built of not very resistant materials, when
compared to the concrete. The most common types are the earth dams and the rocky dams. (De Mello, 1988 & Dunnicliff, 1993)
The waste dams are built with industrial residues, such as residues of the mining industries; ashes from the thermo electrical combustion, residues of the chemical
industry, petrochemistry, paper and cellulose industry, etc. Whatever they are, they also use the embankment dams for the waste disposal. (Hamze Guilart, 1998b)
The crack of a waste dam can involve from simple problems without great social and economic consequences, to extreme cases with inundations, destruction of
goods and human lives, sometimes causing irreparable damages to the environment, apart from the interruption of the productive process in the related industry.
The basic justification for the choice of analyzes of accidents in waste dams of Brazil is based on a great number of existing waste dams and the amount of accidents
registered in this type of installation over the last years. According to the nongovernmental association “Conhecer para Conservar” (To know To conserve) (2003)
and the Environment State Foundation from the Minas Gerais State, only in this state, until December 2002, there were registered 177 waste dams, being constituted
by 26 states of Brazil.
Another important justification is a lack of the culture of the monitoring and control of the geotechnical parameter behavior in different stages of the waste dams; on
the contrary to the great Brazilian water dams, where the accidents are contemplated, but factors of minimum risks of the development and the systematization of the
monitoring by geotechnical instrumentation measures are constituted. (Hamze Guilart, 1998a)
2 OBJECTIVES
– Analyze historical cases of accidents in waste dams in Brazil, evaluating one crack in this work type in the Brazilian mining.
– Evaluate the accidents in the waste dams from the perspective of the risk factors, and from this approach, make some considerations related to the accidents
occurred in this type of engineering workmanship.
3 ACCIDENTS IN BRAZILIAN WASTE DAMS
Table 1 presents six waste dam accident cases in Brazil.
It is possible that a lack of other accidents that are not registered is because of their little connotation, or for not having an effect of impact on the environment
Page 796
Table 1. Six examples of cases of waste dam accidents in Brazil. (From: Vásquez Arnez, 1999 modified).
that provokes a mobilization in the opinion publishes and in the environmental organizations.
4 THE CRACK OF THE WASTE DAM OF FERNANDINHO MINE
The approach to the Fernandinho mine’s waste dam crack in this work, is in function of disposing of the enough technical information, compared with the other cases
related in the Table 1.
The waste dam is placed in the Itabirito district, in the State of Minas Gerais. It is owned by “Itaminas Comercio de Minerios S/A”. The accident happened in May
16, 1986. The waste dam had a height close to 40 m; its construction was made in the middle of 1984. For that reason it is possible to infer that at that moment of the
crack the waste dam was practically in the stage of deactivation.
At the time of the rupture, the top of the dam was close to 2 m above all rejects it contained in the reservoir as Figure 1 shows.
The reservoir met the division into two compartments one of which was covered by a layer of water from 0,5 to 1,0 meters deep, and the dry compartment was
used for the removal of wastes, even so, the dam was in the stage of deactivation that did not allow making any type of waste removal.
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Figure 1. Mining waste dam of the Fernandinho Mine, phases of the rupture. (modified from Parra & Lamar 1987).
At the moment of the rupture, at the top of the dam, three trucks and a shovel one met their operators, who had been involved in the accident and dragged by the mud
mass.
Working at the top of the dam simultaneously with and close to four items of heavyduty equipment, probably served as detonating element to set in motion the
rupture of the barrage by liquefaction.
According to the report of witness of the accident, the rupture would have happened in two stages. In the first, there was a slow rupture close to the right shoulder
pad, involving the flooded behavior and taking plans and workers. Later on, there was heard a roar, followed by the total collapse, creating a wave of mud.
In the margins of the dam were clear signs of a great difference in the heights reached by the flow, due to the oscillation of the mass in the abrupt direction changes
for the regularity of the land. The whole vegetation and the superficial soil were removed from the land by the force of the mass in motion, leaving a surface of desert
like aspect in the landscape. Figure 1 shows the phase of the rupture of the waste dam.
Parra & Lamar (1987) had made a detailed evaluation of the condition factors and the causes of the rupture. All the evaluation could be summar
Page 798
Table 2. Analysis of accident. Crack in the Waste dams of the Fernandinho mine. (From: Eston, 2003 & Hamze Guilart, 1998a).
Event: Liquefaction rupture
Risk factor Comments
Procedure deviation In the deactivation stage, launching mining wastes into the dam were continuing.
Supervision lack In the construction and after in the dam, did not exist a systematic technique supervision agreeing to the necessary requirements.
Lack of project To have existed, it joins project revision when it was decided to continue with the deposition of mining wastes, more of the foreseen one in the
revision planning, and if being made one of it analyzes of risks, it would prevent the rupture.
Lack of planning of Reason for which did not exist a project of monitoring by means of geotechnical instrumentation. It was not possible to establish an emergency plan
emergency to prevent the rupture.
Lack of politics line At the time of the rupture it did not exist, and, still does not exist one politics line of direction, of the competent organizations, that all regulate and
of direction control concerning to the research, project, operation, security, and deactivation of mining waste dam in an integral and multilateral form.
General comments: In the margins, in a considerable height, all the vegetation and the ground superficial had been removed by the force of the mass in movement, leaving a desertlike
aspect, with 5 lost of human life being, and removal and transport equipment.
ized in two basic questions. The first one was of operational character, the second, was to deal with the structural security and the geotechnical instrumentation.
Existed an operational, related violation: to the dam at the moment of the rupture, more than two years off it was concluded its height construction, consequently, met
in the stage of deactivation and still they had continued depositing mining wastes. As a result of the deposition of more mining wastes, the level of the beach of the
reservoir arrived close to the top making possible the rupture of the barrage by liquefaction.
The Second cause of the rupture was the lack of monitoring control through geotechnical instrumentation. The project of measurements exists to know the behavior
of the geotechnical parameters, such as, level and pressure of the water in the piezometric line, press down, and horizontal displacements. These measures done
periodically, could establish an emergency plan to prevent the rupture of the barrage.
The factors of risks influenced those subjects had not been taken into consideration during the processes and stages of construction of the dam. If these factors had
been considered, with certainty, the rupture of the dam would not have happened because the emergency plan would have been applied.
5 CONCLUSIONS
(a) After evaluation of the accidents happened in this types of dams, there is a fact that it has been a routine practice in the small and medium mining works and in
another industries, the construction of dams of waste contention was made without an engineering project.
(b) In spite ofthe great mobilization ofthe society, the different government organs, the environmental organizations, etc., motivatedby the rupture of the mining waste
contention dam of Cataguazes, (CIÊNCIA E MEIO AMBIENTE, 2003) it is possible to appreciate, by the statements and the great quantity of information related
to this fact that, there is still not a political guideline capable of reducing the potential danger of accidents that constitute the old waste dams that were not subjects to
the effective norms of environmental regulation and techniques in Brazil.
(c) Any political guideline guided to give the answer to the problem of the accidents in mining waste dam should have been based in the regulations established by the
standard NBR13028/1993, (Coletânea de normas de mineração e meio ambiente, 1993) logically, adapted to the existent conditions in each dam, all this, based on
its risk analysis.
REFERENCES
CIÊNCIA E MEIO AMBIENTE. Primeiros relatórios minimizam acidentes em Cataguazes 02 de abril 2003 http://www.estadao.com.br/ciencia/noticias/2003/abr/
02/234.htm Last access agosto 2003.
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Coletânea de normas de mineração e meio ambiente. Elaboração e apresentação de projeto de disposição de rejeitos de beneficiamento, em barramento, em mineração.
NBM 13028/1993. Rio de Janeiro 1993.
De mello, V. Diferencias sérias entre barragens de acumulação de água e de rejeitos. In SIMPÓSIO SOBRE BARRAGENS DE REJEITOS E DISPOSIÇÃO DE
RESÍDUOS INDUSTRIAIS E DE MINERAÇÃO, Anais Rio de Janeiro 1988.
Dunnicliff, J. Embankment dams. Geotechnical instrumentation for monitoring field performance. 2° edition New York: John Wiley, 1993 p.417–441.
Eston, S.M., Fantazzini, M.L. Acidentes Tecnológicos e ferramentas de gerenciamento de riscos. São Paulo: PMI/ EPUSP, 2003. Notas de aula.
Hamze Guilart, M. Instrumentação de barragens de rejeitos. São Paulo, 1998a. Seminário do Curso de pósgraduação sobre barragens de rejeitos de mineração.
Metodologia de Implantação e Manutenção.
Hamze Guilart, M. Etapas de trabalho das barragens de rejeitos. São Paulo, 1998b. /Apresentadas na Disciplina Barragens de Contenção de Rejeitos—Metodologia de
Implantação e Manutenção.
Parra, P.C., Lamar, N.T. Ruptura da barragem de rejeitos da Mina do Fernadinho In SIMPÔSIO SOBRE BARRAGENS DE REJEITOS E DEPOSIÇÃO DE
RESIDUOS INDUSTRIAIS E DE MINERAÇÃO, Anais Rio de Janeiro 1987 VI P. 423–44.
Vásquez Arnez, F.I. Avaliação das principais causas de acidentes em barragens de contenção de rejeitos devido a fatores geológicos e geotécnicos. 1999. 83 p.
Dissertação (Mestrado)—Escola Politécnica, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The process of underground gas storing
Ivanka Juettner & Boris Kavedžija
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, Department ofReservoir
Engineering, Zagreb, Croatia
ABSTRACT: When the oil field is almost depleted, the high gas injection can help to produce additional oil, if the process is in immiscibility or
miscibility conditions. For that reason, the simulation both, high gas injection and the process of underground gas storage has been performed. The two
studied ways of future oil field management results by enrichment of dry gas with valuable components as underground gas storage, rather than oil
recovery by high gas injection.
1 INTRODUCTION
Historically, the main purpose of storing natural gas has been to enable the gas transmission and distribution companies to respond to lost production or to the higher
seasonal demands that are caused by winter weather.
Some method of accumulating large quantities of gas nearer to the point of usage could be depleted or almost depleted oil/gas reservoirs. The initial reservoirs were
old, depleted oil and gas fields, and if these fields were able to contain gas for millions of years, they should be able to contain gas that was injected into them.
In this paper phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixture in terms of supposed scenarios of gas storage in almost depleted reservoir, has been investigated.
2 THE GAS INJECTION IN DEPLETED RESERVOIR
During the process of storing gas in depleted reservoirs, there are practically no differences in composition of gas injected in the filling phase of the underground storage
and produced gas during the producing phase of reservoir. However, by using partially or completely depleted oil reservoirs for gas storage, composition of gas in
reservoir changes. When injected dry gas comes in contact with residual oil, exchanges in phase behavior of new hydrocarbon mixture occur. The result of exchange in
phase behavior is vaporization of one part of hydrocarbons from liquid (oil) to gaseous phase so exchange in content of C2+ component in produced gas occurs. This
enrichment is desired effect, because it increases energetic, and potentially economic value of stored gas.
Simulation of gas storage has been conducted on Žutica oil filed using following parameters, or assumptions:
– The composition of reservoir fluid were sampled under static conditions.
– Present oil/gas ratio in gas cap is about 1:45.
– The maximum pressure variation of fillin/ emptying phase is 50–200 bars.
Main features of calculated procedures are:
In the gas injection phase, final storage pressure is systematically increased up to its maximum value.
Emptying phase has been simulated by differential vaporization in one stage. In this case it is similar to flash process for same pressure difference.
At lowest empting pressure the equilibrium composition of liquid phase (oil) is initial composition for next cycle.
2.1 Production history
Žutica oil field is reservoir with gas cap and relatively small oil ring, and it is at the end of production.
Three intervals were separate within the oil reservoir A1−3 defined as independent exploitation objects. The production history was short and can be divided in two
phases:
Phase 1—test production from the reservoirs, which was short due to the very fast movement of gas from the gas cap into oil ring, which simultaneously reduced the
productivity of wells.
Page 802
Phase 2—maintaining reservoir pressure by high injection of dry gas in the gas cap, obtaining the immiscible conditions.
Due to depletion of reservoir and gas cap volume the reservoirs are potential candidates for underground gas storage. Previous engineering studies showed good
prospects for such usage of these reservoirs as well as some inherent disadvantages, which are mainly due to condition of old wells.
During the injection phase of gas storage, partial dissolving of gas in oil occurs in every cycle. Composition of oil changes after each cycle of injection/emptying, due
to stepbystep vaporization, and regarding that swelling factor and density of remaining oil also changes.
In the first cycle, injected gas comes in contact with saturated oil under reservoir pressure identical to bubble pressure (pb=129 bar). Dissolving of methane in
saturated fluid is small, which is represented by small values of bubble factor (1.06) during the pressure increase from 129 to 200 bars.
Residual oil phase, after first cycle, not contains the C1−C6+ components. In other words, during second and next cycles of injection, injected gas is in equilibrium
with oil of rather exchanged composition (smaller content of C1−C6 hydrocarbons, greater average molecular weight and oil density).
Solubility of injected gas in heavy oil is greater, which is accompanied with greater (comparing with saturated oil) corresponding swelling factor: in second and third
cycle, swelling factor is twice the one in first cycle, while differences in these cycles are small.
The vaporization process of lighter hydrocarbons from oil with mechanism of exchange in phase behavior at static conditions is especially noticeable in exchange of
oil density. After each cycle, oil density increases due to relative increase in content of C7+ hydrocarbons in remaining fluid.
The effects of exchange of thermodynamically equilibrium are most responsible to enrichment of gas with C2+ components. In that process of enrichment, tendency
vaporization of individual component is proportional to its partial pressure at given pressure, temperature conditions, or, inversely proportional to its molecular weight.
In concordance with that, increase in concentration of gas phase is greatest for ethane, smaller for propane, etc.
Level of enrichment, defined for minimal case of process, i.e. contact of injected methane with saturated reservoir oil in first cycle and progressively evaporated oil in
next cycles, for gas storing pressure of 200 bar is as in Table 1
The degree of enrichment gas phase depend with exchange in oil composition, i.e. due to number of cycle (and total number of cycles) and is also greatest in case of
lightest component.
Table 1. Level of gas enrichment for minimal case scenario [4].
Emptying gas
Component Injected gas Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3
Ethane 1.3 9.0 5.3 3.5
Propane 0.2 5.5 4.2 3.0
Butanes 0.07 2.0 1.8 1.6
Pentanes 0.02 0.56 0.53 0.50
Magnitude and direction of exchange of gas composition during three tested cycles of gas storing are depicted with associated Kfactors of components. The
distribution of individual component between phases is function of pressure.
Values of Kfactor for lightest components (C1, C2, C3) of reservoir hydrocarbon mixture are decreasing, and for heavier components progressively increase with
pressure of system. This effect is more manifested at heavier hydrocarbons so the slope of concentration curve for C7+ hydrocarbons in gas phase, with increase of
pressure, is biggest in order C4, C5, C6, C7+.
These results are in concordance with known facts about dependence of Kfactor on pressure, temperature and composition of hydrocarbon mixture, as well as
abnormal volatility of heavier hydrocarbons at high pressures, especially in condensate hydrocarbon systems.
Out of this results it can be concluded that level of enrichment of injected gas, or, change in quantity of vaporized hydrocarbons in each cycle of storage, is mostly
ftmction of material balance, i.e., total initial quantity of higher hydrocarbons.
For process of enrichment of injected gas, during lifetime of underground storage is also important dependence of Kfactor of hydrocarbon components on oil
composition, out of which lighter components are gradually extracted. In Žuticamethane system, Kfactors of components are almost insensitive to change in oil
composition within three tested cycles.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Results of gas storage process simulation in terms of pressure cycle, injection to 200 bars, depletion to 50 bars, showed:
– Kfactors of C2−C6 components do not significantly change values with number of gas storing cycles.
– In practical terms, this means that during the first few years of storage it can be expected enrichment of injected dry gas (methane) due to favorable
Page 803
Figure 1. Influence on exchange of oil composition on hydrocarbons phase equilibrium in system: oil Žuticamethane [4].
effects of phase behavior exchange within working pressure range.
– Using the reservoir for storing gas, in this case has additional benefit in increase in value of stored gas due to increase of caloric value of gas, and possibility of
extracting valuable hydrocarbon components.
– It can be concluded that level of enrichment of injected gas, or, change in quantity of vaporized hydrocarbons in each cycle of storage, is mostly fUnction of material
balance, i.e., total initial quantity of higher hydrocarbons.
Out of two studied possible ways of future management of Žutica oil field, results of this study favors using the reservoir for gas storage rather than continuation of oil
production by gas injection.
REFERENCES
1. Amyx, J.W., Bass D.M. Jr., Whiting, R.L. 1960. Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, McGrawHill Book Co., NewYorkTorontoLondon.
2. Edminster, W.C., Lee, B.I. 1984. Applied Hydrocarbon Thermodynamics, Vol. I. 2nd. Ed. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex.
3. Hoffman, A.E., Crmp, J.S., Hocot, C.R., 1953. Equilibrium Constants for a Gas Condensate System, Trans. AIME 198, 1.
4. Jüttner, I. 1995. Optimalizacija proćesapoveìanja iscrpka nafte recikliranjem prirodnog plina u ležište s plinskom kapom, D.Sc. dissertation, University of Zagreb, Faculty
of Mining, Geology & Petroleum Engineering, Zagreb, Croatia.
5. Latil, M. 1980. Enhanced Recovery, Inst. Francais Du Petrole, 103–105.
6. Pitzer, K.S., Lipmann, D.Z., Curl, R.F., Jr., Huggins, C.M., Peterson, D.E. 1955. The Volumetric and Thermodynamic Properties of Fluids. II. Compressibility Factor,
Vapor Pressure and Entropy of Vaporization, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 77, No. 13, 3443.
7. Reid, R.C., Prausnitz, J.M., Sherwood, T.K. 1987. The Properties of Gases and Liquids, McGrawHill Book Co., New York.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Anticollision System
V.A.Kononov
Schauenburg Flexadux (Pty) Ltd., Wadeville, South Africa
ABSTRACT: The problem of collisions between mobile machinery and underground workers is well known. A new concept of an Anticollision
System is proposed and implemented. This concept shifts the responsibility of the worker’s safety onto the worker himself, which is natural from the
psychological point of view. The system employs a miner’s twoway communication tag, which allows warning a person of danger from a vehicle
moving towards him. After receiving this warning the worker should take the necessary action to provide his own safety, for example by clearing the
way to give safe passage to the vehicle. If the endangered worker is not able to assume a safe position, he alerts the driver by pressing a button on the
cap lamp and sending a distress signal. Only then is the alarm on the vehicle activated, warning the driver of the impending collision. If the driver does
not stop the vehicle, it will be stopped automatically within 2–4 seconds after receiving the distress signal from the worker.
1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of collisions between mobile machinery and underground workers is well known. In South African coalmines alone, approximately 70–80 accidents with
12–17 fatalities take place each year.
Different types of commercially available Personal Detection Systems (PDS) are based on a radio frequency transmitter, (a tag), usually installed into the battery
cover of an underground worker’s caplamp, and a receiver mounted onto the mobile vehicle. When the receiver installed on a vehicle detects a signal from a tag
located in close proximity, an audio and visual alarm alerts the driver of a person’s presence. Such a solution places full responsibility for the worker’s safety onto the
driver, who becomes increasingly irritated by alarms which are activated even when a vehicle passes workers at a safe distance. These unnecessary alarms reduce the
driver’s alertness and even lead to the situation where the system is deliberately disabled. At the same time, underground workers with tags become less attentive
because they believe that the drivers are taking care of their safety.
This unfortunate coincidence of human factors significantly reduces the system’s efficiency and even increases the number of accidents involving mobile machinery in
some South African mines where PDS is being used.
Schauenburg, however, has proposed and successfully implemented the concept of an Anticollision System which eliminates these drawbacks.
2 THE SYSTEM CONCEPT AND OPERATIONAL ALGORITHM
The proposed concept shifts the responsibility of the worker’s safety onto the worker himself, which is natural from the psychological point of view. A “red traffic light”
approach is adapted in this case.
The system employs a twoway communication miner’s tag, which allows warning a person of danger from a vehicle moving towards him. After receiving this
warning signal the worker should take the necessary action to provide for his own safety, for example by clearing the way to give safe passage to the vehicle. If the
endangered worker is not able to assume a safe position, he alerts the driver by pressing a button on the caplamp cover, sending a distress signal to the driver. Only
then is the alarm on the vehicle activated, warning the driver of the impending collision.
This alarm could include the blinking of the vehicle’s headlights and activation the vehicle’s hooter. These audio and visual alarms serve also as feedback for the
miner in danger that his distress signal has been received.
If the driver does not stop the vehicle, it will be stopped automatically within 2–4 seconds after receiving the distress signal from the miner in danger.
The system also offers an event logging function that can assist in accident investigations. When a distress signal is received from a miner in danger, the time, vehicle
speed and the driver’s actions are logged and can be retrieved later.
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It is obvious that the level of the collision hazard depends on the speed of a vehicle. When the speed is low, (2–5 km/h), the vehicle imposes less danger than, for
example, a speed of 16 km/h. Even so, all currently known systems provide the same “warning” or “detection” zone, resulting in unnecessary alarms at low vehicle
speed or even when a vehicle is stationary. Those unnecessary alarms annoy drivers and/or miners and make them careless.
Therefore, in order to reduce the number of unnecessary alarms, special efforts have been made to provide a stable warning zone which is related to the vehicle
speed.
3 FORMATION OF A STABLE AND CONTROLLABLE WARNING ZONE
The proposed system objectives could not be reliably achieved when an unspecified radio frequency is used for creating a protective or warning zone in front of or
around a vehicle.
In currently known systems, when frequency above 100’s of MHz, is used the propagation of radio waves significantly depends on tunnel size and shape, and the
presence of steel structures, cables, pipes, etc. When UHF band is used, such phenomena as reflections, multipath propagation and attenuation by stray objects also
affect communication distance or a warning zone. Thus, a warning zone becomes very unstable and can vary from a few meters to tens and even hundreds of meters.
These lead either to unnecessary or late alarms.
In order to eliminate these drawbacks the use of a Very Low Frequency (VLF), from a few kilocycles up to 100 kHz, is proposed. This will create a stable
environment independent of underground conditions, as well as a controllable warning zone. It is commonly known that the VLF magnetic field strength falls as the cube
power of the distance (Wadley, 1949). This provides a solid base for the very precise warning zone calculation and implementation. Another advantage of this
frequency band is that a created magnetic field penetrates through the rocks providing a warning to miners around a sharp corner. No other currently known system is
able to achieve this.
The proposed method and system also provide a control of the size of the warning zone as a function of the vehicle speed. It means that a stationary vehicle
produces no warning zone at all. This further reduces unnecessary alarms.
4 THE SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The system consists of two parts: a Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) and a Miner Tag (MT).
Figure 1. A blockdiagram of the VCU.
4.1 Vehicle control unit
The main functions of the VCU (Figure 1) are as follows:
– to create a stable warning zone as a function of the vehicle speed;
– to receive a distress signal from a miner in danger;
– to activate an alarm on the vehicle;
– to stop the vehicle in 2–4 seconds after receiving the distress signal if the driver has taken no action;
– to log the vehicle status, such as speed and driver’s action after receiving the distress signal (event).
The unit consists of:
– A VLF transmitter whose output power is a special function of the vehicle speed. This power will vary. It will be zero when the vehicle is stationary and increase in
relation to the vehicle speed. The transmitter is loaded on a horizontallypositioned loop antenna, whichprovides an omnidirectional signal.
– A VHF receiver that activates an alarm module.
– The alarm module, which activates the audio and visible alarm, logs data and deactivates a vehicle engine if a driver does not stop within 2–4 seconds.
– The VCU obtains power from the vehicle battery or separate power source.
4.2 Miner’s tag
The main functions of the MT (Figure 2) are as follows:
– to receiver a VLF signal from a vehicle;
– to activate the audio and visible (blinking a headlight) alarm to warn a miner of impending danger;
– to send a VHF signal with an optional ID code when a miner presses an emergency button.
The unit consists of:
– A VLF receiver with a ferrite rod antenna.
– A solid state switch to manipulate a headlight circuit.
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Figure 2. A blockdiagram of the MT is given.
– A buzzer.
– An emergency button.
– A VHF transmitter.
– A microprocessor control module.
The MT is inbuilt into the battery caplamp cover and obtains required power either from the caplamp battery or a separate battery.
5LIMITATIONS OF THE DESIGN
Intrinsic safety (IS) requirements are the main limitation imposed on the system design, which stipulate maximum radiated VLF magnetic moment by VCU. This
magnetic moment determine the maximum size of the warning zone. When it is no IS required the warning zone could be extended up to hundred meters.
Another aspect of IS are related to a MT. Most of the currently manufactured caplamps are not IS. Therefore, if the MT is connected to a caplamp battery a
specially designed IS protective means are needed between the battery and the MT.
6 THE SYSTEM TEST RESULTS
A system laboratory prototype has been built and tested successfully. This intrinsically safe version achieved a warning zone radius of up to 30 m. Such a zone is
sufficient for reducing the collision risk when an underground vehicle travels at a speed of 20 km/h.
A commercial system prototype is currently being developed.
REFERENCE
Wadley, T.L. 1949. Communication Through Rocks in the Witwatersrand Mines. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research of South Africa. Telecommunication
Research Laboratory, Report ETR4, August.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Handheld instrument for remote and distributed gas monitoring
V.A.Kononov & M.J. de Beer
Schauenburg Flexadux (Pty) Ltd, Wadeville, South Africa
ABSTRACT: The effectiveness of the present generation portable handheld gasmonitoring instrument has been exploited to the full. Very little, if any,
further improvements in its present concept can be added. There are two main drawbacks with present generation instruments: effectively and
accurately measuring gas concentration in areas not easily accessible and the delay for management to react to dangerous conditions because gas
concentrations measured by portable instruments are not always available immediately to the person or persons who have the authority to react
accordingly. A new concept to eradicate the above problems have been proposed and implemented to the portable handheld gasmonitoring
instrument. The concept assures access to and accurate positional readings even with the operator remote from point of gas sampling. The concept
also assures quasi real time downloading environmental information and alarm condition with this information immediately presented to the operator in
a control room.
1 INTRODUCTION
Regular or constant monitoring of flammable and other gases in the atmosphere of underground mines is required by law. Due to the fact that gases have different
specific gravities they could have accumulated under the roof or close to the ground or in boxholes etc. Therefore, regulations prescribe a specific measuring procedure
for some gases.
For example, methane has a specific gravity of 0,55 and accumulates against the roof. Traditionally, point measurements have been taken by using a telescopic
extension rod and an air pump that conveys a sample to a handheld instrument. In South Africa it is required to lift an instrument and read the gas level of methane on its
display. This measuring procedure is not only very awkward for a miner, but also imposes some technical limits on the instrumentation design. A display, usually LED,
must be big and bright enough to be read from a 2–3 m distance. Thus a battery should have a higher capacity to reach the required 12–16 h battery life of an
instrument’s continuous operation.
Another drawback of the current generation of portable gas monitoring instruments is that measured gas levels are stored onboard an instrument and could be
downloaded on the surface when the instrument is put on charge. At this point of time, such data becames irrelevant. When the alarm is activated on a miner’s
instrument and the miner misses the alarm it could lead to a dangerous situation.
A concept to eradicate the above problems has been proposed and implemented to the portable handheld gasmonitoring instrument. The concept assures access to
and accurate positional readings even with the operator remote from the point of gas sampling. The concept also assures quasi real time downloading environmental
information and alarm condition with immediate availability of this information in a control room.
2 BACKGROUND AND THE CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
2.1 Generic considerations
In the attempt to reduce the total weight of the portable instrument it was decided to move away from the use of a large LED display toward a LCD graphic display.
This reduces power consumption and enables to present information on a few gases simultaneously and improve functionality of the instrument. Because it is almost
impossible to read data on the display while measuring with a telescopic rod, it was decided that separation of the instrument into two autonomous parts: a sensor and a
display unit could resolve this problem. The sensor unit could be lifted (or lowered when heavy gases are measured) and the gas level could be read on the display unit,
which a miner holds comfortably in his palm. The data is logged as usual in the display unit.
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Under normal conditions both parts could be mechanically connected into the integrated device, which appears as an ordinary gasmonitoring instrument and carried
as a single unit in a conventional way.
To make the instrument user friendly it was decided that twoway radio frequency (RF) communication channel should be employed to transfer measured data from
the sensor unit to the display unit and also to perform some other operations. Use of RF communication allows the instrument’s operation without any galvanic
connection between units in both integrated and separated forms.
At this stage of development it became obvious that the display unit would be able to communicate not only with its counterpart, the sensor unit, but also with any
third party. This opens such wide possibilities as broadcasting an alarm condition to any other recipient within communication range and downloading information on
gas levels and alarms at any time via a RF channel. Thus, when a miner(s) with an instrument is passing a RF reader the data could be automatically downloaded at the
reader’s request and immediately presented in a control room on the surface. As many miners are equipped with instruments and moving around a large underground
area of a mine at any given moment, a quasi real time mine wide gas monitoring and alarm becomes possible.
It should be noted that the more readers are installed underground, the more time and location wise accurate information of the underground environment is obtained
as the reader’s positions around a mine are known.
2.2 Specific mechanical and electronic aspects ofthe concept
Different mechanical means of keeping both units together (integration) during the normal operation were considered. Taking into account very harsh underground
conditions it was decided to use two pairs of light weight NdFeB magnets in combination with “tongue and groove” connections to keep the instrument integrated.
Both units have semitransparent parts of their enclosures to provide a visual alarm in any mode of operation: integrated and separated.
Based on common sense and practical experience it was envisaged, that the use of a single frequency RF communication channel would not be sufficient for the
implementation of the described concept because the high probability exists that more than one instrument happens to be in the same location (communication range).
This situation would lead to mutual inference between instruments that limits rate of information updating and delays alarm. In addition to this a multipath radio signal
propagation in
Figure 1. General view of the instrument in the integrated form.
underground conditions could limit communication speed and lead to data corruption.
Therefore, in order to improve reliability of data exchange within the instrument and with a third party a spread spectrum communication mode and data encryption is
used in the instrument.
3 THE INSTRUMENT DESCRIPTION
The instrument is designed to measure up to five gases of different combinations. The sensor and the display units are equipped with individual NiMH batteries. The
sensor unit’s battery has higher capacity than the display unit to match their continuous operational time, which can reach 20 h. Besides standard means of gas
monitoring, logging and presentation hardware both units contain RF transceivers for twoway spread spectrum communication within the instrument and with the third
party.
The instrument in integrated and separated forms is presented in Figure 1 and Figure 2 respectively.
The backside of both units is semitransparent that enables one to see four blinking red LED’s in each unit when alarm is activated. Four keys on the display unit
provide required setting and operational functions. The sensor unit has no control means and is
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Figure 2. The instrument in separated form.
fully controlled via the display unit, which serves as a Master Unit.
In order to separate the instrument a longitudinal effort of about 2 kg should be applied to break the magnetic force. For instrument integration, both semitransparent
parts must be pressed against each other with about 5–8 mm longitudinal displacement and shifted to align both enclosures, when magnetic force locks four pairs of
tongue and groove connections. Provision has been made to adjust required magnetic force if needed.
Under normal conditions the instrument is carried in a leather pouch. The pouch has a special attachment for the telescopic rod. On the surface the instrument in the
integrated form should be inserted into a charger. The charger provides automatic individual charge of batteries in both sensor and display unit. After the initiation of the
charging process the display unit downloads the logged information via the charger’s IR communication port.
Both parts of the instrument, including a protective glass for LCD display are moulded from polycarbonate. While semitransparent parts are always red, the front
parts of both units are dark blue for the South African market and yellow for overseas markets.
4 ELECTRONICS AND AN OPERATIONAL ALGORITHM
The display unit consists of a battery, a PCB, the LCD display and the keypad. The sensor unit includes four 4series gas sensors, a main PCB, an IS protection PCB
and a battery. The method and means of gas measurements are traditional.
The developed communication protocol provides 47 frequencies hopping each 20 ms that enables two way transmissions of measured data and required operational
instructions at 19200 bits/sec.
Figure 3. Flowchart for the display unit.
Error free communications between the instrument’s units in both integrated and separated form needs transceivers with high dynamic range to be used. In order to
ease this requirement an automatic power control is implemented.
When the instrument is in the integrated form both transceivers use only −20 dBm output power. When units are being separated this power increasees automatically
up to 0 dBm.
In Figure 3 and Figure 4 simplified flowcharts for both units are given.
In order to provide the utmost benefit for the end users of the instrument in mines some other devices such as a charger, a calibration unit and downloading and
presentation software have been developed as well. Some of the currently used software for the two gas instrument has been modified.
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Figure 4. Flowchart for the sensor unit.
As the possibility of downloading environmental information and alarm conditions via the RF link has not been exploited before, a new type of spreadspectrum RF
reader with some specific ftmctions is currently under development and will be completed shortly.
5 THE MAIN TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
The instrument that has been developed was named “Observer” and has the following specification:
Size, mm 147×83×45
Weight, g 560
Sensors and measuring range:
CH4=0 to 100% LEL
O2=0 to 25%
CO=0 to 500 ppm
H2S=0 to 100 ppm
Operational time, h>than 16
Display LCD
Communication range, m>12
Temperature range, °C −10 to +50
Enclosure protection: IP56
The mining industry in South Africa together with some other countries industries expressed significant interest towards the new generation of portable gas monitoring
instruments.
Page 813
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Prediction of dangerous states of degassing boreholes
Dagmar Létavková
VŠBTU Ostrava, CZ
ABSTRACT: There are large undermined territories with rock mass background disturbed by former activities of coal underground mines in the
Ostrava region. These territories are treated by degassing boreholes because of security reasons. Condition of boreholes is continuously monitored
and the obtained data saved. It is possible to trace natural laws of these boreholes by statistical analysis. The article describes static and dynamic links
e.g. between progress of barometric pressure and behavior of boreholes. Security aspects are emphasized.
1 INTRODUCTION
There are large undermined territories in the Czech Republic in the surroundings of the city of Ostrava. Mining activities in the underground coal mines were finished in
this area about 14 years ago. Since then there has existed a potential risk of methane explosion, including the residential areas. The disturbed rock mass continuously
releases underground gases that cumulate in empty spaces, remnants of old mine works and cavings. They have the tendency to ascend to the surface. While monitoring
the soil air there were measured dangerous concentrations of methane of 5–15% in several places. Therefore the system of degassing boreholes has been carried out
there in order to lead the underground gases up to the surface. The effort has been made to situate the boreholes into crosscuts, corridors and coal seams. In case the
borehole footing reaches the crosscut its range is considerable and treats large underground spaces. Its activity is big and it means that when the barometric pressure is
normal it efficiently helps the underground gases to ascend.
Activity of degassing boreholes is occasionally checked. My task was to carry out statistical analysis of measured data with the aim to obtain the maximum
information and to outline laws in gas emission processes and their ascent by degassing boreholes.
The data that has been computed comes from 38 boreholes from Jaklovecka area (1700 measurements). It is completed by the time series analysis of methane
concentration measured at the mouth of old backfilled workings from the entire Ostrava region (several thousands of measurements). The attention should be paid to
the fact that none of the measurements had to be extracted from the analysis as distant monitoring and all the boreholes showed the identical trend in behavior. We
speak of 14 active boreholes, 10 boreholes of average activity and 14 passive boreholes which are located in considerably disturbed rock mass. Their behavior has
been monitored under different levels of barometric pressure and during all seasons, i.e. under various conditions. Therefore it is possible to generalize the information
to the great extent.
2 PRESSURE CONDITIONS IN DEGASSING BOREHOLES
There is no reason to suppose that at the footing of the borehole there are extremely high values of pressure. The fact that selfsupporting arch in the surroundings of
unsupported workings with source sedimentary material comes to existence is generally known. Stress of rock mass disintegrate and a certain area free of rock mass
pressure is formed inside the corridor. The mines have been conserved for several years in the researched areas and the main stage of overlying beds has already been
completed. All the degassing boreholes are situated in the way to reach at least one coal seam in order to function in the appropriate way. Therefore we can assume
existence of smaller or more extensive underground spaces inside which the stress of overlying beds is disintegrated into remnants of support or into surrounding mass
rock. Pressure at the footing of boreholes is formed only by barometric pressure of air calculated to depth of the borehole and pressure of emitting underground gases.
The free spaces are filled with underground gas which is continuously leaking and has tendency to move to the places with lower inner pressure. It means it attempts
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to reach the surface, more distant underground spaces or degassing boreholes. How successfiil the attempt is does not depend only on the pressure at the source place
but also on gas permeability of the surroundings. The gas permeability is influenced by many parameters, however, mostly by level of mechanical disturbance.
When we discuss the topic of degassing boreholes we often speak about active impact of a borehole or size of preserved area. Active boreholes are considered
those which show high values of depression and overpressure compared to barometric pressure on the surface (up to 400 Pa). Nonactive boreholes do not have
significant changes of overpressure and depression (about 5 Pa). In case barometric pressure on the surface decreases overpressure in the borehole is created and the
borehole makes effort to balance the situation. It starts to decrease the pressure in the way that releases redundant gases into the atmosphere. A nonactive borehole
succeeds in doing it only with small residue overpressure because it corresponds only with small free underground space, called gas underground storage. The borehole
protects only small area on the surface because it does not lead the gases out of larger underground space. On the contrary, active boreholes cooperate with large
underground spaces, e.g. they reach the workedout areas linked to each other by remnants of workings. These are potential great sources of underground gases which
continuously leak and therefore the active boreholes usually fail to balance great change of barometric pressure with no residue. The active boreholes also reach
concentrations of methane that are many times higher. During the analysis of data measured in the territory of Jaklovecky mine interesting facts have emerged:
– activity of boreholes does not depend on their depth,
– activity of boreholes does not depend on the coal seam which is reached by the boreholes,
–active boreholes form clusters depending on their undergroundgeological position.
What is defining for the level of borehole activity? It is the stage of disturbance of the rock mass. The most active boreholes reach the crossouts with their footings.
The crossouts represent long underground workings that are the largest, most important and the best equipped. They ought to resist the time and pressure of the
surrounding rock mass, they should be the most passable. They link several coal seams at the same time.
The value of overpressure or depression (ΔP) against barometric pressure on the surface in a specific borehole is not a constant variable and it changes throughout
the time. Statistical research has revealed that value of ΔP is very closely linked to
Figure 1. Relation between borehole pressure ΔP [Pa] and barometric pressure BarTlak [hPa] highactive borehole.
Figure 2. Relation between borehole pressure ΔP [Pa] and barometric pressure BarTlak [hPa] lowactive borehole.
barometric pressure. It is the relation of inverse linear proportion, a regression coefficient fluctuates about 80%, equations for individual boreholes reflect their activity.
To illustrate this, I present regression models for one active borehole and for one borehole with average activity (see figures 1 and 2). The figure 3 shows the graph for
the same values of JD11 borehole decomposed into time sequence in the way of successive order of measurements.
The index on the horizontal axis expresses the order of measurements, precise time data are not expressed as there are no regular time intervals between
measurements. The graph shows the relation between the two variables very well, barometric
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Figure 3. Behaviour of barometric pressure and borehole pressure difference.
pressure is transformed in the following way:
Plotted value =−10.(PBAR−1000) [hPa]
Attention should be paid to the following facts:
– overpressure and depression are never symmetrically distributed around the zero value; maximum overpressure is always higher than minimum depression in absolute
value (see figure 3). This is valid for all the boreholes.
– PBAR=1202 hPa is an approximate value of barometric pressure for ΔP=0. Balance of surface pressure and borehole pressure is reached approximately at 1202
hPa. This is valid for all 38 boreholes from Jaklovecka area; either they are active, passive or the ones of different depth. Boreholes from other areas have different
critical value of 1020 hPa which is caused by undergroundgeological conditions.
2.1 Why is the activity of borehole not influenced by its depth (measurements carried out by a membrane sensor)?
Explanation can be searched in composition of inner pressure at the footing of borehole and in a method of ΔP measurement. If the borehole reaches the gas bearing
mechanically disturbed bed pressure of rock mass disintegrates into surrounding spaces (similar case as selfsupporting arch in nonsupported corridors). The newly
formed free spaces are not burdened by the rock pressure. Pressure of emitting gas and barometric pressure calculated at depth of borehole are active only at the
footing of the borehole. Thanks to the fact that pressure of the borehole is measured by a membrane sensor at the borehole outlet there is no influence of borehole
depth on the measured data.
2.2 What does critical value of barometric pressure 1020 hPa mean?
This value is a cutoff one, critical value which changes the regime of ascent of gases to the surface to the regime of atmosphere suction and vice versa. Average value
of barometric pressure is 1016.6 hPa and mostly occurred value 1018 hPa. The boreholes are most of the time in the regime of gas ascent to the surface. The 1020
hPa value is typical critical value for Jaklovecka area, for other areas it has to be defined on the basis of regression models (ΔP versus barometric pressure) from
several appropriate boreholes. It depends on undergroundgeological conditions and to the great extent, on the level of rock disturbance at the footing of the borehole.
Difference between maximum overpressure and minimum depression is about one third max ΔP in all boreholes (see figures 1 and 2).
Active boreholes:
min ΔP=−200 Pa
max ΔP=+300 Pa difference=100 Pa
Nonactive boreholes:
min ΔP=−10 Pa
max ΔP=+15 Pa difference=5 Pa
This situation is logical. The borehole in depression in the regime of atmosphere suction has to overcome resistance and pressure caused by continuous emission of
gases. Speed of suction is slower than speed of gas ascending to the surface. This is also confirmed by graphs of dependence of flow speed measured at the borehole
outlet and the ΔP value. Figures 5 and 7 show the example of a borehole with high and average activity. Similar tendencies are seen with all boreholes. The borehole
with overpressure in the regime of gas ascent to the surface does not overcome this resistance and so both the speed of ascent (figures 5 and 7) and maximum
overpressure are higher.
3 MECHANICALLY DISTURBED METHANE CONCENTRATION IN ROCK ENVIRONMENT
Composition of gas emission in the underground area changes in time only a little and it can be considered as constant. The change does not exceed +3% and is
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Figure 4. Relation between methane concentration and borehole pressure difference. Highactive borehole JD14.
Figure 5. Relation borehole speed and borehole pressure difference. Highactive borehole JD14.
caused e.g. by gas emission speed, rock mass activity, influence of surrounding boreholes and so on. If we had the chance to monitor methane concentration in the
spaces that are not linked with surface it would be all the time the same. We could also measure this constant concentration at the borehole outlet provided that
barometric pressure level was sufficiently low for sufficiently long period of time. What I mean by “sufficiently low” is that it is below the critical value (1020 hPa in
Jaklovecka area). Statistical characteristics do not recognize any dependence in borehole pressure versus methane concentration or barometric pressure versus
methane concentration (see figures 4 and 9) because the barometric pressure is changed all the time. Behaviour of methane can be followed only in time series
measured in long time periods as the tendency of increase and decrease of barometric pressure often takes up to a few days. When
Figure 6. Relation between methane concentration and borehole pressure difference. Lowactive borehole JD28.
Figure 7. Relation borehole speed and borehole pressure difference. Lowactive borehole JD28.
barometric pressure is higher than borehole critical value the atmosphere is pressed underground, it cumulates at the footing of the borehole and dilutes the
concentration of underground gases. When barometric pressure falls below this critical value the gases start to ascend to the surface. First gases that ascend are those
in the close surroundings of borehole footing, methane concentration is the zero one at the beginning but it gradually reaches the value of emitting nondiluted gases.
Then it remains at the constant level regardless both values of overpressure in the borehole and barometric pressure (barometric pressure has to be below critical
value). Length of growth of methane concentration before it reaches its constant level above all depends on amount of atmospheric air compressed underground and on
how fast it reaches the surface again. In connection with rapid growth of methane it is not possible to
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Figure 8. Behaviour of barometric pressure and methane concentration.
Figure 9. Borehole dynamics simulation.
speak about any dangerous speed of fall of barometric pressure because also length of period of high barometric pressure and its height are significant to the same
extent (see figure 8).
4 DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF DEGASSING BOREHOLES IN JAKLOVECKA AREA
When barometric pressure on the surface is 1020 hPa the pressures are balanced (see figure 9). Both the surface and boreholes pressures are identical underground
gases do not ascend outside through the borehole and they are not also pressed through the borehole underground, flow speed is therefore a zero one and the state in
the borehole is balanced. Once the barometric pressure exceeds 1020 hPa the borehole is forced to react to the changed conditions. And it reacts immediately. The
borehole sucks surface air and in this way reduces its pressure deficit. It means that the borehole pressure rises immediately but not in the same amount. Certain
pressure deficit remains in the borehole. Its value depends on how passable the borehole footing surroundings is. We talk about active and passive boreholes.
However, it is difficult to measure the real pressure at the footing (socalled inner pressure) and this is the reason why we measure the difference between barometric
pressure and pressure at the borehole outlet instead. The difference of these two pressures is negative in case the inner pressure is lower than the barometric one, i.e. if
surface air is pressed underground. The boreholes where the change of barometric pressure by 10 Pa causes the change of difference of pressures by 1 Pa are defined
as active (passive boreholes have the corresponding change of difference of pressures
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0.1 Pa). Therefore, the active boreholes do not have the ability to balance sufficiently their inner pressure with the surface one and they have considerable pressure
deficit or surplus (depression or overpressure). The growth of barometric pressure stops after some time, borehole pressure and atmospheric flow speed directed
underground reach the balance. The measured concentration of underground gases at the borehole outlet is naturally zero one during the whole phase of depression.
When the barometric pressure starts its decrease depression falls and borehole flow speed goes down until the balanced state of 1020 hPa is achieved.
When the barometric pressure drops below 1020hPa the situation is opposite. There is overpressure in the borehole that needs to be removed by forcing
underground gases to ascend to the surface. The greater the overpressure is the faster the gases flow. This corresponds to the contents of methane (figure 9). The
movement out of the borehole is always faster than the movement inside provided that difference of pressure is the same. Generally, after dynamic changes are over
methane concentration is not dependent on overpressure but on borehole characteristics and it is constant for the corresponding borehole. More active boreholes
produce more methane because there are probably larger and more frequent underground spaces around the borehole footing, i.e. there is greater gas storage.
However, dynamic changes often take several days. When the barometric pressure of air falls below critical value there first gas that flows out is the compressed air
that does not have to contain any underground gases. Then there ascend diluted gases, methane concentration gradually grows until it reaches the constant level. We
speak of typical transitional characteristics for the system (scale) of proportional first order with the length of transitional activity up to several days. In case the borehole
or conserved working have low critical value methane concentration does not have the time to balance because the barometric pressure remains on the low level only
exceptionally. The average level of barometric pressure is 1016.6 hPa and most frequently occurred value is 1018 hPa. At first sight it seems that methane
concentration is chaotic and fluctuates a lot.
5 CONCLUSION
5.1 No provable relation exists between the following variables
– activity of degassing borehole and its belonging to a specific coal seam
– activity of degassing borehole and its depth
– methane concentration and value of pressure in the borehole
– methane concentration and absolute value of barometric pressure
– methane concentration and air humidity
– methane concentration and speed of change of barometric pressure.
5.2 Close and provable relation exists between the following variables
– value of barometric pressure and value of pressure in the borehole
– flow speed in the borehole outlet and value of overpressure (depression) in the borehole
– borehole activity and undergroundgeological position, especially reaching the crossout by a borehole
– borehole activity and maximum level of methane concentration
– balanced, critical value of pressure in the borehole and barometric pressure is reached at 1020 hPa in Jaklovecka area, it depends on undergroundgeological position
and it is easily definable in other territories
– methane concentration and length of period when barometric pressure is below critical value. Methane concentration grows up to several days (depending on
undergroundgeological position) until it reaches constant level, i.e. real concentration of emitting gases.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Coexistence of natural and technical hazards in the underground mines
B.MadejaStrumińska
Mining Institute, Wrocław University of Technology, Poland
A.Strumiński
Centrum BadawczoProjektowe Miedzi CUPRUM, Poland
ABSTRACT: The paper describes problems of coexistence of climate, bump and gas hazards in the copper mines. It was suggested to characterize
the interrelation between natural or natural and technological hazards using the probability of sums of nonseparable and independent events. The
events describe the exceeding of the boundary values determined by mine regulations or during the research works. The presented method was
illustrated using as the example coexisting hazards: climate, bump and caused by toxic gases in one of the copper mines. The way of evaluation of
individual preventive efforts aimed to reduce those hazards and their share in the global prevention policy. The necessity of using the sustainable
preventing actions when such hazards occur was also indicated.
1 INTRODUCTION
The hard coal and copper ore mines the numerous, corelated, natural and technical hazards occur. The most important of them in the hard coal mines are methane and
fire hazards which result from the mining method used (with roof caving). In copper ore mines, bump, climate and toxic gases hazards predominate.
Correlation of the natural and technological hazards as well as results of their prevention is known as so called “associated hazards”. Thus the associated hazards are
these natural and technological hazards which occurring simultaneously, have mutual impact on initiation, intensity and symptoms of their occurrence (Kabiesz 2002).
The specific feature of such hazards are difficulties in the proper preventive methods selection because the prophylaxes used to control each hazard are mutually
conflictive.
In the LGOM copper ore mines, for example, the unfavorable impact on the microclimate have huge, uncovered areas of the rockmass, which allow to enter the
streams of hot air, coming from the Earth inside, into the mine air. This substantially deteriorates the climate in those mines. From the other side, however, wide opening
of the roof strata helps to control bumps more effectively. Moreover wide opening of the roof needs to develop numerous mine headings.
Together with complexity of local ventilation networks and small intensity of ventilating the air inside the mining panels, also the hazard caused by toxic exhaust gases
generated by mining machines driven by combustion engines, what additionally makes very difficult climate conditions in the copper ore mines even worse.
The authors present in the paper method of evaluation of hazards, coexisting in the copper ore mines i.e. climate, bump and gas ones. The way of selection of
balanced preventive actions when such coexisting hazards occur was also described.
2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATE, BUM AND GAS HAZARD IN THE LGOM MINES
2.1 Climate hazard
Climate conditions in the LGOM copper ore mines are determined mostly by such factors as the depth of deposit occurrence, what is connected with air compression
process within the field of gravity forces, heat and humidity transferred into the air from the rockmass and the output as well as heat generated by the machines
(Monography KGHM 1996).
The process of adiabatic compression of the air in the LGOM mines causes the average increase of the temperature in the downcast shafts by 0.6 to 0.8°C per each
100 m of the shaft depth. The temperature of the deposit rocks in the LGOM area is very changeable.
The most diversified area with regard of primary temperature of the deposit in mining area of the
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Sieroszowice field. The original temperature of rocks changes there between 21°C in the southern part to 45°C at the northeast end of the deposit, which is the result
of the biggest range of the depths of its occurrence (KGHM Monography 1996).
The average original temperatures of the rockmass for different deposits depths are as follows: 30°C at about 500 m, 35°C at about 700 m, 40°C at about 900 m
and 45°C at about 1100 m below the sea level.
The average geothermal gradient in the southeast part of the deposit is 27.4 m /°C, and in the northwest part is 30.2 m/°C.
The amount of radiogenic heat emitted from all rocks within the LGOM copper deposit area is about 8.4 to 29.3 J/year/ton of rock, what gives 21 J/year/ ton of
rock on the average. The value of heat for layers with higher content of radioactive elements is from 138 to 154 J/year/ton.
Structure of local ventilation networks in the LGOM copper ore mines makes venting the mining faces very difficult and big surface of the contact between rock
mass having high original temperature with the mine air is not favorable for maintaining the necessary climate conditions. It is a result of numerous multiline parallel
headings and dense network of the development workings in the mining fields. Unfavorable climate conditions in the mining panels are also the result of operation of
mining equipment driven by combustion engines. Thus in the mine headings of the LGOM mines we can encounter the air dry bulb temperature reaching 33 or even
more °C.
High temperatures of the mine air occur also in main galleries. Network of headings within the mining field limits the possibility of proving the ventilation intensity
necessary in some working sites. (MadejaStruminska & Strumiński & Turkiewicz 2004).
2.2 Bump hazard
Mining activity in the LGOM copper mines is connected with occurrence of mining tremors. Number of tremors in the mines is about 30,000 in the year. The high
energy tremors (with energy value exceeding 105 J) have the crucial impact on the bump hazard in LGOM mines (Kłeczek 2000). Every year ca 450 high energy
tremors occur in the copper mines and they cause 3 bumps every year on the average. The bumps result in serious accidents among the mine personnel. Statistical data
presented in numerous reports and papers (Konopko & Makówka 2000, Kłeczek 2000, Kłeczek 2002, Zorychta & Burtan & Mirek 2002) show that the number of
high energy tremors has been visibly increasing what in turn means that the bum hazard is bigger and bigger.
The main reasons causing the bum hazard in the LGOM copper mines are:
– mining operations are carried out in constraint conditions especialy in the vicinity of wide cavings within the residual areas,
– large depth of mining (even below 1100 m) with simultaneous intensive progress of ore extraction,
– presence of numerous faults located close to the mining flelds,
– strong and stiff rocks (anhydrites and limestones up to 250 m thick) occurring in the roof strata and compact sandstone bed in the floor.
2.3 Toxic gases hazard
As a result of combustion of the gas oil in the Diesel engines driving mining machines in the LGOM copper ore mines large number of noxious, especially for the mine
workers, products, such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, are emitted into the mine air (KGHM Monography 1996). Composition and amount of combustion
products depend mostly on the engine duty its quality and the operator skills. The combustion products from the mine machines are in general not sufficiently diluted by
the venting air and therefore they are hazardous for the mine personnel health. It turned out that for 1 kWh of the Diesel engine work 1.72–7.46 g of carbon monoxide
and 4.55–14.62 g of nitrogen oxides (converted into NO2) are emitted. Nitrogen oxides in the air oxidize to the nitrogen dioxide NO2, which with water gives nitric
acid.
Also during the blasting works which are commonly used in the LGOM mines toxic elements such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides among others are
released. Part of blasting gases is bounded with the muck and gradually passes into the mine air. This process is quite intensive during loading and unloading of the ore.
Spaying the ore with water helps to remove the nitrogen dioxide from the output. The measurements showed that the nitrogen dioxide concentration in the air entering
the mine exceed sometimes the valued allowed by work safe and hygiene regulations.
In all copper mines the presence of hydrocarbons, mainly methane occurring in the upper part of Rotliegende sandstones and in main dolomite lying within the
anhydrite complex, was stated. Presence of methane in the exploratory holes in the PolkowiceSieroszowice mine was sporadic and this gas is not dangerous for the
mine workers now.
3 EVALUATION OF COEXISTING BUMP, CLIMATE AND GAS HAZARDS IN THE COPPER ORE MINES
As it was said before in the LGOM copper mines the unfavorable climate conditions mainly result from
Page 821
huge uncovered surfaces of rockmass, which are however necessary to control the bump hazard. It is also a result of numerous multiline workings and strongly
developed network of the headings in the mining fields. Large number of machines with diesel engines used in wide mining panels, helps the process of ore extraction
from the one side, but makes the working conditions worse by additional heating of the air and toxic gases emission, from the other side. Therefore we can say that the
climate conditions, bump hazard and toxic gases hazard are mutually associated.
Thus it is justified to treat those hazards jointly, not separately. While the individual approach to each of those hazards is used it may turn out that when we control
the bump hazard for example by increasing the opening of the rockmass surface we deteriorate the climate and gas conditions in the mine. In such cases in order to
improve the climate conditions and to reduce the toxic gas hazard, large sum of money must be used for mineworkings airconditioning and for at least partial
replacement of the mining machines driven by diesel engines by the electrically driven machines. The latter, heat the mine air considerably less and not contaminate the
air at all. If we additionally take into consideration presence of numerous workings within the mining panels and continuous increase of the mining depth in LGOM it
may turn out that even besides artiflcial cooling of the air and partial elimination of mining machines with diesel engines, the air temperature in most workings will exceed
the value allowed in special mining regulations (Decree of Minister of Economy 2002). It would have made impossible extracting the ore or in order to continue the
mining operations it would be necessary to bear substantial costs on expensive systems of mine airconditioning.
Therefore in authors’ opinion it is necessary to characterize all hazards i.e. bump, climate and toxic gazes hazard by mutual probability concerning possibility of
exceeding certain boundary values of those hazards given in the mine regulations or being a result of investigations.
Thus, according to the regulations (Decree of Minister of Economy 2002) we propose 28°C or 33°C as the boundary value of the temperature of mine air. With
regard of toxic gases, however, we suggest to take the value of 0.0026 volumetric %, i.e. 26 ppm as a boundary value of allowable concentration of the carbon
monoxide. Additionally according to (Budryk 1961) nitrogen compounds will be considered as 10 and sulfur compounds as 4 times more toxic than carbon monoxide.
When we take into account tremors (bumps) we propose to take the energy of 105 J or 106 J as a boundary values (Konopko & Makówka 2000, Kłeczek 2000,
Kłeczek 2002).
Figure 1. Histogram of the divergent series of the dry bulb temperature of the mine air in R mine.
Figure 2. Histogram of the divergent series of the rockmass tremors in R mine.
In order to evaluate the mutual hazard of the mentioned events, we assume that they are continuous, random variables, what enables using the statistical analysis method
to investigate the coexistence of bump, climate and gas hazards in the copper ore mines. In such case we use statistical data concerning the measured values of the mine
air temperature, recorded energy of tremors and measured concentrations of toxic gases (CO, NO2, SO2) within the certain period of time in the R copper mine. After
that for the above random variables the average values and standard deviations were calculated and the histograms for the divergent series of those variables were
made (Figs. 1 to 3).
When we analyze the histograms of relevant divergent series it turn out that for the air temperature the distribution of this variable is close to normal, while the
distributions concerning rockmass tremors and toxic gases concentrations are close to the exponential ones. In order to conflrm the assumed theories about the nature
of the above random variables it was necessary carry out the statistical research.
Page 822
Figure 3. Histogram of the divergent series of the toxic gases converted into CO in R mine.
Knowing the distributions of X specific random variables, the probabilities of exceeding the assumed boundary values xg by those variables, were determined and the
following relationship was used:
where F(xg ) means distribution of random variable X calculated for X=xg .
Further we assume that the boundary values are: xg =28°C for the dry bulb temperature of the mine air, xg =105 J for the rockmass bumps and xg = 26 ppm for toxic
gases (converted into carbon monoxide). Moreover we assume that climate hazard A1 i.e. exceeding the boundary temperature of the mine air of 28°C, bump hazard
A2, i.e. rockmass bump with energy bigger than 105 J and toxic gases hazard A3, i.e. exceeding the concentration of gases of 0.0026% after conversion onto carbon
monoxide, are the events mutually independent.
In order to evaluate the corelations between those hazards, the sum of inseparable and independent events A1, A2 and A3 are determined, and the following
formula is used:
(2)
where mean events opposite to A1; A2 and A3.
On the basis of histograms of divergent series presented on Figures 1, 2 and 3 it was obtained:
Calculated probability is high what should cause serious reservations with regard of the prevention methods used. The probability should be as small as possible. It
would be possible if all values of events possibility event i.e. not exceeding the air temperature of 28°C.
The substantial differences of events probability ) may be also consider as not very much effective.
In order to balance the preventive actions of all considered hazards it is necessary to aim at obtaining the product of , what should be a result of more effective
control of high mine air temperatures. For example by more intensive ventilation of the mining areas, artificial cooling of the mine air, reduction of the hot air inflow by
decreasing the rockmass opening onto the contact with flowing air, thermal insulation of the rockmass etc.
To enlarge the probability , the range of usage of machines with diesel engines should be reduced by replacing them with the electrically driven ones, the
exhaust gases from the diesel engines should be better purified etc. Reduction of mining machines with diesel drive would also help to lower the mine air temperature.
According to current knowledge, at almost equal probabilities the probability of sum calculated by formula (2) should not be greater than 0.4.
In authors opinion, meeting all those requirements will prove the balanced and proper preventions of coexisting hazards (climate, bumps and toxic gases) in the
copper ore mines.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Numerous corelated natural and technological hazards occur in the underground mines. The specific feature of such hazards are difficulties in selection of proper
prevention methods, since in many cases the preventive action used to control each hazard separately are mutually conflicted.
Page 823
The method of evaluation of the coexisting climate, bump and gas hazards in one of the copper ore mines presented in the paper, based on the probabilities of
exceeding the boundary values present in the mining regulations or resulting from the research activity, correctly describes the coexistence of those hazards.
This kind of approach to such hazards enables evaluation of the prevention methods used to control the individual hazards and their participation in the global
prevention of coexisting natural or natural and technical hazards.
REFERENCES
Budryk, W. 1961. Mines ventilation, part I, Headings ventilation. Katowice: WGH.
Kabiesz, J. 2002. Characteristic ofassociated mine hazards with regard of their evaluation and selection of prevention methods. Katowice: Research dissertations
GIG.
Konopko,W. & Makówka, J. 2000. Risk ofaccidents caused by bumps, Proceedings of the Third Conference Mining at big depth and under difflcult geothermal
conditions. Lądek Zdrój: CUPRUM.
Kłeczek, Z. 2000. Concept of the control of high energy rockmass tremor in the LGOM copper mines. Proceedings of the Third Conference Mining at big depth
and under difflcult geothermal conditions. Lądek Zdrój: Cuprum.
Kłeczek, Z. 2002. Effectiveness ofactive bump control in the LGOM copper mines, Proceedings of the Fourth Conference Mining at big depth and under difficult
geothermal conditions. Lądek Zdrój: Cuprum.
MadejaStrumihska, B. et. al. 2000. Problems ofsafety, cost effectiveness and optimization of mining panels ventilation in copper ore mines, Wrocław: Publishing
House of Wrocłew University of Technology.
MadejaStruminska, B., Struminski, A. & Turkiewicz, W. 2004. Ventilation ofminingpanels in copper ore mines at coexisting bump and climate hazards. Katowice:
WUG 1(113) Work Safety and Environmental Protection in Mining Industry.
Collective work. 1996. KGHM Polska Miedź SA. Monography, Lubin: Cuprum.
Decree of Minister of Economy from 28 June 2002 concerning work health and safety, mining operations and special fire protection in the underground mines (Dz.U. nr
139).
Zorychta, A., Burtan, Z. & Mirek, A. 2002. About the impact of parameters characterizing the elements of mining methods with wide roof opening on the rock
mass tremors occurrence during copper ore extraction in the LGOM mines. Proceedings of the Third Conference Mining at big depth and under difficult
geothermal conditions. Lądek Zdrój: Cuprum.
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Page 825
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Decision support system for management of municipal waste and mining voids
Jerzy Malewski & Justyna GórniakZimroz
Institute of Mining Engineering, Wroclow University of Technology, Poland
ABSTRACT: This working paper presents the key elements of a decision support system (DSS) for an integrated process of managing mining voids
and municipal waste. In that system, two groups of components were identified: the first group was connected with a model of a regional municipal
waste stream (e.g. population density, types of generated waste as well as function of amount and structure of waste generation), while the other group
referred to methods of assessing the quality of mining voids. The latter was described through quantitative and qualitative variables expressed by an
input vector. The input vector data were obtained through the analysis of the legal regulations, nature factors (e.g. geological and hydrogeological
factors) as well as nonnature factors (e.g. technical and social factors). To classify the mining voids from the point of view of municipal waste
management, the classification and recognition methods based on neural networks were employed. The knowledge about topical condition of space
(quality of mining voids, amount and structure of waste generation) allowed for making a rational decision on selecting locations for new waste sites
(e.g. municipal landfill site). Methods and tools based on GIS technologies were used for assisting the analysis of interconnected objects and their
properties. Computer methods for decision support used in this project allow for modelling and simulation of generation and flow of waste streams,
prediction of the amount of wastes and thereby demand for municipal waste management facilities, and modelling of planned effects of changes in
factors defming the quality of voids (whatif analysis); all this contributing to the possible optimisation of spatial planning.
1 INTRODUCTION
Waste is an inevitable product of humans’ life processes, and its quantity has been increasing in proportion to the growth of population and the level of consumption in a
given country. Along with the increase of the amount of waste, a demand for technologies that minimise or even eliminate the production of waste has been growing,
too, as well as the need for programmes promoting recovery of waste materials, adjusted to the financial, organisational and technological condition of a country. As
stated in the environmental reports (Eurostat 2003, EPA 2003), in practice the most common waste management method is storage, as the implementation of low or
nowaste technologies, recycling or energy recovery is expensive and requires a lot of social discipline and the incentives from the State. Also, countries all over the
world have had an increased demand for new locations of waste management sites that would comply with the strict legal, technical and environmental requirements.
One of the solutions to the problem may be combination of the goals of the mining industry with those of municipal administration, as suggested by the authors in their
earlier papers (GórniakZimroz 2002, 2003; Malewski 1998, 1999, 2003), within the broadly understood environment resource management, which may bring in
benefits for each of those sectors, such as lower costs of operation. An example of such combination may be utilisation and development of mining voids for final or
temporary accumulation of municipal waste, or as locations for waste processing facilities with the use of the existing mining technology.
Utilisation of pits and voids as a storage space for waste materials is and has been a common practice in employing local natural resources all over the world. Only
until mid 20th century, such practice was considered quite obvious, as it was commonly thought that if a site had once been degraded and abandoned by the mining
company, it might as well have been filled with waste for the benefit of the economy and environment. The idea of using mining voids as industrial and municipal waste
dumps was therefore often applied in practice and described in literature. However, it was mainly applied locally and on a random basis, while no formal analysis or
Page 826
classification of mining voids was made in order to rationalise their use in the regional waste management process. Such an approach has been proposed since in a
number of reports and publications (Aston 1996, GórniakZimroz and Malewski 2002, 2003, Uberman 1998, Ukleja et al. 1998).
In view of combining the municipal waste management with the utilisation of mining voids, the authors developed methods and tools for analysing the efficiency of
utilisation of such mining voids. This was done by means of a decision support system in respect of the requirements of regional municipal waste administration wanting
to optimise the decisionmaking process while selecting a mining void as a location for waste management facilities.
2 DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM
As defined by Klir (1976), a system is a configuration of separate parts that are interconnected and create the whole. It is possible to analyse those separate parts as
well as their mutual relations. However, a mere analysis of the parts will not give the user the information of the relationships or interactions between them. Therefore, a
systemic approach should be adopted to more complex issues, and the analysis of separate elements of the system should be complemented with the analysis of the
whole—e.g. analysis of the relations between the particular elements of the waste management system.
As part of the integrated management of municipal waste and mining voids, the authors developed a decision support system (DSS) combining those two sectors of
economy into one system, to enable analysis of its individual elements as well as analysis of interactions between those elements. The main role of the system is to
analyse efficiency of mining void development to secure the needs of the regional municipal waste management process, that is to defme waste management
requirements and meet those requirements by considering the mining voids as places for location of waste management facilities. The system includes information on
inter alia natural environment protection, law, geography, demographics, area development and planning, as well as knowledge and technology applied to processing
and neutralising of wastes. In the DSS, there is also a place for mining with its advance technology and technique of mineral processing, especially crushing and
separation—so important from the point of view of recycling—which may be included to the waste processing and neutralisation model, while the mining voids and
infrastructure may be included into the land management model by means of utilising mining voids for waste management purposes as waste processing sites. Figure 1
shows the structure of the system developed by the authors.
The model of the system was built with the use of the GIS technology that allows for an analysis of interrelated objects and phenomena as pertaining to space, which
interact for a strictly defined purpose. The GIS technology provides the user with data on the objects, including their descriptive and graphic attributes. Such mode of
presenting data makes it possible to select and locate an object from amongst many others within the system.
Figure 1. General structure of the decision support system for decisions related to administration of mining voids in view of municipal
waste management.
Page 827
In the system, an appropriate area of research was selected, with precisely defined geographic borders, covering the spatiallyrelated settlement arrays that generate
waste, and the mining void sites, as well as possibilities to solve problems related to waste management and rational utilisation of postmining sites within this area,
common to those arrays and sites. In this article, that area was defmed by the administration borders of a poviat.
The system is composed of three modules: the first one is related to modelling waste streams and waste management (the WASTE module); the second one refers to
methods of assessment of the mining void condition (the MINING VOIDS module); and the third one (the ANALYSIS module) combines the results of the analysis
and research conducted within the first and second module, and allows for visualising such results in order to facilitate decisionsmaking processes.
3 WASTE MODULE
A waste stream may be modelled as the following function of six variables:
q=f(δ, r, m, v, p, f)
(1)
where δ=density of population [LM]; r=type of generated waste: industrial waste, municipal waste or hazardous waste; m=mass index of waste accumulation
[kg/M/year]; v=volumetric index of waste accumulation [m /M/year]; ρ=bulk density of waste [kg/m3]and f=structure of waste:
f(s)=fw(s)+fm(s)
(2)
where f w(s)=share of rural waste in the total waste and fm(s)=share of urban waste in the total waste.
The WASTE module is based on the knowledge of sources of municipal waste, and allows for studying the quantity as well as quality of the municipal waste stream,
visualising the strength of that stream and analysing the dynamics of changes in waste generation, i.e. predicting the quantity and quality of waste as related to the
demographic, economic and technological development of the analysed area.
In the WASTE module, the authors analysed the emission of municipal waste generated in households in the Milicz Poviat, with the input size of population based on
the Municipal Office statistics for 2001, and the forecast size of population for years 2003–2030 provided by the Central Statistical Office (2004). For the purpose of
calculations and analyses presented in this working paper, the authors referred to the unit values of waste accumulation indices adopted in the National Waste
Management Plan (M.P.2003.11.159) and the draft document of the Municipal waste management strategy for Lower Silesia (2003). For the purpose of
designing the efficiency of a municipal landfill site, the strength of waste stream was calculated according to the following relation (Wojciechowski 1998):
Q=M∙R
(3)
(4)
where Q=strength of the waste stream in the analysed area during a year [m3/year, year/rok]; M=projected number of inhabitants during a year signed up for the waste
disposal service; R= projected index of waste accumulation during a year [m/M/year, kg/M/year]; t=calculation period [years] and Qt=strength of the waste stream
during the calculation period t [m3, kg].
Figure 2 shows the visualisation of calculations on the basis of relationship 3 as well as volumetric indices of accumulation of mixed waste for urban (vm=1.52
m3/M/year) and rural areas (vw=0.89 m3/ M/year) in 2004 in the Milicz Poviat.
Figure 2. Quantity of municipal waste produced in 2004 in urban and rural areas within the Milicz Poviat [m3/year].
Page 828
For the analysed area, a simulation of municipal waste emission was conducted, taking into account changes in the unit waste emission indices resulting from the
economic and social development. The prediction of changes in the municipal waste accumulation mass index was adopted from the draft document of the Municipal
waste management strategyfor Lower Silesia (2003). The predictions in the Strategy draft document was estimated on the basis of the data obtained from the
previous strategy phase as well as from prqjections of unit waste emission indices adopted in the National Waste Management Plan (M.P.2003.11.159).
The WASTE module of the system is a universal module for calculation and graphic visualisation of the strength of waste streams on a given area, taking into
consideration any unit index value of municipal waste emission or size of wastegenerating population at the source of waste. Detailed results of such calculations, with
variations considering different waste accumulation indices for a given poviat or municipality may be presented in form of maps and charts that make it much easier for
the user to decide on the municipal waste management approach on a given area.
The knowledge of the spatial arrangement of the wastegeneration sources, obtained in this module, provides necessary input data for waste management
programming, and therefore allows the system user to define the waste management requirements in his analysed area. More specifically, the knowledge of the quantity
and quality of waste in the individual wastegeneration sources will influence the development of the system of waste collection and transport, while the knowledge of
the quality of waste will also determine the selection of waste processing and neutralisation technologies. Also, the knowledge of the quantity and quality of waste will
be important for designing the capacity of waste neutralisation facilities, and the temporal as well as volumetric capacity of waste storage sites.
Tools used for building the WASTE module may be applied to planning the management of waste in any administrative area by municipalities, poviats, voivodeships,
or regions; or by confederations, unions or associations of municipalities and intermunicipal organisations.
4 MINING VOIDS MODULE
The condition of a mining void, or the so called mining void quality, may be modelled as a function of a number of covert and unknown variables:
For the purpose of simplification and clarity, variables x 1−x n were grouped into four main categories:
jw=f(v, p, t, s)
(6)
where v=spatial factors; p=natural factors; t=technical factors and s=social factors.
Each of the variables in this fimction corresponds to a specific parameter of a mining void, presented in form of a numeric variable, e.g. volume or area of the void, or
in form of a linguistic variable, e.g. dry, drowned or semidrowned void. The linguistic variables must be converted into numeric variables. The function that describes
the condition of the mining void—quality of the mining void—depends on a number of variables in different ways, thus leading to the following relation:
(7)
where wi=weight describing the value of the ith factor describing the condition of the mining void and ci—ith factor describing the condition of the mining void.
Determination of weights is a rather complex task, but possible to execute through empirical studies. Determination of the value of the mining void quality function is
critical in order to check to which of the function’s variation ranges (which refer to mining void classes) a particular mining void may be classified. The method of
classifying mining voids as described above is an analytical method.
The classification of those areas may also be addressed by a different method. Recognising and classifying the condition of a mining void based on a numeric data
vector is a typical classification task that may be performed with the help of neural networks (Grzenda and Macukow 2003, Patan 2003, Tadeusiewicz 1993, Żurada
et al. 1996). Therefore, the idea of the system of recognition and classification of mining voids may be represented as per Figure 3.
As in the case of the analytical method, when building the input data vector one should take into account all factors that characterise the quality of a mining void1.
Factors creating the input data vector were selected after an analysis of decisive factors for the direction of reclamation, as well as analysis of factors influencing the use
of mining voids for waste storage purposes, factors considered during selection of the landfill site location, and the Polish and EU environmental and waste management
regulations.
Factors constituting the input data vector are described with 98 quantitative and qualitative variables converted into numeric variables. The numeric
1
In the case analysed by the authors, the void is revognised and classified in the context of landfill site location.
Page 829
Figure 3. Concepts of the system for recognising and classifying the condition of a mining void.
Table 1.
Description of the variable Value of the variable
Factor that has a positive impact on the location of waste processing facilities +1
Factor that has a neutral impact on the location of waste processing facilities 0
No factor 0
Factor that has an adverse impact on the location of waste processing facilities −1
value for the ith variable describing the quality of a mining void was determined in the following way
The authors built 197 learning vectors describing potential mining voids from the Milicz, Olesnica, Olawa, Strzelin, Sroda Slaska, Trzebnica, Wolow and Wroclaw
Poviats, and the City of Wroclaw. These include 142 deposits of natural aggregates, 25 deposits of ceramic silts, 18 deposits of road and building stone, 3 deposits of
quartz sand, 2 deposits of vein quartz, and 2 deposits of quartzite, as well as one deposit of fire clay, quartz schist, and feldspar, respectively. Each void was
characterised by the input data vector consisting of 98 qualitative parameters expressed by numeric variables as presented in Table 1.
Subsequently, the vectors were subjected to the learning process in a selforganising Kohonen network. The learning process starts with the randomisation of
weights to all output layer neurons, i.e. random distribution of focus centres. The learning algorithm checks every learning node and recognises the unit which is closest
to the selected data—this is the winning neuron. The weight of the neuron and the weights of the neighbouring neurons are adjusted to the learning data. The learning
process runs in two phases. In the first phase, high learning rate and neighbourhood size values are adopted, while in the second phase, these values are substantially
reduced (Bartkowiak 2002). In the initial learning phase, the Kohonen algorithm creates an approximated topological map, which is adjusted accordingly during the
process so that the final map shows the “power bases” of the individual nodes where the similar input data are concentrated. Figure 4 presents different forms of
visualising the topological map obtained in the course of the experiment.
In Figure 4, the fields corresponding to the outer layer neurons show the input pattern units. In the first case, the neuron’s success rate is expressed through numbers,
while in the second case through size and colour of the hexagon.
The Kohonen map obtained through the experiment shows how the analysed mining voids were grouped, i.e. what and how many sites constitute a given group. We
can see a clear division of the potential mining voids into the classes. We will refer to them as A, B and C. The A class includes deposits/ mining voids of such materials
as natural aggregates and quartz sands, the B class includes deposits/ mining voids of ceramic silts, kaolins and fire clay, and the C class is composed of road and
building stone, feldspar and quartzite. In class C, we may find several cases that do not entirely fit the class—the agglomeration is slightly more dissipated compared to
the other cases. Those cases include certain deposits of road and building stone, quartzite and vein quartz, and are classified to the N category. Figure 5 shows the
results of classification of mining voids in the Milicz Poviat analysed in this paper.
Using the classification method described in this paper, it is also possible to classify the mining
Page 830
Figure 4. Visualisation of a Kohonen map a) numeric representation of the success rate, b) graphic representation of the success rate.
Figure 5. Spatial visualisation of mining voids classified by neuron networks.
Page 831
Figure 6. Visualisation of the area suitability for location of a municipal landflll site.
voids from the point of view of location of other municipal waste management facilities, such as waste processing, storing or combusting sites. One should then select
appropriate parameters of the input data vector for the specific waste management facilities and recognise as well as classify the mining voids by means of a neural
network.
5 ANALYSIS MODULE
Based on the knowledge of the mining void quality obtained in the MINING VOIDS module, and the knowledge of the sources of waste obtained in the WASTE
module, the user may conduct an analysis, which will enable him/her to make a rational decision related to the location of a waste management facility in the area, e.g.
analysis of waste material transport within the given area, analysis of the land suitability for location of a waste management facility, analysis of the balance of waste
against available capacity in mining voids, and so on.
Figure 6 shows the visualisation of the analysis of the area suitability in respect of municipal waste storage site location, conducted in the Milicz Poviat. The analysis
takes into account impact of other facilities in the area in question on the location of the site, in particular the proximity of wastegeneration sources and roads, and the
distance from underground water intakes, rivers, water reservoirs and nature reserves. The suitability of a given land is represented with colour: the lighter the colour,
the better location for waste material storage. The black colour in the illustration marks the best location for a municipal waste storage site in the analysed area.
6 CONCLUSION
The decision support system described in this paper provides the user with useful information to make decisions and plan processes related to location of new municipal
waste management sites in the analysed area. The aforementioned information includes demographic characteristics of the analysed area, information on spatial location
of sources of waste, information on the quantity and quality of waste produced in those sources, and information on other elements located in the analysed area, such as
mining voids, natural structures, transportation etc. This is the foundation for predicting the quantity of waste produced in future in the analysed area and for analysing
the suitability of the area for location of a waste management investment.
Page 832
REFERENCES
Aston R.L. 1996. Mining voidsfor municipal waste, Mining Environmental Management, September.
Bartkowiak A. 2002. Sieci neuronowe, scripts of the lectures for students of the Institute of Computer Science, Wroclaw University, www.ii.uni.wroc.pl/~aba/
EPA, 2003, Municipal Solid Waste In The United States: 2001 Facts and Figures, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, October, www.epa.gov
Eurostat, 2003. Basic statistics of the European Community, EU, Brussels, www.europa.eu.int
GórniakZimroz J., Malewski J. 2002. Gospodarka odpadami komunalnymi i wyrobiskami poeksploatacyjnymi jako międzysektorowe zagadnienie gospodarcze,
Interdisciplinary problems in mining and geology, The 2nd Conference of the Mining Department PhD Graduates, Wroclaw.
GórniakZimroz J., Malewski J. 2003. Możliwości i uwarunkowania wykorzystania wyrobisk poeksploatacyjnych do sktadowania odpadow komunalnych,
Górnictwo Odkrywkowe, Issue 7–8, Wrocfaw.
Grzenda M., Macukow B. 2003. Sieci neuronowe w roznych dziedzinach nauki, the Faculty of Mathematics and Information Science, Warsaw University of
Technology, www.alpha.mini.pw.edu.pl
Klir G.J. 1976. Przegląd wstępny, polifoniczna ogdlna teoria systemow, Ogolna teoria systemow, ed. G.J.Klira, Wydawnictwa NaukowoTechniczne, Warszawa.
M.P. 2003.11.159 of 28 February 2003 Resolution of the Council of Ministers of 29 October 2002, no. 219, on the National Waste Management Plan.
Malewski J. 1998. Górnictwo i gospodarka zasobami srodowiska, Górnictwo Odkrywkowe, Issue 2–3, Wrocław.
Malewski J. 1999. Systemowe uwarunkowania rekultywacji i zagospodarowania wyrobisk, Zagospodarowanie wyrobisk—technologiczne, przyrodnicze i gospodarcze
uwarunkowania zagospodarowania wyrobisk poeksploatacyjnych surowcow skalnych Dolnego Śląska, ed. Jerzy Malewski, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki
Wrocławskiej, Wrocław.
Malewski J. 2003. Recykling odpadów w gospodarce zasobami srodowiska, Górnictwo Odkrywkowe, Issue 6, Wrocław.
Patan K. 2003. Sieci samoorganizujące), Institute of Control and Computation Engineering, University of Zielona Góra, www.issi.uz.zgora.pl
Polish Central Statistical Office (GUS), 2004, www. stat.gov.pl
Strategia gospodarki odpadami komunalnymi Dolnego Śląska, draft, 2003. Dolnośląskie Voivodeship Marshal’s Office, March, www.umwd.pl
Tadeusiewicz R. 1993. Sieci neuronowe, Akademicka Oficyna Wydawnicza RM, Warszawa.
Uberman R. 1998. Możliwosci i przykłady wykorzystania odkrywkowych wyrobisk do składowania odpadów, Kompleksowe wykorzystanie surowców a ochrona
środowiska, Wydawnictwo AGH, Kraków.
Ukleja K., Ukleja J., Tatarczyk B. 1998. Technicznoekonomiczne i społeczne uwarunkowania budowy składowisk odpadów w wyrobiskach poeksploatacyjnych
kopalni odkrywkowych, Górnictwo Odkrywkowe, Issue 2–3, Wrocłew.
Wojciechowski A. 1998. Zintegrowane systemy gospodarki odpadami komunalnymi, zagadnienia technicznoorganizacyjne, Cooperation Fund, Warszawa, www.
otzo.most.org.pl
Żurada J., Barski M., Jędruch W. 1996. Sztuczne sieci neuronowe, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The safety status in Polish mining industry
Jan Migda
Wyższy Urząd Górniczy, Poland
ABSTRACT: In this paper some information on mining regulatory bodies, an analysis and assessment of the safety status in Polish mining industry till
the 2003 have been presented. Also the level of hazards in the underground mining plants and the main reasons of the accidents as well as the most
essential measures undertaken by the mining offices aiming at the improvement of work safety have been discussed.
1 MINING REGULATORY BODIES
The State Mining Authority, District Mining Offices and Mining Office for Inspection of Powered Mechanical Equipment are implementing the tasks of the mining
regulatory bodies determined by the Geological and Mining Law as well as by recommendary regulations. They supervise and control the operations of the mining
plants exploiting the basic and common minerals and particularly in the following:
– work and industrial safety as well as firesafety,
– mine rescue work,
– the management of the mineral resources in the mining process,
– environment protection including damage prevention,
– building and liquidation of the mining plant including land reclamation and managing the postmining areas.
The President of the State Mining Authority is a central agency of governmental administration being supervised by the minister responsible for public administration.
The President of the State Mining Authority is in particular:
– a competent organ in individual cases being investigated in the course of administrative proceedings within the scope of binding regulations of the law,
– fiilfils the function of an organ of a higher level as per code of administration procedure in relation to the directors of district mining offices and specialised mining
offices and supervises their activities,
– appoints special commissions responsible for giving their opinions on the state and fighting natural and technical hazards in the mining plants and general safety
hazards connected with the mining plants operations,
– gathers and keeps archives of the survey and geological documentation of the liquidated mining plants and also renders this documentation accessible according to
the principles and ways defmed in the separate regulations,
– grants exemptions from regulations,
– ascertains qualifications required for mining plant operations manager in underground mining plants.
The detailed tasks of the mining regulatory bodies are defined by Geological and Mining Law—the law of 4th February 1994 and amended on 27th July 2001 (Journal
of law No. 27, item 96 with further changes).
The mining regulatory bodies in the course of administrative decisions do the following:
– issue permits for operation at the mining plants of facilities, machines and machinery defmed in the regulations published on the base of the Law,
– issue permits for storing and use of the shot firer equipment at the mining plants,
– issue permits for purchasing, storing and use of shot firer equipment at the mining plants,
– approve the operation plans of the mining plants,
– arrange in categories the deposits (seams) or their parts (class categories) to natural hazards,
– the President of the State Mining Authority approves the use of machines and new machinery as well as explosives and shot fire equipment at the mining plants.
On top of it the mining regulatory bodies verify and approve the qualifications of the management and mining officers of the plants, mining surveyor and geologist as well
as other workers involved in the operation of the mining plant position of which requires special qualifications.
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2 THE SCOPE OF SUPERVISION AND CONTROL
On the 31st December 2003 about 220 mining plants exploiting basic minerals were supervised and controlled, including:
• 58 underground mining plants, including:
– 41 hard coal mines,
– 6 hard coal mines being in liquidation,
– 3 copper ore mines,
– 2 zinc ore and lead mines,
– 1 salt mine,
– 2 excavating ceramic clay,
– 2 excavating gypsum and anhydrite,
– 1 excavating magnesite,
• 11 plants carrying out underground work with the use of mining technology including Central Plant for Mines Drainage consisting of 5 plants from 14 mining areas,
• 103 opencast mining plants including:
– 11 lignite plants,
– 91 silt and rock materials, moulding and glass sand,
– 1 sulphur plant (in liquidation),
• 48 drilling mining plants, including:
– 3 oil and gas plants, including 91 m mines and 6 underground gas storage areas,
– 1 gas plant,
– 3 salt plants, including 2 plants in liquidation,
– 3 sulphur plants, including 2 plants in liquidation,
– 38 plants of hydrotherapeutic water, thermal and brine.
Also, 290 plants were supervised and controlled which were doing geological work as well as 2 methane drilling plants and 1 plant storing substances in the rock mass.
On top of it, also 1001 entities were supervised performing commissioned to them the activities connected with the mining plant operation and employing 20,883
people and 3386 mining plants exploiting common minerals employing 11,140 people.
In all those supervised and controlled plants the total number of people employed was 212,003 people including 131,949 people working in the hard coal mines in
operation and 112 people working in the hard coal mines being liquidated.
3 BASIC HAZARD AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES AT MINING PLANTS
Polish underground mining is characterised by the existence of difficult geological and mining conditions and by the occurrence of all kinds of natural hazards known in
the world of mining and in particular of those hazards which when happen are then of a catastrophogenic nature. The natural catastrophogenic hazards are usually of
really dynamic character and it refers to rock burst in particular and often methane burst as well. Their catastrophogenic nature is shown in their sudden outburst and
high intensity of the phenomenon, covering substantial areas and serious damages which very often result in loss of life or major injuries causing mass accidents therefore
their catastrophe nature.
The main hazards in the underground mining are the following ones:
– rock burst,
– fire,
– fall of roof,
– methane,
– coal dust explosion,
– squealer and rock outburst,
– water,
– climate.
Radiation hazards are of a lot of smaller importance.
From the point of view of the natural hazards and work safety the essential features of Polish mining industry are as follows:
– practically locations of all the mines (except LW ‘Bogdanka’) within one region of Upper Silesia which results in concentration of all the mining work both in local
and regional scale,
– a long period, often over a 100 years and more, of mining by particular mines,
– in many regions brought about significant exploitation of the deposit and rock mass disturbance,
– large and constantly increasing the depth of exploitation (5–8 m a year on average) at the moment the deepest mines are reaching the level of 900–1100 m,
– applying in bigger and bigger scale of simplified model of ‘sublevel’ openingup the deposit, which results in higher ventilation risks, connected with methane and fires.
Out of total number of 41 hard coal mines in operation (146 longwall faces) in 27 mines sublevel exploitation is made on 47 longwall faces and openingup and
development mining for the future sublevel exploitation (60 faces). 16 faces are being exploited in sublevel method at the depth of more than 800 meters. 32% of
daily output is obtained by sublevel exploitation. 4,500 people are working in the area of sublevel faces. At five mines, i.e. Sobieski—Jaworzno III, Katowice—
Kleofas, Mysfowice, Boleslaw Smiafy, Jas—Mos over half of the output is mined with this type of work. The primary temperature of the rocks exceeds 30°C in all
those faces being exploited in sublevel way bringing about some problems
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with workings ventilation and hazardous climatic hazards for people,
– the sublevel exploitation and related concentration of mining work and the sometimes bigger depth of work brings about the bigger level of potential hazards. 43
faces are being worked on in the B class of coal dust explosion hazard. Half of the faces are regarded as the highest (III and IV) methane hazard category, 27 faces
are being worked on in the conditions of the second and third rock bump hazard category,
– 20 faces in 8 mines are worked on with both methane and rock bump hazard category.
The basic natural hazards in opencast mines are as follows:
– water,
– rockslide and rockfall,
– seismic activity.
In the borehole (drilling) mining the basic hazards are usually gas, deposit liquid and hydrogen sulfide eruptions as well as sink holes and fire hazards.
The safety level in all kinds of mining plants is influenced, independently from natural hazards occurrence, also by the threats of hazardous and harmful agents to our
health very often resulting from the technology used to mine the minerals and they are usually such as: dustiness, noise and vibration and technological hazards.
4 NATURAL HAZARDS
4.1 Rock bumps
Rock bumps hazards—usually possibility of its occurrence—which is very dynamic phenomenon, brought about a bump and as a result the working or its part is
violently destroyed or damaged and subsequently total or part of its functionality and work safety is lost.
In the year 2003 the following disasters happened in some of the mining plants:
• at hard coal mines:
– four rock bursts which caused 2 fatalities, 2 heavily injured people and 14 people slightly injured,
– three bumps which caused 2 heavy accidents and 7 slight ones,
• at copper mines:
– eight rock bursts which caused 5 fatalities, 2 heavily injured people and 20 people slightly injured,
– six bumps which caused 6 slight accidents.
Besides, within so called preventive measures 197 bumps of high energy E>105 J were provoked constituting 34.6% of all high energy bumps in copper mines in 2003.
Had these bumps not been provoked then they could have caused socalled catastrophogenic events. And in 2002 two rock bursts were provoked and 281 high
energy bumps of E>105 J energy constituting 40% of all highenergy bumps.
4.2 Fall of roof hazard
Breaking in the workings is unintentional, gravity displacement of the mass rock in direction of the breaking or the minerals from the roof or side of work to the extent
that it may cause irreversible change of its original function of the working in the period of time shorter than eight hours. Fall of roof at the plants exploiting copper ore
and zinc and lead is usually unintentional, gravity displacement of the mass rock direction of the breaking and as a result of roof rock fall to the level equal or higher than
anchor of the main support resulting in total or partial loss of its functionality or work safety in the working being exploited.
In 2003 there was one fall of roof at ZG ‘Bytom III’ which did not harm anybody.
4.3 Fire hazard
Fire hazard due to fast spreading gas and smoke during the fire may be seriously hazardous for significant number of employees. At the hard coal mines we mostly have
endogenic fires being the result of selfignited coal (zone of faulting regions, a layer of coal left on the roof, seams left behind and so on).
The following happened at the underground mining plants in 2003:
– five fires at the hard coal mines,
– three fires at the copper ore mines.
4.4 Methane hazards
The methane hazard is strictly connected with the presence of methane in the rock mass and its release as a result of mining. The hazard grows alongside the depth of
mining and methane volume as well as with decreasing rock permeability.
In Polish hard coal mining out of total number of 41 mining plants exploiting the coal, at 29 plants methane was observed and recorded and 16 of them exploit the
coal in the IV highest methane hazard the methane seams. 798.14 mln m3 of methane was category. 69% of the total coal output is mined from released as a result of
mining in the methane seams in 2003. All this means that 1522.47 m3 CH4/min was released on average. The methane content at the mines is growing by 5–8 mln m3
on average a year.
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KWK ‘Pniówek’ and KWK ‘Brzeszcze’ showed the highest absolute methane content of above 200 m3/min in 2003.
There five case of methane light up at the hard coal mines in 2003:
– KWK ‘Bielszowice’ methane light up in the abandoned workings which caused group accident three slight ones,
– KWK ‘Bielszowice’ methane light up in the abandoned workings which resulted in a fire (group accident—6 people heavily injured and 26 people slightly,
– KWK ‘Brzeszcze’ methane light up in the face while it was mined with a shearer (group accident 1 fatality and 11 people slightly injured),
– KWK ‘Sośnica’ methane light up in the abandoned face (group accident—three fatalities, one person heavily injured, six people slightly injured.
4.5 Coal dust explosion hazard
This kind of hazard is found in all hard coal mines and may cause catastrophogenic events. The growth of mining mechanisation and winning loading, concentration of
mining alongside the intensive ventilation, which is necessary to fight the methane hazard and maintain proper climatic conditions, improper shotfiring bring about the
increase of potential hazard of coal dust explosion. In case the rigorous procedures regarding fighting this kind of hazard are not observed than when initiated we may
have a situation of coal dust explosion.
There was no coal dust explosion in 2003.
4.6 Squealer and rock outburst hazard
Squealer and rock outburst hazard is a natural susceptibility to the occurrence of gas dynamic phenomenon in the form of squealer and rock outburst or a sudden
outflow of gas from the rock mass into a working.
Squealer and rock outburst hazard is very hazardous for the operation of the mining plant. The range of rock masses being thrown out into the workings is limited by
the workings size but the released methane may form either an explosive mixture in the workings or an atmosphere which is unsuitable for breathing along the way the
air is carried to outtake shaft.
Mining coal at deeper and deeper levels is strictly connected with much bigger methane content in the seams, which with the lower gas permeability of the coal result
in the higher risk of such hazard. This kind of risk is found in a number of seams at three coal mines of Upper Silesia Coal Basin, i.e. KWK: ‘Pniówek’, ‘Zofiówka’ and
‘Brzeszcze’ as well as salt deposit at ‘Kfodawa’ Salt Mine.
There was no squealer and rock outburst in 2003.
4.7 Water hazard
Water hazard it usually occurs in the form of inrush of water or uncontrolled inflow of water, saline water, lye or water with some loose material into the workings
posing a hazard to the operation of the mining plant or its employees.
There were no incidents of this kind in 2003.
4.8 Accident rate in the mining of basic minerals
The general accident rate rose in 2003 from 3110 accidents in 2002 up to 3277 which is an increase of5,4%.
But in 2003 there was a slight decrease of an accident rate of fatalities from 39 in 2002 down to 38 in 2003.
It is worth noting, however, that there was an increase in heavy injuries from 37 in 2002 up to 46 in 2003.
Death accident rate per 1 m tons of mined coal at the hard coal mines equalled to 0.28 in 2003 but 0.32 in 2002.
The total death accident rate per 1 m tons of mined coal at all the hard coal mines and lignite mines was 0.17 in 2003 and 0.21 in 2002.
There was a drop in fatalities in hard coal mining from 33 in 2002 to 28 fatalities in 2003, however, there was an increase in number of people heavily injured from
33 in 2002 to 34 in 2003.
There were neither fatalities nor heavily injured people in the lignite mining in 2003.
There was, however, one fatality in 2002.
In comparison with 2002 there was an increase in general accident rate from 59 accidents in 2002 up to 67 accidents in total in 2003.
There was an increase of fatalities and number of people heavily injured in the copper ore mining. There were eight fatalities in 2003 whereas in 2002 there were 5
and 10 people heavily injured in 2003 and 2 people in 2002.
Worsened level of safety also shows an increase of fatalities rates and in general per 1000 employees. The death accident rate per 1000 employees rose from 0.37
in 2002 up to 0.63 in 2003 and the general accident rate per 1000 employees rose from 43,1 in 2002 to 52,9 in 2003.
Apart from rock burst hazards there were more fire hazards and incidents connected with blasting operations. As a result of a fire on rubber wheel vehicle 9 people
were slightly injured but due to ignition and explosion of the explosive materials 3 people were heavily injured and 44 people slightly in 2003. The fire and the explosion
of the explosive materials was just an unhappy coincidence and it did not cause any other serious accidents.
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Another recurring accidents recently were the explosions of the explosive materials in the drilled holes after shooting had been completed which resulted in one heavy
accident and one slight one.
There were no fatalities or heavily injured people in the opencast mining in 2003.
One heavy accident happened outside lignite mining in 2002.
There were no fatalities or heavily injured people in drilling mining in 2003 and 2002.
There were no fatalities or heavily injured people at geological plants in 2003 and 2002.
4.9 Accident rate in the mining of common minerals
There was an increase in general accident rate from 20 in 2002 up to 42 in 2003 at mining plants exploiting common minerals.
There were three fatalities in 2003 but two of them happened to people who were drinking.
5 MAIN REASONS FOR THE INCIDENTS AND ACCIDENTS IN 2003
1. Employees did not properly observe the safety work principles established and described in instructions, technological documentation, technical designs and
technicaloperational documents.
2. Working under unprotected roof or hanging wall.
3. Employees staying too close to working machines.
4. Employees travelled by the conveyors not fitted for transporting people.
5. Forbidden staying of employees in the workings where main rope haulage system is in operation.
6. Irregular coordination of teamwork.
7. Employees did not use personal protection required.
8. Improper technical condition of machines and machinery.
9. Operation mining officers work contrary to accepted standards, i.e. lack of suitable supervision of work.
10. Wrong assessment and preventive measures applied to such hazards as:
– fire, which caused methane light up,
– rock bursts,
– methane.
After the assessment of the safety status in Polish mining for the year 2003 had been made, the mining regulatory bodies accepted the following tasks as their priority
for the next years to come:
1. Eliminating the “sublevel” exploitation of hard coal seams of higher risk:
– at 27 mines on 47 longwalls sublevel exploitation,
– 60 faces for future sublevel exploitation,
–16 longwalls exploited in a sublevel way at the depth of over 800 meters,
– 32% of daily output from sublevel work.
2. Phasing out from underground mining plants the used powered supports and other mining machines and machinery posing hazard to health and life of the employees.
3. Promotion of the modern forms and method of training of the employees of mining plants.
4. Monitoring the implementation of providing the staff with insulating equipment replacing POG according to the established schedule.
5. Stimulating the process of introducing systems of work safety and occupational hygiene management at the mining plants. At the moment the mines of Katowicki
Holding Węglowy S.A., i.e. KWK ‘Jas—Mos’, KWK ‘Borynia’, KWK ‘Zofiówka’ and KGHM Polska Miedź S.A. ZG ‘Lubin’ possess relevant certificates.
6. To undertake the activities aiming at spreading the promotion of safe work at the mining plants (thought audiovisual means, mockups, posters, and so on).
7. Organizing at the State Mining Authority knowledge competitions for the mining officers responsible for plant operation in the scope of regulations regarding work
safety during the operation of the mining plant.
8. Promoting the activities aiming at including such issue as work psychology into the training program of the mining plants employees.
9. Editing and publishing the monthly magazine of the State Mining Authority under the title ‘Work Safety and Environment Protection in Mining Industry’.
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Page 839
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Complex using of mineral raw materials as a way of resource base development in
Kazakhstan
V.S.Muzgina, A.A.Zharmenov & A.Zh.Terlikbaeyva
“National Center on Complex Processing of Mineral Raw Materials ofthe Republic of Kazakhstan”
RSE, Almaty, the Republic of Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: The Republic of Kazakhstan has well developed miningandmetallurgical complex. Mining, processing and metallurgical treatment of
mineral raw materials are connected with accumulating of large volumes of poor ores and solid waste on day surface. Rock dumps, ore tailing piles
and so on are sources of harmfiil effect on environment. In modern economic conditions when deposits of useful minerals run thin, it is very important
to find additional sources of necessary products receiving. As our investigations showed different kinds of waste may be used for producing of
products, which are successfully used in different branches of Kazakhstan’s economy. Analysis of ways for increasing of complex using of mineral raw
materials of different deposits, which widen raw mineral materials base and decrease negative effect on environment, is presented in this paper.
1 INTRODUCTION
Miningandmetallurgical complex of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the main basis of its economic development. Useful minerals mining, processing and metallurgical
treatment were carried out at the territory of the country during hundreds years. So, the richest deposits are practically worked out. Development of mineral raw
materials basis of Kazakhstan may be carried out in two directions—exploiting new deposits of useful minerals and using new effective technologies for treatment of
different kinds of poor ores and industrial waste with producing new necessary products. The second direction will allow saving of mineral resources and decreasing
harmful effect of miningandmetallurgical complex on environment.
2 DETAILS OF STUDYING
The Republic of Kazakhstan has unique complex of mineral raw materials and up today is a country with high perspectives for bringing to light new sources of mineral
resources. However, ores in the Republic of Kazakhstan have low metal content, volume of hardtoprocessing ores increased from 15 up to 45%, quality of mined
mineral raw materials not complies with world standards and big problems take place on environment protection in regions where mining and metallurgical enterprises
are located.
As it is well known, all ore deposits of the Republic of Kazakhstan are multicomponents. The following example is a good illustration for this thesis. So, iron ores of
Atasu deposit contain germanium; up to 25% magnesium is contained in asbestos waste of asbestos deposit in Northern Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan has the largest
deposits of brown ironstone (Ayatskoye, Lisakovskoye, Priaralskoye). Ores of these deposits are complex mineral raw materials, containing besides iron such
valuable components as aluminium, vanadium and phosphorous. Today Lisakovskoye deposit is in active mining. When complex using of these ores we may extract,
besides iron, 75.51 million tons of alumina, 9.89 million tons of phosphorus and 0.871 million tons of vanadium. Using of worked out technology of complex
metallurgical processing of Lisakovskoye deposit ores allows receiving highalumina slag (27–28% A12O3), which is valuable mineral raw material for alumina and
highmarks of cement production. Iron ores of Sokolovskiy and Sarbaiskyi deposits contain cobalt (up to 0.2%) and nickel (up to 0.4%). Now they are not extracted
and are lost in ore tailings. Manganese ores of Central Kazakhstan contain admixtures of nonferrous and rare metals. Among them lead and zinc have the highest
content. When silicomanganese smelting, lead and zinc pass into gas phase and, in spite of using
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Figure 1. Scheme of complex using of mineral raw materials.
precipitating equipment, only Aksu ferroalloy plant dumps 700 tons of lead and 100 tons of zinc into the atmosphere a year. Ores of Zhezkazgan copper deposit
contain nonferrous metals (lead and zinc), rare and precious metals (rhenium, cobalt, gallium and silver), but at the enterprise serious attention is paid only to copper
and silver extraction. Rhenium is extracted into ammonium perrhenate (up to 23%), other metals are lost when processing and metallurgical treatment.
Investigations, carried out at the problem laboratories of the National Center on Complex Processing of Mineral Raw Materials of the Republic of Kazakhstan,
allowed extracting stable isotope Os187, mercury and iodine from rocks and waste of the Zhezkazgan ore treatment. Now the National Center is only producer of
stable osmium isotope in the world.
Bringing out iodine presence in rocks of Zhezkazgan deposit and working out technology for metallic iodine receiving is very important for Kazakhstan, as far as
there are problems with population s health because of iodine deficiency.
Today level of waste processing accounts 4.9% of rocks, 3% of waste of coal processing, 3.7% of ash, 9% of waste of phosphorous production. Investigations
showed that industrial solid waste (rocks, ore tailings, ash, and metallurgical slag) may be used for producing different kinds of production. As a result of carried out
investigations new kind of alloy—ferrosilicoaluminium, was received from rocks of Ekibastuz coal deposit. Overburden of this deposit is now a raw materials basis for
new metallurgical production, which has good sales not only in Kazakhstan, but also other countries.
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Figure 2. Indexes of sulphur utilization at Balkhash plant during 1981–2002 years.
As it is known, substantial part of Kazakhstan’s deposits is mined by filling systems. Using of consolidating stowing is very expensive in modern economic conditions.
Decreasing costs of filling mixture, especially with high cement consumption, is possible when preparing of multicomponents filling mixtures at the basis of solid waste
using. Technology was worked out for filling massifs forming with using of increased volumes of rocks from mine workings driving. This technology presumes rocks
transportation into workedout space at the same time with hydraulic hardening mixture. When chambers of big volumes filling, rocks using may reach 75% and only
25% of expensive hardening mixture may be used.
Solid waste may be used also for special sorts of cement for filling mixtures preparing. It will decrease costs of filling operations and increase profitability of a number
mining enterprises of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Our investigations were carried out for some regions of Kazakhstan with the purpose of selection of optimal
proportion of components for cement production. So, for Zhezkazgan region the following materials were tested: Aktas deposit limestone and ore tailings of
Zhezkazgan preparation plants. It was proved that using of Zhezkazgan impoverished slag (from Zhezkazgan copper plant) in a process of mixture calcination may
increase cement clinker quality.
As we can see, complex using of mineral raw materials, scheme of which is presented on figure 1, allows increasing effectiveness of Kazakhstan’s economy.
Complex using of mineral raw materials has also ecological aspect.
As we may see on figure 1, waste storing on dumps, ore tailings and so on has negative influence on environment. That is why increasing of a level of complex using
of mined mineral raw materials we may evaluate as environmental protection. On figure 2 data are presented which characterize degree of utilization of sulphide gas
from metallurgical plants for sulphuric acid preparing and, at the same time, dynamics of sulphur discharge into atmosphere. As we may see, since 1996 volumes of
sulphuric acid producing decreasing practically to zero, and volume of very harmfiil sulphide gas discharge into atmosphere increased up to 235 thou. tons a year. For
Balkhash city it is very important problem, as far as bad quality of atmospheric air is a cause of illness of population.
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Page 843
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Modelling and visualisation for the management of regeneration of a landscape
affected by underground mining
Zdenĕk Neustupa
Institute of Economics & Control Systems, Faculty ofMining and Geology, VŠB—Technical
University of Ostrava, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT: The article describes one of the outputs of the project VaV/640/1/01 named in English “Initiation of Native Ecosystems of the
Undermined Landscape for the Process of Regeneration of the Karvina Area”, and namely the application of information technologies to the
collection, processing and subsequent use of information for the regeneration of a landscape affected by underground mining.Furthermore, the design
of the information system and its technical and programming supports are given. Individual system layers are described. The output is then the
presentation of designs of landscape regeneration in the environment of virtual reality.
1 INTRODUCTION
A part of the work on a design for landscape regeneration is the creation of a system providing information that will make it possible to unify required data for solving
the task. In this article I describe the proposal for a conception of the information system designed for the management of regeneration of a landscape affected by
underground coal mining by using the method of controlled caving. The final goal is a projection of supposed alternatives onto the models of landscape use and
landscape tending strategy, including the presentation in the threedimensional space and virtual scene creation.
The goal of the prqject described is then the proposal of a graphic information system for the landscape creation during and after mining activity. The task of such a
system is a solution to the following problems:
– creation of a landscape, its modification during mining activity and after mining cessation,
– purposeful making use of spaces which will remain after finished mining,
– solution to the fault problems,
– control of the large material volumes and technical equipment displacing,
– landscape modelling,
– monitoring and modelling of biological reclamation,
– modelling of the ecological points of view.
2 THE PROJECT OF THE SYSTEM FOR POSTMINING LANDSCAPE FORMATION
On the basis of software research and evaluation, what was used was a program system GIS Arc Info enabling the work with the terrain, surfaces, geology and the
design of technical reclamation.
When designing, I proceeded from the summarisation of requirements for the system to the design of the system structure. The final output is the creation of groups
and layers of the system, including the structures of input data, output data and program modules and their interconnecting. Requirements for the system are given by
the following points:
– diagrams (of the allotment, the protected deposit area, the surroundings of the mine, etc.),
– the description of subsidence troughs,
– the description of the deposit, geology,
– hydrogeology,
– the description of mine dumps,
– technical reclamation,
– classification of surfaces,
– technical facilities (communication, underground services, buildings),
– ecological information,
– cadastral information,
– another technical and additional information.
From the standpoint of data access, the system is structured into five levels. The first level is the
Page 844
Figure 1. Structure of information system creation.
program system itself, which makes it possible to start the program interface for another access, further makes it possible to start also program modules.
Factually, the project is the first proper data level, on which it is possible to work really. It must either exist, or it must be in the case of a new task created.
Groups represented by graphic files and including all information on the work on the problem are another level (Neustupa, Z. 1997).
Layers are the next level. It is the case of sets of pieces of information on objects that are callable and displayable separately. Objects are the last level. They are
points, lines, and closed forms. Each object is defined by its ID identification number and coordinates. By means of the fimction of user data it is possible to add other
pieces of information to each object. ID is the description itself and the means to communication with the consecutive database.
3 SYSTEM GROUPS AND LAYERS, DATA, FUNCTIONS, OUTPUTS
The system is composed of basic groups in one project that ensure the performance of partial functions of the system.
The designed groups are based on the abovementioned requirements for the system; they do not copy the given list. Particular requirements are divided into the
system groups so that the system may work with them simply. In the given design, information about the area of ecology is not presented separately; it is included in the
area of biological reclamation. Another interaction is possible merely in virtue of possibilities of transmitting the information of particular layers in the groups of one
project.
Figure 2. Input data.
3.1 Group of surfaces
In principle, this group represents digital terrain models, concentrates information on the terrain condition, its map underlying data, foot edges of mine waste dumps,
contour lines, historical reliefs—initial one before the exploitation, and the courses of actions during the mining, including the prediction of subsidence development.
Layers used are as follows: the initial topography; the existing topography; the existing relief of mine dumps; data on subsidence in defined time intervals; the
boundary of the deposit area; the history of the mine.
The sources of data are primarily digitised maps, information from photogrammetry and digital maps from the Zabaget systems.
Data are usually delivered in the ASCII form, or DXF, or are translated to this form. Coordinates are carrier information. The outputs are the maps of the surface,
including mine waste dumps and subsidence troughs on a scale of 1:2000 to 1:10,000 with the outlines of the boundaries of the allotment, the protected deposit area,
and with the delimitation of area morphology by relevant altitudes, further maps of the historical relief, maps documenting the advance of mining and maps of mine
workings of previous mining activity on an original scale. The next output is then digital terrain models.
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Figure 3. Data on final terrain condition.
3.2 Group of geology
This group includes information on the deposit, boreholes, and models of the deposit. It enables the output of information on the deposit, etc.
Layers used are as follows: the original and the existing surface; boreholes and dummy boreholes, test pits; the geological model of the deposit of the initial locality;
the geological model of the existing deposit; the geological model of overlying layers; the model of mine dumps.
The sources of data are especially boreholes.
In the case of the composition of the mine dump materials, the sources of data are dummy boreholes. The dummy boreholes are created on the base of determining
the time and location of deposition on the mine dump. Information on the relief necessary for the mine dump delimitation is taken from the group of surfaces. As for coal
deposits, data from boreholes are stated, divided into layers, with information—borehole name (name, number), borehole coordinates, layer number, layer elevation,
ash in dry matter, calorific value in dry matter, sulphur in dry matter, tar in flammable matter, and other needful pieces of information.
With the mine dumps, data from test pits and dummy boreholes are stated. Information in the dummy boreholes has been acquired on the basis of knowledge of
deposited material, the determining of the time and location of depositing on the mine dump. It is the name of the borehole (name, number),
Figure 4. DMT.
borehole coordinates, layer number, layer elevation, deposition date, deposition mode, indication of landslide manifestations, mark according to the documentation of
bulk materials, Uniform Trigonometric Cadastral Network (JTSK) classification, relative density, plasticity index, deformation modulus, strength, classification. Pieces
of information need not be compulsory; adjustments are possible on the basis of operating needs.
Outputs are logs of the boreholes and test pits, including the complete documentation, the list of boreholes; a map with the layout of all deposits; the estimation of
reserves of the mine under closure; a map of reserves, and others.
3.3 Group of hydrogeology and hydrology
In this group, information on the hydrology of the mine and the close surrounding is collected. Historical information gives an opportunity to see the saturation of mine
dumps and the behaviour of water in the landscape after reclamation, especially with orientation towards the problems of subsidence troughs.
Layers used: deposit hydrogeology; hydrogeology of mine dumps; surface waters; boreholes; wells; historical hydrogeology; historical surface waters; drainage.
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Figure 5. Model of directing surface waters due to subsidence.
The source of data is the proper hydrogeological investigation of the area of interest, information of the Czech Geological Institute, of catchment area agencies, and
others. The form of data with underground waters is the underground water level, qualitative parameters, or the vector of flowing, zones of water source protection.
With surface waters, it is fmding the direction of water streams and perennial water bodies, the name, the flow rate or the quantity, quality.
Hydrogeological maps, drainage maps, maps of prediction of changes in directing surface waters due to subsidence are the outputs; an example of the model is given
in Figure 5.
3.4 Group of technical reclamation
This group gathers information needed for the performance of technical reclamation, remediation or restoration of subsidence areas, formation of slopes of mine waste
dumps, etc.
Layers used: the existing surface; the reconstructed surface; material transport; surface with the prediction of subsidence; slope conditions.
It is the group of surfaces and the reclamation project that are the source of data. Data is graphic layers, the existing surface, the determination of slope conditions,
the limitation of overlapping the areas, the plan of subsidence development, the height in metres, the swell factor, requirements for drainage channels, inflows, etc.
Outputs are maps of final technical reclamation, maps of slope conditions, sections, isometric views and digital terrain models.
3.5 Group of biological reclamation
This part enables to interconnect the pieces of information on executed works, works being done and planned works with the surface. It provides the information on
the surface, slope conditions, surface waters, the method of reclamation performed and on soils.
Layers used: the surface; inclines; soil; reclamation executed; reclamation in progress; planned reclamation; ecological information; surface waters.
The layers of the groups of technical reclamation and hydrogeology, analysis of soils from mine dumps, plans and description of reclamation works are the source of
data.
The data is graphic files from other groups; in particular layers the pieces of information are then bound to objects determining their validity. Pieces of information on
the surface of the mine dump and soils are bound to the space, therefore their form is the delimitation of the area by means of coordinates of vertices of the area, the
class of erosion resistance, the class of matrices of mine dumps, granularity, mineralogy, pH, heavy metal content, calcite, organic content, sorption capacity, nitrogen
content, nutrient content, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, hydrophysical properties, capillary capacity, wilting point, efficient water capacity, volume
density. For reclamation purposes, it is the delimitation of the area by means of coordinates of vertices, the date of reclamation beginning, the date of reclamation
completion, reclamation method, vegetation definition, and another information as given e.g. in (Stalmachova, B. 2000).
Outputs are isometric views, maps of slope conditions, 3D views, and reclamation maps.
3.6 Group of technical facilities
The group of technical facilities gathers pieces of information on underground services, buildings and communications in the ownership of the mining company.
Layers used: rail transport; communications; power distribution systems; water; steam; telecommunication.
The documentation of the mining company is the source of data. The data is in the form of graphic presentation of individual items, such as objects, with related
information on objects. Communications are described by the date of construction, type, specification. Energy distribution systems are described by the date of
building, type, voltage, specification.
Outputs are maps and graphic representations.
3.7 Group of cadastral information
In this group, pieces of information are stated concerning the objects that are not in the ownership of the mining company, but that are situated in the described area of
interest or in its immediate vicinity.
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Figure 6. Proposal for a variant of landscape biological regeneration.
Figure 7. 3D model.
Layers used: builtup areas; wooded areas; communications; railways; electrical power distribution systems; a landuse plan.
Digitising the relevant plans provides the source of data.
4 THE SITUATION AND OTHER POSSIBILITIES OF THE PROJECT
We searched for a possibility of representation in the 3D scene (Fig. 7), or virtual reality. Here we required especially the possibility of viewing the terrain designed and
moving in it and current information on objects (Neustupa, Z. 2003).
Software for information systems enables 3D representation without any possibility of passing through the model.
From the practical point of view, this solution was not suitable; that is why we turned to the system utilising the language for modelling the scenes of virtual reality,
VRML. This tool is designed to virtual reality programming itself. The main disadvantage is that the used program system has a possibility of
Figure 8. Terrain model.
Figure 9. Models of objects.
Figure 10. Virtual world creation structure.
direct output to VRML, but export is not perfect. Therefore, an editor was used as a bridge; the editor is able to process outputs in the common form, DXF.
Terrains were created and individual objects were embedded into them. At present we are concerned with interconnection between databases so that they may
share information on objects.
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Figure 11. View of the virtual scene with an object.
Figure 12. Snap from passing through the scene.
Figure 13. General view of the scene.
5 CONCLUSION
The developed system provides required information and graphic outputs for the design for landscape utilisation and landscape regeneration after mining. Information
and basic data are then a guide to making decisions about procedures, and thus enable interactive planning and modelling of reclamation. This makes it possible to
model situations for specific steps of the process and to accelerate documentation preparation. These functions are important especially in the case of unplanned
changes in mining operations, or remediation goals.
At the work on the project, possibilities of the system, system functionality and the setting of contents of particular layers and groups were tested. The design as well
as the system is open; supplementation is possible by other groups and layers according to user’s needs and requirements.
The system enables the next development and may be directed towards a total up to expert system by adding other layers and models together with the creation of
knowledge modules and decisionmaking programs over data.
In the framework of the project, a methodology for procedures of information system design was developed, including visualisation. On the basis of this
methodology, the author is able to process landscape regeneration documentation, including visualisation and virtual models presenting the fmal condition.
At present, models orientated towards representative elements, terrain models and models of particular versions of landscape regeneration are created. The final
output is visualisation models of particular versions of landscape regeneration for chosen areas of interest. The outputs are realised by a passing represented by a film
and a set for interactive browsing.
REFERENCES
Neustupa, Z. et al. 1997. Systém pro tvorbu krajiny po hornické činnosti (System for postmining landscape creation, parts 1, 2). Final report onproject GAČR 105/
94/1121, Ostrava VSBTU, p. 400.
Stalmachová, B. 2000. The Reconstruction of Permanent Greenery Elements in the landscape of the Ostrava County. In: Fečko P. (ed): Environment and Mineral
Processing. I.—Environment. Proc. Internat. Symp., Mining University Ostrava, p. 5.
Neustupa, Z. 2002. Virtuální model obnovy krajiny, Závĕrenčá zpráva grantu Iniciace přirozených ekosystémů poddolované krajiny pro proces obnovy území
Karvinska.(Virtual model of landscape regeneration, Final report of the grant project Initiation of natural ecosystems of undermined areas for the process of
Karviná region restoration), VSBTU, p.108.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Environmental management plan for Sungun copper mine
F.Rashidinejad
Department of Mining Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Sciences and Research Campus, Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: The stateowned Sungun Copper Project (SCP) is one of the government’s plan for expansion copper production. The Sungun copper
mine is a world class project of great magnitude and complexity. The actual progress of the project is 62% at the moment and is scheduled to be
commissioned in mid 2005. As no environmental considerations were accounted for over the construction period, heavy damages were inflicted on the
environment which propelled the project to a halt. However since there was a huge capital investment behind the incomplete project, the government
decided that it be carried on and yield to production. Anyhow late EIA studies commenced and continued for two years. Recently, the environmental
impact statement of the project has been approved by the assessment office of the DoE and the SCP obliged to submit a comprehensive
environmental management plan (EMP). This paper includes a brief review of ongoing activities with proposals to prevent environmental damage and
to compensate for the damage that has already occurred.
1 INTRODUCTION
Sungun copper mine is situated in the hamlet of Sungun in the East Azarbaijan Province in the North West part of Iran. Mining activities have a long history in the area.
The earliest operations were carried out on the eastern side of the deposit and with the aim of finding higher grade ore. Many years ago, operations became more
organized and from 1958 till 1971 mining of high grade ore was carried out semicontinuously. Following this period ore production has been discontinued and mining
activities have been concerned in exploration and assessment of the quantity and quality of the reserve. Formal exploration activities commenced in 1973 and
porphyritic ore, similar that at Sarcheshmeh, in Kerman Province in south central Iran was discovered in 1977. In addition to the geological borehole drilling, starting in
1989 exploratory adits were driven into the deposit. The feasibility study confirmed an open pit mine was the best mining method for the project. Work on the project
has continued and National Iranian Copper Industries Company (NICICo) signed a contract with Metso Minerals in early 1998 for design the processing plant and the
engineering works has been commenced in mid 1999 subsequently. Following commencement the project operations in the absence of an EIA, there were some
vigorous warnings from DoE that finally conduced to carry out an EIA. NICICo has established a comprehensive structure for the efficient management of the SCP
within which an Executive Director answerable directly to the NICICo main board has been appointed specifically for the SCP. This structure includes a clear line of
responsibility for environmental management.
2 EIA PROCESS
Environmental impact assessment is a process of predicting the environmental and social impacts that may result from a proposed project and devising mitigation
measures to avoid, reduce or counteract the adverse impacts in some way. This is achieved by means of a thorough examination of the environmental and social
background of the area involved and of the proposed project activities and consideration of how these interact with each other. Frequently, much of the background
information can be obtained through scrutiny of public records and existing data and also by consultation with the appropriate authorities and individuals but a program
of measurement of the ambient conditions is also required. This information is used together with the details of the project proposals to determine their interaction with
each other and to identify the resulting environmental impacts.
The EIA for the Sungun copper project was unusual in that the project operations were well advanced. In addition to the EIA baseline studies, it has been possible
to observe activities on site and has assisted in the formulation of the EMP. These
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activities include:
• Preproduction stripping which has been carried out since 1999
• Establishment of the mine infrastructure
• Earthworks and construction of the ancillary buildings and structures on the mine site
• Power and water supplies
• Earthworks and construction for the establishment
• of ore processing and handling facilities
• Investigative works in the area of the tailings dam.
3 ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND
The EMP represents the final output from the EIA studies. The initial work on the EIA concentrated on the essential baseline studies and research to generate the
necessary background environmental information. This involved extensive monitoring and research within and around the project area, examination of all the existing
research papers, records and documentation of the area and also consultation and discussion with individuals and organisations with an involvement and interest in the
area.
A major part of the EIA was the establishment of the demographic and socioeconomic background of the area with much of the statistics for this obtained through
public consultation using face to face meetings and a series of carefully designed written questionnaires.
3.1 Project description
The Sungun copper project is a very large scale operation involving a wide range of activities and processes, over an extensive geographic area.
In consultation with the SCP, a comprehensive description of the proposed project was built up which included the construction and operational phases through to
closure of the mine on completion of ore recovery operations, rehabilitation and fmal afteruse of the area. The description included consideration of all the alternatives
that were under consideration, including the ‘no project’ option.
3.2 Impact assessment
The effect of the proposed project on the environmental background of the area was then examined and assessed. The information generated in EIA process
proceeded with an assessment of these impacts to determine if they were adverse or beneficial and also to assess their significance. Measurement of the significance
then enabled the appropriate prioritisation to be made and for mitigation measures to be developed.
The most significant environmental aspects of the project were found to be the quality and quantity of water. Pollution of the existing watercourses had already
occurred due to the preproduction stripping and construction activities to date and there were concerns especially with the possibility of pollution from heavy metals in
the tailings ponds, from acid mine drainage and also with changes resulting from the dam construction.
4 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
The environmental management plan provides the link between the identified significant environmental impacts, the mitigation measures and their practical
implementation on site during the project operations and sets out the environmental controls and monitoring required. The EMP provides a management model to be
followed to properly manage the operations and provides an indication of the environmental monitoring, auditing and reporting measures that will be required in the
Sungun copper project. This is to ensure that the operations can be properly managed and controlled to minimize adverse environmental impacts. It will also include the
environmental management responsibilities and control mechanisms.
The environmental management plan is a statement of the processes involved in delivering the environmental mitigation measures but it is not a static document and it
will be developed and improved as the project progresses. The environmental management of the project is a continuous process and the mitigation measures are
based on predicted outcomes which will be confirmed by ongoing monitoring. Depending on the actual outcomes, the EMP will be amended and adapted to ensure that
the EMP remains effective and achieves its objectives.
The recommended approach to implement the EMP is through the establishment of an Environmental Management System (EMS).
5 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The environmental management system provides for auditing, training, provision and implementation of the environmental monitoring plan.
An environmental office will be set up on site, managed by the environmental manager. The staff in the environmental team would comprise auditing team personnel
and the leader of an auditing team for a specific section of the works may be the section head or the environmental manager.
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Two main options have been considered for the establishment of the environmental team at the Sungun copper project. SCP could either establish an environmental
office staffed by fiill time employees or obtain the services of relevant specialists on a consultancy basis. However, as a permanent fiill time environmental assessment
team is much more preferable and would be far more effective than external consultancy staff, SCP will appoint full time staff for the environmental office at the Sungun
copper project.
Implementation of an EMS will enable the systematic evaluation and management of environmental impacts and this in turn will generate business benefits through:
• Improving operational efficiency
• Improving risk management
• Reducing liabilities
• Avoiding adverse publicity
• Improving business performance.
Although environmental ‘reviews’ or ‘audits’ may have been carried out to assess performance, on their own these may not be sufficient to provide the assurance that
performance not only meets but also will continue to meet its legal requirements. An EMS will enable these reviews and audits to be conducted within a structured
management system and be integrated with overall management and business decisionmaking activities and processes.
The EMS will enable SCP to establish and assess the effectiveness of its internal management practices, to set an environmental policy and objectives, achieve
performance improvements and demonstrate its environmental conformance to others.
5.1 ISO 14001
Implementing an EMS to ISO 14001 will ensure and demonstrate that the Sungun copper project is operated in accordance with international best practice. This will
provide a mechanism that will allow the requirements of organisations such as the Department of Environment, interested parties or individuals to be readily and
effectively addressed by the project management at any stage during the project
ISO 14001 aims to support environmental protection and to prevent pollution in balance with socioeconomic needs and through the system, and many of the
requirements may be addressed concurrently or revisited at any time.
Having an EMS to ISO 14001 will provide confidence to interested parties that a management commitment exists to meet the provisions of its policy, objectives,
and targets with the emphasis placed on prevention rather than corrective action. It also provides evidence of reasonable care and regulatory compliance and the
system design incorporates the process of continual improvement.
6 AUDITING
Auditing is a method use to identify any potential problems and if any problems are found in any section, the auditing team will arrange for the appropriate corrective
action.
Audits will include inspections of:
• Environmental performance, records and documentation;
• Key parts of the operations, for example, water treatment, wastewater treatment, etc;
• Inspection, maintenance and calibration records;
• Regulatory compliance with applicable environmental laws or other requirements;
• Level of environmental awareness and competence of employees;
• Management and responsibilities;
• Training needs, programmes and records;
• Pertinent contractor and supplier information;
• Communication.
7 MITIGATION
Mitigation measures will include the removal, reduction or monitoring of the adverse impacts on the environment. Measures can also include compensation for
environmental damage resulting from project operations, for example the provision of alternative locations for specific habitats or reestablishment and replacement of
the damaged item. Mitigation methods can be achieved by careful management and engineering of the project. It is obvious that ‘renewal’ of an environment is generally
impossible and local authorities are seldom convinced of damage compensation through the suggested alternatives.
Environmental monitoring is a normal part of mitigation requirements. The mitigation measures will set out their purpose; explain the method of working, the
procedures and monitoring to be adopted. The method which is selected will not be necessarily the most costly and time consuming, but it should provide the best
result. Many of the measures and management activities concerning mitigation are similar during construction, operational or afteruse periods. For instance, methods of
landscaping, water erosion prevention, prevention of the spread of dust, noise reduction etc are employed from the start to finish of all projects and are not limited to
short term and long term projects or to a specific period (e.g. construction operations). However, some activities relate to a specific project such as land reclamation as
postmining operations or industrial wastewater treatment. The most important mitigation measures, which will be considered for the Sungun copper project, are as
follows:
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7.1 Surface and ground water
The discharge of untreated sewage from any part of the project will be prevented and effluent treatment plants constructed as soon as possible.
There are several important measures that will be taken with respect to water in the construction period of the Sungun copper project. These include:
• Within the mine, waste dump, processing plant and tailings disposal areas, for the temporary works it may be necessary to construct temporary collection and sewage
treatment systems until the permanent facilities are available
• Where construction works are necessary in or adjacent to watercourses, take appropriate precautions to prevent avoidable interference and pollution by diverting the
watercourse, provide temporary dams and cutoffs, bridges etc
• The following also apply to the operational period:
• Interception, collection and treatment of surface water runoff from all the disturbed areas and dumps within the project area
• Ensure all liquids, chemicals and oils are stored and used where any spillage can be contained and cannot reach any watercourse
• All waste materials should be disposed of in properly designed waste disposal areas and prevented from dumping into or adjacent to watercourses
• Care should be taken to ensure the minimum necessary consumption of water and preventing any waste of treated water.
7.2 Process water
During the production phase, significant quantities of water will be required by the ore processing facilities, water will remain in the concentrate and in the waste material
or tailings. Every opportunity will be taken to preserve and recycle water during the process.
No water will be discharged to the surrounding watercourses from the ore and tailings process. Following the crushing, grinding and separation processes, the
resulting concentrate will be dewatered via a thickener and pressure filters and the water thus extracted will be recovered and reused in the system. The waste material
or tailings will comprise a high proportion of water but this will be reduced via thickeners as far as economically practicable to around 50% ± 5% solids and the water
recovered will be recycled through the system. A significant volume of water will still remain within the thickened tailings to enable them to be pumped to the tailings
dam and settlement area at Ayat Kandi. The tailings settlement area will be designed to be impervious and on deposition, the tailings will consolidate and the
supernatant water will be pumped back to the processing plant for reuse. This has the two advantageous of economizing water consumption and the containment and
reuse of chemicals within the system.
Other mitigation measures are as follows:
• Revegetation and tree planting within the project area especially around the tailings dam, to provide dense vegetation cover to prevent water and wind erosion
• Intercept and collect seepages downstream from the tailings dam and treat as necessary for use in irrigation or other appropriate use
• Land use control within the catchment areas especially at areas of disturbance so that runoff does not pick up and carry residues into watercourses.
7.3 Mine water
Mine water comprises two main parts:
7.3.1 Pumped water from the mine workings and excavations
It is anticipated that there will be limited amounts of water from this source. The quality of the mine water is represented by the samples of mine water taken from the
exploratory adits. There is a potential risk to the quality of this water through contamination during the excavation and mining activities resulting in elevated levels of
suspended solids and possibly diesel and oil from plant and machinery. Arrangements will be put in place to collect and treat this water in settlement ponds prior to its
discharge to the adjacent watercourses. The treatment system will also include oil traps to collect any oil contamination for removal and disposal at an approved
disposal or recycling center.
A water management system will be implemented within the mine to minimize contamination of the mine water at source. The measures will include:
• Installation of drainage ditches and sumps to conduct water away from the mining activities
• Provision of pumps to remove water from working areas
• Avoidance of excavation and haulage within water bearing and flooded areas
• Servicing and maintenance of vehicles, in particular oil changes, in areas designed for the purpose so that any spillage is contained and removed.
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7.3.2 Surface water drainage and runoff
The volume of surface water runoff is entirely dependent on the amount of rainfall and snow melt and will occur mainly in the spring and early summer. As is the case
for mine water, contamination of surface water runoff can occur within the excavation areas, by contact with disturbed ground, excavated materials and spoil dumps.
Contamination can also occur from oil spillage and other waste materials. A system of catchment and drainage ditches will be constructed to avoid water reaching the
disturbed and mining areas and to divert the water around the workings to discharge direct to the adjacent watercourses or be utilized for dust suppression and other
requirements within the project.
It is inevitable that water will flow across the disturbed areas and pick up some contamination, principally suspended solids. This water will be collected separately
by an independent drainage system and taken to the oil traps and settlement facilities provided for the mine water.
Similar measures will be adopted for this water as well as for the mine water but in addition storm water containment ponds will be provided so that contaminated
water can not discharge untreated into the adjacent watercourses.
7.4 Effluent, plant yard and workshops
There is a potential for discharges of water from the plant yard and workshop area to become contaminated with oil, diesel, paints and chemicals. This will be avoided
or minimized by adopting high standards of housekeeping. This will entail:
• Careful storage of all liquids including diesel fiiel in designated areas so that any spillage will be contained for collection and proper disposal and cannot discharge
from the site
• Ensure that servicing and maintenance of plant and machinery is carried out only in areas where spillage of oils, diesel etc can be contained and collected for proper
disposal
• Do not discharge used oil or other liquids onto the ground or into watercourses but collect and ensure their proper disposal
• Ensure that all wastes including used engine parts and oil filters are properly disposed of so that oils can not be discharged onto the ground or can reach surface or
ground waters
• Recycle treated water for washing or other use as appropriate.
7.5 Sewage
All sewage produced by the project will be treated. It is intended that the defined method of treatment will be that normally used for domestic wastewater or sanitary
waste and will comprise extended aeration of the activated sludge.
Waste water will be recycled for appropriate reuse, probably for irrigation of new plantations and revegetated areas. Usage of the wastewater for irrigation will be a
useful and efficient consumption of water and will prevent surface and ground water from being polluted. Subject to confirmation of its properties by the necessary
testing, the sludge produced by the sewage treatment plant may be used as fertilizer for the neighboring areas, as appropriate.
8 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PLAN
An environmental monitoring plan will be set up with the following objectives:
• The environmental monitoring plan will require the establishment of environmental performance indicators as a way of monitoring progress and entails setting
objectives and targets. Environmental performance will be measured against these objectives and targets and from this, any change or improvement will be
determined
• For compliance to ISO 14001, monitoring will need to demonstrate continual environmental improvement
• The objectives and targets that will be set will be those that can be readily monitored, provide for the reporting of progress and will allow them to be reviewed if
required to improve the monitoring process
• The plan will include, for example, monitoring of emissions from specific parts of the project such as the process plant to air and water and will utilise specialist
equipment or consultancy services as necessary. Regular monitoring of these emissions will also be used to ensure compliance and to demonstrate compliance with
legal limits for emissions of polluting substances and pollution levels
• Health and safety monitoring will also be carried out
• To provide data for environmental impact predictions and to confirm the accuracy of the predicted impacts with regard to the actual engineering and environmental
condition
• Highlight any problems at as early a stage as possible so that corrective action can be taken
• To provide warning information about inappropriate environmental conditions
• To plan environmental monitoring in a way that it results in obtaining the useful data required for defining environmental situation resulting from project implementation
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• To provide information for decision making for management of mitigation measures for adverse impacts, both predicted and those unforeseen during the assessment
process
• The monitoring requirements will vary for different parts of the project and will depend on the specific conditions of the area as well as the activities of the project
implementation and operation. The assessors will analyse the relevant parameters to determine which need to be measured to provide the appropriate data and
establish the environment effects and whether these are beneficial or harmful. These parameters may include:
• Quality of surface and ground water around the project area with respect to parameters such as salinity, pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, turbidity, dissolved
oxygen, suspended solids, phosphates, nitrogen
• Quality and condition of effluent discharges from the project activities
• Wildlife (species, distribution and number)
• Effects on ecologically significant wildlife, species and plant communities
• Variations in vegetation (vegetation type, specious, growth rate, biomass, etc) in and around the project areas
• Increase in erosion rates
• Public health indicators
• Human and animal migrations
• Variations in socioeconomic characteristics of the local population
• Emissions to atmosphere such as dust, fumes and gases from the project area
• Variations in air parameters around the project area
• Noise emissions from the project areas and changes in noise levels
• Production of waste, possibly illustrated by the quantity and types of waste which leave the project area in proportion to the amount of raw materials entering the
plant
• Consumption of raw materials, possibly illustrated by reference to the ratio between production levels and raw material consumption
• Energy consumption with reference to amount used or by an improved ratio between units consumed and production levels
The most appropriate indicators will be selected for use in the monitoring procedures.
9 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
The efficient working of a project such as the Sungun copper project relies to a great extent on the participation and cooperation of the general public, individuals and
interested parties, non government organisations and also national and local government. This cooperation includes all aspects of the project operations and activities,
the existing social and industrial system and involves all members of the project team and society.
To improve conditions on the site and maintain the support of the public throughout the development of the project, the following need to be considered in the
decision making process:
• Social needs and requirements
• Project needs and requirements.
Experience shows that the performance of a project will not reach optimum levels unless the above are considered in the consultation process.
9.1 Advantage of public participation
• Accommodate the requirements of local inhabitants and interested parties in the planning and operation of the project
• Preservation of the cultural heritage of the project area
• Improving public awareness and understanding
• Encouraging public cooperation in the project
• Obtaining the required manpower for the prqject
• Facilitating and speeding up implementation of the project
• Minimising the project costs
• Improve the overall efficiency of the project
• Optimisation of project closure with the required afteruse phases
• Sharing the effort in maintaining and implementing the project.
9.2 Obtaining public cooperation
The process of obtaining public cooperation requires to be carefully planned and will consider the following:
• How to ask for public participation in the various phases of the project
• The means of communication with the public to get their opinion
• Whether it is appropriate to select some individuals as representatives of the people.
Although environmental assessment of a project is possible and valid without public participation, the project management will be able to largely remove the
disadvantages of the project, and be able to demonstrate this, through the process of public consultation where the viewpoints of the public are fully taken into account
and their cooperation
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obtained. Public cooperation will also result in facilitating and speeding up the project as well as achieving the optimum alternative through the following:
• Identification of the precise charactenstics of the impacts in order to calculate their significance and magmtude accurately
• The project management and planners will become familiar with the local people and their needs and demands so that these can be provided and guaranteed within
the project
• Allaying any popular misconceptions and fears
• Demonstrating social responsibility and achieving acceptability.
Achieving information as far as possible from all levels of society
10 CONCLUSION
The environmental management plan for principal seprate elements of the Sungun copper project should be commenced as a matter of urgency. These elements are:
• Mine and spoil dumps
• Processing Plant
• Tailings disposal and water supply facilities
• Ancillary operations and infrastructure.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Tailings disposal options study at Sungun copper mine
F.Rashidinejad
Department of Mining Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Sciences and Research Campus, Tehran, Iran
F.Raouf Sheibani
Toossab Consulting Engineers, Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: The Sungun copper mine is located in the East Azarbaijan Province in the North West of Iran and is the second largest copper mine in
the country. In order to obtain copper concentrate, large amount of copper ore should be treated. The approximate amount of tailings that would be
produced by the concentrator is estimated to be 385 Mt over the thirty one years mine life. The main criteria for the tailings disposal options study was
the need to provide enough capacity to contain the tailings produced through the mine life with the specific consideration of minimize environmental
damage. As the mountainous terrain around the mine site significantly restricted the areas available, there were only two main locations available for the
tailings disposal. Based on the options study, the most reliable location and tailings delivery system selected and further study carried out for
optimization of selected option.
1 INTRODUCTION
The copper ore deposit is located within an elevated area near the headwaters of the Sungun River and is bounded on the east by the Sungun River itself and on the
west by the Pakhir River and the confluence of these two rivers form the northern boundary of the mine. The Sungun and Pakhir rivers originate in the elevated areas to
the east and west respectively, of the mine to flow north, dropping rapidly to reach the confluence with each other. The Sungun River then continues to flow north
eastwards down a deeply incised valley to join with the Miankafeh River at an elevation of about 1500 m (above mean sea level) where the combined rivers become
the Illgineh River. The Illgineh River continues to flow in a generally northerly direction through the largely unspoiled area of Arasbaran until it reaches and flows into the
Aras River which forms the border with Armenia and discharges to Caspian Sea.
The area around the Sungun Copper Project (SCP) is an area of outstanding natural beauty and is sparsely populated and remains relatively unspoiled. The Sungun
project area is very closely associated with the area of Arasbaran lying immediately to the north. With respect to its special ecology, social, economic and historical
background, Arasbaran is a unique area in the whole of the country of Iran. Arasbaran is located in the north end of East Azarbaijan province and adjacent to the
boundary with the Republic of Azerbaijan. A part of Arasbaran has been designated as a nature reserve and it is important to note that the Sungun copper project is
located immediately adjacent to it. The reserve has a surface area of 72465 km2 and has been under the Department of Environment protection since 1971. It became
listed under the Man and Biosphere Program of UNESCO in 1977.
2 ORIGINAL SITE SELECTION
2.1 General
The mine comprises a large open pit commencing at a maximum ground level of around 2350 m (top of the mine) and the final base level of 1625. The location of the
ore body is, of course, fixed and the mine can only be developed in that location, irrespective of the previous land use. Minimizing the “footprint” of all mine and
concentrator installations in mountainous areas are important and the design philosophy should be highlighted on the list of design criteria. Site selection process,
therefore should be considered for other facilities.
The waste dump position in the Pakhir valley is the only suitable one for much of the life of the pit. No other suitable initial dump location exists, although it
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may be necessary to consider the adjoining valley in the later stages of the design. The upper Sungun valley may be available for additional waste towards the end of the
production life.
Based on the original site selection investigations, the concentrator and related facilities was proposed in downstream of the confluence of the Sungun and Pakhir
Rivers.
A detailed investigation was carried out into the use of both fixed and semimobile (and a combination of both) crushers. The methodology of optimization was
based on a tonne kilometer. The comparisons showed that there appeared to be very little advantage in utilizing anything but a fixed crusher. So, the fixed crusher was
proposed in elevation 1950 m and DowntheValley ore handling system was considered to move the crushed ore to the stockpile in confluence of the Sungun and
Pakhir Rivers at elevation of 1674 m.
A water reservoir dam was originally proposed within the steep sided valley of the Illgineh River, immediately downstream of the concentrator, with the impounded
water area backing up in both the Sungun and Miankafeh valleys. The dam was to be constructed of rockfill to a height of about 80 m. The main purpose of the water
dam was to provide water at start up for the concentrator and make up water during operation. This site combines the potentially contaminated waters from the Sungun
River and clean fresh water from the Miankafeh River. The Sungun River will likely be contaminated from site spillages and leached materials plus products of acid mine
generation from the waste dump.
Following dewatering at the tailings thickeners it was intended that the tailings would be transferred, by gravity to a rockfill filter dam with some 260 m high in the
Illgineh valley. The volume of rockfill required was some 32 Mm3. It was planned to discharge tailings thickened to 50% solid into the course of the Illgineh River, just
downstream of the toe of the water reservoir dam. The tailings would then be allowed to flow downstream to the rockfill embankment and deposited along the valley
and against the rockfill dam. Water could be pumped from inside the containment area immediately adjacent to the dam wall.
Further studies confirmed that this site to construct the tailings dam was not reliable from technical and economical standpoints and potentially may cause significant
adverse environmental impacts on Arasbaran nature reserve.
2.2 Refinements
Naturally, there have been numerous refinements after the original site selection. The major modifications have been the relocation of the tailings dam and focusing on a
secure supply of fresh water. The proposed location of tailings dam, therefore should have to be changed from the original site in the Illgineh valley to a new position.
Generally the location of tailings dam govern the location of processing plant and tailings disposal facilities.
The concentrator, which was to have been constructed in the bottom of the Sungun valley at an elevation of approximately 1640 m, moved to a new position close
to the southern rim of the fmal open pit at an elevation of 2100 m. This site has many advantages over the original. The most significant being the removal of flood risk,
the relative ease of conveying the crushed ore to the concentrator, the simplified logistics and reduced cost in transferring filtered concentrate from the plant, the greater
space available, the relative closeness of support sections and utilities, the increased degrees of freedom to position plant buildings, more room for construction
activities and possibly lower site costs.
Water reservoir dam construction works was commenced in late 2000 but further studies indicated unacceptable levels of risk and cost and confirmed that the
existing reservoir dam near Ahar (40 km to mine site) has sufficient capacity to supply the raw water demand of the Sungun Copper Project and the dam works was
stopped in August 2002. Work on the project has continued thereafter.
The Phase 1 plant and mine will have a nameplate capacity of 7 million tonnes of sulphide copper ore per annum and is scheduled to be commissioned in mid 2005.
The concentrator is fit for the purpose and is the only large scale commercially acceptable method of treating this particular ore at the present time.
3 TAILINGS DISPOSAL
A vast amount and variety of mine tailings are produced around the world each day. These mining wastes must be properly managed. To evaluate mine tailings disposal
technology, the appropriate engineering properties of the tailings must be ascertained. Generally tailings must be disposed of in a manner that optimizes protection of
human safety and the environment. Onland tailings impoundment systems must be designed and constructed in accordance with internationally recognised engineering
practices, local seismic conditions, and precipitation conditions. Any design also would have to take into consideration water balance and water management. Onland
disposal systems should be designed to isolate acid leachategenerating material from oxidation or percolating water.
Generally tailings dams should be located as near as practicable to the mine and processing plant, but again with due consideration of all associated
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activities and also the safety and stability of the selected area. Considerations need to take account of issues such as the impact on the area proposed for retention of
the tailings, the transfer of tailings to the dam, drainage from the dam, ongoing maintenance and the long term plans on completion of mining operations.
Marine discharges of tailings must not have a significant adverse effect on coastal resources.
Riverine discharges are not acceptable unless the project sponsor provides thorough documentation regarding:
1. Environmental analysis of alternatives
2. Effects on aquatic resources and downstream users of riverine resources.
If the mining operation involves a series of open pit operations, project sponsors must evaluate the feasibility of using abandoned open pits for tailings disposal.
4 TAILINGS DISPOSAL OPTIONS STUDY
The objective of the tailings disposal options study is finding the best location for tailings dam from technical, environmental and economical standpoints.
The main criteria for the tailings disposal options study was the need to provide enough capacity to contain the tailings produced over the thirty one years mine life.
Other considerations included:
– Operational parameters
– Site selection
– Tailings transportation, distribution and water reclaim
– Dam construction method
– Availability of material for the dam construction
– Hydrology, hydrogeology, water balance and water management
– Geotechnical analysis
– Operational management
– Minimize environmental damage
– Closure options
– Financial analysis
4.1 Operational parameters
Tailings production is given as approximately 7 Mt/y in the initial years followed by 14 Mt/y for the rest of the life of mine. The wholeofminelife tailings production is
estimated to be 385 Mt. Assuming an insitu density of 1.5 for the tailings, and a void ratio of 1 the overall volume of tailings could be expected to be 257 Mm3 on
completion of mining and after settling and drying. The discharge pulp density of the tailings is 50% by weight. Particle size distribution of
Table 1. Operational parameters of the concentrator (Phase 1).
tailings is as follows:
Table 1 shows the operational parameters and throughputs of the concentrator have been adopted for the nominal 7 Mt/y mining rate, to be applicable up to year 7.
Maximum (Design) throughput is also shown in the table.
4.2 Site selection
The terrain in which the project is located is characterized by steep sided high mountains, and deeply incised V shaped valleys that significantly restricted the areas
available around the mine site. The terrain does not flatten out for some 35 km to the south. Steep sided valleys are not the best sites for tailings dams as the ratio of
tailings storage capacity and dam fill volume across the valley is generally low. This results in the unit cost of tailings storage being high.
There were only two main locations available for construction the tailings dam, within the Uzi valley (Alternative 1) in the north of the mine site or in the area of the
village of Ayat Kandi (Alternative 2) to the south of the mine site. This then gave four options for Alternative 1 and five options for Alternative 2.
4.3 Tailings dam at Uzi valley
The logical embankment location is between the steeply rising valley walls just downstream of the junction between two tributaries. The valley widens out above this
and provides maximum storage volume for a given embankment volume, whilst remaining reasonably close to the mine. From the concentrator site, the tailings would
need to be pumped across the Pakhir valley and then into the Uzi catchment. Four feasible options were identified for study as follows:
Uzi 1. Pump thickened tailings to the site and separate the coarse and fme fractions using cyclones. Use the sand to construct an embankment to create an
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impoundment for the fine tailings. An important issue is the ratio of sand needed to create sufficient embankment height to store the fine friction. The required sand ratio
was found to 37% by weight and considered to be too great. The amount of rockfill in the embankment was therefore increased until the ratio was reduced to around
29%, which is theoretically feasible if the cut limit for sand at the cyclones was to be reduced from 75 µm to 45 µm.
Uzi 2. Construct a rockfill filter dam. Discharge allin thickened tailings upvalley from the embankment crest to form a beach. A decant pond would form on the
beach as for Uzi 1 for pump back to the concentrator. Seepage through the rockfill dam would be collected and pumped back to the impoundment, again as for Uzi 1.
Uzi 3. Construct a conventional impervious clay and rockfill dam. Discharge allin tailings downvalley to the embankment. The decant pond would form at the
embankment for pumpback to the plant.
Uzi 4. Downvalley discharge of DeepCone thickened (paste) tailings.
Uzi 4 has been compared separately with the similar option of Alternative 2.
4.4 Uzi embankment comparison
Table 2 shows that Uzi 2 has the smallest overall embankment volume. Uzi 3 is larger because of the flatter embankment slopes needed for the upstream face of clay
fill. Both embankments would need to be 325 m high. Uzi 1 has an overall embankment volume of 105 Mm3, but only 30 Mm3 of this is rockfill, the remainder is
cycloned sand tailings. The final embankment height can therefore be less (300 m) because the impoundment only needs to store the fme tailings friction, 182 Mm3,
compared to 257 Mm3 for the allin tailings.
The unit rates for clay, rockfill and cycloned sand has been estimated to be 2, 4 and 1.18 US$/m3 respectively. Further estimation, therefore shows the cost of
208.5,360 and 356 MUS$ for Uzi 1 to 3, which means that Uzi 2 and 3 should not be considered further and Uzi 1 is the best option of Alternative 1.
4.5 Tailings dam at Ayat Kandi
The proposed site lies on the south side of the dividing watershed within a wide saucer shaped valley at the upper reaches of the Zarnekab River. Five feasible options
were identified for study as follows:
AK1. Pump unthickened tailings to the embankment location and use cyclones to build a sand embankment. Store the cyclone overflow in the impoundment thus
created.
AK2. Thicken the tailings at the concentrator to as high a density as possible consist with pumpability
Table 2. Conceptual volumes of rockfill and tailings for each option.
Rockfill (Mm3) Tailings (Mm3)
Starter Toe Allin Fine Sand
Uzi 1 19 11 — 182 75
Uzi 2 90 — 257 — —
Uzi 3 114 — 257 — —
using centrifugal pumps. Discharge the tailings from multiple outlets downvalley to a rockfill filter dam. Collect bleed water in a water recovery dam downstream of
the filter dam.
AK3. Construct a watertight earth fill dam. Pump partially thickened tailings to the valley and discharge them from a single outlet and storage water and tailings
together in the impoundment.
AK4. As for Ak1 but pump partially thickened tailings to the dam rather than unthickened tailings (Dilution using reclaim water may be necessary at the cyclones).
AK5. Downvalley discharge of DeepCone thickened (paste) tailings.
AK5 has been compared separately with the similar option of Alternative 1.
AK4 which had the lowest cost of the four technically competent options considered (AK1 to AK4), was selected as the best option of Alternative 2.
4.6 Comparison between Uzi and Ayat Kandi
The options study for the Ayat Kandi and Uzi valleys have shown that a cycloned sand embankment is the most economical tailings disposal method for both sites. In
Table 3 the two sites were compared on grounds of feasibility, time, cost and risk. It can be seen that the Ayat Kandi site is a better choice on almost all counts.
The principle factor behind the difference is the steeper terrain at Uzi site. Another illustration of this is to look at the efficiency of the two sites. For embankment
impoundments, the efficiency can be expressed as the ratio of the impoundment capacity created by the embankment to the embankment volume. The two site
efficiencies are shown in Table 4.
4.7 DeepCone thickened DownValley discharge
DeepCone thickening will achieve an underflow density that is too viscous to pump with centrifugal pumps. The thickeners must therefore be located at the point of
discharge, not at the concentrator. The beach slope will be the key parameter in the design of a DeepCone DownValley (DCDV) scheme and will determine the
thickener location. It is known that
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Table 3. Comparison Uzi and Ayat Kandi.
Table 4. Site efficiencies.
Uzi Ayat Kandi
Embankment
Sand 75 32
Mm3
Rockfill 30 3
Mm3
Total 105 35
Mm3
Fine tailings stored 182 224
Mm3
Efficiency 1.73:1 6.40:1
Mm3
tailings discharged as slurry are deposited forming a beach with a slope slightly grater than a horizontal slope. At the present stateoftheart, there is no known
theoretical basis for calculating beach slopes (Blight 1994), but it is known that the slope value is dependent on a series of variables such as grain size distribution, solids
content, and flow rate. Solids specific gravity is also important (Pinto et al. 2002). A given slurry will stack at a steeper beach slope if the flow rate is reduced. Thus, if
the tailings flow can be split between several outlets, say two or three widely separated discharge points, the beach slope will be steeper than for discharge from a
single outlet. Rheological testing has been carried out up to around 65% solids but a higher figure than this would certainly be achieved. It was therefore necessary to
extrapolate these data and to guesstimate a beach slope for this study as follows. In order to maximize the slope discharge can be split between two outlets in the Uzi
valley and between two outlets during
Table 5. Adopted beach slopes for deepcone thickened tailings.
Table 6. Site efficiencies.
Uzi Ayat Kandi
Tailings tonnage Mt 385 385
Tailings volume 3 241 241
Mm
Embankment height m 278 160
Embankment volume 3 51 13.5
Mm
Site efficiency 4.7:1 17.9:1
Phase 1 in the Ayat Kandi valley and between three outlets during Phase 2 (Table 5).
It is also necessary to adopt a figure for insitu density of the tailings. A final value of 1.60 t/m3 was used.
Further studies confirmed that both sites have the capacity to store all of the planned mine life tailings. Tailings impoundment and embankment layout were prepared
for both valleys and the characteristics for each location are summarized in Table 6.
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It can be seen that the ratio of impoundment volume to embankment volume have increased over the cycloned sand schemes but the difference between Uzi and
Ayat Kandi is still substantial. Furthermore from the concentrator site the elevation of the ridges that must be crossed to get from the Sungun valley into the Uzi and
Ayat Kandi valleys are 2390 m and 2360 m respectively. Thus there would be no saving in pumping cost at the Uzi site offset the increased embankment cost. No
further study of the Uzi site was therefore carried out.
4.8 Comparison between AK4 and AK5
Further studies showed that the Ayat Kandi DC/DV scheme was more costly than the cyclone scheme by a quite substantial margin and finally AK4 was initially
selected as the scheme to be taken forward for detailed design and optimization study.
4.9 Optimization study for tailings delivery to Ayat Kandi
Due to the relocation of the tailings dam from the original site in the Illgineh valley to Ayat Kandi, the tailings pumping system will have to be totally reengineered. The
maximum required elevation of the pipeline to the new site for the tailings dam is 2361 m. The position for the tailings thickeners is at an elevation of 2080 m. The
tailings slurry will be directed from the concentrator down a flume by gravity flow to the thickeners. Three series of pumps (8 pumps in each line) and one stage
pumping from the tailings thickener to the tailings dam at Ayat Kandi have been provided. The static pumping head from the tailings thickeners to the dam will be
around 281 m.
5 CONCLUSION
A number of options were considered as part of two alternatives. The method of construction of the original tailings dam was rejected as unsuitable due to the speed of
construction required. These dams would occupy and sterilise large areas of the Illgineh valley, and interfere with normal river flows and measures to control and
diversion of flood water was technically difficult and expensive. The decision was made to remove the tailings dam from the Illgineh valley and locate it at Ayat Kandi.
This immediately removed the need for extensive water management schemes, interference to river flows and potential flood problems within the Illgineh valley. The
impact on the Nature Reserve of Arasbaran was also significantly reduced. The height of the tailings dam reduced from 260 m to 180 m high. Reassessment of the
quantities of water required for the ore processing facilities and tailings disposal allowed further water supply options to be considered, following which it was decided
to obtain the fresh water from the existing dam at Ahar. A pipeline to convey the water would be constructed and would run cross country from the Ahar dam to the
Sungun processing plant.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the headquarters of SCP in Tehran, in charge of the overall control of all aspects of the project, for its permission to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
Australian Tailings Consultants (ATC), 2002. Additional Option Studies in the Uzi Valley and for DeepCone Thickening.
Blight, G.E. 1994. The master profile for hydraulic fill tailings beaches. Proc. Instn CivilEngrs Geotech. Engng. 107, 24–40.
International Mining Consultants Limited (IMC), 2004. Sungun Copper Project Master Plan (Draft Report).
Pinto, M. & Berrera S. Tailings beach slope forecasting—copper tailings, Proc. Intern. Symp. Tailings and Mine Waste, Colorado, 27–30 January 2002.
Rotterdam: Balkema. 87–91.
Toossab Consulting Engineers, 2002. Tailings Disposal and Water Supply Option Studies of Sungun Copper Project.
Page 863
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
The importance of vegetation to the planning of mining landscape regeneration
Barbara Stalmachová
Institute of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Mining and Geology, VSBTechnical University of Ostrava
ABSTRACT: The mining inhibition bears many problems in traditionally mining landscapes, connected with a way of mine liquidation, a way of
reclamation and a subsequent landscape using. The main requirement of every measure must be an adequate postmining (or mining consequential)
functional utilisation, for a maximal defending from social and economical crisis. The landscape reclamation (it is better to use the term “Regeneration
of the landscape”, because it is necessary to solve all mine space for post mining landscape using) is one of the most important factors affected a
subsequent functional utilization, i.e. a possibility of inhabitants living and life in postmining landscape.
The knowledge of a potential natural vegetation and present vegetation in the interested areas has a great importance for a total regeneration of the
landscape exploited by mining and industry. The development of vegetation cover depends on impacts of site factors in the present environment. A
condition complex limits the environment, accounts natural selection, and so, plants of similar properties are configured to communities, too. The
importance of vegetation knowledge and about development tendencies in ecosystems is given by a feedback between plant communities and
ecological site conditions, i.e. every knowledge of vegetation are generally very complex knowledge of habitats, where plant communities grow.
1 INTRODUCTION
Using the caving method of coal mining leads to extensive changes in ecotopes in the landscape:—the origin of dry subsidence, landslides and large waterfilled
subsidence troughs;—the degradation to total destruction of the original landscape structure, all landscape components and elements;—the deposition of mine waste
rocks and wastes on the surface;—the construction of technological basins (flotation tailings, coal sludges, fly ashes from electric power stations);—technical
remediation. Thus significant changes in site conditions and a decrease in the natural and native ecosystems (including a decrease in the space for human population—by
clearance of builtup areas, a decrease in productive and recreational areas, and others) occur.
The goal of regeneration is the creation of a new, ecologically balanced landscape that fulfils the requirements for the sound environment. According to the presented
definition, the remediation of the area is, however, very difficult. What the nature has formed in the course of hundreds and thousands of years is to be dealt with “at
once”. At the existing preferentially only technically solved measures, any site conditions and ecological conditions of newly developed ecotopes are not respected
(Neustupa, 2003). An accompaniment is a continuous diminishing the species diversity of biological landscape component (Stalmachová, 2001):
– largearea forest, or agricultural reclamation with the absence of elements of nonforest landscape vegetation (spinneys, balks, mantles, meadows, solitary and group
woody species, and others) is implemented; monotype target reclamation is preferred (forest or agricultural with the preference of productive over nonproductive
functions) in particular implementation phases;
– in forest reclamation outside of the community unit, onespecies evenaged stands prevail without a possibility of development in stand stratification; in the stands
introduced and allochthonous woody species are planted (Quercus rubra, Pseudotsuga menzienzii, Populus—Canadian species, landscapeimportant bushes of
the genera Spiraea, Philadelphus, Deutzia, Hippophae rhamnoides, and others);
– natural and closetonature stands are replaced by cultural, or synantropic ones;
– a change in site conditions leads to a rapid decline in sensitive species and an increase in invasive and expansive species (Reynoutria sachalinensis,
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Solidago canadensis, Calamagrostis epigeios, and others).
A related negative phenomenon is a progressive isolation of populations of species, so that their life requirements are fulfilled no more and a necessary exchange of
genetic information does not take place. What is a result is the regionally irreversible loss of the natural resource. In industrial types of landscape, natural and native
types of ecosystems occur only very sporadically and insularly; disturbed biotopes and biotopes of varying degrees of degradation prevail, i.e. when evaluating the
biotopes, an absolute lack of natural types of ecosystems shows itself. In such a case the following two approaches can be considered:
– to establish new stands of the types of natural and closetonature ecosystems;
– to protect the existing (also even degraded) types of ecosystems and by guided care to tend to increase their ecological value and ecostabilising effects on the
surrounding landscape.
The creation of new terrestrial ecosystems—islands of biotic diversity—as bases of potential ecostabilising acting is very difficult in acceptable time spans (development
of terrestrial ecosystems extends relatively in particular phases; successionally advanced terrestrial ecosystems may, in their natural substances, be formed or restored
merely in time exceeding the human life span). That is why it is necessary to protect, as a compensation for the biotopes lost, even biotopes disturbed or degraded to
varying degrees, and to direct, by controlled succession and partial additional energy, their development towards ecologically more stable stages.
2 SPECIES COMPOSITION OF WOODY PLANTS FOR LANDSCAPE REGENERATION
A necessity of changing the approach to the restoration of parts of the landscape is based on the legal provisions of the Czech Republic (Act No. 114/ 1992 Coll., on
Nature and Landscape Protection). In connection with new projects of landscape planning that should take into account also points of view of the restoration and
strengthening of landscape ecological stability (revitalisation programmes, reclamation, integrated land treatment, creation of territorial systems of ecological stability,
protection of landscape character, protection of NATURA 2000 localities), it is necessary to prefer the assortment of autochthonous (native) species for planting in
open landscape exploited by mining. To this requirement, the following reasons lead:
– the preservation of the genetic fund of native woody species and their native communities in the area (in the framework of creation and maintenance of elements of
the territorial system of ecological stability, the condition of using the autochthonous species is binding);
– native plants and their communities are adapted best to local conditions; in this way they successfully and relatively quickly contribute to increasing the ecological
stability of the territory;
– the planting of introduced species in the landscape is often problematic, because they may participate in a secondary reduction of species diversity of the other
components of biocenosis (e.g. adaptations for getting food are not developed—Quercus rubra, woody species cause chemical changes in the soil profile—
Robinia pseudoacacia, Picea pungens, Pseudotsuga menzienzii);
– the import of species being native in our country from other phytogeographic areas is not suitable too. Differences between our species and the genetic types of
distant populations may negatively manifest themselves in their successfulness in our country (e.g. worse cold resistance—freezing), or they may disturb by cross
breeding the genetic types of local populations. By importing woody species from other geographical areas, a danger of disease occurrence grows markedly
(Erwinia amylovom—fire blight in the rose family of genera Crataegus, Sorbus, tracheomyokosis fungus Ophiostoma ulmi in Ulmus minor and Ulmus laevis,
syndrome of decline in Quercus robur etc.).
According to the conditions of the site it is necessary to choose the most suitable target or pioneer woody and other plant species so that in the first phase of
reclamation, the plants may create conditions for the spontaneous ecesis of other species. The recommended species compositions of planting stock for specific types
of sites in the open landscape of the Karviná area are based on the study of seminative and native plant communities in the Karviná region (Stalmachová, 1992 to
2003). The utilisation of species combinations for mixed forest stands and nonforest landscape vegetation contributes to the regeneration of ecological stability and the
improvement of aesthetic value of the mining landscape.
The species composition of plant communities during succession changes is, to a considerable extent, determined by definable and expectable abiotic (and also
biotic) factors acting on the given site. The role of the vegetation cover in the course of ecological succession and pedogenetic processes taking place simultaneously is
indisputable. Many species in the plant communities significantly affect the humification of the upper horizon of substrate or participate in
Page 865
soil surface solidification, the modification of site microclimatic conditions, and thus enables the easier ecesis of more demanding plant species and species of plants with
narrow ecological amplitudes; simultaneously they create sheltering and food spaces for the animal communities (zoocenosis).
For this reason, the extent of areas covered with the permanent nonforest vegetation is of great importance to the present method of utilising the landscape in
industrial areas (with regard to e.g. a very low forest percentage in these landscape types).
Generally, vegetation is the biologically most active factor that affects the landscape character, properties and functions. Biologically active areas utilise solar energy
according to physiological laws, i.e. they produce organic matter, affect air composition and properties, act as an important climatic factor, which by influencing the
properties of the ecotope improves the proper living conditions and thus creates conditions for the other living organisms, including a man.
It is above all successionally advanced plant communities, with the prevalence of Cstrategists and species with narrow ecological amplitudes, forming a part of
biocenoses with developed food chains and fiinctional energymaterial flows, that fulfil these important functions in the landscape. The development of the mentioned
types of communities requires a considerable time span. Thus with each disturbance or elimination of a biotope of the developed succession stage in the landscape,
significant and negative effects on dependent types of organisms up to a man occur. On the basis of observation it has been found that the development of particular
types of plant communities (subsequently also the development of animal communities and the whole ecosystems) requires different, mostly rather long periods of time.
1–4 years: segetal and ruderal plant and animal communities (limit factors are propagule sources, the content of contaminants, pollutants and harmful substances in
the environment and the distance
Figure 1. Carici elongatae—Alnetum glutinosae.
between the ecotope and the propagule dispersal source);
8–15 years: the vegetation of eutrophic standing waters and wetlands, the development of animal community is quicker in the conditions of standing waters, the
ecesis of species depends on the distance from the source of genetic fund and on water quality;
10–15 years: spontaneous regeneration of mantles of bushes, balks and windbreaks without specialised species (depending on the distance from the source of
propagules and the type of dispersion—zoochory, anemochory, etc.);
10–100 years: regeneration of xerothermic or hydrophilous nonforest communities after intensive utilisation (frequent mowing, additional fertilizing, additional
seeding of cultural species);—development of willowaspen floodplain woods, including the development of stand stratification and the occurrence of characteristic
species of the herb layer;—the origin and development of talus forests, birch oak woods on extreme sites;—the ftmctional efflciency of cultural forest stands restored
on the cleared area with forest soil.
Centuries: development of native forest communities (beech woods, oak hornbeam woods, alluvial woods of hardwood forest), including the occurrence of
characteristic species of higher plants in the herb layer.
Millennia: regeneration of climax speciessaturated communities.
3 STAND COMBINATIONS AND MIXTURES FOR SEEDING, PLANTING
Methods of landscape regeneration by controlled succession and the launching of native regeneration processes are based on the need to increase the ecological
stability of the territory (ecologically stable landscape with the sufficient representation of nonforest vegetation is also felt “aesthetically”, which
Figure 2. Molinio arundinaceae—Quercetum.
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Table 1. The species composition of stands.
Table 1.
among other matters affect the psychosomatic condition of the population of the territory concerned).
In connection with new projects of landscape planning that should take into account also points of view of regeneration and strengthening of landscape ecological
stability (revitalisation programmes, remediation, overall land treatments, creation of territorial systems of ecological stability, protection of landscape character, etc.),
the basic requirement of the regeneration of segments and elements of the mining landscape is utilising the autochthonous structure of skeletal woody plants when
preparing planting plans (characteristic of spontaneously formed plant communities of particular succession stages on relevant types of site). This necessity of a change
in the approach to the regeneration of landscape parts is based on the Czech Republic’s legislative measures (Act No. 114/1992 Coll., on Nature and Landscape
Protection).
Stand combinations designed for the regeneration of vegetative cover must fulfil basic requirements for woody plants and herbs suitable for employing the method
of controlled succession:
– sufficient resistance on specific, often extreme site conditions (resistance to low pH values of substrate, to high temperatures of substrate surface and the
surroundings, ability to grow in waste rock, resistance to pollutant load, etc.);
– the sufficient and sufficiently quick stabilisation of substrate by a complex of root systems of trees, woody plants and herbs, substrate protection against erosion;
– an ability of biomass to grow quickly with the degree of coverage, positive acting on the gradual increase in organic matter in the soil cover by the fall of rapidly
degradable leaves and by rapidly degradable aboveground parts, and others;
– the autochthonous origin and the ability to form a stand close to native communities so that a space may be created for the development of a corresponding species
rich herb layer and zoocenoses;
– the constitution of a basis for the development of biocenoses leading to the gradual restoration of site ecological stability in connection to a larger territory;
– a sufficient source of corresponding plant propagules (native kinds of trees, bushes, herbal and grassherbal mixtures from the immediate vicinity, or by planting and
seeding).
4 CONCLUSIONS
According to the specific conditions of the site, the most adequate skeletal, target and pioneer species of woody plants and other plants must be chosen so that also in
the first phase of reclamation, plants may create conditions for a spontaneous ecesis of other species from the surroundings (significant sources of propagules from the
distance of 50 up to 300 m depending upon the type and possibility of dispersal).
The species composition of the stand for landscape restoration is based on the ecological requirements for particular species of woody plants, on their ability to
accommodate themselves to the site conditions and on the required type of plantation. Generally problems of the suitability of woody species and herbs for reclamation
may be divided into the following two spheres:
– the restoration of vegetative cover on waste rocks and in demolition zones (terrestrial and additionally aquatic sites);
– the remediation of technological basins and subsidence troughs (aquatic and semiaquatic sites).
For the purpose of a possibility of easier implementation, schemes have been prepared on the basis of target and or developmentally older plant communities, which
also supposes a process of gradual enrichment of the animal component of the biota and the gradual recovery (improvement) of degraded soil profiles.
The species composition of stands rests on the type of the plant community, supporting—skeletal kinds of plants (tree, bush, herb) and on site requirements (water,
wetland, moist site, debris, and others)—see Table 1.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The study of importance of vegetation in the process of restoration of the mining landscape in the Karviná area was possible thanks to the dealing with the project MŽP
ČR No. 640/1/01 named in English “Initiation of Native Ecosystems of the Undermined Landscape for the Process of Regeneration of the Karviná Area”.
REFERENCES
Stalmachová, B. et al. 2002. Final report of the grant project Initiation of natural ecosystems of undermined areas for the process of Karviná region restoration), VSBTU,
108 pp.
Neustupa, Z. 2003. Management of the landscape renewal affected by the underground mining with utilization of information technologies. Sborník vĕdeckých prací
Vysoké školy báňskéTechnické univerzity Ostrava, Rada hornickogeologická, roč. 49, č. 2, s. 53–61. ISSN 0474–8476.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Experience with solution of Grant Task Methane
V.Strakoš & J.Gottfried
VŠBTechnical University of Ostrava, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Ostrava, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT: The sixyearlong solution of GAČR No. 105/98/KO45 task “Project of atmosphere protection system against methane leakage from
mines closed in Ostrava agglomeration” at VŠB TUO, Faculty of Mining and Geology and Institute of Economics and Management Systems is based
on the knowledge and possibilities of solvers of modeling of gas flowing and ventilation networks. This was utilized for the modeling of gas flowing in
the areas with the mining activity finished. In this contribution, some knowledge obtained by modeling the flowing and leakage of gases into the
atmosphere is summarized, and namely in the areas which the solvers could learn from old mine maps and later they could verify the results obtained
by modeling at the exhaustion test. The goal of the contribution content is to inform the mining public with the knowledge obtained and, further, with
the possibilities provided by modern computer technique for modeling of apparently nonrecognizable phenomena. Modeling of gas leakage through
the rock environment and its flowing into the caved spaces gives a good example to responsible workers for decision making about the proposal of
measures which can protect the inhabitants living in such areas.
1 INTRODUCTION
The solution of the mine gas leakage problems after finishing the mining activity in the Ostrava region started in cooperation of VŠB—TUO, OKD, DPB Paskov, a.s.
and ViP s.r.o. in 1998. With the means of GAČR (Grant Agency of the Czech Republic) the exhaustion station was purchased, and that is why, it was possible to carry
out some exhaustion tests with the aim of investigating the gas flowing in the underground. Simultaneously, we modeled, at VŠB, the situations of gas flowing in the
underground, through the rocks with various permeability, flowing in the networks created from more conductive paths such as the semicaved old mine workings,
caved spaces worked out etc. Further interesting results were obtained by the modeling of dynamic characteristics that will become known in gases flowing through
“free spaces” that are the spaces with great permeability.
– threedimensional presentation of the space modeled
– evaluation of data measured automatically in dispatching which was in the Jeremenko Mine
– theoretical considerations and calculations concerning the gas flowing in various conditions
– modeling of flowing on conductive paths which can be set into the network graph
– modeling of flowing in rocks with various conductivity
– modeling of dynamics in gas flowing through “free spaces”
– evaluation of data obtained by measuring
– measuring of flowing through the chimneys in the areas maintained
working out the type models for situations which can occur in the terrain.
2 FLOWING OF GASES FROM THE UNDERGROUND
Gas from the underground leaks on paths following the quite known rule given by the Atkinson’s equation, which says that gas flows from the places of greater pressure
to the place with lower pressure. It is evident from Figure 1 that the pressure given by the hanging wall acts on the coal seam and against this pressure, for example in
the shaft back filled, the water pressure and barometric pressure act, so the gas flows due to pressure difference according to the equation 1.
Figure 1. Course of pressure under surface and right in shaft flooded with water.
where: h1, h2, h3 depths see Figure 1, Δp pressure difference, pb barometric pressure, ρh rock specific weight, pv air specific weight, pvo water specific weight.
Because of the fact that in the equation the first member is always higher than the second one, the gas leaks from the underground and not due to the fact that
methane is lighter than air but due to the pressure field in the environs of the methane source.
If in the gas path from the underground the more conductive layer exists, such as the worked out, caved seam, blind shaft etc., the resistance against flowing gas is
significantly lower, and the pressure drops. The pressure difference in gas flowing through the more conductive section is significantly lower than in the rock. This is the
natural phenomenon for wellinformed workers but not all with whom we discuss consider it.
In Figure 1, the arrows show the possible direction of pressure acting in the rock and the direction of gases flow following this. The seam, the borehole and old mine
workings that affect significantly the gas flowing in the underground are shown in the figure.
The borehole on the right is presented as the communication with the surface. The arrows indicated as pb show the direction of the atmospheric pressure acting.
Further, the pressure conditions in the borehole connecting the old workings with the surface when the level of the underground water is significantly higher than that of
the old workings and gas is affected by not only the rock pressure but also water pressure, are outlined in the figure.
3 GAS RELEASING FROM THE SEAM
The release of gas from the seam represents further interesting question: How long the gas will be released, if the flooding with water prevents the gas from leakage?
The other questions will flash across the mine of everybody who will meet these problems. The true substance of gas behavior in coal mass was caught by Ing.
Weishauptova, DrSc. from the Institute of Rocks Structure and Mechanics of
Figure 2. Mine gas leakage from coal mass into the impaired spaces in the underground.
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic in Prague [Weishauptová 2000].
As soon as the pressure in the coal neighborhood is lower than inside the coal mass, the gas will not leak. Let us look at the situation shown in Figure 2, where the
sea is worked out partially. The air pressure acts on the layer bare that is in contact with the air while hanging wall pressure influences the gas pressure in coal, and that
is why the gas is pushed into the space. The gas quantity leaking from the coal mass will drop gradually, Figure 2b, which is certain, but, up to now, we have not known
the substantial thing, how long it will last. We, the “automatic people” indicate the characteristic of this curve by the time constant. With the respect of relatively short
time for which the workers in the Ostrava region have paid attention to this problem, we cannot estimate the characteristic of this transition property. The experienced
workers of degassing can help us in the estimation of this “time constant”. However, it is probable that gas from the underground has been leaking for tens years.
In Figure 2 on the left, the situation of the coal seam impaired by mining is presented. The horizontal arrows outline the direction of gas flowing released from the
seam and, with its size the speed of the gas flowing. The vertical arrows illustrate the acting of the atmospheric pressure and the pressure of the hanging wall rock on the
seam. In the Figure on the right, the transition characteristic is showed which outlines how the quantity of gas released from the seam impaired is changing in time, after
mining activity finishing.
4 GAS LEAKAGE FROM THE SURFACE INTO THE ATMOSPHERE
Let us consider the situation in which the gas gets to surface through various paths, which is known in the whole number of places in the Ostrava region. In Figure 3 the
pressure, conditions on the surface are indicated. From the above, the barometric pressure Pb acts against the gas flowing which is changing ±Δpv in the course of time.
From the underground—immediately under the surface the gas pressure acts that must be greater than the barometric pressure, i.e. that the gas pressure Pp >(Pb ±ΔPb ).
It will be more suitable, for our considerations, to implement the gas
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Figure 3. Course of barometric pressure and gas overpressure from the underground.
flow in the underground with the indication pM that will mean the gas overpressure against the barometric pressure. Under certain circumstances, we can easily measure
this pressure and we actually did it in many places.
The situation with the gas leakage on the surface can be divided into three phases:
1. pb(t)<pb(t−1)+pM the gas leaks into the atmosphere with the pressure difference pM, which is connected very closely with the speed of the barometric pressure
change
2. pb(t)>pb(t−1)+pM will occur increasing the barometric pressure and then the air will be pushed under surface. Apparently nonlogic importance of this inequality is
explained in Figure 3 and it is given by the dynamics of socalled compressibility of gases acting mutually
3. pb(t)=pb(t−1)+pM it is only the shortterm state shortly after the change of the barometric pressure trend. In this case pM=0 is not valid but pb(t−1)<pb(t).
In the left part of the figure the scheme of the mutual acting of the atmospheric pressure changes and the changes of the pressure of the gases leaking from the
underground is presented. In the right part of the figure the situation of mutual relation of the atmospheric pressure and pressure of the gases leaking from the
underground at changes of the atmospheric pressure in the dependence on time is analyzed in details. The solid line illustrates the gas pressure size in the underground
and the dashed line, the atmospheric pressure.
In Figure 3b the theoretical course of stabilized states (relatively slow change) of the barometric pressure in time presenting the previous inequalities is given. In the
phase I the gas pressure is higher than the barometric pressure and so +Δp=pM−pb . In the phase I the barometric pressure drops and, with the delay influenced by sum
of the cracks volume in rock (free space) also the gas pressure under the surface starts to drop. With the drop of barometric pressure the pressure difference Δp is
increased and, that is why, the greater amount of the gas leaks from the underground. In the phase III the trend of barometric pressure changes and the latter starts to
increase. The pressure difference Δp starts to decrease immediately, and in such a way that after the time period t1 the balance between the barometric pressure and
gas pressure from the underground will occur. Then the sign of pressure difference will be changed into −Δp and the air starts to penetrate into the pores under the
surface. These phases are permanently repeating.
We want to draw the attention to the fact that in this consideration the aspect was not considered at all, and what the absolute size of barometric pressure is. It
follows the above that the gas leakage is connected only with the trend ±Δf the pressure and not with its absolute size, i.e. if it is high or low, but the time period ti and
t2 is dependent on the absolute size of the barometric pressure.
5 IMPORTANCE OF VENTILATION BORE HOLES
The importance of the ventilation boreholes is also known for wellinformed persons but, in spite of this, we would like to support this fact by several considerations.
Let us look at Figure 1. If we carry out the lined borehole from the surface into the depth hi, i.e. into the place of good conductivity which is naturally the goal of all
institutions carrying out the boreholes, the gas will penetrate into the borehole with significantly higher overpressure.
The main importance of the borehole carried out into the well conductive layer, however, has still greater importance that can be seen in Figure 4. With the borehole
in the conductive layer practically the barometric pressure is transferred, therefore, instead of the pressure pb +h.ρh g+pM in point 2 where the borehole is not carried
out, the pressure pb +h. ρv.g+pM will get into the place 2 after drilling and because ph is nearly 2000 times higher than ρv , so the resistance—the counter pressure
against the gas leakage is small, and, herewith, the lower parts of the seams are ventilated very intensively. It happens especially when we realize, that this “counter
pressure” (pb +h.ρv .g) acts on the sufficiently great area. The main importance of the borehole well located consists in it.
If the borehole will not reach the well conductive place, its importance is significantly lower, which is described in the article [Strakoš 2000].
In Figure 4 the difference between the rock pressure in old mine workings and the atmospheric pressure on the borehole bottom is presented. This significant
difference causes the easier gas exit—degassing near the perforated part of the borehole casing.
5.1 Pressure conditions in the borehole
The gas leakage from the borehole is naturally dependent on the changes of the barometric pressure in the same way as the gas leakage from the surface
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Figure 4. Pressure conditions in the borehole.
but, in the borehole, the gas is mixed with the air, and, herewith, the favorable effect of its specific weight on the gas leakage from the borehole will become known. Let
us look at Figure 5v When we measure carefully the gas concentration—methane leaking from the chimney according to the barometric pressure changes, we will
obtain the course outlined in Figure 5.
Let us presuppose that the barometric pressure changes according to the Figure 5, i.e. it increases then it starts to drop and then it starts to increase again. According
to measurements of the methane concentration [Strakoš & Šiška 2002] leaking from closed shafts, which was monitored automatically, the course of methane
concentration is as follows:
– Phase I—Barometric pressure started to drop and delay t2 following Figure 3 or Figure 5, which is caused by the fact that the gas overpressure −ΔPM is getting
smaller gradually to 0.
– Phase II—Gas overpressure changed its sign into +ΔPM and the mixture of air and gas starts to leak from the borehole bottom.
The quantity of gas leaking is very small in the beginning, that is why, according to Figure 6, it is not sufficient for filling in the whole borehole cross section. In addition,
it will get into the heavier air that is why the methane, as the bubble, flows to the chimney mouth and into the atmosphere, while the heavier gases can drop to the
borehole bottom. This phase end with the situation that the whole borehole cross section is filled in by the gas gradually.
– Phase III—As soon as the whole borehole cross section is filled in, at this moment the mixture of air and gas is leaking. The methane concentration at this moment
depends both on the methane concentration leaking from the lower part and on “free space” in the neighborhood of the borehole boot and on the time period of the
barometric pressure increase. Therefore, Δx is then, to a certain extent, the indicator of the free space of the area the borehole reaches.
Figure 5. Course of gas concentration in chimney in drop of barometric pressure.
Figure 6. Gas conditions in closed borehole at stoppage of gas flowing, i.e. at change of barometric pressure.
The graph illustrates the time change of the gas concentration outgoing from the borehole as the reaction to the atmospheric pressure drop. The thin line indicated as pb
illustrates the course of the atmospheric pressure in time. The bold line illustrates the course of the methane concentration in time.
– Phase IV—The gas leakage has nearly stable concentration which is the factual gas concentration from the lower parts and this phase is ended again by increasing of
the barometric pressure.
– Phase V—Is influenced again by the free space, and this is t1 in Figure 3.
– Phase VI—Gas quantity leaking from the rock is getting smaller and does not fill in the whole borehole cross section and, in addition, the gas flowing given by
different weight of the methane, air and other gases will become known.
An interesting situation will occur when the gas contains greater concentration of CO2. CO2, with its density of 1,98 kg m−3, is heavier 3 times compared with
methane, and, this can be of rather great effect on its flowing in the borehole. Let us look at Figure 6. Let us presuppose the situation that the barometric pressure, from
the originally dropping trend, starts to increase slowly. In this time, smaller and smaller quantity starts to flow in the borehole and the speed is permanently dropping
(phase VI). Heavier CO2 starts
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to drop and it does not already increase with methane and drops to the borehole bottom because air, in this phase, is not still flowing into the borehole. In this way, at
the certain moment, CO2 will make the methane leakage slower and start to penetrate into bubbles near the borehole bottom. If, near the borehole boot, the permeable
rock can be found, it will disperse and, after the trend change of the barometric pressure, leak in greater concentration than before for a certain time period.
However, if the rock near the borehole is permeable only a little, CO2 will fill in the lower part of the borehole and, with changing of the barometric pressure trend, it
will start to leak as the first one, then the mixture with the air, and then the mine gases in classical composition.
The DPB workers have certain experience that in some cases CO2 leaks for sufficiently long time period till methane will occur in the mixture and this is partially
explained by the given consideration but, in spite of it, up to now this has been insufficiently explained problem for us.
6 IMPORTANCE OF EXHAUSTION ON THE BOREHOLE
In Figure 7 nearly demonstrative importance of the ventilation borehole and borehole with ventilation is presented. In the left part of the figure, the pressure field of the
rock with the ventilation borehole is illustrated. Originally, the Figure 7 is the colorful one and the pressure distribution can be evidently seen in it. That is why we must
explain this monochromatic figure. The isobar closest to the surface has the value of 98,100 Pa, while above the surface the barometric pressure makes 98,000 Pa that
is why the gas leaks into the atmosphere. The borehole has the depth of 40 m but, in lower 20 m, the casing pipe is perforated densely that is why the isobar near the
borehole is a continuous one and does not change the direction. In case of casing piping with several greater holes with the greater distance between each other, the
shape is influenced by single holes in a significant way. In the lower part of the space modeled the pressure makes 98,800Pa that simulates the gas overpressure at the
borehole boot of 200 Pa. We measured this pressure in many cases. According to many measurements (hundreds) in various boreholes, the gas overpressure at the
borehole boot fluctuates in the range of 200 up to 300 Pa many times, repeatedly. So, it follows from the left figure that the gas flows mainly into the borehole but in
spite of this fact, it leaks also from the whole area in the surface in small quantity, practically in negligible quantity which can be dangerous only in case it flows into the
closed and nonventilated space.
Figure 7. Pressure conditions in the borehole with exhaustion and without exhaustion. The curves in the figure 7 are isobars.
On the right of Figure 7, the same situation is presented but the exhaustion station is connected with the borehole that works with the underpressure of 2000 Pa. On the
surface, the barometric pressure makes 98,700 Pa and, in the place where the continuously cased borehole ends, the isobar of the value 97,700 Pa can be found.
Quite low, the gas pressure is higher than gas overpressure of 200 Pa compared with the barometric pressure, and, in addition, by gas pressure increasing due to
depth. It is quite evident from the right figure (on colored illustration still more) that the borehole with the exhaustion not only exhausts gas with greater underpressure,
and, herewithgreat quantity but also evokes the underpressure under the surface. This will prevent absolutely the surface from the gas leakage besides the borehole
itself, and into the sufficiently great distance that represents practically 100% securing of surface against the gas leakage from the underground.
7 RESISTANCE AND PERMEABILITY
These problems have already been explained partially in the publication [Strakoš 2000]. Let us consider that we have two cased boreholes drilled in the unknown area
in the distance li and of the depths hi and h2. Let us presuppose that the rock under surface has relatively small permeability, e.g. 10−10 m2 and the rock—the environs
between the boreholes will have the permeability significantly lower, e.g. 10−6 m2. If we connect the exhaustion unit to one borehole which will create the
underpressure p0 after the stabilization, the air of the quantity Q1 flows into the borehole 1, flows through the borehole, the rock and borehole again and goes away
through the exhaustion unit into the atmosphere. The quantity of Q2 which flows through the exhaustion unit can be:
Q1=Q2 into the path of gas flowing no gas or air exhausted from the surface flow.
Q1<Q2 then, on the path of gas flowing, in some places or from some area or volume the gas quantity (Q2−Q1) or air from the surface or gas as well as air flow.
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Figure 8. Pressure field between two boreholes when, on the borehole left the exhaustion station can be found and right the replacing
scheme.
Q1>Q2 means practically nonlogical situation or transition phenomenon when the free spaces in the underground are filled with the air from the surface where the
underpressure was evoked before for various reasons. Such situation that must have the transition character will show the important “free spaces” under the surface.
In the ideal case when Q1=Q2 the known relation Δp=R . Qn must be valid.
where Δp—the pressure difference between the borehole mouth and the entry into the exhaustion unit in [Pa]
Q—flowing quantity [m3. s−1]
R—the coefficient of proportionality indicated as the resistance in [kg ∙ s(n−2) ∙m−(3n+f)].
In Figure 8, such situation is modeled and the replacing scheme is drawn used for modeling of the same situation with making the use of the GRAFSIT program the
quite functional demo version of which for 30 branches is given for the disposal for all interested people free of charge on the Internet address
http://www.hgf.vsb.cz/grafsit
The left Figure 8 shows the distribution of the isobars for the case when the exhaustion station is installed on the borehole 2 that evokes the underpressure in the
underground. It can be seen, from the isobars, the shape of the pressure field on 75 meters distanced boreholel (under conditions set in simulation). On the right side,
the replacing scheme of layout from the left figure is presented from which also the setting of the model parameters is evident. In replacing scheme, the symbols usual for
description of the ventilation scheme in mines are used. The values indicated as p mean the pressures in the single nodes, the values r are the resistance values of the
single branches, q are flow rates through the branches and values indicated as “a” are the parameters of the pressure sources. The branch limited by nodes 2 and 3
represents the borehole 1, the branch limited by nodes 4 and 6 represents the borehole 2 (with the exhaustion station), the branch limited by notes 3 and 4 represents
the rock itself and the branch limited by nodes 1 and 7 represents the internal pressure source in the underground.
Table 1. Resistance values for 100m of length.
Because of the fact that the borehole resistance values for the quantity Q which can be measured or modeled can be also calculated quite well, then we can determine
quite easily the resistance of the flowing path through the rock R in case of knowing the “n”, but we do not know it. However, we can help in a such way that we will
determine the exponent “n” from several measured or simulated points of static characteristic as the exponent of regression curve. Several points of the statistic
characteristics of the environs will be measured in such a way that we will change the underpressure of the exhaustion station. Not only according to our existing
experience but also in the opinions of other experts the exponent “n” for gas flowing is only by a little greater than 1 that is why, the gas flowing in the underground can
be considered as laminar one, with a certain small inaccuracy.
It follows from the example in the figure that we can make the use of the replacing resistance values for 100 m of length for simulation of two boreholes connection in
the rock as follows:
Rock permeability Gas overpressure at the borehole boot Replacing resistance on 100 m.
Up to now, however, these values have been deduced only theoretically and on small examples, and, in addition, we must confirm some results by measuring that is
why, we are still working on the verification and detailing these conclusions.
8 CONCLUSION
We wanted, in this contribution—I write it in the name of the solvers—to draw attention to some knowledge we verified in measuring and modeling the gas flowing
from the underground or we proved on models. We have published a whole series of information concerning these problems in various journals and conferences. We
must note that not always our works were accepted in such a way they would deserve.
On the basis of the longyear experience of some solvers with modeling the air flowing in mines (since the year 1962) and the 6yearlong experience of the
collective with modeling of the gas flowing in rocks and, naturally, with the experience of the automation in mines, we have gained the substantial knowledge. Therefore,
we can summarize the possibilities of our
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working place and the collective of solvers in the following way:
– We can model the gas flowing in rocks and networks of mine workings
– We can propose the means for automatic measuring of dangerous states
– We can propose the means for data collection and transmission
We can carry out the analysis of the data measured and work out the project for utilization of their information content.
For the time period of the solution of the grant task No. 105/98/K045 we have also created the good and hardworkmg creative collective but, naturally, we have
not solved everything yet that is why, we will welcome any comments to our work, and we are prepared for discussion concerning any problem from this sphere.
REFERENCES
Weishauptová, Z.: Fyzikálné chemicke hodnocení metanonosnýcn unelnych slojí a jejich degazace. (Physicallychemical evaluation of methane bearing seams and their
degassing). Doctor’s dissertation work, Prague 2000.
Strakoš,V.: Underground Gas Convention Law and Surface Emissions of Methane, Proceedings of VSBTU Ostrava, No 2, year 2000, Mining and Geology senes. 105–
115 p. 105–114 p. ISBN 80–7078–853–4
Strakoš, V.—Šiška, D.: Modelování proudĕní plynů v horninách. (Modeling of gas flowing in rocks). Uhlí, rudy, geologický průzkum, No. 8, 2002, ISSN 1210–6797.
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Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Environment protection in mining area resulted from green mining
S.H.Tu, L.Zhang & Y.X.Chen
School Of Mining And Safety Engineering CUMT, China
ABSTRACT: Coal is the main body of exhausting energy resources, and coal industry is the support industry of the whole country economic in China.
But for ages, the disorderly mining has not only lead to the mass waste of coal resources, but also lead to the severity deteriorate of environment. It
has become a restrict factor on the concordant development of economic, resources and environment. In this paper, the author analyzed the land
wasting, water destroying and air pollution caused by mine in mining area. And then, the author put forward some mining measures such as water
keepingmining, improving the roadway layout and mining methods to reduce the rock roadway amount, new methods of goaf filling and exploitation
of coal and gas. These measures will slow the deterioration of environment in mining area effectively and promote the harmonious development of the
society, economic, resources and environment.
1 INTRODUCTION
China is one of the few countries that exhausting energy resources in the mainly proportion of coal in the world. Coal industry is also one of the important basic
industries in China. According to some interrelated statistic data, the coal account for the 70% of exhausting energy resources in production and consumption structure
in China now. Coal is not only the main resource of industry power fuel, but also the main chemical material and the inhabitant’s energy. It is an important export
product of China too. Based on China’s energy resources framework condition and the requirement of economic development to the energy resources, the energy
resources consuming system that coal as the main exhausting energy resources will not be changed much for a long time in the fiiture. But now, the excessively,
disorderly and uncleanly mining has brought us with great environment problems. For example, the ground subsidence, water polluted, exhaust gas and mass of waste
caused by mining has polluted the environment. And gradually these waste changed the green mountains and clean water into deserted and turbid one in the mining
area.
This has been a serious challenge to the concordant development of economic, society, resources and environment protection in mining area. At a certain extent, the
economic development of our mining areas and mining cities is at the cost of deterioration of environment. So studying green mining technique and solving a series of
problems in mining, such as land and water resources protection, gas and waste utility will do great important to the sustaining development of mining area.
2 THE ACTUALITY OF CHINESE COAL RESOURCES AND MINING
2.1 The actuality of coal resources and mining
The coal reserve that has been proved up in China is at the third place in the world. According to the annals of 2000, there is 200,000 million ton coal resources that
can be mined has been proved up, account for 18.7% of the world. In the structure of the exhausting energy resources constitution, coal resources possess the absolute
advantage. In 2003, the output of raw coal is 1736 million ton, 343 million ton more than 2002, increased by 24.6%. In 2002, the output of raw coal is 1,393 million
ton and it is 26.03% more than 2001.
Small production scale of mine, lots of mines and low recovery ratio has been outstanding problems during the coal mining. According to the statistics, there are
2182 mines in China in 2002. The total output of coal is 975 million ton, average output at 450 thousand ton. Among these mines, there are 1612 state major collieries
(output above 30 thousand ton per year) that output 242 million ton raw coal. Most of the villages and towns owned mines are very small and with poor technology
level, backward mining method and poor safe conditions. They have no stable capacities and output about 456 million tone were expected. Modern large mines
occupy still a very low percentage in China. And China still has a large distance with the developed countries.
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2.2 Coal mining deteriorate water resource greatly
There are mainly two aspects with this problem. Firstly, water in water filling aquifers in coal mine is drained artificially and dredged by the mininginduced fissures
naturally. Secondly, mining polluted the surface water as well as the groundwater.
The uninterrupted drainage inevitably leads to descend of water level in a large area. As a result, the chief source of water supply in the mining area dry up,
vegetations dry hot, the mining area’s visual was destroyed, the output of agriculture reduced and it will even raise the soil into sandchanging.
Mass of waster water in the mine drained during mining, polluted water from the waste heap or the outdoor bunker in rainy days, unsettled coal preparation waste
water, all of these polluted water inflood the surface water and seep into the groundwater, it makes the rivers, everglades and plashes around the mining area into black
dead water.
Water resource has become the most important bottleneck that restricts the development of China’s economic. Per possessed freshwater in China is only equal to a
quarter of the world average. Above one hundred billion yuan (RMB) was lost because of lacking water. Farmland ravaged by draught arrived at 26.68 million ha
(account for a quarter of the gross). Especially in the north and northwest China where are abundant in coal reserves are highly lack for water and are difficult to carry
on the production of industry and agriculture. People’s drinking water is also a problem there, and the environment is very frangible there, and also, water resources
deteriorated in mining area is severe there, it is hard to estimate the loss. Mining in Shanxi province, one of the chief province where product coal, once caused 18
counties, include 280 thousand people cannot find enough drinking water, and 300 thousand ha paddy field become dry land.
2.3 Coal mining destroyed the land resources
The destroy of coal mining to lands represented mainly as mining subsidence and waste dump occupying in underground mining. While in surface mining it represented
chiefly as directly digging and external dump occupying. Coal seam is a sandwich deposition, thin and low coal seam productive capacity. Lots of goaf were created
during mining. When the roof dropped and strata moved, the earth’s surface is certain to subside and shape into a billabong. If the groundwater level is shallow, the
billabong often comes into being swampland or plash. And some others appeared as wide and deep cracks that are hidden troubles of severe mountain slope slide. The
swampland, plash and slope slide all reducing and destroying the mining area’s plowland, impacted the environment.
According to estimating, the average mining subsidence is above 0.2 ha per million ton of coals. And there has been more than 450,000 ha of mining subsided area
all over the country. Shanxi province produced more than 5600 million ton of coal from 1949 to 1998, but more than 70,000 ha land subsided and 40% of which is
plowland, the waste dump takes up an area of more than 2000 ha.
2.4 The waste occupies the land and pollutes the environment
To mining coal, amount of rock roadways must be excavated and large amounts of waste are discharged. Generally these waste is piled up in the open air, it destroys
mining area’s environment heavily and is adverse to the vegetations too. Statistics show that there have been more than 1500 waste dumps belong to all of the large or
middle scale coalmines now (not including about 80,000 coalmines that villages and towns or individual owned), and pile up more than 3 billion ton waste every year.
China produces about 1200 million ton of coal every year, the capacity of waste is occupied from 8% to 20% that of the coal and average out at about 12%, so the
coalmines dump about 150 million ton of waste every year. The waste dumps, distributing widely and complicated in its chemical composition, form a large threat and
danger to the environment that shows mainly at: (1) occupy the land. The statistics show that the existing 3 billion ton waste has already covered an area of about
260,000 ha. It is estimated that there will be another 200 million ton waste annually increased from 2010, and the newlyincreased occupation of land will be close to
667 ha every year. This will obviously aggravate the situation of plowland resources in short further. (2) Pollute the environment. The statistics show that there are about
200 waste dumps are in spontaneous combustion, a large amount of pernicious gases were discharged during the spontaneous combustion, such as SO2, CO2, H2S,
nitrogen chlorine chemical compound, smoke and dust, etc. These gases pollute the air, and when they form into acid rain, they’ll pollute the land and the source of
water, also they’ll suppress plants into grow, jeopardize mankind’s health. In addition, if the waste dump is piled up unstable, slope slide accident will be easily
happened.
2.5 The gas pollutes the atmospheric environment
The gas be discharged during coal mining seriously polluted the atmosphere. Coalmines discharge more
Page 881
than 5–7 billion m3 gas per year. Underground gas explosion accident takes place frequently and brings us with serious life and property loss. At the same time, gas is
one of the greenhouse gas and it will jeopardize atmosphere, forest, crops and mankind itself when discharged in a large amount.
Coalmines in China distribute widely and cover large amount of area. The effect that coalmines produced in environment pollution end ecological balance destroying
relatively is very heavy. If it is not managed effectively, China will suffer with serious consequence in our economic development and ecological environment.
3 GREEN MINING TECHNOLOGY THAT REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Nowadays, social economy is developing at a high speed and people’s living standard is improving day by day. The demand for energy especially coal is increasing
greatly. So it is impossible to limit the utilization of mineral resources. China should following the sustainable development principle and consider economic development
together with the environmental protection in mining area, as a result, take the road of green mining.
3.1 Research of waterkeepingmining technology
We should study mininginduced fracture distribution of overlying strata, the law of groundwater fiinnel forming, the relation between strata movement and groundwater
seepage when mining in various kinds of geological conditions, then take measures from the respects, such as the coal mining method, grouting from the surface, etc.
and realize the protection and synthesized utilization to the water resource of mine.
3.2 Reform roadway layout and reduce roadway drivage ratio
Reform mine development and preparation roadway layout, popularize the technology of full coal roadway layout to reduce the output of waste. When we design the
district roadway layout, we’d better replace the middle rock rises with coal and rock boundary rises, get rid of the district rock sublevel gathering entry, increase the
length of strike to reduce the drivage ratio, especially the rock roadway drivage ratio. Some large scale mines lastly designed in China adopt the full coal roadway
layout, implement single seam development, preparation and mining, waste almost don’t get out of underground.
Keep on to study and perfect the underground coal gasification technology. Underground coal gasification has many advantageous, such as safety, less investment,
little population, etc. Long channel, big section, roadway style underground coal gasification method is testing in Tangshan, Xinwen, Xuzhou, Feicheng mining area etc.
It can produce 5 MJ/m3 coal gas and 12 MJ/m3 water gas. In Xinwen mining area, this technology has offered ten thousand of families with fuel successfully, and it has
made a good economic benefits.
3.3 Research of fllling method
Goaf filling method can be classified as hydraulic filling, pneumatic filling, gravity filling, etc. The material of hydraulic filling can be river sand, mountain sand, detritus,
slag, waste from underground etc. The subsidence factor changed with different filling materials. Generally it will be 0.1–0.5, and 50–90% subsidence amount can be
reduced. Of all these materials, river sand with little mud do the best, the slag and waste take second place.
In recent years, Fushun, Yanzhou, Datun and Xinwen mining area adopt grouting bed separation above the goaf and reduced the subsidence velocity and amount. It
can reduce the subsidence amount at about 30–40%. The filling material may be power plant’s fme coal ash or crushed waste. This can reduce the area that waste or
fine coal ash covered on one side and reduce the subsidence amount on the other. And it has a wide application prospects in mining area where has high water level to
protect the farmland. It’s technological key is: First, be sure that the grouting does not flow into the goaf; second, predict the position of the bed separation accurately.
Use synthetically waste underground mainly refers to take advantage of the goaf, predrifted room and scraped roadway as the underground wastestoring room and
fill them with waste. To do this, we can mine part of the coal resources that under buildings, and can resolve or reduce the subsidence amount to a certain extent.
Otherwise, waste can be used as filling material in roadside or as underprop underground to maintain the underground workface safety.
Solid waste paste filling and not villagerelocation mining is to process the waste, flne coal ash, slag, bad soil, urban solid rubbish, etc. nearby into thick liquid as
paste that needn’t be dehydrated on the ground, and then grout it into the goaf or separatedbed. This will form an overlying strata support system mainly on paste
filling region, control the land subsidence effectively, realize coal mining under buildings, protect the environment and underground water resources. This technology is
being studied and used during sick seam mining in a mine in Shandong province in China now.
Page 882
3.4 Research of the method that reduce the eduction of gas
The gas content in coal seam in China is extremely abundant. According to the estimation, there is about 32×35×1012 m3 gas above the depth of 2000 m in China,
almost equal to the natural gas resources. It will be greatly significant to take use of the discarded resources effectively.
Underground gas drainage has made a good progress. In 2000, 860 million m3 of gas was drained underground and about 500 million m3 of which was used. In
2001, 980 million m3 of gas is drained underground, and gas drainage system as well as gas transportation system on the ground in about 180 coal mines in China has
been build up. Huainan mining area in China is studying a new method to realize exploitation of coal and gas. The study mainly including the rule, technique, material and
equipment of gas drainage and build up a demonstration project that develop and use coalbed gas.
4 CONCLUSION
Based on the describing that coal mining impact the environment and combine foreland of mining technical, discussed the technical method of protect the mine
environment to realize sustaining development and green mining of mining area. The method including waterkeeping mining, reforming the mine development system
and coal mining method, filling goaf and waste roadside filling method, exploitation of coal and gas etc.
In order to realize the harmonious development of resources exploitation and environment protection, the coal enterprise must be clearheaded and put forward
countermeasures to resolve environment pollution in coalmine step by step. The policy of environmental protection of the country should be assorted with the energy
policy, and more fund should be invested to study the clean coal mining method, so that achieve the purpose of environmental protection while utilizing lowpriced
energy.
REFERENCES
Zhang, B.M., Chen, Y.G., Xu, Y.Q. 2001. Highproductive & highefficient technologies of China’s coalmines. Xuzhuo: Publishing House Of China University of
Mining And Technology.
Peng, H.S., Gu, D.S., Dong, H.H. 2001. The programming and evaluate of nowaste mining. Beijing: China Metallurgical Industry Publishing House.
Page 883
Mine Planning and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Computer visualization of risk factors which occur during mining machines
assembling in the underground workings
T.Winkler, D.Michalak & S.Bojara
KOMAG Mining Mechanization Centre
ABSTRACT: Visualization of risk factors which occur during assembling activities—simulation of manual activities during assembling process, was
discussed. The virtual prototype of longwall shearer in virtual work environment was analyzed. Modelling of manmachine relationships enabled to
verify the fore design.
1 INTRODUCTION
The paper tries to visualize risk factors during the machine assembling and disassembling process realized in a confmed working space. The case of mining machines
assembling in the underground conditions is discussed. The same machines can be assembled in different conditions, what requires an adaptation of work methods and
tools to individual conditions. Due to spatial limitation, the assembling process realizability is conditioned by the relationships between men anthropometric features and
dimensions of work space being at a disposal [1].
2 VIRTUAL WORK SPACE
The virtual model of longwall face with the image of powered roof support, longwall shearer with the drawer type assembling system and AFC is the subject of
discussions.
Figure 1. Virtual longwall face model, view on the tailgate.
The machines were placed in the so called 3D Studio MAX software scenery. The scenery is also made of face front, part of the roof and part of the floor. Distances
between the machines are kept in the amounts resulting from the operational range of each machine. Also lightening conditions and airborne dust particles level were
included to the scenery. Assembling of the longwall shearer in the work space created by the powered roof support is discussed.
3 SIMULATION OF ASSEMBLING ACTIVITIES
Simulation of assembling activities is realized in a virtual environment, built from parts of equipment and machines present in the neighborhood of the object being
assembled. Activities which potentially can cause a danger to those men, who realize the work, undergo the analysis process. The observation of workers behaviour
during a real underground work is necessary to reproduce the real insitu conditions. Two photographs of real manual activities realized during longwall shearer
assembling in underground conditions are given in Fig. 2.
Simulation of manual activities in the virtual environment enable to analyze the assembling
Figure 2. Real manual activities.
Page 884
Figure 3. Simulation of manual activities.
process of virtual prototypes at the work place. Machine details and human silhouettes models make the software scenery, and due to that an analysis of manmachine
relationship (visibility, limbs range and a possibility of realization of specifled movements in the confined space) is possible. Figure 3 shows a simulation of manual
activities associated with a disassembling process of the shearer’s units.
4 VISUALIZATION OF RISK FACTORS DURING ASSEMBLING PROCESS
Each factor which can cause a thread to life or health is the hazard. The hazards are differentiated due to the type of dangerous energy and its localization. The following
main risk factors can be distinguished: technical and human. The machines are the source of technical risk factors (chain break, any improper operation). Any hazard
caused by human error is meant as the human risk factor (loss of control of the hazard and own behaviour) [2].
4.1 Technical risk factors
The visualization of technical factors is carried out in the MBS (Multi Body System) integrated
Figure 4. System’s model in the software for dynamic analyses.
environment for visualization and simulation. Potentially dangerous situation are selected during analysis of manual activities, and they are further analyzed in the MBS
environment. Figure 4 presents an arrangement of components of the selected scenery in the software for dynamic analyses (VisualNastran). Then physical properties
(mass, kinematics’ links) are attributed to all components.
Dangerous situations are modeled by simulation of such hazards like rope break and loss of stability. Complementation of the scenery with silhouettes of the
workers, realizing given tasks is a next step of visualization process. Figure 5 presents the visualization of breaking of assembled modulus and its possible effects.
4.2 Human factor
Assembling conditions in the factory differs significantly from those which are underground. There are natural and technical reasons of that. The following can be
attributed to the natural reasons:
– confined space in which assembling and disassembling activities are realized,
– uneven, slippery floor,
– poor lightning.
The following should be mentioned as the technical reasons:
– lack of the equipment supporting the assembling and disassembling work,
– not enough adaptation of the machine design to the mining condition, in which assembling and disassembling activities are realized.
Such activities, which consist in manipulation with material objects of different shape and weight, include for example: take off the shearer’s cutting drum and its re
assembling, manual transport of machine
Page 885
Figure 5. Visualization of dangerous situation caused by the technical factor.
components from and to the assembling place during face equipping or withdrawal.
The same machine in the same mine can be assembled in different conditions, depending on the longwall face height. In Fig. 6 the body postures during work in high
face (a) and low face (b) are presented. An awkward posture, which the miner takes in a low face, can be seen. This is the risk factor which can lead to injuries to the
locomotive system.
The floor longitudinal and transverse inclination worsen the assembling conditions. Accumulation of disadvantageous impacts of inclined floor and confmed space
occurs. The studies have shown that the movement with awkward postures on uneven floor, even without additional load coming from carrying heavy objects, can
cause chronic injuries to the locomotion system [KOMAG 2001]. The precision of operational movements during assembling is worsening.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Safe realization of assembling activities in underground workings can be disturbed by technical and
Figure 6.
human factors. Early identification of hazards which may occur in the result of technical means failure or dangerous men behaviour is possible. Modelling of dangerous
phenomena requires the software tools, which enable to model geometric features as well as controlled and uncontrolled material object movements. It is possible to
predict a behaviour of complex anthropotechnical systems already at early stages of designing process, due to the software for modelling the anthropometric features.
The employer is obliged to inform each employee about all risk factors that can occur at his work stand. This obligation first of all relates to the harmfiil impact of
machines and environment. Also it is necessary to pay attention on the risk factors which can occur during manual work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Research work BD8438: Formation of work space for assembling and disassembling activities and operation of the longwall shearer. KOMAG, Gliwice 2003.
KOMAG (2001). R & D work E/BD8241/OR: Identyfikacja schorzeri układu narządu ruchu na podstawie analizy zachorowalnosci w wybranym zakfadzie gorniczym.
(Identification of injuries to the locomotive system on the basis of injuries incidents in the selected mining plant.) Gliwice, April 2001.
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Mine Planing and Equipment Selection—Hardygóra, Paszkowska & Sikora (eds)
© 2004 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1535 937 6
Author index
Adisoma, G.S. 91
Agarwal, A.K. 735
Agioutantis, Z. 605
Aisautov, A.M. 739
Aisautov, M.A. 739
Akçakoca, H. 151, 157
Akcakoca, H. 329
Akdaş, H. 151
Akhmetov, D.F. 383
Akylas, N. 721
Amjed, A.I. 143
Arad, S. 161, 167
Arad, V. 167
Arif, I. 91, 309
Asi, B. 585
Ataeepour, M. 45
Aykul, H. 171
Bahrt, W. 521
Balíček, M. 403
Bartelmus, W. 353
Başçetin, A. 527
Basarir, H. 181
Batra, H. 353
Bauch, T. 521
Bauer, V. 643
Bedeković, G. 303
Begalinov, A.B. 599
Bekmurzayev, B.Zh. 537
Biały, W. 359
Bogdan, S.I. 137
Bojara, S. 883
Bojarska, K. 743
Bojczuk, J. 365
Bortolussi, A. 189
Bozdag, T. 181
Brahma, K.C. 3
Bui, X.N. 197
Bukeikhanov, D.G. 27, 203, 537
Butra, J. 211
Bzowski, Z. 743
Čech, J. 643
Cabała, J. 755
Cabala, J.M. 749
Cabral, C.C. 563
Cardu, M. 217, 543
Chen, J. 13
Chen, Y.X. 879
Chugh, Y.P. 223
Ciccu, R. 189
Cichoń, T. 7
Cierpisz, S. 161
Cmiel, S.R. 749
Contini, A. 767
Cortés, G.R.M. 247, 795
Craciun, N. 161
Crosa, M. 543
Curimbaba, L. 247
Czopek, K. 647, 653
da Silva, L.A.A. 795
Danciu, C. 167
Daribekov, M.Zh. 783
Das, C. 3
Das, S.K. 761
Dębkowski, R. 273
de Beer, M.J. 809
de Ruiter, J.J. 19
Dentoni, V. 767
Ding, B. 19
Doronila, A. 773
Dou, L.M. 779
Drebenstedt, C. 197, 229, 267, 659
Dyduch, J. 461
Dzharlkaganov, U.A. 27
Ediz, I.G. 157
Elevli, B. 157, 329
Eston, S.M. 795
Faizulin, M.A. 619
Fedurek, B. 579
Fodor, D. 235
Fries, J. 377
Fujimura, F. 241
Fuksa, D. 667
Galiev, S.Zh. 783
Ghosh, A.K. 449
GórniakZimroz, J. 825
Golosinski, T.S. 13, 787
Golub, M. 715
Gospodarczyk, P. 431
Gottfried, J. 791, 871
Grosso, B. 189
Grujic, M. 553
Guilart, M.H. 795
Gupta, R.N. 371, 513
Halle, R. 303
Hamidian, H. 697
He, F.Q. 97
He, J.X. 727
Heidari, M. 31
Hekmat, A. 593
Helebrant, F. 377
Hellä, P. 69
Henderson, T. 605
Hennies, W.T. 241, 247, 323, 795
Heriawan, M.N. 37
Hou, C. 279
Huang, G. 285
Idziak, A.F. 749
Ion, V. 235
Isachenko, O.S. 203
Isatchenko, O.S. 619
Ito, F. 383
Jalali, S.E. 45
Jaremek, P. 129
Jarilkasinov, A.A. 537
Jaszczuk, M. 391, 397
Jonak, J. 129
Juettner, I. 801
Jurdziak, L. 673
Jurman, J. 403
Kalukiewicz, A. 407, 415
Kamulete, M. 61
Kanh, A.İ. 527
Karmis, M. 605
Karpuz, C. 181
Kasprzak, J. 425
Kavedžija, B. 801
Page 888
Kawalec, W. 53
Kaźmierczak, U. 681
Kecojevic, V. 509
Khair, A.W. 253
Kodym, O. 557
Komazaki, M. 383
Kononov, V.A. 805, 809
Konyukh, V.L. 687
Kosiorowski, A. 273
Kotwica, K. 431
Kouvardas, A.D. 573
Kozek, B. 425
Kozminski, T. 509
Kramadibrata, S. 309
Krauze, K. 439
Krodkiewski, J. 391
Kuchta, M. 257
Kulinowski, P. 443
Kumar, R. 449
Kumar, U. 475
Kuruppu, M.D. 455
Kwieciński, D. 415
Lança, L.G.M. 563
Laroche, L. 469
Lauand, C.T. 247
Lauand, V.H. 323
Létavková, D. 813
Lehtimäki, T. 69
Li, H. 727
Li, J. 13
Li, X. 85, 279
Li, X.H. 97
Li, X.Z.W. 637
Lilly, P.A. 101
Lith, A. 257
Loddo, C. 189
Lovera, E. 217
Lu, Q. 285
Lutyński, A. 461
Lutyński, M. 461
Ma, D.Zh. 727
Ma, L. 105
Macháčová, M. 567
MadejaStrumińska, B. 819
Magro, A. 543
Malewski, J. 681, 825
Manekar, G.G. 111
Maria, L. 235
Markowicz, J. 397
Massacci, G. 767
Matsui, K. 309, 333, 513, 791
Mboko, K.D. 61
McDonald, A. 629
Michalak, D. 883
Michalakopoulos, T.N. 573
Michelotti, E. 217
Migda, J. 833
Mitri, H.S. 117, 469
Montaldo, G. 217
Mu, Z.L. 779
Muhamedzhanov, E.B. 599
Mukalay, M. 61
Mura, P. 767
Muzgina, V.S. 839
Narendrula, R. 317
Nasution, Y. 91
Neustupa, Z. 843
Ngoie, S. 61
Nielsen, K. 691
NiemannDelius, C. 579
Nikitin, O. 123
Nummela, J. 69
Oageng, K. 101
Oraee, K. 585
Osanloo, M. 593, 697
Osborne, J.M. 703, 773
Öztaş, O. 527
P.Zunñiga, R. 347
Pal, B.K. 3
Panagiotou, G.N. 573
Panchenko, V.I. 505
Paraszczak, J. 613, 709
Parida, A. 475
Partnoi, V. 167
Pavlov, S.V. 143
Pękalski, G. 479
Pelegry, A. 79
Pelley, C.W. 19
Perra, A. 767
Petrovitch, S.I. 619
Płachno, M. 489
Planeta, S. 613, 709
Podgórski, J. 129
Polák, J. 495
Presicci, V. 767
Prissang, R. 69
Purevsuren, D. 267
Pytel, W. 211, 223, 273
Qin, Y.H. 779
Qu, Q. 279
Qu, Q.D. 97
Quinteiro, C. 257
R.Miranda, V. 347
Rajkovic, D. 715
Rakishev, B.R. 291, 599
Raouf Sheibani, F. 857
Rashidinejad, F. 31, 849, 857
Reddy, P.M. 111
Reś, J. 499
Risono 333
Ristovic, I. 553
Rivas, J.M. 79
Rivoirard, J. 37
Rodríguez, R. 79
Rogoza, M.V. 505
Rosiek, F. 75
Roumpos, C. 721
Rupprecht, S.M. 297
Rybalko, A.Ya. 505
S’edin, V.F. 537
Sacerdote, I. 543
Saksa, P. 69
Salopek, B. 303
Sarsenbaev, E.E. 783
Schafrik, S. 605
Scherba, V.D. 619
Senderski, J. 415
Sengara, I.W. 91
Shakirtova, R.K. 203
Shimada, H. 309, 513, 791
Sikora, M. 75
Simangunsong, G.M. 309
Singh, S.P. 317
Sinoviev, V.V. 687
Slaby, D. 659
Soares, L. 241
Sobota, I. 303
Somanchi, S. 509
Stagurova, O.V. 137
Stalmachová, B. 863
Stawski, M. 91
Stellin, Jr., A. 241, 323
Stoiński, K. 397
Strakoš,V. 871
Strumiński, A. 819
Stukalova, N.G. 619
Suglo, R. 613
Sulistianto, B. 309, 333
Sungkawa, W.J. 91
Syafrizal 37
Szmigiel, P.M. 787
Szweda, S. 397
Szygułe, M. 407
Szymanski, J. 613, 709
Tadisetty, S. 371, 513
Tan, D.J. 133
Teper, E. 755
Teper, L. 755
Terezopoulos, N. 721
Page 889
Terlikbaeyva, A.Zh. 839
Toraño, J. 79
Tu, S.H. 879
Turdakhunov, M.M. 619
Tyrała, B. 653
Ujihira, M. 383
Urbanski, J. 75
Uysal, Ö. 151
Uvsal, O. 157 329
Vašek, J. 189
Vuento, A. 69
Wach, J. 75
Wan, Z.J. 97
Wang, X.F. 133
Wang, X.Zh. 727
Wattimena, R.K. 333
WidzykCapehart, E. 629
Winkler, T. 883
Władzielczyk, K. 499
Wojciechowski J.T. 625
Yalçin, E. 171
Yang, Zh.H. 727
Yu, B. 253
Yun, X.Y. 117
Zablocki, A. 337
Zhanasov, M.Zh. 27, 537
Zhang, D. 105, 341
Zhang, J. 341
Zhang, L. 341, 879
Zhang, Y. 85, 637
Zhang, Z. 285
Zhao, X.H. 133
Zharmenov, A.A. 839
Zhou, H. 279
Zhuravkov, M.A. 137, 143
Zimroz, R. 353