FOUNDATION

ENGINEERING
BFC43103
CHAPTER
1.0 Site
1
investigation
 1.0 PURPOSE OF SITE
▪
INVESTIGATION
Also know as Subsurface Exploration/Soil Exploration
▪ It is the process of identifying the layers of deposits that underlie a proposed structure
and their physical characteristics.
▪ With the information obtain from site investigation, it will aid the geotechnical engineer
in:
1) Selecting the type and depth of foundation suitable for a given structure.
2) Evaluating the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3) Estimating the probable settlement of a structure.
4) sanitary
Determining potential foundation
landfill, and so on). problems (e.g., expansive soil, collapsible soil,
5) Determining the location of the water table.
6) bulkheads,
Predicting the lateral earth
and braced cuts. pressure for structures such as retaining walls, sheet pile
8) Establishing construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.
 1.1 STEPS OF SITE
INVESTIGATION/ SUBSURFACE
EXPLORATION PROGRAM
Step 1: Collection of Preliminary Information/Literature Search
▪ It involves obtaining information regarding the type of structure to be built and its
general use. Information such as:
a) For the construction of buildings, the approximate column loads and their
spacing and the local building-code and basement requirements should be
known.
b) The construction of bridges requires determining the lengths of their spans and
the loading on piers and abutments.
▪ A general idea of the topography and the type of soil to be encountered near and
around the proposed site can be obtained from the following sources:
a) Geological society of Malaysia.
b) JKR
 Reconnaissance
▪ The engineer should always make a visual inspection of the site to obtain
information about:
1. The general topography of the site, the possible existence of drainage ditches,
abandoned dumps of debris, and other materials present at the site. Also,
evidence of creep of slopes and deep, wide shrinkage cracks at regularly spaced
intervals may be indicative of expansive soils.
2. Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those made for the construction of
nearby highways and railroads.
3. The type of vegetation at the site, which may indicate the nature of the soil.
4. High-water marks on nearby buildings and bridge abutments.
5. Groundwater levels, which can be determined by checking nearby wells.
6. The types of construction nearby and the existence of any cracks in walls or other
problems.
 Detail Site Investigation/Laboratory Testing
▪ The detail site investigation phase of the exploration program consists of planning,
making test boreholes, and collecting soil samples at desired intervals for
subsequent observation and laboratory tests.
▪ The approximate required minimum depth of the borings should be
predetermined.
▪ The depth can be changed during the drilling operation, depending on the
subsoil encountered.
Type of project Spacing
(m)
Multistory building 10 – 30
One-story industrial plants 20 – 60
Highways 250 – 500
Depth of boring according to Sowers (1970) Residential subdivision 250 – 500
Dams and dikes 40 - 80
Approximate spacing of boreholes
▪ According to American Society
of boring can be determine by: of Civil Engineers (1972), approximate minimum depth
1) Determine the net increase in the effective stress, Δσ', under a foundation with depth
2) Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress,σ ’ ,with depth.
o

3)(1/10)q
Determine the depth, D = D 1, at which the effective stress increase Δσ' is equal to
( q = estimated net stress on the foundation).
4) Determine the depth, D = D2, at which Δσ'/σ ’ = 0.05.
o

5)minimum
Choosedepth
the smaller of the two depths, D 1 and D 2, just determined
of boring required, unless bedrock is encountered. as the approximate
 1.2 EXPLORATORY BORING IN
▪
▪
THE FIELD
Auger boring is the simplest method of making exploratory boreholes.
A wide variety of equipment is available for performing borings and obtaining soil samples.
▪ The method used to advance the boring should be compatible with the soil and groundwater
conditions to assure that soil samples of suitable quality are obtained.
HAND AUGER BORINGS/HAND OPERATED AUGER
 AUGER BORINGS
▪ Rotating an auger while simultaneously advancing it into the ground; the auger is
advanced to the desired depth and then withdrawn.
▪ Samples of cuttings can be removed from the auger; however, the depth of the sample
can only be approximated. These samples are disturbed and should be used only for
material identification.
▪ This method is used to establish soil strata and water table elevations, or to advance to
the desired stratum before Standard Penetration Testing (SPT) or undisturbed sampling
is performed.
▪ However, it cannot be used effectively in soft or loose soils below the water table
without casing or drilling mud to hold the hole open.
TYPES OF AUGER
(a) Plate Auger.
Used in strata which will stand unsupported. It is necessary to pull out every foot to examine
cuttings. Depth limited by length of kelly bar (generally 6 m).
(b) Continuous Flight Auger.
A spiral continuous flight is used to transfer the soil to the surface. Identification of strata changes is
difficult. Useful in proving known strata.
 (c) Hollow Flight Auger.
▪ A continuous spiral around a tube is used to transfer cuttings to the surface. A plug and
spade auger device can be used to drill soil below the control tube, or a continuous
sample can be taken in a central sampling barrel, or undisturbed samples driven ahead
through the tube.
▪ SPT and undisturbed samples are obtained through the hollow drill stem, which acts
like a casing to hold the hole open.
 (c) Wash Boring
▪ In this method, the boring is advanced by a combination of the
chopping action of a light bit and the jetting action of water flowing
through the bit.
▪ This method of advancing the borehole is used only when precise
soil information is not required between sample intervals.
▪ A chopping bit on a string of rods is used inside a casing, soft
strata being washed out below the casing and carried to the
surface by a jet of water passing through the rods and bit, and
returning inside the casing.
▪ Firmer materials are penetrated by chopping with the bit, and
chopped particles being carried to the surface by the flow of
water.
▪ ..\..\TSj_SI.pptx
▪
1.3 SAMPLING
Two types of soil samples can be obtained during subsurface exploration: disturbed and
undisturbed.
▪ Disturbed Sampling 
Disturbed samples are generally obtained to determine the soil type, gradation, classification,
consistency, density, presence of contaminants, stratification, etc. These samples are
considered disturbed since the sampling process modifies their natural structure.
▪ Undisturbed Sampling
Undisturbed samples are used to determine the in place strength, compressibility
(settlement), natural moisture content, unit weight, permeability, discontinuities, fractures and
fissures of subsurface formations.
 SAMPLING/SAMPLER
▪ Samplers are equipment's to obtain disturb and undisturbed samples.
▪ In order to determine if the samplers could obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil,
the degree of disturbance is determined.
▪ Degree of disturbance is measure by the Area Ratio:

Hence, this sample is highly disturbed.

Split-Barrel Samplers: (a) Lengths of 457 mm (18 in) and 610 mm (24 in); (b) Inside diameters from
38.1 mm (1.5 in) to 89 mm (3.5 in).

Both ends of the tube should then

be sealed with at least a 25 mm (1
in) thick layer of microcrystalline
(nonshrinking) wax after placing a
plastic disk to protect the ends of the
sample or using an O ring packer.
Piston Sampler.
(a) Picture with thin-walled tube cut-out to show piston, (b) Schematic (After
ASTM D4700).
BOX SAMPLING
 1.4 COMMON LABORATORY TEST FOR SITE
▪
INVESTIGATION
1. Soil Classification Tests: BS 1377: Part 2: 1990
Moisture content, Liquid limit, Plastic limit, Plasticity index, linear shrinkage, particle size distribution. (These tests are from disturbed
samples such as split spoon samplers (SPT), bulk samples, etc.).
 
2. Chemical & Electro-chemical Tests: BS 1377 Part 3: 1990
▪ Organic matter content, Mass loss on ignition, Sulphate content of soil and ground water, Carbonate content, Chloride content, Total
dissolved solids, pH value.
 
3. Compaction-related (tests from bulk samples) Tests: BS 1377: Part
▪ Dry density - moisture relationship (2.5 kg/4.5 kg hammer), Moisture condition value (MCV), CBR tests
 
4. Compressibility, Permeability and Durability Tests: BS 1377: Part 5
▪ 1-D consolidation test, Swelling and collapse tests, Permeability by constant head, Dispersibility
5. Consolidation & Permeability Tests in Hydraulic Cells & with pore pressure measurements: BS 1377: Part 6
▪ Consolidation Properties using hydraulic cell, Permeability in hydraulic consolidation cell, Isotropic consolidated properties using triaxial
cell, Permeability in a triaxial cell
6. Shear Strength Tests (Total Stress) BS 1377: Part 7
▪ Lab vane shear, Direct shear box (small), Direct shear box (large), Residual strength, Undrained shear strength (UU), Undrained shear
strength (multi loading)
 
7. Shear Strength Tests (Effective Stress) BS 1377: Part 8
▪ CIU with pore pressure measurement, CD with pore pressure measurement
1.5TheIN-SITU/
▪
FIELD
common tests include:
TEST
standard penetration (SPT),
cone penetration test (CPT),
piezocone (CPTu), flat
dilatometer (DMT),
pressuremeter (PMT), and
vane shear (VST).
▪ Boreholes are required for
conducting the SPT and normal
versions of the PMT and VST.
▪ In the case of the CPT, CPTU,
and DMT, no boreholes are
needed, thus termed .direct-
push. technologies.
 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)
▪ Performed during the advancement of a
soil
measure boringof to
the obtain
dynamic ansoilapproximate
resistance,
as(splitwellbarrel
as type).
a disturbed drive sample
▪ The SPT involves the driving of a hollow
thick-walled
measuring tube
the into
number the ground
of blows and
to
advance the split-barrel
vertical distance of 300 mm (1 foot). sampler a
▪ A drop weight system is used for the
pounding
hammer where
repeatedly a 63.5-kg
falls from (140-lb)
0.76 m
(30 inches) to achieve three
increments of 150-mm (6-inches) each. successive
▪ The first increment is recorded as a
seating
advance , while
the the number
second of
and blows to
third
increments
value ("blow are summed
count") or to give the
SPT-resistance N-
(reported
foot). in blows/0.3 m or blows per
▪ If the sampler cannot be driven 450 mm,
the number
increment of
and blowsperper each
each 150-mm
partial
increment
log. is recorded on the boring
▪ Itstandard
is important to point
penetration out that
number several
N at a factors
given contribute
depth for to
similar the variation
soil profiles. of the
Among
these
and factors
rod are
length. the
The SPT hammer
standard efficiency,
practice now inborehole
the U.S. diameter,
is to express sampling
the method,
N-value to
an average energy ratio of 60%.

▪ Advantages and disadvantages of SPT.

Correlations for N 60 in Cohesive Soil Correlations between Angle of Friction
and Standard Penetration Number (N

Note
Please see DAS, Principles of
Foundation Engineering for more
correlations of N60 with
engineering parameters.
 VANE SHEAR TEST (VST)
▪ Used to evaluate the inplace
undrained
soft to stiff shear
clays strength
& silts at (suv)
regularof
depth
feet). intervals of 1 meter (3.28
▪ The test consists of inserting a four-
bladed
rotating vane
the into
devicethe clay
about and a
vertical
guidelines. axis, per ASTM D 2573
▪ The standard vane has a
rectangular
diameter D geometry
= 65 mm, with a
height blade
H =
130 mm (H/D
thickness e = 2 mm. =2), and blade
▪ The test is best performed when
the vane is pushed beneath
bottom of an pre-drilled borehole. the
▪ For a borehole of diameter B, the
top
depth of the
of vane
insertionshould
of pushed
at least to
df =a
4B. Within
insertion, rotation5 minutes
should be after
made
at(0.1°/s)
a constant
with rate of 6°/minute
measurements of
torque taken frequently
 FLAT
TEST (DMT) PLATE DILATOMETER
▪ The flat dilatometer test (DMT) uses
pressure
plate to readings
obtain from an
stratigraphyinserted
and
estimates
elastic of
modulus, at-rest
and lateral
shear stresses,
strength
of sands, silts, and clays.
▪ The device consists of a tapered
stainless
wedge tip steel
that is blade
pushed with 18°
vertically
into the
intervals ground
(or at 200
alternative mm depth
300-mm
intevals) at a rate of 20 mm/s.
▪ The blade (approximately 240 mm
long,
thick) 95
is mm wide,
connected and
to a 15 mm
readout
pressure
surface viagauge
a at
special the ground
wire-tubing
through drill rods or cone rods.
▪ A 60-mm diameter flexible steel
membrane
the blade islocated
inflated on one side
pneumatically of
to give two pressures for readings.
 CONE
(CPT) PENETRATION TESTING
▪ It is fast, economical, and
provides
geostratigraphycontinuous profiling
and of
soil
properties
performed evaluation.
according The
to test
ASTM is
D-3441
ASTM (mechanical
D 5778 systems)
(electric and
and
electronic systems)
▪ Consists of pushing a cylindrical
steel
constantprobe rateintoof the
20 ground
mm/s at
and a
measuring
penetration. the resistance to
▪ The standard penetrometer has a
conical
35.7-mm with 60°bodyangle
tipdiameter and apex,
150-
cm2
point friction
or sleeve.
tip The measured
resistance is
designated q c and the measured
side or sleeve resistance is fs.  
▪ The CPT can be used in very soft
clays to
particularly dense sands,
appropriate yet
for is not
gravels
or rocky terrain.
 PRESSUREMETER TEST (PMT)
▪ Consists of a long cylindrical probe
that is expanded radially into the
surrounding ground. By tracking
the amount of volume of fluid and
pressure used in inflating the probe,
the data can be interpreted to give a
complete stress-strain-strength
curve. In soils, the fluid medium is
usually water (or gas), while in
weathered and fractured rocks,
hydraulic oil is used.
1.6 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION
Several types of geophysical exploration techniques permit a rapid evaluation of subsoil
characteristics. These methods also allow rapid coverage of large areas and are less
expensive than conventional exploration by drilling. However, in many cases, definitive
interpretation of the results is difficult. For that reason, such techniques should be used
for preliminary work only.
▪ SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEY
Generally used for determining the depth to very hard layers, such as bedrock. The
seismic refraction method involves a mapping of Vp arrivals using a linear array of
geophones across the site.
In fact, a single geophone system can be used by moving the geophone position and
repeating the source event.
An impact on a metal plate serves as a source rich in P-wave energy. Initially, the P-
waves travel solely through the soil to arrive at geophones located away from the source.
At some critical distance from the source, the P-wave can actually travel through soil-
underlying rock-soil to arrive at the geophone and make a mark on the oscilloscope.
▪ CROSSHOLE SEISMIC SURVEY
The velocity of shear waves created as the result of an impact to a given layer of soil
can be effectively determined by the cross-hole seismic survey.
The principle of this technique uses two holes drilled into the ground a distance L
apart. A vertical impulse is created at the bottom of one borehole by means of an
impulse rod. The shear waves thus generated are recorded by a vertically sensitive
transducer.
 RESISTIVITY METHOD
▪ The unit of resistivity is the ohm-centimeter or ohm-meter.
▪ The resistivity of various soils depends primarily on their moisture content and
also on the concentration of dissolved ions in them.
▪ Saturated clays have a very low resistivity; dry soil and rocks have a high
resistivity. The range of resistivity generally encountered in various soils and
rocksare as;
▪ The most common procedure for measuring the electrical resistivity of a soil
profile makes use of four electrodes driven into the ground and spaced equally
along a straight line.
▪ The procedure is generally referred to as the Wenner method. The two outside
electrodes are used to send an electrical currentI (usually a dc current with
nonpolarizing potential electrodes) into the ground.
▪ The current is typically in the range of 50-100 milliamperes. The voltage drop, V,
is measured between the two inside electrodes. If the soil profile is homogeneous,
its electrical resistivity is :
SITE INVESTIGATION REPORT/
BORING LOGS
1. General information
The essential information which needs to be recorded on the log is as follows:
a. Borehole number:
This should be unique to the site and kept as simple as possible without extraneous
ciphers.
b. Location:
(i) Site, including project name, town country or state name where necessary
(ii) Grid Reference which should always be stated to at least 1 Om accuracy.
Appropriate local co-ordinate systems should be applied
(iii) Elevation relative to C.O. for the ground level at the borehole site to an accuracy
of 0.05m.
(iv) Orientation of the borehole given as an angle to the horizontal (-ve upwards, +ve
downwards) and azimuth (0° to 360° clockwise relative to Grid North).
c. Drilling technique:
(i) The following should be stated
(ii) The method of penetration and flush system
(iii) The make of machine with the model number
(iv) The type of core barrel and bit
 
d. Contract details:
(i) The following should be noted (with the agreement of the client)
(ii) Name of site investigation contractor
(iii) Name of client or authority
(iv) Job reference number
(v) Name and profession of logger
 
e. Miscellaneous:
There should be an opportunity for relevant miscellaneous information to be included in the log.
2. Drilling progress
The following data need to be recorded:-
a. Rate of drilling:
The
The depth
actual ofpenetration
the boreholerateatfortheeach
completion
run or of each
part of a dayshould
run or shiftbeandmeasured.
the limitsCore
of each run of the
diameter and core barrelof should
changes core be(recorded
size recorded.
by reference to B.S. 4019 or as metric dimension).
b. Casing:
Itcasing
is essential
need notthatbetherecorded
progressexcept
of installation of the casing
where relevant be recordedofrelative
to interpretation the data. to the depth of the borehole; the diameter of the
c. Flush returns:
The character and proportion of the circulation medium returning to the surface should be recorded.
d. Standing water level:
This should be recorded before and possibly after each drilling shift.
 
3.Descriptive geology
The following factors have to be incorporated in a log for adequate engineering geological description: -
(i) systematic description
(ii) alteration weathering state
(iii) structure and discontinuities
(iv) assessment of rock material strength
(v) other features, including stratigraphy
▪ Example of a borelog