A Report on Technical Seminar

COMPONENT – I
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
COMPONENT – II
ORGANIC FARMING

Submitted In Partial Fulfillment Of The Requirement

For The Award Of The Degree Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted By

M.POOJITHA

II B.TECH

Reg.No: 18G21A04A6

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
AUDISANKARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapur,
NH-5 Bypass Road, Gudur-524101.
Nellore (DT), Andhra Pradesh.
2019-2020
 AUDISANKARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapur,
NH-5 ByPass Road,Gudur-524101.
Nellore (DT), Andhra Pradesh.
2019-2020

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the technical seminar report entitled COMPONENT– I“TIME
DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS”andCOMPONENT – II“ORGANIC FARMING” is
presented & submitted by M.POOJITHA, studying II B.TECH, bearing Roll No.
18G21A04A6 in the fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering.
He has successfully and satisfactorily completed his seminar report in all aspects. We,
certify that the work is comprehensive, complete and fit for evaluation.

Seminar Supervisor Head of the Department

Dr. HARIPRASATH MANOHARAN Prof. K. DHANUNJAYA, M.Tech,(Ph.D)
Asst. Professor, ECE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT, ECE
ASCET, GUDUR. ASCET, GUDUR.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to Prof.K.Dhanunjaya

M.Tech,(Ph.D), Head of the Department, Electronics and Communication Engineering, ASCET,
for his generous guidance, help and useful suggestions.

I am expressing my gratitude to All Respected Staff Members for attending my seminar

and for their insightful comments and constructive suggestions to improve the quality of this
research work.

I am extremely thankful to Dr. Nagam Seshaiah, Principal, ASCET, and the

Chairman Dr.Vanki Penchalaiah, Gudur, for providing me infrastructural facilities to work in,
without which this work would not have been possible.

M.poojitha

(18G21A04A6)
 COMPONENT – I

Time Division Multiple Access

(TDMA)
 CONTENTS
S.NO TOPIC PAGE.NO
I LIST OF FIGURES i

II ABSTRACT ii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 TDMA CHARACTERISTICS 2

3 TDMA IN MOBILE PHONES 2

3.1 TDMA In WIRED NETWORK 3

4 TDMA IN FRAME STRUCTURE 4

5 COMPARISON Of MULTIPLE ACCESS 5

6 TDMA EVOLUTION 6

7 APPLICATIONS 8

8 LIMITATIONS 9

9 CONCLUSION 9

10 REFERENCES 10
 I. LIST OF FIGURES

FIG.NO NAME OF THE FIGURE PAGE.NO

1 TDMA (TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS) 1

4 FRAME STRUCTURE Of TDMA 4

6 TDMA EVOLUTION 6

i
 II.ABSTRACT

Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a method of transmitting and receiving multiple
independent signals over a single transmission channel. The TDMA at the transmit side, known
as the multiplexer, assigns multiple channels in preassigned time slots. The TDMA at the receive
side, known as the de-multiplexer, separates the incoming composite signal into parallel streams.
Both multiplexer and de-multiplexer are synchronized by a common clock to receive data in
accordance with the transmit sequence. This chapter presents the key concepts, underlying
principles and practical applications of TDMA used in land-mobile telecommunication systems.

ii
1.INTRODUCTION:

Time-division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared-fimedium

networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into
different time slots.[1] The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using its
own time slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission medium (e.g. radio
frequency channel) while using only a part of its channel capacity. TDMA is used in the digital
2G cellular systems such as Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), IS-136,
Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) and IDEN, and in the Digital Enhanced Cordless
Telecommunications (DECT) standard for portable phones. TDMA was first used in satellite
communication systems by Western Union in its Westar 3 communications satellite in 1979. It is
now used extensively in satellite communications,[2][3][4][5] combat-net radio systems, and
passive optical network (PON) networks for upstream traffic from premises to the operator. For
usage of Dynamic TDMA packet mode communication.

FIG:1 TDMA(TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS)

2.TDMA CHARACTERISTICS:
 Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users

 Non-continuous transmission makes handoff simpler

 Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA

 Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference

 Higher synchronization overhead than CDMA

 Advanced equalization may be necessary for high data rates if the channel is "frequency
selective" and creates Intersymbol interference

 Cell breathing (borrowing resources from adjacent cells) is more complicated than in
CDMA

 Frequency/slot allocation complexity

 Pulsating power envelope: interference with other devices

3. TDMA In MOBILE PHONES SYSTEM:

2G systems:

Most 2G cellular systems, with the notable exception of IS-95, are based on TDMA. GSM, D-
AMPS, PDC, iDEN, and PHS are examples of TDMA cellular systems. GSM combines TDMA
with Frequency Hopping and wideband transmission to minimize common types of interference.

In the GSM system, the synchronization of the mobile phones is achieved by sending timing
2
advance commands from the base station which instructs the mobile phone to transmit earlier
and by how much. This compensates for the propagation delay resulting from the light speed
velocity of radio waves. The mobile phone is not allowed to transmit for its entire time slot, but
there is a guard interval at the end of each time slot. As the transmission moves into the guard
period, the mobile network adjusts the timing advance to synchronize the transmission.

Initial synchronization of a phone requires even more care. Before a mobile transmits there is no
way to actually know the offset required. For this reason, an entire time slot has to be dedicated
to mobiles attempting to contact the network; this is known as the random-access channel
(RACH) in GSM. The mobile attempts to broadcast at the beginning of the time slot, as received
from the network. If the mobile is located next to the base station, there will be no time delay and
this will succeed. If, however, the mobile phone is at just less than 35 km from the base station,
the time delay will mean the mobile's broadcast arrives at the very end of the time slot. In that
case, the mobile will be instructed to broadcast its messages starting nearly a whole time slot
earlier than would be expected otherwise. Finally, if the mobile is beyond the 35 km cell range in
GSM, then the RACH will arrive in a neighbouring time slot and be ignored. It is this feature,
rather than limitations of power, that limits the range of a GSM cell to 35 km when no special
extension techniques are used. By changing the synchronization between the uplink and
downlink at the base station, however, this limitation can be overcome.[citation needed]

3G systems:

Although most major 3G systems are primarily based upon CDMA,[6] time-division duplexing
(TDD), packet scheduling (dynamic TDMA) and packet oriented multiple access schemes are
available in 3G form, combined with CDMA to take advantage of the benefits of both
technologies.

While the most popular form of the UMTS 3G system uses CDMA and frequency division
duplexing (FDD) instead of TDMA, TDMA is combined with CDMA and time-division
duplexing in two standard UMTS UTRA.

3.1 TDMA IN WIRED NETWORKS:

3
The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing home
wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables) is based on a TDMA scheme. In G.hn, a
"master" device allocates "Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities" (CFTXOP) to other
"slave" devices in the network. Only one device can use a CFTXOP at a time, thus avoiding
collisions. FlexRay protocol which is also a wired network used for safety-critical
communication in modern cars, uses the TDMA method for data transmission control.

4. TDMA FRAME STRUCTURE:

The 24 TDMA frame structure Features of TDMA: TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with
several users, where each user makes use of non-overlapping time slots. The number of time
slots per frame depends on several factors, such as modulation technique, available bandwidth,
etc. Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but occurs in bursts.
Because of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA, the handoff process is much simpler for a
subscriber unit, since it is able to listen for other base stations during idle time slots. TDMA uses
different time slots for transmission and reception, thus duplexers are not required. Adaptive
equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission rates are generally
very high as compared to FDMA channels. In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized. High
synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because of burst transmissions. TDMA
systems having larger overheads as compared to FDMA. Efficiency of TDMA: The frame
efficiency is the percentage of bits per frame which contain transmitted data. It is a measure of
the percentage of transmitted data that contains information as opposed to providing overhead
for the access scheme. The transmitted data may include source and channel coding bits, so the
efficiency of a system is generally less than frame efficiency.

4
 FIG.4: FRAME STRUCTURE OF TDMA

5.COMPARISION WITH OTHER ACCESS

MULTIPLE SCHEMES:
In radio systems, TDMA is usually used alongside frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
and frequency division duplex (FDD); the combination is referred to as FDMA/TDMA/FDD.
This is the case in both GSM and IS-136 for example. Exceptions to this include the DECT and
Personal Handy-phone System (PHS) micro-cellular systems, UMTS-TDD UMTS variant, and
China's TD-SCDMA, which use time-division duplexing, where different time slots are allocated
for the base station and handsets on the same frequency.A major advantage of TDMA is that the
radio part of the mobile only needs to listen and broadcast for its own time slot. For the rest of
the time, the mobile can carry out measurements on the network, detecting surrounding
transmitters on different frequencies. This allows safe inter frequency handovers, something
which is difficult in CDMA systems, not supported at all in IS-95 and supported through
complex system additions in Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). This in
turn allows for co-existence of microcell layers with macrocell layers.CDMA, by comparison,
supports "soft hand-off" which allows a mobile phone to be in communication with up to 6 base
stations simultaneously, a type of "same-frequency handover". The incoming packets are
compared for quality, and the best one is selected. CDMA's "cell breathing" characteristic, where
a terminal on the boundary of two congested cells will be unable to receive a clear signal, can
often negate this advantage during peak periods.A disadvantage of TDMA systems is that they
create interference at a frequency which is directly connected to the time slot length. This is the
buzz which can sometimes be heard if a TDMA phone is left next to a radio or speakers.[7]
Another disadvantage is that the "dead time" between time slots limits the potential bandwidth of
a TDMA channel. These are implemented in part because of the difficulty in ensuring that
different terminals transmit at exactly the times required. Handsets that are moving will need to
constantly adjust their timings to ensure their transmission is received at precisely the right time,
because as they move further from5 the base station, their signal will take longer to arrive. This
also means that the major TDMA systems have hard limits on cell sizes in terms of range, though
in practice the power levels required to receive and transmit over distances greater than the
supported range would be mostly impractical anyway.
6. TDMA EVOLUTION:

FIG.6:TDMA EVOLUTION

TDMA forms part of the evolution from first-generation analog systems to second- and then
third-generation digital systems. It builds upon the original analog Advanced Mobile Phone
Service (AMPS), using the same frequency band of 800MHz, but also operates in the Personal
Communication Services (PCS) band of 1,900MHz in the US. Although TDMA could be
considered as the least technologically advanced of the second-generation mobile systems, it has
proven very popular in the US and developing world as a simple upgrade from analog to digital
6
services. As of December 1999, there were approximately 36 million TDMA subscriptions,
accounting for 9% of the digital market.
Although TDMA is currently incompatible with other second-generation systems, there is now a
common upgrade path to IMT-2000, which should become the world-wide standard for third-
generation mobile communication.

TDMA TECHNICAL DETAILS

TDMA enhances the AMPS service by dividing each of the original 30kHz analog channels into
three digital time-division channels, thereby tripling the capacity of the system (called D-
AMPS).

Like AMPS, D-AMPS uses frequency ranges within the 800 and 900 MHz spectrum. Each
service provider can use half of the 824-849MHz range for receiving signals from cellular
phones and half the 869-894MHz range for transmitting to cellular phones. The receiving
channels are called reverse channels and the sending channels are called forward channels. The
division of the spectrum into sub-band channels is achieved by using frequency division multiple
access (FDMA). The TDMA processing is added to each sub-band channel created with FDMA
to triple the number of channels available.

TDMA IS-136 was first specified in 1994 and is an evolution of the older IS-54 (also known as
Digital AMPS or D-AMPS) standard. IS-54 used the three time-division channels for the voice
information only, while IS-136 also used TDMA on the control channel.

A Digital Control Channel (DCCH) increases paging capacity, and sharing TDMA traffic and
control on the same digital radio improves efficiency and reduces hardware costs. DCCH also
provides the platform for a new generation of advanced wireless capabilities.

TDMA supports text messaging, caller identification and closed-user groups. Using a
hierarchical cell structure, it is possible to overlay extra capacity in particular hotspots and offer
different services to particular subscribers or areas within the network.

IS-136 supports a variety of digital value-added services, at the same time as being able to
coexist with the AMPS network. The inherent compatibility between AMPS and TDMA,
coupled with the deployment of dual-mode wireless handsets, ensures ubiquitous network access
for the subscriber whether in an analog or digital serving area.

TDMA is designed to allow for seamless

7 interworking and infrastructure sharing with IS-136
TDMA networks at 800MHz and 1,900MHz, as well as the analog AMPS networks. This allows
new PCS operators to offer full wide-area coverage from day one through infrastructure sharing
or roaming agreements with 800MHz operators in the same geographical area.
The newer IS-136+ and IS-136HS (based upon Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution
[EDGE] standards) allow a higher bit rate transmission, along with the introduction of General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS) data throughput can be increased to over 473Kbs per channel. This
packet-switched upgrade can be overlaid on existing networks and allows the system to retain its
backward compatibility.

A combined GPRS-136HS technology, known simply as EGPRS, is an ideal bearer for any
packet-switched application, including internet connections using TCP/IP. From the end user's
point of view, the EGPRS network is an extension of the internet via wireless access.

7.APPLICATIONS:
 Ti Line:

1. ATI. is a high-speed digital telephone "trunk" line.

2. It uses TDMA with a time period of 125 microseconds (i..ts) during which it
multiplexes twenty-four 64-kbps digital phones channels.

3. So the time slots are each approximately 5.2 !is long, during which 8 bits from
a single source are sent.

4. The bulk data rate is 1.544 Mbps.

 GSM:Uses TDMA in combination with FDMA.

 U.S. Digital Cellular (USDC) (also called IS-54/IS-136)

1. 30 kHz AMPS channels are subdivided using TDMA

8

2. 6 subchannels (for 4 kbps digital voices)

3. Time intervals are about 1/4 millisecond

 4. Time slots are about 1/24 ms

5. Also called Digital AMP (D-AMPS)

8.LIMITATIONS:
Using TDMA technology is that the users has a predefined time slot. When moving from one
cell site to other, if all the time slots in this cell are full the user might be disconnected.

Another problem in TDMA is that it is subjected to multipath distortion. To overcome this

distortion, a time limit can be used on the system. Once the time limit is expired the signal is
ignored.

9. CONCLUSION:
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires an accurate
synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. TDMA is used in digital mobile radio systems.
The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the exclusive use of a time interval.

In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a station.
However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used for the multiple
access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies. The mobile system that uses this
technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.

10. REFERENCES:
9

1. Jens Zander; Ki Won Sung; Ben Slimane (2016). Fundamentals of Mobile Data Networks.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107143217.
2. Maine, K.; Devieux, C.; Swan, P. (November 1995). Overview of IRIDIUM satellite network.
WESCON'95. IEEE. p. 483.

3. Mazzella, M.; Cohen, M.; Rouffet, D.; Louie, M.; Gilhousen, K. S. (April 1993). Multiple access
techniques and spectrum utilisation of the GLOBALSTAR mobile satellite system. Fourth IEE
Conference on Telecommunications 1993. IET. pp. 306–311.

4. Sturza, M. A. (June 1995). Architecture of the TELEDESIC satellite system. International

Mobile Satellite Conference. 95. p. 214.

5. K. Jagannatham, Aditya (2016). Principles of Modern Wireless Communication Systems.

McGraw-Hill Education.

10
 COMPONENT – II
ORGANIC FARMING
 CONTENTS

S.NO TOPICS PAGE.NO

I. LIST Of FIGURES I

II ABSTRACT II

1 INTRODUCTION

2 HISTORY Of ORGANIC FARMING

3 ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA

4 KEY CHARACTERISTICS Of ORGANIC FARMING.

4.1 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING

4.2 OBJECTIVES OF ORGANIC FARMING

5 TYPES OF ORGANIC FARMING

1.1 TECHNIQUES

6 NEED OF ORGANIC FARMING

7 APPLICATIONS

8 LIMITATIONS

9 CONCLUSION

10 REFERENCES
 I.LIST OF FIGURES

FIG.NO NAME OF THE FIGURE PAGE.

NO

1 ORGANIC FARMING VEGETABLES

2 DOCUMENTATION OF ORGANIC FARMING

4.2 OBJECTIVE OF ORGANIC FARMING

I
 II.ABSTRACT

In the ancient time, agriculture was practiced without the use of artificial chemicals. The use of
artificial chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides came into picture during the mid-19th
century. This kind of agricultural practice was causing harm to the environment. With the rapid
change in farming practices, organic farming came into existence in the 20th century. It made
use of environment friendly practices by avoiding the use of artificial chemicals and making use
of organic matter to raise crops.  Organic food is beneficial to human health and the practice of
organic farming keeps the environment clean.
KEYWORDS:

Organic, Bio-fertilizers, Pesticides,Conventional, Nutrients, Manure

II
1.INTRODUCTION:
Organic farming, is an alternative agricultural system which originated early in the 20th century
in reaction to rapidly changing farming practices. Certified organic agriculture accounts for 70
million hectares globally, with over half of that total in Australia Organic farming continues to
be developed by various organizations today. It is defined by the use of fertilizers of organic
origin such as compost manure, green manure, and bone meal and places emphasis on techniques
such as crop rotation and companion planting. Biological pest control, mixed cropping and the
fostering of insect predators are encouraged. Organic standards are designed to allow the use of
naturally occurring substances while prohibiting or strictly limiting synthetic substances. For
instance, naturally occurring pesticides such as pyrethrin and rotenone are permitted, while
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are generally prohibited. Synthetic substances that are allowed
include, for example, copper sulfate, elemental sulfur and Ivermectin. Genetically modified
organisms, nanomaterials, human sewage sludge, plant growth regulators, hormones,
and antibiotic use in livestock husbandry are prohibited. Reasons for advocation of organic
farming include advantages in sustainability, openness, self-
sufficiency, autonomy/independence, health, food security, and food safety.
Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many nations,
based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella organization for organic farming organizations
established in 1972.

Fig 1: Organic farming vegetables

2.HISTORY OF ORGANIC FARMING:
Agriculture, was practiced for thousands of years without the use of artificial
chemicals. Artificial fertilizers were first created during the mid-19th century. These early
fertilizers were cheap, powerful, and easy to transport in bulk. Similar advances occurred in
chemical pesticides in the 1940s, leading to the decade being referred to as the 'pesticide
era'. These new agricultural techniques, while beneficial in the short term, had serious longer
term side effects such as soil compaction, erosion, and declines in overall soil fertility, along
with health concerns about toxic chemicals entering the food supply, In the late 1800s and early
1900s, soil biology scientists began to seek ways to remedy these side effects while still
maintaining higher production.

In 1921 the founder and pioneer of the organic movement Albert Howard and his wife Gabrielle
Howard, accomplished botanists, founded an Institute of Plant Industry to improve traditional
farming methods in India. Among other things, they brought improved implements and improved
animal husbandry methods from their scientific training; then by incorporating aspects of Indian
traditional methods, developed protocols for the rotation of crops, erosion prevention techniques,
and the systematic use of composts and manures. Stimulated by these experiences of traditional
farming, when Albert Howard returned to Britain in the early 1930s he began to promulgate a
system of organic agriculture.

In 1924 Rudolf Steiner gave a series of eight lectures on agriculture with a focus on influences of

the moon, planets, non-physical beings and elemental forces. They were held in response to a
request by adherent farmers who noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the
health and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers. The
lectures were published in November 1924; the first English translation appeared in 1928 as The

Agriculture course,

In July 1939, Ehrenfried Pfeiffer, the author of the standard work on biodynamic

agriculture (Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening), came to the UK at the invitation of Walter
2
James, 4th Baron Northbourne as a presenter at the Betteshanger Summer School and
Conference on Biodynamic Farming at Northbourne's farm in Kent. One of the chief purposes of
the conference was to bring together the proponents of various approaches to organic agriculture
in order that they might cooperate within a larger movement. Howard attended the conference,
where he met Pfeiffer. In the following year, Northbourne published his manifesto of organic
farming, Look to the Land, in which he coined the term "organic farming." The Betteshanger
conference has been described as the 'missing link' between biodynamic agriculture and other
forms of organic farming.
In 1940 Howard published his An Agricultural Testament. In this book he adopted Northbourne's
terminology of "organic farming." Howard's work spread widely, and he became known as the
"father of organic farming" for his work in applying scientific knowledge and principles to
various traditional and natural methods,45 In the United States J.I. Rodale, who was keenly
interested both in Howard's ideas and in biodynamics, founded in the 1940s both a working
organic farm for trials and experimentation, The Rodale Institute, and the Rodale Press to teach
and advocate organic methods to the wider public. These became important influences on the
spread of organic agriculture. Further work was done by Lady Eve Balfour (the Haughley
Experiment) in the United Kingdom, and many others across the world.
The term "eco-agriculture" was coined in 1970 by Charles Walters, founder of Acres Magazine,
to describe agriculture which does not use "man-made molecules of toxic rescue chemistry",
effectively another name for organic agriculture,
Increasing environmental awareness in the general population in modern times has transformed
the originally supply-driven organic movement to a demand-driven one. Premium prices and
some government subsidies attracted farmers. In the developing world, many producers farm
according to traditional methods that are comparable to organic farming, but not certified, and
that may not include the latest scientific advancements in organic agriculture. In other cases,
farmers in the developing world have converted to modern organic methods for economic
reasons.

Since 1990 the market for organic food and other products has grown rapidly, reaching $63
billion worldwide in 2012. This demand has driven a similar increase in organically managed
farmland that grew from 2001 to 2011 at a compounding rate of 8.9% per annum.

As of 2018, approximately 71,500,000 hectares (177,000,000 acres) worldwide were farmed

organically, representing approximately 1.5 percent of total world farmland.

3
 Fig 2 : Religious Documentation Of Organic Farming

3.ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA:

In India is home to 30 per cent of the total organic producers in the world, but accounts for just
2.59 per cent (1.5 million hectares) of the total organic cultivation area of 57.8 million hectares,
according to the World of Organic Agriculture 2018 report.

At the same time, most organic farmers are struggling due to poor policy measures, rising input
costs and limited market, says a study by the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of
4
India (ASSOCHAM) and global consultancy firm Ernst & Young.
Organic farming is yet to taste success

Problems are evident even in Sikkim, which was recognised as the country’s first organic state in
2018. A survey by Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment shows that the state's
transition to organic farming is yet to become a true success. The survey found that the phasing
out of chemicals in Sikkim was not complemented by a simultaneous increase in availability of
and access to organic manure.

Farmers also complained of low productivity during the transition from conventional chemical
farming to organic farming. Pest attack on organic crops is another reason cited by the farmers
for low productivity and demanded education and training to deal with it. The problem of pest
attacks increased after the conversion to organic farming, but the state is yet to maintain data on
this, which is needed for plant disease management.

Similarly, nearly 98 per cent farmers in Rajasthan are aware of ecological hazards of
conventional chemical-based farming, but fear of decline in production and unavailability of
organic inputs in the market discourage them from switching to organic farming, says a 2015
study conducted by the Consumer Unity and Trust Society.

4.KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
ORGANIC FARMING:
As stated earlier, the fundamental features of organic farming are based on maintaining a natural
system that includes: natural livestock and crop production through submission to an organic
system plan; detailed record keeping system for all the produce from the point of production to
consumption; and use of buffer zones to prevent synthetic chemicals from accidentally
contaminating the bordering conventional farms. Detailed discussions are listed below.

1. Natural Livestock and Poultry Production

5

By natural production, it means raising livestock and poultry for production of their products
such as meat, eggs, and dairy by providing natural living conditions and feeds. Any forms of
hormones, antibiotics, and medications are unacceptable, especially if used for promoting growth
and productivity. Feeds have to be organic and livestock have to be pastured. Farm features such
as using livestock for plowing, hauling, fuel, and even recycling their waste for manure are key
aspects of organic farming.

The control of parasites and diseases is accomplished through preventative measures such as
balanced diet, sanitary housing, rotational grazing, and stress reduction.

2. Natural Crop Production

Natural crop production encompasses crop diversity and organic systems for enhancing crop
fertility as well as controlling pests, weeds and diseases. Organic farming requires a variety of
crops that can support numerous and different types of beneficial soil microorganisms, insects,
and promotes overall soil management for improved farm productivity.

Weed and pest management is to be done without the use of synthetic herbicides or pesticides
respectively. Control measures should be through flame weeding, mechanical tillage, mulching,
use of cover crops, crop rotation, mechanical tillage and hand weeding. Organic farming also
needs to depend on predatory beneficial insects, beneficial soil microorganisms, companion
cropping, birds, proper sanitation, and crop rotation for pest control.

In extreme cases of pest infestation, farmers can implement measures such as use of barriers and
traps, mating disruption, biological pesticides, and insect predators. Soil biota, building soil
structure, use of compost, and biologically based soil amendments are utilized to promote
healthy plants that are tolerant and resist to diseases. Botanical measures can also be used to
control diseases.

6
3. Soil Management

Organic farming extensively relies on nourishing the soil naturally by using compost, natural
mineral powders and green manure. Crop rotation, inter-cropping and minimal tillage is also
used to improve soil fertility, structure, and water holding capacity in organic farming. As a
result, it helps to support the soil microbial activities that transform and release soil nutrients.

4. Buffer Zones and Record Keeping

Submission to an organic system plan is a key feature of organic farming. It requires the practice
of buffering between organic farms and adjacent conventional farms. Keeping records of the
entire farm activities is as well a necessity to ensure standard organic farming practice. It ensures
proper sanitation, quality monitoring system for pests, parasites, diseases and productivity, and
farm integrity.

4.1PRINCIPLESOFORGANIC FARMING:

The Principles of Organic Agriculture were established by the International Federation of

Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) in September, 2005. They are aspirations for organic
farming. The Principles were approved by the General Assembly of IFOAM on September 25,
2005.
The General Assembly of IFOAM approved the Principles of Organic Agriculture on September
28, 2005. The principles were developed during an intensive two-year participatory process. The
aim of the principles is both to inspire the organic movement and to describe the purpose of
organic agriculture to the wider world.

The first set of principles of organic agriculture to be published by any organic association was a
set of ten principles published by the Australian Organic Farming and Gardening Society (1944–
1955).
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The organic sector has grown significantly in recent years. Along with that growth have come
opportunities and challenges. The IFOAM General Assembly concluded that there was a need to
elaborate the basic values of organic agriculture.

The principles are intended to "apply to agriculture in the broadest sense, including the way
people tend soils, water, plants and animals in order to produce, prepare and distribute goods.
They concern the way people interact with living landscapes, relate to one another and shape the
legacy of future generations."

The four Principles of Organic Farming are:

 Organic farming should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plants, animals and
humans as one and indivisible.

 Organic farming should be based on the living ecological systems and cycles, work with
them, emulate them and help sustain them.

 Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to
common environment and life processes.

 Organic farming should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect

the health and well being of current and future generations and the environment.

4.2OBJECTIVE OF ORGANIC FARMING:

 Increase genetic diversity.
 Promote more usage of natural pesticides.

 Ensure the right soil cultivation at the right time.

 Keep and build good soil structure and fertility.

 Control pests, diseases and weeds.

 Produce food with higher nutritional quality.

 Work with natural system.

 Maintain and increase soil fertility.

 Use renewable resources as far as possible.

 Avoid pollution

 Wider social and ecological impact of farming system.

Fig 3: Objective of Organic farming

5.TYPES OF ORGANIC FARMING:
1.Pure organic farming

 It involves the use of organic manures and biopesticides with complete avoidance of
inorganic chemicals and pesticides.

2. Integrated organic farming

 It involves integrated nutrients management and integrated pest management.

 It is the type of farming in which development of crops from natural resources having the
complete nutritive value and manages to prevent the crop or plants from the pests.

3. Integration of different farming systems

 Integration of different farming systems involves several other components of farming

such as poultry, mushroom production, goat rearing, and fishpond simultaneously with
regular crop components.

5.1 TECHNIQUES:
Crop Rotation:
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 It is the technique to grow various kind of crops in the same area, according to the
different seasons, in a sequential manner.
Green Manure:

 It refers to the dying plants that are uprooted and turned into the soil to make them act as
a nutrient for the soil to increase its quality.

Biological Pest Control:

 With this method, we use living organisms to control pests with or without the use of
chemicals.

Compost:

 Highly rich in nutrients, it is a recycled organic matter used as a fertilizer in the

agricultural farms.

Management of Soil:

 Soil management is the soul of organic farming. It’s a well-known fact that after taking
one crop, the soil of the farm loses most of its nutrients and its fertility goes down.

 To process of recharging the soil with all the necessary nutrients is called soil
management. In organic farming the nutrients are recharged in the soil through natural
ways to increase the soil fertility.

 For this purpose, animal waste is increasingly used to recharge the soil with the necessary
nutrients. The bacteria present in animal waste make soil fertile once again.

Management of Weeds:

 Organic farming focuses on removing the weeds from the soil during the crop production.
Weeds are unwanted plants that grow in the agriculture fields simultaneously with the
crops and they suck most of the nutrients present in the soil. As a result the production of
the crops gets affected. To get rid of weeds the farmers follow the below mentioned
techniques
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 Mulching and Cutting or Mowing: Mulching is a process in which the farmers use plant
residue or plastic films on the surface of the soil which blocks the growth of the weed
while cutting or mowing helps in removal of the growth of the weeds in the farms.
 

6.NEED OF ORGANIC FARMING:

1. Organic Food Industry is Growing Fast and Guarantees High Profitability

Current market trends according to natural marketing institute reveals that organically produced
products are becoming widely accepted throughout the world. Again, the institute underscores
that over the past few years, the annual sales of organic products have increased three fold with
increased establishment of natural food stores selling varieties of organic products. The farmers
markets also offer commercialization of regionally and locally produced organic products.
Accordingly, the retail sales of organic products are expected to continue rising in the coming
years at a rate more than 20% yearly.

For instance, the estimated market value of certified organic products in 2001 was approximately
$20 billion. As of 2002 it was $23 billion and more than $46 billion by 2007. The market had
reached $63 billion worldwide by 2012.

The increasing variety of consumers spread all over the world have surely promoted the wider
acceptance of organic products and made it to be the fastest growing agricultural sector. Majorly,
the fast growth rate and high profitability level is attributed to the health benefits and the superior
quality as well as taste of the organic products compared to the conventional agricultural
produce. At the same time, people continue to receive awareness about the significance of
organic food products and farming, transforming the agricultural sector into an attractive
economic alternative.

2. Environmental Sustainability and Food Security

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Attaining a friendly and green environment has always been a great concern worldwide and
research discloses that organic farming can partly offer a solution. Long term studies about
organic agricultural practice reveal it can provide an impressive mechanism for promoting
ecological harmony, biodiversity, and biological cycles which are vital for environmental
sustainability.

The definitive objectives of organic farming are founded on soil management and conservation,
promoting nutrient cycle, ecological balance and conserving biodiversity. On this basis, the
practices marvelously aid in building the capacity to mitigate the impacts of global climate
change and contributing to environmental preservation. In addition to reversing global climate
change impacts, organic agriculture can trim down emissions from fossil fuels mainly due to the
use of cover crops and grass clovers in organic rotations.

Organic farming also saves up energy since its production methods are energy
efficient compared to the conventional methods, thereby lessening depletion of natural resources
used for generating energy. Besides, a recent study in Science-Digest stressed that promotion of
organic farming can intensify yield production particularly in poor countries where inputs for
conventional agriculture are highly expensive, thus contributing to increased food security.

3. Improvement of Human Health

Organic produce offer the safest products for human consumption than any other available food
products. They contain lower levels of chemicals and do not contain modified ingredients
compared to the conventional agricultural produce.

Organic standards set strict regulations to ensure final products for consumption are free from
synthetic chemical components and genetically modified production technologies, or any other
perceived natural toxins. As such, organic farm produce improves human health by ensuring
risks to disease conditions like cancer, infertility, and immunodeficiency are minimized.

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7.APPLICATIONS:

Global area under organic crops is about 26 m ha whereas only 1,08650 ha in India is under
organic farming spread over 10 states (Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and Uttaranchal) where 5,48045 farmers
produce 17.11 lakh tonnes of food (Kulkarni, 2011). Madhya Pradesh has the maxium area of 1.1
m ha followed by Maharashtra (0.96 m ha) and Odisha (0.67 m ha). In fact, Madhya Pradesh and
Uttaranchal havebeen declared as organic states. Among organic productions, cotton represents
about 75% whereas the cereals, vegetables, fruits and animal products under certified organic
production accounts only 25% (Barik, 2011). The crops include cereals (paddy, wheat), pulses
(pigeonpea, black gram); oilseeds (mustard, sesame, castor, sunflower); vegetables (aubergine,
okra, garlic, onion, potato, tomato); spices (black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, vanilla,
tamarind, clove, cinamom, nutmeg); plantation crops (tea, coffee, cashew nut, walnut) and fruit
crops (mango, banana, pineapple, grapes, oranges). The farmers are supported with farm inputs
and guided for technology packages, value of organic production, premiums and export
potential. There are various models to connect producers with buyers. Generally, organic
production is planned from sowing to harvest and certified organic farms maintain
comprehensive records of the production methods. After signing the contract between farmers
and certifying agency, all norms of cultivation are strictly followed. One year later, products can
be sold with label as conversion to organic agriculture. Annual crops can be sold after two years
and perennial crops after three years. The certification programme consisting of standards,
inspection and certification is executed by the accredited certifying agencies

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8.LIMITATIONS:
 Organic manure is not abundantly available and on plant nutrient basis it may be more
expensive than chemical fertilizers if organic inputs are purchased.

 Production in organic farming declines especially during first few years, so the farmer
should be given premium prices for organic produce.

 The guidelines for organic production, processing, transportation and certification etc are
beyond the understanding of ordinary Indian farmer.

 Marketing of organic produce is also not properly streamlined.

9.CONCLUSION:
"One of the most effective ways to reduce exposure to toxic substances is to eat organic food. It
could be the single most useful thing a mother can do to give her baby a good start in life." An
especially important aspect of organic produce is that it contains fewer pesticides or NO
Pesticides at all. This is important especially for children since babies and toddlers eat more food
and drink more water pound for pound of body weight and they have a less developed immune
system when compared to adults. Organic products have become a popular choice in the last few
years. Making an active commitment to choose healthy alternatives when it comes to eating and
nutrition is a great way to commit to a healthier life. Organic food is also a better choice for the
environment as well. Organic farming practices reduce pollution in the air, water, and soil. It also
helps conserve water, reduce soil erosion, and uses less energy.

"Organic products are the best from nature, and the best for nature,"
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10.REFERENCES:
 Paull, John & Hennig, Benjamin (2016) Atlas of Organics: Four Maps of the World of
Organic AgricultureJournal of Organics. 3(1): 25-32.

 Paull, John (2019) Organic Agriculture in Australia: Attaining the Global Majority

(51%), Journal of Environment Protection and Sustainable Development, 5(2):70-74.

 "USDA Blog  » Organic 101: Allowed and Prohibited Substances". blogs.usda.gov.

Retrieved 6 April 2016.

 Paull, John (2011) "Nanomaterials in food and agriculture: The big issue of small matter
for organic food and farming", Proceedings of the Third Scientific Conference of ISOFAR
(International Society of Organic Agriculture Research), 28 September – 1 October, Namyangju,
Korea., 2:96-99

 "USDA List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances in Organic Agriculture". USDA List

of Allowed and Prohibited Substances in Organic Agriculture. USDA. 4 April 2016. Retrieved 6
April2016.

 Arsenault, Chris. "Only 60 Years of Farming Left If Soil Degradation

Continues". Scientific American. Retrieved 29 May 2016.

 a b Coleman, Eliot (1995), The New Organic Grower: A Master's Manual of Tools and
Techniques for the Home and Market Gardener (2nd ed.), pp. 65, 108, ISBN 978-0930031756.

 Paull, John "From France to the World: The International Federation of Organic

Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)", Journal of Social Research & Policy, 2010, 1(2):93-102.

  Danielle Treadwell, Jim Riddle, Mary Barbercheck, Deborah Cavanaugh-Grant, Ed

Zaborski, Cooperative Extension System, What is organic farming? Archived 3 May 2016 at
the Wayback Machine

 H. Martin, '’Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural AffairsIntroduction to

Organic Farming,  ISSN 1198-712X
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