Advanced Cosmology PDF

Advanced Cosmology
Daniel Baumann
Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics,

Cambridge University, Cambridge, CB3 0WA, UK
and
Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Amsterdam,

Science Park, 1090 GL Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Contents
1 Preliminaries 3
1.1 Homogeneous Cosmology 3
1.2 Slow-Roll Inflation 7
I Primordial Seeds 12
2 Cosmological Perturbation Theory 12

2.1 Metric Perturbations 12
2.2 Matter Perturbations 13
2.3 Equations of Motion 13
2.4 Initial Conditions 19
3 Quantum Initial Conditions 23

3.1 Inflaton Fluctuations: Classical 23
3.2 Quantum Harmonic Oscillators 26
3.3 Inflaton Fluctuations: Quantum 28
3.4 Curvature Perturbations 32
3.5 Gravitational Waves 33
II CMB Anisotropies 35
4 The Boltzmann Equation 35

4.1 Free-Streaming 36
4.2 Thomson Scattering 39
4.3 Boltzmann for Photons 41
4.4 Boltzmann for Neutrinos 45
4.5 Einstein Revisited 45
5 Temperature Anisotropies 46
5.1 Anisotropies from Inhomogeneities 47
5.2 Free-Streaming 49
5.3 Projection 51
5.4 Evolution 55
5.4.1 Photon-Baryon Fluid 55
5.4.2 Acoustic Oscillations 57
5.4.3 Diffusion Damping 61
5.5 Power Spectrum 63
5.6 Cosmological Parameters 64
III Problems and Solutions 68
1
6 Problem Sets 68
6.1 Problem Set 0: Preliminaries 68
6.2 Problem Set 1: Perturbation Theory 70
6.3 Problem Set 2: Quantum Fluctuations 72
6.4 Problem Set 3: Boltzmann Equation 73
6.5 Problem Set 4: Temperature Anisotropies 74
7 Solutions 76
7.1 Solutions 0: Preliminaries 76
7.2 Solutions 1: Perturbation Theory 78
7.3 Solutions 2: Quantum Fluctuations 84
7.4 Solutions 3: Boltzmann Equation 87
7.5 Solutions 4: Temperature Anisotropies 91
References 95
2
1 Preliminaries
We will begin with a lightning review of some elementary concepts in cosmology. I will assume
that you have seen most, if not all, of this material before, so I will cite many results without
detailed derivations. Further details can be found in my Cosmology course [1] or any of the
standard textbooks (e.g. [2, 3]).
1.1 Homogeneous Cosmology

The FRW metric of a homogenous and isotropic spacetime is
ds2 = dt2 − a2 (t)γij dxi dxj , (1.1)
where γij denotes the metric of a maximally symmetric 3-space and a(t) is the scale factor.
Throughout these lectures, we will restrict to the special case of flat spatial slices, i.e. γij = δij ,
and define dx2 ≡ δij dxi dxj . We will also introduce conformal time, dη = dt/a(t), so that the
metric becomes
ds2 = a2 (η) dη 2 − dx2 .

(1.2)
We will first discuss the kinematics of particles in an FRW spacetime for an arbitrary scale
factor a(η). After that, we will show how the Einstein equations determine a(η) in terms of the
stress-energy content of the universe.
Kinematics
The kinematics of particles in the FRW spacetime follows from the geodesic equation
µ
ν µ ν ∂P µ ρ
P ∇ν P = P + Γνρ P = 0, (1.3)
∂xν
where P µ ≡ dxµ /dλ is the 4-momentum of the particle. In an expanding spacetime, it is conve-
nient to write the components of the 4-momentum as
P µ = a−1 [E, p] . (1.4)
For massless particles, such as photons, we have the constraint gµν P µ P ν = E 2 − |p|2 = 0, so we
can write p = E p̂, where p̂ is a unit vector in the direction of propagation.
Exercise.—Show that the non-zero connection coefficients associated with the metric (1.2) are
Γ000 = H , Γ0ij = Hδij , Γij0 = Hδji , (1.5)
where H ≡ ȧ/a is the conformal Hubble parameter.
The µ = 0 component of the geodesic equation (1.3) becomes
dP 0
P0 = −Γ0αβ P α P α . (1.6)
dη
3
Substituting (1.4) and (1.5), we get
d −1
(a−1 E) (a E) = −Ha−2 E 2 − Ha−2 |p|2 , (1.7)
dη
which simplifies to
1 dE 1 da
=− → E ∝ a−1 . (1.8)
E dη a dη
This describes the redshift of the photon energy in an expanding spacetime.
Dynamics
The evolution of the scale factor is determined by the Friedmann equations
3H2 = 8πGa2 ρ̄ , (1.9)

2Ḣ + H2 = −8πGa2 P̄ , (1.10)
where ρ̄ and P̄ are the background density and pressure, respectively.
Exercise.—By substituting (1.5) into
Rµν ≡ ∂λ Γλµν − ∂ν Γλµλ + Γλλρ Γρµν − Γρµλ Γλνρ , (1.11)
show that
R00 = −3Ḣ , Rij = (Ḣ + 2H2 )δij ⇒ a2 R = −6(Ḣ + H2 ) . (1.12)
Hence, show that the non-zero components of the Einstein tensor, Gµν ≡ Rµν − 21 Rgµν , are
G00 = 3H2 , Gij = −(2Ḣ + H2 )δij . (1.13)
Use this to confirm that the 00-Einstein equation, G00 = 8πG T00 , implies (1.9) and the ij-Einstein
equation, Gij = 8πG Tij , leads to (1.10).
Combining (1.9) and (1.10), we can write an evolution equation for the density
ρ̄˙ = −3H(ρ̄ + P̄ ) . (1.14)
For pressureless matter (P̄m ≈ 0) this implies ρ̄m ∝ a−3 , while for radiation (P̄r = 31 ρ̄r ) we have
ρ̄r ∝ a−4 .
Exercise.—Derive the continuity equation (1.14) from ∇µ Tµν = 0. By integrating the Friedmann
equation (1.9) for matter and radiation show that
(
η 2 matter
a(η) = . (1.15)
η radiation
4
The Cosmic Inventory
The universe is filled with several different species of particles:
baryons (b)
z }| {
photons (γ) neutrinos (ν) electrons (e) protons (p) cold dark matter (c) .
| {z } | {z }
radiation (r) matter (m)
The number density, energy density and pressure of each species a can be written as
d3 p
Z
na = ga fa (x, p) , (1.16)
(2π)3
d3 p
Z
ρa = ga fa (x, p)E(p) , (1.17)
(2π)3
d3 p p2
Z
Pa = ga 3
fa (x, p) , (1.18)
(2π) 3E(p)
where fa (x, p) is the (phase space) distribution function of the species a, and ga is the number of
internal degrees of freedom. In the unperturbed universe, the distribution functions should not
depend in the position and the direction of the momentum, i.e. fa (x, p) → f¯a (E(p)).
At early times, particle interactions were efficient enough to keep the different species in local
equilibrium. They then shared a common temperature T and the distribution functions take the
following maximum entropy form
1
f¯a (E) = , (1.19)
e(Ea −µa )/T ±1
with + for bosons and − for fermions. The chemical potential µ vanishes for photons and is
(likely) small for all other species. We will henceforth set it to zero. When the temperature
drops below the mass of a particle species, T ma , they become non-relativistic and their
distribution function receives an exponential (Boltzmann) suppression, fa → e−ma /T . This means
that relativistic particles (‘radiation’) dominate the density and pressure of the primordial plasma.
By performing the integrals (1.17) and (1.18) in the limit E → p, one finds
(
π2 1 bosons 1
ρ̄a = ga T 4 7 and P̄a = ρ̄a . (1.20)
30 fermions 3
8
The total radiation density is
π2 X 7 X
ρ̄r = g∗ T 4 , where g∗ ≡ ga + ga . (1.21)
30 8
a=b a=f
If equilibrium had persisted until today, all species with masses greater than 10−3 eV would be
exponentially suppressed. This would not be a very interesting world. Fortunately, many massive
particle species are weakly interacting and decoupled from the primordial plasma at early times.
The freeze-out abundance of dark matter has shaped the large-scale structure of the universe.
5
relativistic non-relativistic
freeze-out
relic density
equilibrium
1 10 100
Figure 1. A schematic illustration of particle freeze-out. At high temperatures, the particle abundance
tracks its equilibrium value. At low temperatures, the particles freeze out and maintain a density that is
much larger than the Boltzmann-suppressed equilibrium abundance.
A Brief Thermal History

The key to understanding the thermal history of the universe is understanding the competition
between the interaction rate of particles, Γ, and the expansion rate, H. Particles maintain
equilibrium as long as Γ H and freeze out when Γ . H (see Fig. 1).
Neutrinos are the most weakly interacting particles of the Standard Model and therefore
decoupled first (around 0.8 MeV or 1 sec after the Big Bang). Shortly after neutrino decoupling,
electrons and positrons annihilated. The energies of the electrons and positrons got transferred
to the photons, but not the neutrinos. The temperature of the photons is therefore slightly
bigger today than that of the neutrinos. At around the same time, neutron-proton interactions
became inefficient, leading to a relic abundance of neutrons. These neutrons were essential for the
formation of the light elements during Big Bang nucleosynthesis (BBN), which occurred around
3 minutes after the Big Bang.
Below about 1 eV, or 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the temperature had become low
enough for neutral hydrogen to form through the reaction e− + p+ → H + γ. This is the moment
of recombination. At this point the density of free electrons dropped dramatically (see Fig. 2).
Before recombination the strongest coupling between the photons and the rest of the plasma was
through Thomson scattering, e− + γ → e− + γ. The sharp drop in the free electron density
after recombination means that this process became inefficient and the photons decoupled. After
decoupling the photons streamed freely through the universe and are today observed as the
cosmic microwave background (CMB). The CMB is an almost perfect blackbody with an average
temperature of 2.7 K. At the level of one part in 104 , the CMB temperature varies across the sky,
which reflects density perturbations in the primordial plasma. These perturbations are believed
to have been created by quantum fluctuations during inflation (see Section 3).
6
recombination
decoupling
CMB
plasma neutral hydrogen
Figure 2. Fraction of free electrons, Xe ≡ ne /nb , as a function of redshift (or temperature).
1.2 Slow-Roll Inflation

A key fact about the universe is that on large scales it is well-described by the Robertson-Walker
metric (1.2). But why? The standard cosmology predicts that the early universe was made of
many causally disconnected regions of space. The fact that these apparently disjoint patches of
space have very nearly the same densities and temperatures is called the horizon problem. In
this section, I will explain how inflation—an early period of accelerated expansion—drives the
primordial universe towards homogeneity and isotropy, even if it starts in a more generic initial
state.
Horizon Problem
The particle horizon is the maximal distance that a signal can travel between some initial time
t = 0 and a later time t. In physical coordinates this is given by
Z t Z a
dt d ln a
D(t) = a(t) = a(t) . (1.22)
0 a(t) 0 a0
For a00 < 0, the integral converges to a finite value:

 
 t2/3  3t matter
e.g. a(t) ∝ → D(t) = (1.23)
 t1/2  2t radiation
This leads to a puzzle: because the age of the universe (t0 ) is much larger than the time of
recombination (t∗ ), the CMB naively consists of many causally disconnected patches (see Fig. 3).
Why is the CMB so homogeneous? Moreover, why are the observed CMB fluctuations correlated
on large scales and not just random noise?
7
recombination
singularity
Figure 3. Illustration of the horizon problem in the conventional Big Bang model. All events that we
currently observe are on our past light cone. The intersection of our past light cone with the spacelike
slice labelled “recombination” corresponds to two opposite points in the observed CMB. Their past light
cones don’t overlap before they hit the singularity, ai = 0, so the points appear never to have been in
causal contact. The same applies to any two points in the CMB that are separated by more than 1 degree
on the sky.
BIG BANG
recombination
end of inflation
INFLATION
causal
contact
singularity
Figure 4. Illustration of the inflationary solution to the horizon problem in comoving coordinate (using
conformal time on the vertical axis). The spacelike singularity of the standard Big Bang is replaced by
the reheating surface, i.e. rather than marking the beginning of time it now corresponds simply to the
transition from the end of inflation to the standard Big Bang evolution. All points in the CMB have
overlapping past light cones and therefore originated from a causally connected region of space.
Inflation
For a00 > 0, the particle horizon diverges in the past! A period of accelerated expansion (=infla-
tion) therefore solves the horizon problem (see Fig. 4). Signals were able to travel a much larger
8
distance than suggested by the naive extrapolation of the standard FRW expansion.
Exercise.—A special case of accelerated expansion is the quasi-de Sitter limit, which is characterized
by a nearly constant expansion rate, H = a0 /a ≈ const., so that a(t) = eH(t−t0 ) , where t0 is some
fiducial time at which a(t0 ) ≡ 1. Show that
1
a(η) = − , (1.24)
Hη
for η < 0. Notice that the initial singularity has been pushed to η = −∞ (cf. Fig. 4).
The Physics of Inflation

How can a00 > 0 occur?
Exercise.—Show that a00 > 0 is equivalent to a slow variation of the Hubble parameter
H0
ε≡− < 1. (1.25)
H2
Notice that ε = 0 corresponds to a quasi-de Sitter spacetime with nearly constant expansion rate,
H ≈ const. Using the Friedmann equations show that

3 P P 1
ε= 1+ < 1 ⇔ w≡ <− . (1.26)
2 ρ ρ 3
The last condition corresponds to a violation of the strong energy condition.
As a simple toy model for inflation we consider the dynamics of a scalar field, the inflaton
φ(t, x). As indicated by the notation, the value of the field can depend on time t and the position
in space x. Associated with each field value is a potential energy density V (φ) (see Fig. 5). If
the field is dynamical (i.e. changes with time) then it also carries kinetic energy density. If the
stress-energy associated with the scalar field dominates the universe, it sources the evolution of
the FRW background. We want to determine under which conditions this can lead to accelerated
expansion.
Figure 5. Example of a slow-roll potential. Inflation occurs in the shaded parts of the potential.
9
The stress-energy tensor of the scalar field is

1 αβ
Tµν = ∂µ φ∂ν φ − gµν g ∂α φ∂β φ − V (φ) . (1.27)
2
Consistency with the symmetries of the FRW spacetime requires that the background value of
the inflaton only depends on time, φ = φ(t). From the time-time component T 0 0 = ρφ , we infer
that
1
ρφ = (φ0 )2 + V (φ) . (1.28)
2
We see that the total energy density, ρφ , is simply the sum of the kinetic energy density, 12 (φ0 )2 ,
and the potential energy density, V (φ). From the space-space component T i j = −Pφ δji , we find
that the pressure is the difference of kinetic and potential energy densities,
1 0 2
Pφ = (φ ) − V (φ) . (1.29)
2
We see that a field configuration leads to inflation, Pφ < − 13 ρφ , if the potential energy dominates
over the kinetic energy. i.e. the field rolls slowly.
Exercise.—Using the Einstein equations (1.9) and (1.10), show that


3Mpl2
H 2 = 12 (φ0 )2 + V  1
(φ0 )2
⇒ ε = 2 2 2 < 1, (1.30)
Mpl2
H 0 = − 21 (φ0 )2
 Mpl H
where Mpl = (8πG)−1/2 is the reduced Planck mass.
Equation (1.30) corresponds to the first slow-roll condition:
(φ0 )2 < V . (1.31)
Does inflation last? Combining the two Friedmann equations in (1.30) leads to the Klein-Gordon
equation for the evolution of the scalar field
φ00 + 3Hφ0 = −V,φ . (1.32)
To maintain the slow-roll condition (1.31) for a sufficient period of time, we require that the
acceleration of the field is small. This is quantified by the second slow-roll condition:
φ00 < 3Hφ0 . (1.33)
The two slow-roll conditions (1.31) and (1.33) are satisfied simultaneously if
2
Mpl V,φ 2

2 V,φφ

εV ≡ < 1, ηV ≡ Mpl < 1. (1.34)
2 V V
The slow-roll parameters, εV and ηV , express the conditions for slow-roll inflation purely in terms
of the shape of the potential V (φ).
10
Exercise.—Applying the slow-roll conditions (1.31) and (1.33) to the Friedmann equation (1.30) and
the Klein-Gordon equation (1.32), we get
2
3Mpl H2 ≈ V , (1.35)
0
3Hφ ≈ −V,φ . (1.36)
Use this to show that ε ≈ εV during slow-roll inflation.
Inflation ends when the first slow-roll condition is violated, εV (φe ) ≡ 1. The amount of
inflation is measured in terms of ‘e-folds’ of expansion, dN = d ln a. The total number of e-folds
between a point φ on the potential and the end of inflation at φe is
Z ae Z te Z φe
H
N (φ) ≡ d ln a = H dt = dφ
a t φ φ0
Z φe Z φe
1 dφ 1 dφ
=± √ ≈± √ . (1.37)
φ 2ε Mpl φ 2εV Mpl
To solve the horizon problems requires at least between 40 and 60 e-folds (the precise value
depending on the reheating temperature).
Case study: m2 φ2 inflation.—As an example, let us give the slow-roll analysis of arguably the simplest
model of inflation: single-field inflation driven by a mass term
1 2 2
V (φ) = m φ . (1.38)
2
The slow-roll parameters are
2
Mpl
εV (φ) = ηV (φ) = 2 . (1.39)
φ
To satisfy the slow-roll conditions {εV , |ηV |} < 1, we therefore need to consider super-Planckian values
for the inflaton √
φ > 2Mpl ≡ φe . (1.40)
The relation between the inflaton field value and the number of e-folds before the end of inflation is
φ2 1
N (φ) =
4Mpl2 − 2 . (1.41)
Solving the horizon problem requires that the initial value of the field, φi , satisfies
√
φi > φ60 ≡ 2 60 Mpl ∼ 15Mpl . (1.42)
11
Part I
Primordial Seeds
The first part of this course will set the stage for studying the evolution of cosmological per-
turbations. In Section 2, we review the basic elements of cosmological perturbation theory. In
Section 3, we show how quantum mechanics during inflation provides the primordial seeds for
fluctuations in the primordial plasma. The evolution of these fluctuations will be the subject of
the second part of the course.
2 Cosmological Perturbation Theory
The Einstein equations couple perturbations in the stress-energy tensor to those in the metric,
so the two need to be studied simultaneously. We write the small perturbations of the metric
and the stress-energy tensor as
gµν (η, x) = ḡµν (η) + δgµν (η, x) , (2.1)

Tµν (η, x) = T̄µν (η) + δTµν (η, x) . (2.2)
To avoid clutter we will often drop the argument (η, x) on the perturbations.
Note that the perturbations in (2.1) and (2.2) aren’t uniquely defined, but depend on our
choice of coordinates or the “gauge choice”. In particular, to identify the metric perturbations
in (2.1) we implicitly have to chose a specific time slicing of the spacetime and specific spatial
coordinates on these time slices. Making a different choice of coordinates, can change the values
of the perturbation variables. It may even introduce fictitious perturbations. These are fake
perturbations that can arise by an inconvenient choice of coordinates even if the spacetime is
perfectly homogeneous. In this course, we will avoid these subtleties, by working in a fixed gauge
and sticking with it (except for a small change of hearth in Sec. 3).
2.1 Metric Perturbations

We will work in Newtonian gauge and write the perturbed metric as
ds2 = a2 (η) (1 + 2Ψ)dη 2 − [(1 − 2Φ)δij + hij ] dxi dxj ,

(2.3)
where Ψ is the gravitational potential, Φ is a local perturbation of the average scale factor and
hij is a transverse and traceless tensor. For now, we will only study scalar fluctuations and
set hij = 0. The effects of tensor perturbations are explored in the Problem Sets.
12
Exercise.—Show that the connection coefficients associated with the metric (2.3) are
Γ000 = H + Ψ̇ , (2.4)
Γ0i0 = ∂i Ψ , (2.5)
Γi00 ij
= δ ∂j Ψ , (2.6)
Γ0ij

= Hδij − Φ̇ + 2H(Φ + Ψ) δij , (2.7)
Γij0 = H − Φ̇ δji ,

(2.8)
Γijk = i
−2δ(j ∂k) Φ il
+ δjk δ ∂l Φ . (2.9)
2.2 Matter Perturbations

We write the perturbed stress-energy tensor as
T 0 0 = ρ̄(η) + δρ , (2.10)
T i 0 = [ρ̄(η) + P̄ (η)] v i , (2.11)
T i j = −[P̄ (η) + δP ] δji − Πi j , (2.12)
where vi is the bulk velocity and Πi j is a transverse and traceless tensor describing anisotropic
stress. We will use q i for the momentum density (ρ̄ + P̄ )v i . In case there are several contributions
to the stress-energy tensor (e.g. photons, baryons, dark matter, etc.), they are added: Tµν =
P (a)
a Tµν . This implies
X X X X ij
δρ = δρa , δP = δPa , q i = i
q(a) , Πij = Π(a) . (2.13)
a a a a
We see that the perturbations in the density, pressure and anisotropic stress simply add. The
velocities do not add, but the momentum densities do. For scalar fluctuations, we can write the
Fourier components of the bulk velocity and the anisotropic stress as
v i (η, k) = ik̂ i v(η, k) , (2.14)

Πij (η, k) = −(ρ̄ + P̄ ) k̂ hi k ji σ(η, k) , (2.15)
where k̂ ≡ k/|k| and the angle brackets in (2.15) stand for the symmetric trace-free part,
i.e. k̂ hi k̂ ji ≡ k̂ i k̂ j − 31 δ ij . It is also convenient to write the density perturbations in terms of
the dimensionless density contrast δ ≡ δρ/ρ. In summary, scalar perturbations of the total
matter are described by four perturbation variables, (δ, δP, v, σ). Similarly, the perturbations of
distinct species a = γ, ν, c, b, · · · are represented by (δa , δPa , va , σa ).
2.3 Equations of Motion

The equations of motion for the matter perturbations follow from conservation of the stress tensor,
∇µ Tµν = 0. If there is no energy and momentum transfer between the different components, then
(a)
the species are separately conserved and we also have ∇µ Tµν = 0. Equipped with the perturbed
13
connection derived in §2.1, we can derive the perturbed conservation equations from
∇µ T µ ν = 0
= ∂µ T µ ν + Γµµα T α ν − Γαµν T µ α . (2.16)
After some work, we find
∂η δρ = −3H(δρ + δP ) + 3Φ̇(ρ̄ + P̄ ) − ∂i q i , (2.17)
∂η q i = −4Hq i − (ρ̄ + P̄ )∂ i Ψ − ∂ i δP − ∂j Πij . (2.18)
Derivation.—Consider first the ν = 0 component of (2.16),
∂0 T 0 0 + ∂i T i 0 + Γµµ0 T 0 0 + Γµµi T i 0 −Γ000 T 0 0 − Γ0i0 T i 0 − Γi00 T 0 i −Γij0 T j i = 0 . (2.19)

| {z } | {z } | {z }
O(2) O(2) O(2)
Substituting the perturbed stress-energy tensor and the connection coefficients gives
∂0 (ρ̄ + δρ) + ∂i q i + (H + Ψ̇ + 3H − 3Φ̇)(ρ̄ + δρ)

− (H + Ψ̇)(ρ̄ + δρ) − (H − Φ̇)δji − (P̄ + δP )δij = 0 ,

(2.20)
and hence
ρ̄˙ + ∂0 δρ + ∂i q i + 3H(ρ̄ + δρ) − 3ρ̄ Φ0 + 3H(P̄ + δP ) − 3P̄ Φ̇ = 0 . (2.21)
Writing the zeroth-order and first-order parts separately, we get
ρ̄˙ = −3H(ρ̄ + P̄ ) , (2.22)

∂η δρ = −3H(δρ + δP ) + 3Φ̇(ρ̄ + P̄ ) − ∇ · q . (2.23)
The zeroth-order equation (2.22) is simply the conservation of energy in the homogeneous background.
Equation (2.23) is the continuity equation describing the evolution of the density perturbation. The
first term on the right-hand side is just the dilution due to the background expansion (as in the
background equation), the ∇ · q term accounts for the local fluid flow due to peculiar velocity, and
the Φ̇ term is a purely relativistic effect corresponding to the density changes caused by perturbations
to the local expansion rate [(1 − Φ)a is the “local scale factor” in the spatial part of the metric in
Newtonian gauge].
Next, consider the ν = i component of (2.16), ∂µ T µ i + Γµµρ T ρ i − Γρ µi T µ ρ = 0, and hence
∂0 T 0 i + ∂j T j i + Γµµ0 T 0 i + Γµµj T j i − Γ00i T 0 0 − Γ0ji T j 0 − Γj0i T 0 j − Γjki T k j = 0 . (2.24)
Substituting the perturbed stress-energy tensor [with T 0 i = −qi ] and the connection coefficients gives
h i
−∂0 qi + ∂j −(P̄ + δP )δij − Πj i − 4Hqi − (∂j Ψ − 3∂j Φ) P̄ δij − ∂i Ψρ̄

−Hδji q j + Hδij qj + −2δ(i j
∂k) Φ + δki δ jl ∂l Φ P̄ δjk = 0 . (2.25)
| {z }
−3∂i Φ P̄
Cleaning this up, we find
∂η qi = −4Hqi − (ρ̄ + P̄ )∂i Ψ − ∂i δP − ∂ j Πij . (2.26)
This is the relativistic version of the Euler equation for a viscous fluid.
14
It is instructive to evaluate (2.17) and (2.18) for a few special cases:
• Matter.—For a non-relativistic fluid (i.e. matter), we have Pm = 0 and Πij

m = 0. The
continuity and Euler equations then simplify considerably. Writing δm ≡ δρm /ρm , we
obtain
δ̇m = −∇ · vm + 3Φ̇ , (2.27)

v̇m = −Hvm − ∇Ψ . (2.28)
Each term in these equations should be rather intuitive.
• Radiation.—For a relativistic fluid (i.e. radiation), we have Pr = 1

3 ρr and Πij
r = 0. The
continuity and Euler equations become
4
δ̇r = − ∇ · vm + 4Φ̇ , (2.29)
3
1
v̇r = − ∇δr − ∇Ψ . (2.30)
4
Exercise.—Show that the most general forms of the continuity and Euler equations are

P̄a i δPa P̄a
δ̇a = − 1 + (∂i va − 3Φ̇) − 3H − δa , (2.31)
ρ̄a ρ̄a ρ̄a
P̄˙a
!
1
v̇ai = − H + vai − ∂ i δPa − ∂j Πij i

a − ∂ Ψ. (2.32)
ρ̄a + P̄a ρ̄a + P̄a
Confirm that these expressions reduce to the equations for matter and radiation in the appropriate
limits.
Comments.—The two equations (2.31) and (2.32) aren’t sufficient to completely describe the evolution
of the four perturbations (δa , δPa , va , σa ). To make progress, we either must make further simplifying
assumptions or find additional evolution equations. We will do both.
• A perfect fluid is characterized by strong interactions which keep the pressure isotropic, σa = 0.
In addition, pressure perturbations satisfy δPa = c2s,a δρa , where cs,a is the adiabatic sound
speed of the fluid. The perturbations of a perfect fluid are therefore described by only two
independent variables, say δa and va , and the continuity and Euler equations are sufficient for
closing the system.
• Decoupled or weakly interacting species (e.g. neutrinos) cannot be described by a perfect fluid
and the above simplifications for the anisotropic stress and the pressure perturbation do not
apply. In that case, we can’t avoid solving the Boltzmann equation for the evolution of the
perturbed distribution function fa . We will have some fun with this in Section 4.
• Decoupled cold dark matter is a peculiar case. It is collisionless and has a negligible velocity
dispersion. It therefore behaves like a pressureless perfect fluid although it has no interactions
and therefore really isn’t a fluid.
15
The different matter components are gravitationally coupled through the metric fluctuations
in the continuity and Euler equations. The dynamics to the perturbed spacetime is determined,
via the Einstein equations, by the perturbations of the total stress-energy tensor.
Let us compute the linearised Einstein equation in Newtonian gauge. This is conceptually
straightforward, although algebraically it is a bit tedious.1 We require the perturbation to the
Einstein tensor, Gµν ≡ Rµν − 12 Rgµν , so we first need to calculate the perturbed Ricci tensor Rµν
and Ricci scalar R.
Ricci tensor.—We recall that the Ricci tensor can be expressed in terms of the connection as
Rµν = ∂λ Γλµν − ∂ν Γλµλ + Γλλρ Γρµν − Γρµλ Γλνρ . (2.33)
Substituting the perturbed connection coefficients (2.4)–(2.9), we find
R00 = −3Ḣ + ∇2 Ψ + 3H(Φ̇ + Ψ̇) + 3Φ̈ , (2.34)

R0i = 2∂i (Φ̇ + HΨ) , (2.35)
Rij = Ḣ + 2H2 − Φ̈ + ∇2 Φ − 2(Ḣ + 2H2 )(Φ + Ψ) − HΨ̇ − 5HΦ̇ δij

(2.36)
+ ∂i ∂j (Φ − Ψ) .
I will derive R00 explicitly and leave the other components as an exercise.
Example.—The 00 component of the Ricci tensor is
R00 = ∂ρ Γρ00 − ∂0 Γρ0ρ + Γα ρ α ρ

00 Γαρ − Γ0ρ Γ0α . (2.37)
The terms with ρ = 0 cancel in the sum over ρ, so we only need to consider summing over ρ = i,
R00 = ∂i Γi00 − ∂0 Γi0i + Γα i α i

00 Γαi − Γ0i Γ0α
= ∂i Γi00 − ∂0 Γi0i + Γ000 Γi0i + Γj00 Γiji − Γ00i Γi00 −Γj0i Γi0j
| {z } | {z }
O(2) O(2)
= ∇ Ψ − 3∂0 (H − Φ̇) + 3(H + Ψ̇)(H − Φ̇) − (H − Φ̇)2 δij δji

2
= −3Ḣ + ∇2 Ψ + 3H(Φ̇ + Ψ̇) + 3Φ̈ . (2.38)
This confirms the result (2.34).
Exercise.—Derive eqs. (2.35) and (2.36).
Ricci scalar.—It is now relatively straightforward to compute the Ricci scalar
R = g 00 R00 + 2 g 0i R0i +g ij Rij . (2.39)

| {z }
O(2)
1
Once in your life you should do this computation by hand. After that you can use Mathematica: an example
notebook can be downloaded here.
16
It follows that
a2 R = (1 − 2Ψ)R00 − (1 + 2Φ)δ ij Rij

= (1 − 2Ψ) − 3Ḣ + ∇2 Ψ + 3H(Φ̇ + Ψ̇) + 3Φ̈

− 3(1 + 2Φ) Ḣ + 2H2 − Φ̈ + ∇2 Φ − 2(Ḣ + 2H2 )(Φ + Ψ) − HΨ̇ − 5HΦ̇

− (1 + 2Φ)∇2 (Φ − Ψ) . (2.40)
Dropping non-linear terms, we find
a2 R = −6(Ḣ + H2 ) + 2∇2 Ψ − 4∇2 Φ + 12(Ḣ + H2 )Ψ + 6Φ̈ + 6H(Ψ̇ + 3Φ̇) . (2.41)
Einstein equations.—We have done all the work to compute the Einstein equation
Gµ ν = 8πGT µ ν . (2.42)
We chose to work with one index raised since that simplifies the form of the stress tensor [see §2.2].
We will first consider the time-time component. The relevant component of the Einstein tensor is

1
G0 0 = g 00 R00 − g00 R
2
1
= a−2 (1 − 2Ψ)R00 − R , (2.43)
2
where we have used that g 0i vanishes in Newtonian gauge. Substituting (2.34) and (2.41), and
cleaning up the resulting mess, we find
δG0 0 = 2∇2 Φ − 6H(Φ̇ + HΨ) . (2.44)
The 00-Einstein equation therefore is
∇2 Φ − 3H(Φ̇ + HΨ) = 4πGa2 δρ , (2.45)

P
where δρ ≡ a δρa is the total density perturbation. Equation (2.45) is the relativistic general-
ization of the Poisson equation. Inside the Hubble radius, i.e. for Fourier modes with k H,
we have |∇2 Φ| 3H|Φ̇ + HΨ|, so that eq. (2.45) reduces to ∇2 Φ ≈ 4πGa2 δρ. This is the Pois-
son equation in the Newtonian limit. The GR corrections in (2.45) will be important on scales
comparable to the Hubble radius, i.e. for k . H.
Next, we consider the spatial part of the Einstein equation. The relevant component of the
Einstein tensor is

i ik 1
G j = g Rkj − gkj R
2
1
= −a−2 (1 + 2Φ)δ ik Rkj − δji R . (2.46)
2
From eq. (2.36), we see that most terms in Rkj are proportional to δkj . When contracted with δji
this leads to a myriad of terms proportional to δji . We don’t want to deal with this mess. Instead
17
Figure 6. Numerical solutions for the linear evolution of the gravitational potential.
we focus on the tracefree part of Gi j . In Fourier space, we can extract this piece by contracting
Gi j with the projection tensor P j i ≡ k̂ j k̂i − 13 δij . Using (2.36), this gives
2
P j i Gi j = a−2 k 2 (Φ − Ψ) . (2.47)
3
This should be equated to the tracefree part of the stress tensor, which for scalar fluctuations is
1 1
P j i T i j = −P j i Πi j = (ρ̄ + P̄ ) k̂ j k̂i − δij k̂ i k̂j − δji σ
3 3
2
= (ρ̄ + P̄ )σ . (2.48)
3
Setting (2.47) and (2.48) equal, we get
∇2 (Φ − Ψ) = −8πGa2 (ρ̄ + P̄ )σ , (2.49)

P
where (ρ̄ + P̄ )σ ≡ a (ρ̄a + P̄a )σa . Dark matter and baryons can be described as perfect fluids
and therefore don’t contribute to the anisotropic stress in (2.49). Photons only start to develop
an anisotropic stress component during the matter-dominated era when their energy density is
subdominant (see §4.3). The only relevant source in (2.49) are therefore free-streaming neutrinos.
However, their effect is also relatively small, so to the level of accuracy that we aspire to in these
lectures they can be ignored. Equation (2.49) then implies Ψ ≈ Φ.
Exercise.—By considering the trace of the space-space Einstein equation derive the following evolution
equation for the metric potential
Φ̈ + 3HΦ̇ + (2Ḣ + H2 )Φ = 4πGa2 δP , (2.50)
where δP is the total pressure perturbation. If we hadn’t ignored the anisotropic stress, then (2.50)
would have an additional source term. Discuss qualitatively the solution Φ(η, k) during both the
18
radiation-dominated and matter-dominated eras. Describe the evolution on super-Hubble scales, k
H, and on sub-Hubble scales, k H.
Figure 6 shows the evolution of the gravitational potential for three representative wavelengths.
The important thing to notice (and to remember) from this figure is that, during the radiation
era, Φ decays inside the Hubble radius, i.e. for Fourier modes with k H. During the matter
era, on the other hand, Φ is constant on all scales. Short-wavelength modes spend more time
inside the Hubble radius during the radiation era and therefore have suppressed amplitudes.
2.4 Initial Conditions

At sufficiently early times, all scales of interest to current observations were outside the Hubble
radius. On super-Hubble scales, the evolution of perturbations becomes very simple, especially
for adiabatic initial conditions.
Adiabatic perturbations
Adiabatic perturbations have the property that the local state of matter (determined, for example,
by the energy density ρ and the pressure P ) at some spacetime point (η, x) of the perturbed
universe is the same as in the background universe at some slightly different time η+δη(x). (Notice
that the time shift varies with location x.) We can therefore think of adiabatic perturbations
as arising because some parts of the universe are “ahead” and others “behind” in the evolution.
If the universe is filled with multiple fluids, adiabatic perturbations correspond to perturbations
induced by a common, local shift in time of all background quantities; e.g. adiabatic density
perturbations are defined as
δρa (η, x) ≡ ρ̄a (η + δη(x)) − ρ̄a (η) = ρ̄˙ a δη(x) , (2.51)
where δη is the same for all species a. This implies

δρa δρb
δη = = for all species a and b . (2.52)
ρ̄˙ a ρ̄˙ b
Using ρ̄˙ a = −3H(1 + wa )ρ̄a , we can write this as
δa δb
= for all species a and b . (2.53)
1 + wa 1 + wb
Thus, for adiabatic perturbations, all matter components (wm ≈ 0) have the same fractional
perturbations, while all radiation perturbations (wr = 31 ) obey
4
δr = δm . (2.54)
3
P
It follows that, for adiabatic fluctuations, the total density perturbation, δρ ≡ a ρ̄a δa , is domi-
nated by the species that carries the dominant energy density ρ̄a , since all the δa ’s are comparable.
At early times, the universe is radiation dominated, so it natural to set the initial conditions for
19
CDM
baryons
density perturbations
photons
CDM
baryons
photons
Figure 7. Evolution of photons, baryons and dark matter. On super-Hubble scales (early times), the
fluctuations in each component remain adiabatic and constant. On sub-Hubble scales, CDM first only
grows slowly during the radiation era and then as a power law during the matter era. Before recombination,
photons and baryons are tightly coupled and oscillate on sub-Hubble scales. After recombination baryons
fall into CDM potential wells.
all super-Hubble Fourier modes then. Equation (2.50) implies that Φ = const. on super-Hubble
scales, while equation (2.45) leads to
δ ≈ δr = −2Φ = const. (2.55)
Equations (2.55) and (2.54) show that, for adiabatic initial conditions, all matter perturbations
are given in terms of the super-Hubble value of the potential Φ. In these lectures, we will be
concerned with the evolution of photons, baryons and cold dark matter (CDM). Their fractional
density perturbations will satisfy the relation (2.54) on super-Hubble scales, but will start to
evolve in distinct ways inside of the horizon (cf. Fig. 7).
Comoving curvature perturbation

The gravitational potential Φ is only constant on super-Hubble scales if the equation of state
of the background is constant. Whenever the equation of state evolves (e.g. in the transitions
from inflation to radiation domination or from radiation to matter domination), so will the
gravitational potential (cf. Fig. 6). It will be convenient to identify an alternative perturbation
variable that stays constant on large scales even in these more general situations. Such a variable
20
is the comoving curvature perturbation:
H
R = −Φ + δq , (2.56)
ρ̄ + P̄
where T 0 j ≡ −∂j δq. Defining the initial conditions in terms of R will allow us to match the
predictions made by inflation to the fluctuations in the primordial plasma most easily (see Sec. 3).
Proof.—The following is a proof that R is conserved on super-Hubble scales, i.e. for modes with k H.
First, it is useful to note that on large scales k H, the Einstein equations imply Hδq = − 13 δρ. In
this limit, the curvature perturbation can be written as
kH δρ
R −−−−−→ −Φ − . (2.57)
3(ρ̄ + P̄ )
To find the evolution of R, we consider the continuity equation [eq. (2.17)]:
∂δρ ∂Φ
+ 3H(δρ + δP ) + ∂i q i = 3(ρ̄ + P̄ ) , (2.58)
∂η ∂η
On large scales, ∂i q i is of order k 2 and can be dropped relative to terms of order H2 . Solving (2.57)
for Φ, and substituting it into (2.58), we get

∂δρ ∂R ∂ δρ
+ 3H(δρ + δP ) = −3(ρ̄ + P̄ ) + (ρ̄ + P̄ ) . (2.59)
∂η ∂η ∂η ρ̄ + P̄
The time derivatives of δρ cancel on both sides and we are left with
∂R ρ̄˙ + P̄˙
3(ρ̄ + P̄ ) = −3H(δρ + δP ) − δρ . (2.60)
∂η (ρ̄ + P̄ )
Using ρ̄˙ = −3H(ρ̄ + P̄ ), this becomes
P̄˙

Ṙ
(ρ̄ + P̄ ) = − δP − δρ . (2.61)
H ρ̄˙
For adiabatic perturbations, the right-hand side vanishes and we have established the conservation of
kH
the comoving curvature perturbation, Ṙ −−−−−→ 0.
Another advantage of the variable R is that it is gauge-invariant, i.e. its value does not
depend on the choice of coordinates. Although (2.57) was written in terms of variables defined in
Newtonian gauge, it applies in an arbitrary gauge if we write gij = −a2 (1 − 2Φ)δij + ∂i ∂j E for

the metric and T 0 j = ∂j δq for the momentum density. While we will mostly stick to Newtonian
gauge, the computation of inflationary fluctuations in Section 3 turns out to be simplest in
spatially flat gauge [Φ = E = 0]. The curvature perturbation R provides the “bridge” between
results obtained in Section 3 and the analysis in the rest of the notes.
Statistics
Quantum mechanics during inflation only predicts the statistics of the initial conditions, i.e. it
predicts the correlation between the CMB fluctuations in different directions, rather than the spe-
cific value of the temperature fluctuation in a specific direction. For Gaussian initial conditions,
21
these correlations are completely specified by the two-point correlation function
hR(x)R(x0 )i ≡ ξR (x, x0 ) = ξR (|x0 − x|) , (2.62)
where the last equality holds as a consequence of statistical homogeneity and isotropy. The
Fourier transform of R then satisfies
2π 2 2
hR(k)R∗ (k0 )i = ∆ (k) δD (k − k0 ) , (2.63)
k3 R
where ∆2R (k) is the (dimensionless) power spectrum.
Exercise.—Show that Z
dk 2
ξR (x, x0 ) = ∆ (k) sinc(k|x − x0 |) . (2.64)
k R
In Section 3, we will compute the form of ∆2R (k) predicted by inflation. In Sections 4 and 5,
we will then show how these initial conditions get imprinted in the anisotropies of the cosmic
microwave background.
22
3 Quantum Initial Conditions
The most remarkable feature of inflation is that it provides at natural mechanism for producing
the initial conditions (see Fig. 8). The reason why inflation inevitably produces fluctuations is
simple: the evolution of the inflaton field φ(t) governs the energy density of the early universe ρ(t)
and hence controls the end of inflation. Essentially, the field φ plays the role of a local “clock”
reading off the amount of inflationary expansion still to occur. By the uncertainty principle, arbi-
trarily precise timing is not possible in quantum mechanics. Instead, quantum-mechanical clocks
necessarily have some variance, so the inflaton will have spatially varying fluctuations δφ(t, x).
There will hence be local differences in the time when inflation ends, δt(x), so that different
regions of space inflate by different amounts. These differences in the local expansion histories
lead to differences in the local densities after inflation, δρ(t, x), and to curvature perturbations in
comoving gauge, R(x). It is worth remarking that the theory wasn’t engineered to produce these
fluctuations, but that their origin is instead a natural consequence of treating inflation quantum
mechanically.
Figure 8. Quantum fluctuations δφ(t, x) around the classical background evolution φ̄(t). Regions acquir-
ing negative fluctuations δφ remain potential-dominated longer than regions with positive δφ. Different
parts of the universe therefore undergo slightly different evolutions. After inflation, this induces density
fluctuations δρ(t, x).
3.1 Inflaton Fluctuations: Classical

Before we quantise the inflaton fluctuations, we look at their classical dynamics. It will be useful
to derive this from the inflaton action
3 √
Z
1 µν
S = dη d x −g g ∂µ φ∂ν φ − V (φ) , (3.1)
2
where g ≡ det(gµν ). To study the linearised dynamics, we need the action at quadratic order in
fluctuations. In general, finding the quadratic action for the coupled fluctuations δφ and δgµν is
a bit involved. However, the problem greatly simplifies by a convenient choice of gauge. In this
section, we will work in spatially flat gauge, in which our freedom in the choice of coordinates
has been exploited to set the spatial metric to be unperturbed, gij = −a2 δij . In this gauge, the
information about the perturbations is carried by the inflaton perturbation δφ and the metric
perturbations δg0µ . The Einstein equations relate δg0µ to δφ. An important feature of spatially
23
flat gauge is that the metric perturbations δg0µ are suppressed relative to the inflaton fluctuations
by factors of the slow-roll parameter ε; in particular, δg0µ vanishes in the limit ε → 0. This means
that at leading order in the slow-roll expansion, we can ignore the fluctuations in the spacetime
geometry and perturb the inflaton field independently. (In a general gauge, inflaton and metric
perturbations would be equally important and would have to be studied together.) This makes
our job a lot simpler.
Evaluating (3.1) for the unperturbed FRW metric, we find

Z
3 1 2 2 2

4
S = dη d x a φ̇ − (∇φ) − a V (φ) . (3.2)
2
It is convenient to write the perturbed inflaton field as
f (η, x)
φ(η, x) = φ̄(η) + . (3.3)
a(η)
To get the linearised equation of motion for f (η, x), we need to expand the action (3.2) to second
order in the fluctuations. After some work, we find
Z
3 1 ˙2 2 ä 2
S(2) = dη d x f − (∇f ) + f . (3.4)
2 a
Derivation.—Substituting (3.3) into (3.2) and isolating all terms with two factors of f , we get
Z
1 h i
S(2) = dη d3 x f˙2 − (∇f )2 − 2Hf f˙ + H2 − a2 V,φφ f 2 . (3.5)
2
Integrating the term f f˙ = 12 ∂η (f 2 ) by parts, gives

Z
1 h i
S(2) = dη d3 x f˙2 − (∇f )2 + Ḣ + H2 − a2 V,φφ f 2 ,
2
Z
1 ä
= dη d3 x f˙2 − (∇f )2 + − a2 V,φφ f 2 . (3.6)
2 a
During slow-roll inflation, we have

2
V,φφ 3Mpl V,φφ
2
≈ = 3ηV 1 . (3.7)
H V
Since ȧ = a2 H, with H ≈ const., we also have
ä
≈ 2ȧH = 2a2 H 2 a2 V,φφ . (3.8)
a
Hence, we can drop the V,φφ term in (3.6) and arrive at (3.4).
The action (3.4) implies the following equation of motion
d3 x
Z
ä
¨
fk + k −2
fk = 0 , fk (η) ≡ f (η, x)e−ik·x . (3.9)
a (2π)3/2
Sometimes this is called the Mukhanov-Sasaki (MS) equation.
24
Exercise.—Derive (3.9) directly from the Klein-Gordon equation, g µν ∇µ ∇ν φ = V,φ .
In a quasi-de Sitter background, we have ä/a ≈ 2H2 = 2/η 2 and the MS equation (3.9) becomes

2
f¨k + k − 2 fk = 0 .
2
(3.10)
η
A crucial feature of inflation is that the comoving Hubble radius H−1 = (aH)−1 shrinks (the
scale factor is a ≈ −1/(Hη) and conformal time η evolves from −∞ to 0). The characteristic
evolution of a given Fourier mode is illustrated in Fig. 9: at early times, |η| k −1 , the mode is
inside the Hubble radius. In this limit, the MS equation reduces to the equation of motion of a
simple harmonic oscillator,
f¨k + k 2 fk ≈ 0 (for |kη| 1) . (3.11)
Quantum fluctuations of these oscillators provide the origin of structure in the universe. We will
review the quantisation of harmonic oscillators in §3.2 and upgrade the discussion to inflaton
fluctuations in §3.3.
At some point during inflation the mode crosses the horizon, |kη| = 1. At this moment it
becomes convenient to switch to a description in terms of the comoving curvature perturbation R.
As we have shown in §2.4, the field R is constant outside of the horizon, i.e. for |kη| 1. The
variance of the curvature perturbation at horizon crossing, h|Rk=H |2 i, will become the initial
condition for the evolution of perturbations in the post-inflationary FRW universe.
comoving
scales
classical stochastic field
subhorizon superhorizon
quantum
fluctuations
time
horizon reheating horizon CMB today
exit re-entry
Figure 9. Curvature perturbations during and after inflation: The comoving horizon (aH)−1 shrinks
during inflation and grows in the subsequent FRW evolution. This implies that comoving scales k −1 exit
the horizon at early times and re-enter the horizon at late times. While the curvature perturbations R
are outside of the horizon they don’t evolve, so our computation for the correlation function h|Rk |2 i at
horizon exit during inflation can be related directly to observables at late times.
25
3.2 Quantum Harmonic Oscillators
“The career of a young theoretical physicist consists of treating the harmonic oscillator
in ever-increasing levels of abstraction.” Sidney Coleman
Our aim is to quantise the field f following the standard methods of quantum field theory.
However, before we do this, let us study a slightly simpler problem2 : the quantum mechanics of
a one-dimensional harmonic oscillator.
Consider a mass m attached to a spring with spring constant κ. Let q be the deviation from
the equilibrium point. The equation of motion is mq̈ + κq = 0, or
q̈ + ω 2 q = 0 , (3.12)
if we define ω 2 ≡ κ/m. This is the same equation as (3.11), with ω = k.
Canonical quantisation
Let me remind you how to quantise the harmonic oscillator:
• Step I: Quantum operators

First, we promote the classical variables q, p ≡ q̇ to quantum operators q̂, p̂ and impose the
canonical commutation relation
[q̂, p̂] = i , (3.13)
in units where ~ ≡ 1. The equation of motion implies that the commutator holds at all
times if imposed at some initial time.
• Step II: Mode expansion

Note that we are using the Heisenberg picture where operators vary in time while states
are time-independent. The operator solution q̂(t) is determined by two initial conditions
q̂(0) and p̂(0) = ∂t q̂(0). Since the evolution equation is linear, the solution is linear in
these operators. It is convenient to trade q̂(0) and p̂(0) for a single time-independent non-
Hermitian operator â, in terms of which the solution can be written as
q̂(t) = q(t) â + q ∗ (t) â† , (3.14)
where the (complex) mode function q(t) satisfies the classical equation of motion, q̈ + ω 2 q =
0. Of course, q ∗ (t) is the complex conjugate of q(t) and â† is the Hermitian conjugate of a.
• Step III: Normalization

Substituting (3.14) into (3.13), we get
W [q] × [â, â† ] = 1 , (3.15)
where we have defined the Wronskian
W [q] ≡ −i (q q̇ ∗ − q̇q ∗ ) . (3.16)

2
The reason it looks simpler is that it avoids distractions arising from Fourier labels, delta functions, etc. The
physics is exactly the same.
26
Without loss of generality, let us assume that the solution q is chosen so that the real
number W [q] is positive. The function q can then be rescaled (q → λq) such that
W [q] ≡ 1 , (3.17)
and hence
[â, â† ] = 1 . (3.18)
Equation (3.18) is the standard commutation relation for the raising and lowering operators
of the harmonic oscillator.
• Step IV: Vacuum state

The vacuum state |0i is annihilated by the operator â:
â|0i = 0 . (3.19)
Excited states are created by repeated application of creation operators â† .
Choice of vacuum
At this point, we have only imposed the normalisation W [q] = 1 on the mode functions. A
change in q(t) could be accompanied by a change in â that keeps the solution q̂(t) unchanged. Via
eq. (3.19), each such solution corresponds to a different vacuum state. However, a special choice
of q(t) is selected if we require the vacuum state |0i to be the ground state of the Hamiltonian.
To see this, consider the Hamiltonian for general q(t),
1 2 1 2 2
Ĥ = p̂ + ω q̂ (3.20)
2 2
1h 2 i
= (q̇ + ω 2 q 2 )ââ + (q̇ 2 + ω 2 q 2 )∗ â† â† + (|q̇|2 + ω 2 |q|2 )(ââ† + â† â) .
2
Using â|0i = 0 and [â, â† ] = 1, we can determine how the Hamiltonian operator acts on the
vacuum state
1 1
Ĥ|0i = (q̇ 2 + ω 2 q 2 )∗ â† â† |0i + (|q̇|2 + ω 2 |q|2 )|0i . (3.21)
2 2
We want |0i to be an eigenstate of Ĥ. For this to be the case, the first term in (3.21) must vanish,
which implies
q̇ = ± iωq . (3.22)
For such a function q, the norm is
W [q] = ∓ 2ω|q|2 , (3.23)
and positivity of the normalisation condition W [q] > 0 selects the minus sign in (3.22),
q̇ = −iωq ⇒ q(t) ∝ e−iωt . (3.24)
Asking the vacuum state to be the ground state of the Hamiltonian has therefore selected the
positive-frequency solution e−iωt (rather than the negative-frequency solution e+iωt ). Imposing
the normalisation W [q] = 1, we get
1
q(t) = √ e−iωt . (3.25)
2ω
27
With this choice of mode function, the Hamiltonian takes the familiar form

1
Ĥ = ~ω â† â + , (3.26)
2
where we have reinstated Planck’s constant ~. We see that the vacuum |0i is the state of minimum
energy 21 ~ω. If any function other than (3.25) is chosen to expand the position operator, then
the state annihilated by â is not the ground state of the oscillator.
Zero-point fluctuations
The expectation value of the position operator q̂ in the ground state |0i vanishes
hq̂i ≡ h0|q̂|0i
= h0|q(t)â + q ∗ (t)â† |0i
= 0, (3.27)
because â annihilates |0i when acting on it from the left, and â† annihilates h0| when acting on
it from the right. However, the expectation value of the square of the position operator receives
finite zero-point fluctuations
h|q̂|2 i ≡ h0|q̂ † q̂|0i
= h0|(q ∗ â† + qâ)(qâ + q ∗ â† )|0i
= |q(t)|2 h0|ââ† |0i
= |q(t)|2 h0|[â, â† ]|0i
= |q(t)|2 . (3.28)
We see that the variance of the amplitude of the quantum oscillator is given by the square of the
mode function
~
h|q̂|2 i = |q(t)|2 = . (3.29)
2ω
This is all we need to know about the quantum mechanics of harmonic oscillators in order to
compute the fluctuation spectrum created by inflation.
3.3 Inflaton Fluctuations: Quantum

Let us return to the quadratic action (3.4) for the inflaton fluctuation f = aδφ. The momentum
conjugate to f is
∂L
π≡ = f˙ . (3.30)
∂ f˙
We perform the canonical quantisation just like in the case of the harmonic oscillator.
28
Canonical quantisation
We follow the same steps as in the previous subsection:
• Step I: Quantum operators

We promote the fields f (η, x) and π(η, x) to quantum operators fˆ(η, x) and π̂(η, x). The
operators satisfy the equal time commutation relation
[fˆ(η, x), π̂(η, x0 )] = iδD (x − x0 ) . (I0 )
This is the field theory equivalent of eq. (3.13). The delta function is a signature of locality:
modes at different points in space are independent and the corresponding operators therefore
commute. In Fourier space, we find
d3 x d3 x0
Z Z
0 0
[fˆk (η), π̂k0 (η)] = [fˆ(η, x), π̂(η, x0 )] e−ik·x e−ik ·x
(2π)3/2 (2π)3/2 | {z }
iδD (x − x0 )
d3 x −i(k+k0 )·x
Z
=i e
(2π)3
= iδD (k + k0 ) , (3.31)
where the delta function implies that modes with different wavelengths commute. Equa-
tion (3.31) is the same as (3.13), but for each independent Fourier mode.
• Step II: Mode expansion

The generalisation of the mode expansion (3.14) is
fˆk (η) = fk (η) âk + fk∗ (η)a†k , (3.32)
where âk is a time-independent operator, a†k is its Hermitian conjugate, and fk (η) and its
complex conjugate fk∗ (η) are two linearly independent solutions of the MS equation
ä
f¨k + ωk2 (η)fk = 0 , where ωk2 (η) ≡ k 2 − . (3.33)
a
As indicated by dropping the vector notation k on the subscript, the mode functions, fk (τ )
and fk∗ (τ ), are the same for all Fourier modes with k ≡ |k|.3
• Step III: Normalization

Substituting (3.32) into (3.31), we get
W [fk ] × [âk , â†k0 ] = δD (k + k0 ) , (3.34)
where W [fk ] is the Wronskian (3.16) of the mode functions. As before, cf. (3.17), we can
choose to normalize fk such that
W [fk ] ≡ 1 . (3.35)
3
Since the frequency ωk (τ ) depends only on k ≡ |k|, the evolution does not depend on direction. The constant
operators âk and â†k , on the other hand, define initial conditions which may depend on direction.
29
Equation (3.34) then becomes
[âk , â†k0 ] = δD (k + k0 ) , (3.36)
which is the same as (3.18), but for each Fourier mode. As before, the operators â†k and âk
may be interpreted as creation and annihilation operators, respectively.
• Step IV: Vacuum state

As in (3.19), the quantum states in the Hilbert space are constructed by defining the vacuum
state |0i via
âk |0i = 0 , (3.37)
and by producing excited states through repeated application of creation operators a†k .
Choice of vacuum
As before, we still need to fix the mode function in order to define the vacuum state. Although
for general time-dependent backgrounds this procedure can be ambiguous, for inflation there is a
preferred choice. To motivate the inflationary vacuum state, let us go back to Fig. 9. We see that
at sufficiently early times (large negative conformal time η) all modes of cosmological interest
were deep inside the horizon, k/H ∼ |kη| 1. This means that in the remote past all observable
modes had time-independent frequencies
ä 2 η→−∞
ωk2 = k 2 − ≈ k 2 − 2 −−−−−−→ k 2 , (3.38)
a η
and the Mukhanov-Sasaki equation reduces to
f¨k + k 2 fk ≈ 0 . (3.39)
But this is just the equation for a free field in Minkowkski space, whose two independent solutions
are fk ∝ e±ikη . As we have seen above, cf. eq. (3.25), only the positive frequency mode fk ∝ e−ikη
corresponds to the ground state of the Hamiltonian. We will choose this mode to define the
inflationary vacuum state. In practice, this means solving the MS equation with the (Minkowski)
initial condition
1
lim fk (η) = √ e−ikη . (3.40)
η→−∞ 2k
This initial condition defines a preferable set of mode functions and a unique physical vacuum,
the Bunch-Davies vacuum.
For slow-roll inflation, it will be sufficient to study the MS equation in de Sitter space

¨ 2 2
fk + k − 2 fk = 0 . (3.41)
η
This has the following exact solution
e−ikη eikη

i i
fk (η) = α √ 1− +β √ 1+ . (3.42)
2k kη 2k kη
30
where α and β are constants that are fixed by the initial conditions. In fact, the initial condi-
tion (3.40) selects β = 0, α = 1, and, hence, the Bunch-Davies mode function is
e−ikη

i
fk (η) = √ 1− . (3.43)
2k kη
Since the mode function is now completely fixed, the future evolution of the mode including its
superhorizon dynamics is determined.
Zero-point fluctuations
Finally, we can predict the quantum statistics of the operator
d3 k h
Z i
∗ †
fˆ(η, x) = f (η) â + f (η)a k e
ik·x
. (3.44)
(2π)3/2 k k k
As before, the expectation value of fˆ vanishes, i.e. hfˆi ≡ h0|fˆ|0i = 0. However, the variance of
inflaton fluctuations receive non-zero quantum fluctuations
h|fˆ|2 i ≡ h0|fˆ† (η, 0)fˆ(η, 0)|0i
d3 k d3 k0
Z Z
∗ † ∗ †
= h0| fk (η)âk + f k (η)â k fk 0 (η)â 0 + fk 0 (η)â 0 |0i
k k
(2π)3/2 (2π)3/2
d3 k d3 k0
Z Z
= 3/2 3/2
fk (η)fk∗0 (η) h0|[âk , â†k0 ]|0i
(2π) (2π)
Z 3
d k
= |fk (η)|2
(2π)3
k3
Z
= d ln k |fk (η)|2 . (3.45)
2π 2
We define the (dimensionless) power spectrum as
k3
∆2f (k, η) ≡ |fk (η)|2 . (VI0 )
2π 2
As in (3.29), the square of the classical solution determines the variance of quantum fluctuations.
Using (3.43), we find
2 !
k 2
2
2 −2 2 H superhorizon H
∆δφ (k, η) = a ∆f (k, η) = 1+ −−−−−−−−−→ . (3.46)
2π aH 2π
We will use the approximation that the power spectrum at horizon crossing is
2
2 H
∆δφ (k) ≈ . (3.47)

2π

k=aH
Computing the power spectrum at a specific instant (horizon crossing, k = aH) implicitly ex-
tends the result for the pure de Sitter background to a slowly time-evolving quasi-de Sitter space.
Different modes exit the horizon as slightly different times when aH has a different value. Evalu-
ating the fluctuations at horizon crossing also has the added benefit that the error we are making
by ignoring the metric fluctuations in spatially flat gauge doesn’t accumulate over time.
31
3.4 Curvature Perturbations
At horizon crossing, we switch from the inflaton fluctuation δφ to the conserved curvature per-
turbation R. To do this, we recall the gauge-invariant definition of the curvature perturbation
H
R = −Φ + δq , (3.48)
ρ̄ + P̄
where δT 0 j ≡ −∂j δq. We now need to evaluate this in spatially flat gauge. Since the spatial part
of the metric is unperturbed, we have Φ = 0. The perturbed momentum density is
φ̄˙
δT 0 j = g 0µ ∂µ φ∂j δφ = ḡ 00 ∂0 φ̄∂j δφ = ∂j δφ . (3.49)
a2
Combined with ρ̄ + P̄ = a−2 φ̄˙ 2 , this implies
H δφ
R=− δφ = −H 0 , (3.50)
˙
φ̄ φ̄
where the prime denotes a derivative with respect to time t. Notice that the expression (3.50)
takes the form R = −Hδt, confirming the intuition that the curvature perturbation is induced
by the time delay to the end of inflation.
The power spectrum of R at horizon exit therefore is
2 2
2 H
∆R (k) = . (3.51)
2π φ̄ 0 k=aH
From now on, we will drop the label k = aH to avoid clutter. The result in (3.51) may also be
written as
1 H2
∆2R (k) = 2 2 , (3.52)
8π ε Mpl
where ε is the inflationary slow-roll parameter; cf. eq. (1.30). The time dependence of H and ε
leads to a small scale dependence of ∆2R (k). The form of the spectrum is approximately a power
law, ∆2R (k) = As (k/k∗ )ns −1 , with the following spectral index
d ln ∆2R d ln ∆2R d ln ∆2R d ln ∆2R
ns − 1 ≡ = ≈ = = −2ε − η , (3.53)
d ln k d ln(aH) d ln a Hdt
where η ≡ ε 0 /(Hε) is the second slow-roll parameter. The observational constraint on the scalar
spectral index is ns = 0.9603 ± 0.0073. The observed percent-level deviation from the scale-
invariant value, ns = 1, are the first direct measurement of time dependence in the inflationary
dynamics.
Exercise.—Show that for slow-roll inflation, eqs. (3.52) and (3.53) can be written as
1 1 V
∆2R = 4 , (3.54)
24π 2 εV Mpl
ns − 1 = −6εV + 2ηV , (3.55)
where εV and ηV are the potential slow-roll parameters defined in (1.34). This expresses the amplitude
of curvature perturbations and the spectral index in terms of the shape of the inflaton potential.
32
3.5 Gravitational Waves
Arguably the cleanest prediction of inflation is a spectrum of primordial gravitational waves.
These are tensor perturbations to the spatial metric,
ds2 = a2 (η) dη 2 − (δij + 2hij )dxi dxj .

(3.56)
We won’t go through the details of the quantum production of tensor fluctuations during inflation,
but just sketch the logic which is identical to the scalar case (and even simpler).
Substituting (3.56) into the Einstein-Hilbert action and expanding to second order gives
2
Mpl 2
Mpl
√
Z Z h i
S= d4 x −g R ⇒ S(2) = dη d3 x a2 ḣ2ij − (∇hij )2 . (3.57)
2 8
√
Exercise.—Confirm eq. (3.57). Hint: Don’t forget a term quadratic in hij coming from −g.
It is convenient to define  
f+ f× 0
Mpl 1 
ahij ≡ √  f× −f+ 0  , (3.58)

2 2
0 0 0
so that Z
(2) 1 X 3 ˙2 2 ä 2
S = dη d x fλ − (∇fλ ) + fλ . (3.59)
2 a
λ=+,×
This is just two copies of the action (3.4), one for each polarization mode of the gravitational
wave, f+,× . The power spectrum of tensor modes ∆2t can therefore be inferred directly from our
0.25
0.20 c
on
ca
con ve
vex
0.15
small-field
0.10 large-field
(chaotic)
0.05
l
natura
0.00
00.94
94 0.96
0 96 0.98
0 98 1.00
Figure 10. Planck+WMAP+BAO constraints on ns and r, together with predictions from a few repre-
sentative inflationary models.
33
previous result for ∆2f ,
2
2
∆2h =2× × ∆2f . (3.60)
aMpl
Using (3.47), we get

2 H 2
∆2h (k) = 2 2 . (3.61)

π Mpl
k=aH
This result is the most robust and model-independent prediction of inflation. Notice that the
tensor amplitude is a direct measure of the expansion rate H during inflation. This is in contrast
to the scalar amplitude which depends on both H and ε. The form of the tensor power spectrum
is also a power law, ∆2h (k) = At (k/k∗ )nt , with the following spectral index
nt = −2ε . (3.62)
Observationally, a small value for nt is hard to distinguish from zero. The tensor amplitude is
often normalized with respect to the measured scalar amplitude, As = (2.196 ± 0.060) × 10−9 (at
k∗ = 0.05 Mpc−1 ). The tensor-to-scalar ratio is
At
r≡ = 16ε . (3.63)
As
Inflationary models make predictions for (ns , r). The latest observational constraints on these
parameters are shown in Fig. 10.
34
Part II
CMB Anisotropies
We ended the previous section with a description of the primordial scalar and tensor pertur-
bations: R and hij . These metric perturbations couple gravitationally to all the matter per-
turbations in the primordial plasma (see Fig. 11). In addition, electrons and baryons (mostly
protons) are coupled to each other via Coulomb scattering, while electrons and photons interact
via Thomson scattering. When the electron density drops at recombination, Thomson scattering
suddenly becomes inefficient and the photons decouple. Coulomb scattering remains very strong
throughout, so the electrons and baryons can be treated as a single tightly-coupled fluid. The
combined electron-baryon fluid is often referred to as baryons for simplicity (although electrons
are leptons, of course). To derive the fluctuations in the CMB, we will have to follow the com-
plicated set of interactions between all matter components until recombination. The main tool
for doing this is the Boltzmann equation, which we will introduce in Section 4. In Section 5, we
will use this formalism to derive the spectrum of CMB temperature anisotropies.
n
tio
dia
Ra Neutrions
Dark
Photons
Energy
Thomson
Scattering Metric
Dark
Electrons Matter
Co
Sca ulom
tte b
rin
g Baryons r
tte
Ma
Figure 11. Interactions between the different forms of matter in the universe.
4 The Boltzmann Equation
For each species a = γ, ν, e, b, c, · · · , there will be a Boltzmann equation describing the evolution
of the distribution function fa . Schematically, we have
dfa
= C[{fb }] , (4.1)
dη
where the collision term on the right-hand side, in principle, can depend on the distribution
functions for several species; i.e. we have coupled equations. We will focus on the evolution of
35
the distribution function for photons, fγ , and drop the subscript, i.e. fγ → f . Photons interact
most strongly with the electrons, so the Boltzmann equation becomes
df
= C[{f, fe }] . (4.2)
dη
As we mentioned above, electrons are so strongly coupled to the rest of the plasma that it makes
no difference to think of the right-hand side of the Boltzmann equation as the photon-electron or
photon-baryon coupling. In §4.1, we study the left-hand side of equation (4.2), which describes
the free-streaming of the photons in an inhomogeneous spacetime. In §4.2, we add a scattering
term to the right-hand side and derive its effect on the photon distribution function.
4.1 Free-Streaming
In the absence of scattering, the right-hand side of (4.2) vanishes and we have
df
= 0. (4.3)
dη
This innocent looking equation expresses Liouville’s theorem: the number of particles in a given
element of phase space doesn’t change with time. In a perturbed spacetime this contains non-
trivial information since the phase space elements themselves then evolve in a complicated way
due to the perturbed metric.
Collisionless Boltzmann Equation

In an inhomogeneous spacetime, the photon distribution function can depend on time η, posi-
tion x, the photon energy E and the photon direction of propagation p̂. It is convenient to
introduce the comoving energy ≡ Ea which, in the absence of perturbations, is constant along
the photon path (see §1.1). The collisionless Boltzmann equation (4.3) can then be written in
the following form
d ∂f ∂f dx ∂f d ln ∂f dp̂
f (η, x, , p̂) = + · + + · = 0. (4.4)
dη ∂η ∂x dη ∂ ln dη ∂ p̂ dη
| {z }
O(2)
As indicated, the last term is second order in perturbations and therefore doesn’t have to be
kept in a linearized analysis. (It describes the gravitational lensing of the CMB.) Moreover, since
∂f /∂x and ∂ ln /∂η are first order in perturbations, we can use the zeroth-order expressions,
dx/dη = p̂ [cf. eq. (1.2)] and ∂ f¯/∂ ln , in the remaining terms. Equation (4.4) then becomes
∂f ∂ f¯ d ln
+ p̂ · ∇f + = 0. (4.5)
∂η ∂ ln dη
At zeroth-order, this implies ∂ f¯/∂η = 0, i.e. the zeroth-order distribution function depends
only on the comoving energy . This is consistent with the form of the equilibrium distribution
function (1.19), as long as T ∝ a−1 ,
−1 −1 −1
E
f¯() ∝ exp −1 = exp −1 = exp −1 , (4.6)
T̄ (η) aT̄ (η) T0
36
where T0 = 2.7255 K is the present CMB temperature. To study the effect of first-order per-
turbations in (4.5), let us introduce a direction- and position-dependent fractional temperature
perturbation,4 Θ(η, x, p̂), in the distribution function
−1

f (η, x, , p̂) = exp −1 . (4.7)
aT̄ (η)[1 + Θ(η, x, p̂)]
Assuming that Θ is a small perturbation, we get
−1
[1 − Θ(η, x, p̂)]
f (η, x, , p̂) = exp −1
aT̄ (η)
d ln f¯

¯
= f () 1 − Θ(η, x, p̂) . (4.8)
d ln
Equation (4.5) then becomes
d ln f¯()

∂Θ d ln
− + p̂ · ∇Θ − = 0. (4.9)
d ln ∂η dη
We keep the overall factor since we ultimately want to add non-zero collision terms on the right-
hand side. At first order, the first two terms in the brackets combine into a total derivative,
d ∂Θ ∂Θ dx ∂Θ dp̂ ∂Θ
Θ(η, x, p̂) = + · + · = + p̂ · ∇Θ , (4.10)
dη ∂η ∂x dη ∂ p̂ dη ∂η
| {z }
O(2)
so we can write (4.9) as

d ln f¯()

dΘ d ln
− − =0 . (4.11)
d ln dη dη
In the absence of collisions, the evolution of the temperature perturbations is therefore directly
related to the evolution of the comoving photon energy in the presence of metric fluctuations,
d ln /dη. The latter follows from the geodesic equation.
Geodesic Equation
Recall the geodesic equation describing the evolution of the photon 4-momentum
dP µ
+ Γµνρ P ν P ρ = 0 , (4.12)
dλ
where the affine parameter λ is defined such that P µ = dxµ /dλ. We will analyze the geodesic
motion of photons in a spacetime with scalar perturbations, and leave the case with tensor
perturbations as an exercise.
Since photons are massless the 4-momentum satisfies the constraint gµν P µ P ν = 0. Using the
perturbed metric in Newtonian gauge, cf. eq. (2.3), this implies

P µ = 2 [1 − Ψ, (1 + Φ)p̂] . (4.13)
a
4
Importantly, here we have assumed that Θ does not depend on , i.e. the effect of perturbations is achromatic
and does not lead spectral distortions. We will have to check that this is a consistent assumption when we add
scattering terms to the Boltzmann equation.
37
Derivation.—Substituting (2.3) into gµν P µ P ν = 0, we have
a2 (1 + 2Ψ)(P 0 )2 − p2 = 0 , (4.14)
where we have defined p2 ≡ −gij P i P j . Solving this for P 0 and expanding to linear order in Ψ, we get
p
P0 = (1 − Ψ) . (4.15)
a
This is the generalization of the relativistic expression E = pc to a perturbed spacetime. (The extra
factor of a−1 comes from the fact that we are using conformal time.) Using p = /a, we can write this
as

P 0 = 2 (1 − Ψ) . (4.16)
a
It remains to find the spatial component of the four-momentum. Let us write P i ≡ C p̂i , so that
p2 ≡ −gij P i P j = a2 (1 − 2Φ)δij C 2 p̂i p̂j = a2 (1 − 2Φ)C 2 . (4.17)
Solving this for C and expanding to linear order in Φ, we get

p
Pi = (1 + Φ) p̂i = 2 (1 + Φ) p̂i . (4.18)
a a
Equations (4.16) and (4.18) confirm (4.13).
Using
dη
= 2 (1 − Ψ) , (4.19)
dλ a
the geodesic equation can be written in conformal time:
dP µ
(1 − Ψ) + Γµνρ P ν P ρ = 0 . (4.20)
a2 dη
Let us write out the 0-th component in all its glory
d 2
+ 4 Γ000 (1 − 2Ψ) + 2Γ00i p̂i + Γ0ij (1 + 2Φ)p̂i p̂j = 0 .

(1 − Ψ) 2 2
(1 − Ψ) (4.21)
a dη a a
↑ ↑ ↑
H + Ψ̇ ∂i Ψ [H − Φ̇ − 2H(Φ + Ψ)]δij
At first order, this cleans up rather remarkably
d ln dΨ
=− + (Ψ̇ + Φ̇) , (4.22)
dη dη
where dΨ/dη = Ψ̇ + p̂i ∂i Ψ + O(2). Equation (4.22) tells us how the comoving energy evolves
along the photon path in the presence of metric perturbations. As expected, is constant in the
homogeneous background, but is modified by the variation of Ψ along the path (first term on the
rhs) and by the evolution of the potentials (second term on the rhs). For the CMB, the latter is
important at late times (once dark energy starts to become relevant) and at early times (when
the universe isn’t fully matter dominated).
38
4.2 Thomson Scattering
The dominant scattering effect close to recombination is the Thomson scattering of the photons
off the free electrons in the plasma. In this section, we will develop the theoretical formalism for
including this in the Boltzmann equation.
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Thomson scattering in the electron rest frame (a) and in the background frame (b).
Electron Rest Frame

Let us start in the rest frame of a single electron. In this frame, an incoming photon has energy 0in
and 3-momentum p0in = 0in p̂0in (see Fig. 12). The scattered photon has energy 0 = 0in and 3-
momentum p0 = 0 p̂0 . Here, we have used the fact that Thomson scattering doesn’t change
the energy of the photon. The differential scattering cross-section for Thomson scattering of
unpolarized radiation, averaged over the outgoing polarization, is
dσ σT
= . (4.23)
dΩ 4π
This describes the rate at which the electron scatters photons per solid angle, per unit incident
photon flux. The parameter σT is the Thomson cross section
2
qe2

8π
σT = = 6.65 × 10−29 m2 , (4.24)
3 4π0 me c2
where qe is the charge of the electron. Since (4.24) scales inversely with the mass of the scatterer,
the scattering with the much heavier protons can be ignored.
Comment.—Notice that we have ignored the anisotropic nature of Thomson scattering. The more
correct form of the differential cross section is
dσ 3σT
1 + (p̂0in · p̂0 )2 .

= (4.25)
dΩ 16π
Equation (4.23) is the angular average of (4.25).
39
We can now write the scattering rate with respect to the proper time τ 0 in the electron rest-
frame,
df 0 (0 , p̂0 )
Z
0 0 0 0 dσ 0 0 0
= ne dp̂0in f ( , p̂in ) − f 0 (0 , p̂0 ) ,

C [f ( , p̂ )] ≡ 0
(4.26)
dτ
scatt. dΩ
↑ ↑
in out
where ne is the proper number density of the electrons. The first term in the integrand captures
the in-scattering of photons (p̂0in → p̂0 ), while the second terms describes the out-scattering
(p̂0 → p̂0in ). We see that the collision term vanishes for isotropic radiation, confirming our earlier
assertion that it starts at first order in perturbations. In the out-scattering term, we can pull the
distribution function outside of the integral. This gives
dp̂0in 0 0 0
Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C [f ( , p̂ )] = −ne σT f ( , p̂ ) + ne σT f ( , p̂in ) . (4.27)
4π
Next, we have to transform this result to the background frame in which the electrons are moving.
Background Frame
To obtain the result in a general frame we will perform a Lorentz boost. This accounts for the
bulk velocity of the electrons, which we write as ve (in the orthonormal frame). At zeroth order,
the proper time in the boosted frame is the same as that in the rest frame, τ = τ 0 + O(1). Since
the scattering rate starts first order in perturbations, we don’t need more accuracy than this.
The scattering rate with respect to the conformal time in the boosted frame then is
df 0 (0 , p̂0 )

df (, p̂)
C[f (, p̂)] ≡ =a + O(2) = a C 0 [f 0 (0 , p̂0 )] + O(2) . (4.28)
dη scatt. dτ
scatt.
where we have used the Lorentz invariance of the distribution function, f 0 (0 , p̂0 ) = f (, p̂).
Equation (4.27) then implies
Z
0 0 0 dp̂in 0 0 0
C[f (, p̂)] = −Γf ( , p̂ ) + Γ f ( , p̂in ) . (4.29)
4π
where Γ ≡ an̄e σT . (At first order, it is sufficient to use the background density n̄e .) Finally, we
wish to re-write the right-hand side in terms of quantities defined in the boosted frame.
The scattering in the boosted frame is (in , p̂in ) → (, p̂), but with in 6= (due to the motion
of the electron). Lorentz transformation of the energy implies
0 = γ(1 − p̂ · ve ) , (4.30)
where γ(ve ) is the Lorentz factor. Similarly, the inverse transform gives
in = γ0in (1 + p̂0in · ve )

= γ 2 (1 − p̂ · ve )(1 + p̂0in · ve )
≈ 1 − (p̂ − p̂0in ) · ve .

(4.31)
40
Lorentz invariance of the distribution function implies
f 0 (0 , p̂0in ) = f (in , p̂in )
= f [(1 − (p̂ − p̂0in ) · ve ), p̂in ]

df¯
= f¯[(1 − (p̂ − p̂0in ) · ve )] − Θ(p̂in )
d ln
df¯ df¯
= f¯() − (p̂ − p̂0in ) · ve − Θ(p̂in ) . (4.32)
d ln d ln
We substitute this into (4.29). Let us discuss the three terms of (4.32) in turn: The first term, f¯(),
integrates to +Γf¯() and hence cancels the zeroth-order term in the out-scattering contribution,
−Γf (, p̂) ≈ −Γf¯() + (df¯/d ln )Θ(p̂). In the second term, the p̂0in · ve part integrates to zero
(by parity) and the p̂ · ve is independent of p̂0in and can be pulled out of the integral. The last
term is first order, so we can make the replacements dp̂0in → dp̂in and p̂0in · p̂0 → p̂in · p̂. With
these simplifications, we get
df¯
C[f (, p̂)] = × Γ Θ(p̂) − Θ0 − p̂ · ve . (4.33)
d ln
where we have defined the monopole of the temperature anisotropy
Z
dp̂in
Θ0 ≡ Θ(p̂in ) . (4.34)
4π
Comment.—Had we kept the angular dependence in (4.23), we would have found
df¯
Z
3
dp̂in Θ(p̂in ) 1 + (p̂in · p̂)2 .

C[f (, p̂)] = × Γ Θ(p̂) − p̂ · ve − (4.35)
d ln 16π
4.3 Boltzmann for Photons

Adding the collision term (4.33) to the right-hand side of the collisionless Boltzmann equa-
tion (4.11), we get
dΘ d ln
= − Γ Θ − Θ0 − p̂ · ve , (4.36)
dη dη
Equation (4.36) will be the starting point for the rest of our analysis. We will solve this equation
in the next section, but something interesting can be said immediately about the form of the
solution at early times, when the electrons and photons were tightly coupled. At that time,
Thomson scattering was still efficient (Γ H), the parenthesis on the right-hand side of (4.36)
has to vanish. As expected, scattering tends make the photon distribution isotropic in the electron
rest frame. In a general frame, the distribution has only a monopole and a dipole, Θ → Θ0 + p̂·ve .
For scalar fluctuations, d ln /d ln η is given by (4.22) and the Boltzmann equation becomes
Θ̇ + p̂i ∂i Θ = Φ̇ − p̂i ∂i Ψ
(4.37)
− Γ Θ − Θ0 − p̂ · ve .
41
In Fourier space, this reads
Θ̇ + ikµΘ = Φ̇ − ikµΨ
(4.38)
− Γ Θ − Θ0 − iµve ,
where ve ≡ ive k̂ and µ ≡ k̂ · p̂ defines the overlap between the wavevector of the inhomogeneity
and the direction of propagation of the photon. For µ = 1, the photon moves along k̂, i.e. along
the direction of changing temperature (or density), while for µ = 0, the photon moves along the
direction of constant temperature.
Notice that, due to statistical isotropy, the equation of motion for Θ does not depend explicitly
on k and p̂, but only on their relative orientation, µ ≡ k̂ · p̂, and the wavenumber k. The initial
conditions for Θ, on the other hand, do depend on the wavevector k, but will only depend on
µ ≡ k̂ · p̂ and not p̂ (this is a consequence of the tight-coupling limit Θ → Θ0 + p̂ · ve ). Since
the perturbations from a single Fourier mode are axisymmetric (at least for scalar fluctuations),
it is useful to expand them in terms of Legendre polynomials:
∞
X
Θ(η, k, p̂) → Θ(η, k, µ) ≡ (−i)l Θl (η, k)Pl (µ) , (4.39)
l=0
where Θl are the multipole moments of the distribution. The factor of (−i)l in (4.39) was chosen
for future convenience. The lowest-order multipoles are related in a simply way to the perturbed
stress tensor for the photons:
1 5
Θ0 = δγ , Θ1 = −vγ , Θ2 = − σγ . (4.40)
4 3
From now on, we will most work with Θ0 and Θ1 , but it will be important to remember that
these are proportional to the density contrast and the bulk velocity of the photon gas.
Derivation.—We can derive the relations in (4.40) by considering the perturbed stress tensor for
photons,
d3 p df¯
Z
T µν = f P µ Pν , f ≡ f¯ − Θ, (4.41)
E(p) d ln
P µ = (E/a)[1 − Ψ, (1 + Φ)p̂] ,
Pν = (aE)[1 + Ψ, −(1 − Φ)p̂] .
• We start with the time-time component T 0 0 . Keeping only linear orders in perturbations, we
find
d3 p
Z Z Z Z
0 0 3 1
T 0= f P P0 = d p f E = 4 dp̂ d f 3
E(p) a
df¯ 4
Z Z Z
4π ¯ 3 1
= 4 d f − 4 d dp̂ Θ
a a d
Z Z !
4π dp̂
= 4 d f¯ 1 + 4
3
Θ , (4.42)
a 4π
| {z } | {z }
ρ̄γ δγ
42
where ρ̄γ ∝ a−4 , as expected, and
δγ ≡ 4Θ0 . (4.43)
• Similar manipulations for the T i 0 component of the stress tensor leads to

Z
dp̂
vγ = 3 Θ p̂ . (4.44)
4π
Substituting (4.39) into the Fourier transform of (4.44), we get
Z
dp̂ X
vγ (η, k) = 3 (−i)l Θl (η, k)Pl (k̂ · p̂) p̂ . (4.45)
4π
l
By symmetry, the integral over p̂ must be proportional to k̂, i.e.

Z Z
dp̂ dp̂
Al k̂ = Pl (k̂ · p̂) p̂ ⇒ Al = Pl (k̂ · p̂) k̂ · p̂
4π 4π
Z 1
dµ
= µPl (µ)
−1 2
1
= δl1 . (4.46)
3
Equation (4.45) then becomes vγ = −ik̂Θ1 ≡ ik̂vγ , so that
vγ = −Θ1 . (4.47)
• The final relation in (4.40) follows from performing the same exercise on the T i j component of
the stress tensor:
Z
dp̂
ij
Πγ = −4ρ̄γ Θ p̂hi p̂ji . (4.48)
4π
Substituting (4.39) into the Fourier transform of (4.48), we have
Z
dp̂ X
ij
Πγ (η, k) = −4ρ̄γ (−i)l Θl (η, k)Pl (k̂ · p̂) p̂hi p̂ji . (4.49)
4π
l
The integral over p̂ must be a symmetric and trace-free tensor made from k̂, i.e.
Z Z
hi ji dp̂ hi ji 2 dp̂ 2 1
Bl k̂ k̂ = Pl (k̂ · p̂) p̂ p̂ ⇒ Bl = Pl (k̂ · p̂) (k̂ · p̂) −
4π 3 4π 3
Z 1
1
= dµ Pl (µ)P2 (µ)
3 −1
2
= δl2 . (4.50)
15
Hence, we have
4
Πij
γ = ρ̄γ Θ2 k̂ hi k̂ ji ≡ −(ρ̄γ + P̄γ )k̂ hi k̂ ji σγ , (4.51)
5
so that
3
σ γ = − Θ2 . (4.52)
5
43
The multipole expansion is convenient since all moments with l ≥ 2 are suppressed in the
tight-coupling limit. To see this, consider the evolution equation for Θl≥2 . We obtain this by
multiplying the Boltzmann equation (4.38) by Pl≥2 (µ) and integrating over µ. Most terms on the
right-hand side of (4.38) have a simple µ dependence (proportional to µ0 or µ1 ) and will therefore
vanish when integrated against Pl≥2 (µ). The remaining terms lead to the following equation of
motion

l+1 l
Θ̇l + k Θl+1 − Θl−1 = −ΓΘl . (4.53)
2l + 3 2l − 2
Notice that this is an infinite hierarchy of coupled equations since each moment Θl is coupled to
the adjacent moments Θl±1 .
Exercise.—Derive eq. (4.53). You may use orthogonality of the Legendre polynomials
Z 1
2
dµ Pl (µ)Pl0 (µ) = δll0 , (4.54)
−1 2l + 1
as well as the recursion relation
(2l + 1)µPl (µ) = (l + 1)Pl+1 (µ) + lPl−1 (µ) . (4.55)
For Γ k ≥ H, this implies

k
Θl ∼
Θl−1 Θl−1 , (4.56)
Γ
which shows that all higher-order moments (l ≥ 2) are suppressed in the tight-coupling regime.
In that case, we only need the l = 0 and l = 1 moments of the Boltzmann equation. Multiply-
ing (4.38) by P0 (µ) and P1 (µ), and integrating over µ, we find
1
Θ̇0 = − kΘ1 + Φ̇ , (4.57)
3
Θ̇1 = kΘ0 − kΨ − Γ(Θ1 + ve ) . (4.58)
Exercise.—Derive eqs. (4.57) and (4.58).
Equations (4.57) and (4.58) become more recognizable if we write them in terms of δγ = 4Θ0 and
vγ = −iΘ1 k̂. We get
4
δ̇γ + ∇ · vγ − 3Φ̇ = 0 , (4.59)
3
1
v̇γ + ∇δγ + ∇Ψ = −Γ(vγ − ve ) . (4.60)
4
Notice that (4.59) is standard continuity equation for δγ . This is to be expected, since at linear
order there is no energy exchange due to Thomson scattering, so the fluid approximation should
still work for the continuity equation. The Euler equation (4.60), on the other hand, does receive
a correction from Thomson scattering.
44
These equations need to be supplemented by Einstein equations for the potentials Φ and Ψ,
and an Euler equation for the electron velocity ve . We will study the complete system of equations
in Section 5.
4.4 Boltzmann for Neutrinos

Neutrinos play an important role during the radiation dominated era: about 40% of the back-
ground density is in neutrinos and perturbations in the cosmic neutrino background leave a subtle
imprint in the CMB anisotropies. We can write the perturbed neutrino distribution function as
df¯ν
fν ≡ f¯ν − N, (4.61)
d ln ν
where N plays the same role as Θ for photons. Neutrinos are decoupled from the rest of the
plasma, so they satisfy the collisionless Boltzmann equation. The moments N0 and N1 therefore
satisfy (4.57) and (4.63) without the collision term:
1
Ṅ0 = − k N1 + Φ̇ , (4.62)
3
Ṅ1 = k N0 − kΨ . (4.63)
The perturbations in the neutrino distribution function are mediated to the rest of the plasma
through the metric perturbations Φ and Ψ.
4.5 Einstein Revisited

The neutrino density contrast and anisotropic stress are δν = 4N0 and σν = − 35 N2 ; cf. eq. (4.40).
The Poisson equation (2.45) can then be written as
h i
∇2 Φ + 3H(Φ̇ + HΨ) = 4πGa2 ρ̄c δc + ρ̄b δb + 4ρ̄γ Θ0 + 4ρ̄ν N0 . (4.64)
| {z } | {z }
ρ̄m δm ρ̄r δr
The constraint equation (2.49) becomes
∇2 (Φ − Ψ) = 32πGa2 ρ̄γ Θ2 + ρ̄ν N2 .

(4.65)
The two potentials are equal and opposite unless the photons and neutrinos have appreciable
quadrupole moments. We have seen that the photon quadrupole Θ2 is suppressed due to the
tight coupling to the electrons. Neutrinos on the other hand a purely free-streaming and can
therefore have an appreciable quadrupole moment N2 . To determine the evolution of N2 requires
solving the hierarchy of Boltzmann equations to higher order.
45
5 Temperature Anisotropies
A map of the cosmic microwave background radiation describes the variation of the CMB tem-
perature as a function of direction, Θ̃(n̂) ≡ δT /T (n̂). We will be interested in the statistical
correlations between temperature fluctuations in two different directions n̂ and n̂0 (see Fig. 13),
averaged over the entire sky. If the initial conditions are statistically isotropic, then we expect
these correlations only to depend on the relative orientation of n̂ and n̂0 . In that case, we can
write the two-point correlation function as
X 2l + 1
Θ̃(n̂) Θ̃(n̂0 ) =

Cl Pl (cos θ) , (5.1)
4π
l
where n̂ · n̂0 ≡ cos θ and Pl are Legendre polynomials. The expansion coefficients Cl are the
angular power spectrum (cf. Fig. 14). If the fluctuations are Gaussian, then the power spectrum
contains all the information of the CMB map. In this section, we would like to understand how
the spectrum of inflationary initial conditions evolved into the observed power spectrum of CMB
anisotropies: Z
transfer function
∆2R (k) −−−−−−−−−−−→ Cl ∼ d ln k Θ2l (k) ∆2R (k) .
The transfer function Θl (k) that relates ∆2R (k) to Cl captures both the evolution of the fluctu-
ations in the primordial plasma and the projection of the anisotropies onto the sky. Since the
primordial spectrum is rather featureless, it is the transfer function that leads to all the non-
trivial structure in the CMB power spectrum. Our goal in this section is to derive Θl (k) from
first principles. This won’t be easy and will involve a lot of interesting physics.
Figure 13. Temperature inhomogeneities at recombination become anisotropies on the observer’s sky.
46
100
80
60
40
20
10 100 1000
Figure 14. From temperature maps to the angular power spectrum (figure adapted from [4]). The
original temperature fluctuation map (top left) corresponding to a simulation of the power spectrum (top
right) can be band filtered to illustrate the power spectrum in three characteristic regimes: the large-scale
regime, the first acoustic peak where most of the power lies, and the damping tail where fluctuations are
dissipated.
The outline of this section is illustrated by the following schematic:

 
δγ
evolution (§5.4) free-streaming (§5.2) power spectrum (§5.1+§5.5)
R(0, k) −−−−−−−−−−−→  Ψ  −−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ δT (n̂) −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Cl
 
projection (§5.3)
ve
η∗
We will first show how the free-streaming of photons relates the observed temperature fluctua-
tions to fluctuations on the surface of last-scattering. We will see that in order to predict the
CMB anisotropies we need to know the fluctuations in the photon density (δγ ), the gravitational
potential (Ψ) and the electron velocity (ve ) at the time of decoupling (η∗ ). By studying the
evolution of the coupled perturbations before recombination, we will link these quantities to the
initial curvature perturbation R(0, k). The projection of the inhomogeneities at decoupling onto
the observer’s sky lead to non-trivial angular variations, even for a single Fourier mode k. The
final anisotropy spectrum is obtained by summing over many Fourier modes weighted by the
spectrum of the initial conditions.
5.1 Anisotropies from Inhomogeneities

We are interested in the temperature anisotropies observed today (η0 ) at our location (x0 ≡ 0)
as a function of the direction n̂ on the sky. Since a photon observed in the direction n̂ had to be
47
travelling in the direction p̂ = −n̂, we have
δT
Θ̃(n̂) ≡ (n̂) = Θ(η0 , x0 , p̂ = −n̂) . (5.2)
T
This may also be written as
d3 k ik·x0
Z
Θ̃(n̂) = e Θ(η0 , k, n̂)
(2π)3/2
d3 k ik·x0 X
Z
= e (−i)l Θl (η0 , k)Pl (k̂ · n̂)
(2π)3/2 l
d3 k ik·x0 X
Z
= e (−i)l Θl (k)R(k)Pl (k̂ · n̂) , (5.3)
(2π)3/2 l
where we introduced the Fourier components of the inhomogeneous temperature field in the first
line, expanded them into multipole moments in the second line, and introduced a transfer function
for the linear evolution in the third line:
Θl (η0 , k)
Θl (k) ≡ . (5.4)
R(k)
The transfer function Θl (k) provides the map from the initial power spectrum of curvature
perturbations to the angular power spectrum of temperature anisotropies:
Z
4π
Cl = d ln k Θ2l (k) ∆2R (k) . (5.5)
(2l + 1)2
Derivation.—We substitute (5.3) into the two-point function (5.1) and perform a series of manipula-
tions
d3 k d3 k0 i(k+k0 )·x0 X X
Z
0
Θ̃(n̂)Θ̃(n̂0 ) = (−i)l+l Θl (k)Θl0 (k 0 )

e
(2π) (2π)3/2
3/2
l l0
× hR(k)R(k0 )i Pl (k̂ · n̂)Pl0 (k̂0 · n̂0 ) (5.6)
d3 k 2π 2 2
Z XX 0
= 3 3
∆R (k) (−i)l+l Θl (k)Θl0 (k)Pl (k̂ · n̂)Pl0 (k̂0 · n̂0 ) (5.7)
(2π) k 0 l l
Z Z
1 dk 2 XX 0
= ∆R (k) (−i)l+l Θl (k)Θl0 (k) d2 k̂ Pl (k̂ · n̂)Pl0 (k̂ · n̂0 ) (5.8)
4π k 0
l l | {z }
4π 0
= Pl (n̂ · n̂ ) δll0
2l + 1
X 2l + 1 4π Z
= d ln k Θ 2
l (k) ∆2
R (k) Pl (n̂ · n̂0 ) . (5.9)
4π (2l + 1)2
l | {z }
= Cl
This confirms (5.5).
48
5.2 Free-Streaming
As a first step to relating the observed temperature anisotropies to the initial conditions, we
wish to connect them to perturbations at the point x∗ ≡ x0 + (η0 − η∗ )n̂ of the last-scattering
surface (see Fig. 15). This can be done by integrating the Boltzmann equation (4.36) along the
corresponding line-of-sight.
Figure 15. Coordinates of the line-of-sight solution. The gray regions correspond to periods when the
metric potentials Φ and Ψ evolve in time and lead to non-zero contributions to the ISW effect.
Optical Depth and Visibility

To find the line-of-sight solution of the Boltzmann equation it will be helpful to introduce two
auxiliary concepts:
• Optical depth.—The optical depth between times η and η0 is defined as
Z η0
τ (η) ≡ Γ(η 0 ) dη 0 . (5.10)
η
Physically, this describes the opacity of the universe at a given time, when seen from today.
(The probability of no scattering as a photon travels from η to η0 is e−τ .) Mathematically,
the function e−τ will act as in integration factor for the Boltzmann equation. This see this,
note that
dΘ d −τ
+ ΓΘ = (e Θ) , (5.11)
dη dη
so that part of the Boltzmann equation turns into a total derivative after introducing the
optical depth.
• Visibility function.—The visibility function is defined as
g(η) ≡ −τ̇ (η)e−τ (η) . (5.12)
Physically, this corresponds to the probability density for a photon to last scatter at the
time η. The shape of the visibility function is shown in Fig. 16. We see that it is sharply
peaked around the time of recombination, with a width of about 10 Mpc (or ∆z ∼ 10).
49
Figure 16. Ionization fraction Xe (η) and visibility function g(η). The ionization fraction is defined as the
ratio of free electrons to the total number of protons (excluding those in helium). The first two steps in Xe
correspond to helium recombination. After helium recombination, we have Xe ≈ 1, until Xe drops sharply
at hydrogen recombination. The visibility function is sharply peaked near hydrogen recombination.
Line-of-Sight Solution
With the help of these definitions, the Boltzmann equation (4.36) becomes
d −τ d ln
S ≡ e−τ

(e Θ) = S , where + g Θ0 − n̂ · ve . (5.13)
dη dη
For scalar fluctuations, the geodesic equation (4.22) implies
d ln dΨ
e−τ = −e−τ + e−τ (Φ̇ + Ψ̇)
dη dη
d
= − (e−τ Ψ) + gΨ + e−τ (Φ̇ + Ψ̇) . (5.14)
dη
The Boltzmann equation for scalar fluctuations can then be written as
d −τ
Ŝ ≡ e−τ (Φ̇ + Ψ̇) + g Θ0 + Ψ − n̂ · ve .

e (Θ + Ψ) = Ŝ , where (5.15)
dη
Integrating (5.15) along the line-of-sight, we find
Z η0
Θ(η0 , x0 , n̂) = dη 0 Ŝ(η 0 , x0 + (η0 − η 0 )n̂, n̂) . (5.16)
0
To arrive at (5.16) we have used τ (η0 ) = 0 and τ (0) ≈ ∞, and dropped the unobservable
monopole Ψ(η0 , x0 ) on the left-hand side. Notice that the terms in S which are proportional to
the visibility function g(η) are localized near the last-scattering surface, while terms proportional
to e−τ (η) have an integrated effect until today.
50
Instantaneous Recombination
To get intuition for this solution, let us approximate recombination as occurring instantaneously.
In that case, g(η) = δD (η − η∗ ) and e−τ = H(η − η∗ ), where H is the Heaviside function. We
then find
Z η0
Θ̃(n̂) ≡ Θ(η0 , x0 , n̂) ≈ (Θ0 + Ψ)∗ − (n̂ · ve )∗ + dη 0 (Ψ̇ + Φ̇) . (5.17)
η∗
↑ ↑ ↑
SW Doppler ISW
The first two terms on the right-hand side are evaluated at the time η∗ and the position x∗ ≡
x0 + (η0 − η∗ )n̂. The Sachs-Wolfe (SW) term is a combination is the intrinsic temperature
fluctuation at the surface of last-scattering and an additional gravitational redshift arising when
the photons climb out of a potential well at last-scattering. The Doppler term describes the
shift in the photon energy created by the scattering off moving electrons. Finally, the integrated
Sachs-Wolfe (ISW) term captures the effect of gravitational redshifting from the evolution of the
potentials along the line-of-sight. As we have seen in Section 2, for most of the history of the
universe—namely, when the universe was matter-dominated—the gravitational potentials were
constant and therefore didn’t contribute to the ISW term. At early times, the residual amount
of radiation gives Φ̇ 6= 0 which results in a non-zero early ISW effect. Similarly, at late times,
dark energy becomes relevant leading to a late ISW effect. These two regimes are indicated by
the gray regions in Fig. 15.
Sachs-Wolfe term.—On large scales, the Sachs-Wolfe term dominates the CMB spectrum. Let us
evaluate this term for super-Hubble scales and adiabatic initial conditions. Decoupling occurs during
the matter era, so we use −2Ψ ≈ −2Φ ≈ δ = δc = δb = 34 δγ [cf. eqs. (2.54) and (2.55)]. The observed
CMB anisotropies on large scales therefore are

1 1 1
Θ̃ ≈ δγ + Ψ = Ψ∗ = − δγ,∗ . (5.18)
4 ∗ 3 8
We see that the gravitational redshifting has won over the intrinsic temperature fluctuation. This
means that an overdensity at last scattering (δγ,∗ > 0), corresponding to a potential well (Ψ < 0),
leads to a cold spot in the CMB map (Θ̃ < 0). Conversely, a hot spot corresponds to an underdensity
at last scattering.
5.3 Projection
To find the transfer function (5.4) it will be useful to transform the line-of-sight solution (5.16)
to Fourier space and extract its multipole moments. The algebraic details are given in the box
below. Eventually, we find
Z η0
0
Θl (k) = (Θ0 + Ψ)∗ jl (kχ∗ ) − (ve )∗ jl (kχ∗ ) + dη 0 (Φ̇ + Ψ̇) jl (kχ) , (5.19)
η∗
↑ ↑ ↑
SW Doppler ISW
51
where (f )∗ ≡ f (η∗ , k)/R(k) and χ(η 0 ) ≡ η0 − η 0 is the conformal distance along the line-of-sight.
The Bessel functions in (5.19) describe the projection from Fourier space to harmonic space (see
Fig. 17).
ISW
Figure 17. From inhomogeneities to anisotropies (figure adapted from [4]).
Derivation.—We write the source term Ŝ in a Fourier decomposition

d3 k
Z
0
Ŝ(η 0 , x0 + (η0 − η 0 )n̂, n̂) = Ŝ(η 0 , k, n̂) eik·(x0 +χ(η )n̂) . (5.20)
(2π)3/2
The exponential eiχk·n̂ can be written in a Rayleigh plane wave expansion

X
eiχk·n̂ = (−i)l (2l + 1)jl (kχ)Pl (k̂ · n̂) . (5.21)
l
Powers of (k̂ · n̂) in the source function can be replaced by derivatives of the Bessel function. For
example,
d X
i(k̂ · n̂) eiχk·n̂ = eiχk·n̂ = (−i)l (2l + 1)jl0 (kχ)Pl (k̂ · n̂) , (5.22)
d(kχ)
l
where the prime denotes a derivative with respect to the argument of the Bessel function. The Fourier
transform of (5.16) therefore is
Z η0 h i
Θl (η0 , k) = (2l + 1) dη 0 g(Θ0 + Ψ)jl (kχ) − gve jl0 (kχ) + e−τ (Φ̇ + Ψ̇) jl (kχ) . (5.23)
0
52
Assuming instantaneous recombination, and extracting the initial condition R(k), we get
Z η0
0
Θl (k) = (Θ0 + Ψ)∗ jl (kχ∗ ) − (ve )∗ jl (kχ∗ ) + dη 0 (Φ̇ + Ψ̇) jl (kχ) . (5.24)
η∗
This confirms (5.19).
Substituting (5.19) into (5.5), in principle leads to six terms: the power spectrum of the SW
term, ClSW , that of the Doppler term, ClD , that of the ISW term, ClISW , and three cross spectra.
The cross spectra and the ISW contribution are small, so we will ignore them for the moment.
Ignoring the ISW contribution, we can write the transfer function as
(Θ0 + Ψ)∗
TSW (k) ≡ .
R(k)
Θl (k) = TSW (k)jl (kχ∗ ) + TD (k)jl0 (kχ∗ ) , where (5.25)
(ve )∗
TD (k) ≡ − .
R(k)
The functions TSW (k) and TD (k) describe the evolution of the primordial perturbations (R)
into perturbations in the matter (δγ , ve ) and the metric (Ψ) at recombination. These transfer
functions can be determined approximately from the analytic results of §5.4 or more precisely by
numerically solving the Boltzmann-Einstein equations (see Fig. 18).
Sachs-Wolfe
Doppler
0.001 0.01 0.1
Figure 18. Numerical solutions for the transfer functions TSW (k) and TD (k).
For large values of l, the spherical Bessel function jl (x) is very peaked near x ≈ l (cf. Fig. 19),
and therefore acts like delta-functions in the integral (5.5). The derivative of the Bessel function
jl0 (x) is not as sharply peaked at x ≈ l, so the projection from wavenumber k to multipole l is
less sharp for the Doppler term. We will indicate this by writing x ∼ l, rather than x ≈ l. The
53
10 100 500 1000
Figure 19. Spherical Bessel functions jl (x) for l = 10, 100 and 500.
Sachs-Wolfe and Doppler contributions to the power spectrum can therefore be written as
l
2
l(l + 1)ClSW ∼ TSW (k) ∆2R (k) , k∗ (l) ≡ , (5.26)

k≈k∗ (l) η0 − η∗

l(l + 1)ClD ∼ TD2 (k) ∆2R (k) . (5.27)

k∼k∗ (l)
The reason for the factor of l(l + 1) on the left-hand side is explained in the box below. We see
that power spectra ClSW and ClD are characterized by the squares of the transfer functions.
Sachs-Wolfe term.—For super-Hubble modes at recombination the Sachs-Wolfe transfer function is a

constant and the Doppler transfer function vanishes. For scale-invariant initial conditions, ∆2R (k) =
As , the power spectrum then becomes
Z Z
SW
2 2 4π
Cl ≈ Cl = 4π d ln k TSW (k)jl (kχ∗ ) ∆R (k) → As d ln k jl2 (kχ∗ ) . (5.28)
25
If we make use of the standard integral
Z ∞
1
d ln x jl2 (x) = , (5.29)
0 2l(l + 1)
we find
4π
l(l + 1)Cl = As = const. (5.30)
25
This explains why CMB spectra are usually plotted as Dl ≡ l(l + 1)Cl .
54
5.4 Evolution
Our final task is to compute the transfer functions TSW (k) and TD (k) in (5.25). This requires us
to evolve the coupled fluctuations of photons, electrons, baryons and dark matter in a perturbed
spacetime. For most of the evolution the photons are tightly coupled to the electrons, so the
Boltzmann equation for the photons simplifies as seen in §4.3. This tight-coupling approxima-
tion breaks down close to recombination (and below the photon diffusion scale), but otherwise
describes the photon dynamics very well. At the same time, the coupling between electrons and
protons remains strong throughout, so electrons and protons (or baryons, more generally) form
a single electron-baryon fluid. For simplicity, we will refer to this as the baryon fluid and use vb
for the common bulk velocity of electrons and baryons.
5.4.1 Photon-Baryon Fluid

For convenience, let me repeat the evolution equations (4.57) and (4.58) for the monopole and
dipole of the photon distribution,
1
Θ̇0 = − kΘ1 + Φ̇ , (5.31)
3
Θ̇1 = kΘ0 − kΨ − Γ(Θ1 + vb ) . (5.32)
These need to be supplemented by an evolution equation for the baryon velocity vb , which we
will derive next.
The trick is to exploit the conservation of the stress tensor of the combined photon-baryon
fluid. Ignoring the baryon pressure, the total momentum density q i ≡ T i 0 can be written as
q i = (ρ̄γ + P̄γ )vγi + (ρ̄b + P̄b )vbi

Ωb h2

4 3 ρ̄b a
= ρ̄γ vγi + Rvbi ,

R≡ = 0.6 . (5.33)
3 4 ρ̄γ 0.02 10−3
The fractional contribution from the baryons is characterized by the dimensionless parameter R.
This parameter is small at early times, but grows linearly with a and becomes order one around
the time of recombination. The total energy density perturbation is

4
δρ = ρ̄γ δγ + Rδb . (5.34)
3
The conservation of the total stress tensor of the photon-baryon fluid, ∇µ T µ ν = 0, then implies
[cf. eqs. (2.17) and (2.18)]:
∂η δρ = −3H(δρ + δP ) + 3Φ̇(ρ̄ + P̄ ) − ∂i q i , (5.35)
∂η q i = −4Hq i − (ρ̄ + P̄ )∂i Ψ − ∂i δP . (5.36)
Substituting (5.33) and (5.34), and using (5.31) and (5.32) to eliminate the time derivatives of
δγ = 4Θ0 and vγ = −Θ1 , we find
δ̇b = −kvb + 3Φ̇ , (5.37)

Γ
v̇b = −Hvb − kΨ − (Θ1 + vb ) . (5.38)
R
55
The first equation is just the usual continuity equation for pressureless matter (again, no surprise
for Thomson scattering at linear order). The second equation is the usual Euler equation for
pressureless matter, with an extra scattering term which tries to equalize the baryon and photon
bulk velocities. Note the factor of 1/R in the scattering term of (5.38) which isn’t present
in (5.32). This difference is easily understood: for a given bulk velocity the momentum density
of the baryons is larger than that of the photons by a factor of R, but the momentum exchange
due to scattering is the same.
Let us rearrange (5.38) to get
R
vb = −Θ1 − v̇b + Hvb + kΨ . (5.39)
Γ
In the tight-coupling limit, the second term on the right-hand side is much smaller than the
first and we have vb ≈ −Θ1 to lowest order. However, since vb is multiplied by Γ in (5.32), we
need the next-to-leading order solution for vb . We obtain this by substituting vb ≈ −Θ1 into the
right-hand of (5.39). This gives
R
vb ≈ −Θ1 + Θ̇1 + HΘ1 − kΨ . (5.40)
Γ
Substituting this into (5.32), we get
HR k
Θ̇1 = − Θ1 + Θ0 − kΨ . (5.41)
1+R 1+R
Combining (5.31) and (5.41), we get an oscillator equation for the evolution of the temperature
monopole Θ0 (or δγ ):
HR 1 Ṙ
Θ̈0 + Θ̇0 + c2s k 2 Θ0 = − k 2 Ψ + Φ̈ + Φ̇ , (5.42)
1+R 3 1+R
↑ ↑
pressure gravity
where we have defined the sound speed of the photon-baryon fluid as

1
c2s ≡ . (5.43)
3(1 + R)
Equation (5.42) is the master equation describing the entire CMB phenomenology. The most
important terms in the equation are the photon pressure term on the left-hand side and the
gravitational forcing term on the right-hand side. In addition, we have a friction term proportional
to the baryon density R on the left-hand side and two terms related to time dilation effects on
the right-hand side. The metric potentials Φ and Ψ are determined by the Einstein equations
(which include important contributions from dark matter).
56
large scale
I
frozen
II
acoustic
oscillations
III decoupled
small scale diffusion
damping
eq dec today
I II III Planck
ACT
SPT
Figure 20. Top: Illustration of the relevant length scales (or momentum scales) involved in the dynamics
of the primordial plasma fluctuations. Bottom: Corresponding regimes in the angular power spectrum.
5.4.2 Acoustic Oscillations

Before discussing the solution to (5.42), let us highlight the relevant scales of the problem (Fig. 20):
• Hubble radius.—As we have shown in §2.4, metric perturbations are frozen outside the
(comoving) Hubble radius rH ≡ (aH)−1 . Modes therefore only start evolving in interesting
ways after they cross the Hubble radius.
• Sound horizon.—Photon fluctuations, in fact, remain frozen until they cross the sound
horizon, rs ≡ cs (aH)−1 , after which they start to oscillate. At early times, R 1 → cs ≈
√
1/ 3, and the sound horizon is nearly equal to the Hubble radius. Just before decoupling,
however, the baryon fraction R becomes significant and cs goes to zero. The sound horizon
57
is then significantly smaller than the Hubble radius. After decoupling, the concept of the
sound horizon ceases to exist.
• Diffusion scale.—The diffusion scale rD is important for understanding the damping of

CMB fluctuations on small scales. Above the diffusion scale the photon fluctuations can be
treated as a fluid and the analysis of this section is applicable. Below the diffusion scale,
the tight-coupling approximation breaks down and we need a more careful treatment of
the Boltzmann equation for the photons. To estimate the diffusion scale, think of a photon
performing a random walk from collision to collision, with a typical step length given by the
mean free path, `p ∼ Γ−1 . Consider a short enough interval ∆η so that `p can be treated
as constant. The photon will then random walk a mean-squared distance `p N , where the
number of collisions is N = ∆η/`p . Integrating this from η = 0 gives the squared diffusion
length Z η
2
rD ∼ Γ−1 dη 0 . (5.44)
0
At early times, the diffusion length is very small (the photon mean free path is very small),
but around recombination it becomes very larger (comparable to rH ). The longer a mode
spends in the diffusive regime the more damped the corresponding CMB fluctuations will be.
As an instructive first approximation, let us ignore time variations in the potentials Φ and Ψ
and also ignore the evolution of the baryon-photon momentum ratio R compared to changes at
the oscillation frequency ω = cs k. Equation (5.42) then reduces to
k2
Θ̈0 + c2s k 2 Θ0 = − Ψ . (5.45)
3
This is the equation of a simple harmonic oscillator with a constant gravitational forcing term.
Its solution is
1
Θ0 (η, k) = [Θ0 (0, k) + (1 + R)Ψ(k)] cos(krs ) + Θ̇0 (0, k) sin(krs ) − (1 + R)Ψ(k) , (5.46)
kcs
Rη
where rs = 0 cs dη 0 ≈ cs η. For adiabatic initial conditions, we have Θ̇0 (0) = 0, so only the cosine
solution contributes to the acoustic oscillations
Θ0 (η, k) = [Θ0 (0, k) + (1 + R)Ψ(k)] cos(krs ) − (1 + R)Ψ(k) . (5.47)
During the tight-coupling regime, the velocities of all components are equal: ve = vb = vγ = −Θ1 .
The photon continuity equation (5.31) relates the photon velocity to the time derivative of the
density, i.e. kΘ1 = −3Θ̇0 . For the approximate solution with constant R, this implies
Θ1 (η, k) = −3 [Θ0 (0, k) + (1 + R)Ψ(k)] cs sin(krs ) . (5.48)
Evaluating (5.47) and (5.48) at η = η∗ , the transfer functions in (5.25) can be written as
TSW (k) = A(k) cos(krs,∗ ) + B(k) , (5.49)

TD (k) = −3cs A(k) sin(krs,∗ ) , (5.50)
58
where we have defined
Θ0 (0, k) + (1 + R)Ψ(k) Ψ(k)
A(k) ≡ , B(k) ≡ −R . (5.51)
R(k) R(k)
Initial condition.—To set approximate initial conditions for Ψ and Θ0 we could extrapolate matter
domination into the past, which gives Ψ(0, k) = − 35 R(0, k) and Θ0 (0, k) = 25 R(0, k) for adiabatic
initial conditions. Using (5.51), this implies
1 + 3R 3R
A(k) = − , B(k) ≡ . (5.52)
5 5
Let us discuss some of the physical effects encoded in the solution (5.47):
• Gravitational infall and redshift.—At early times, photons dominate the fluid and R → 0.
In this limit, the solution (5.47) becomes
Θ0 (η, k) = [Θ0 (0, k) + Ψ(k)] cos(krs ) − Ψ(k) . (5.53)
This represents a harmonic oscillator with a zero-point which has been displaced by gravity.
The zero-point represents the state at which gravity and pressure are balanced. The dis-
placement −Ψ > 0 yields hotter photons in the potential well since gravitational infall not
only increases the number density of photons but also their energy through gravitational
blueshifts. However, as we have seen above, after decoupling the photons lose energy when
they have to climb out of potential wells. This redshift precisely cancels the −Ψ blueshift.
The observed temperature perturbation therefore is
Θ0 (η, k) + Ψ(k) = [Θ0 (0, k) + Ψ(k)] cos(krs ) . (5.54)
Different Fourier modes will be captured at different phases in their evolution at the time
of decoupling η∗ (see Fig. 21). A discrete set of wavenumbers, kn = nπ/rs (η∗ ), correspond
on extrema at decoupling. These become the peaks of the CMB spectrum.5
• Baryon loading.—Let us now restore the effects of the baryons in the plasma. Baryons add
extra inertial and gravitational mass to the photon-baryon fluid. This decreases the sound
speed and changes the balance of pressure and gravity. Gravitational infall now leads to
greater compression of the fluid in a potential well, i.e. a further displacement of the oscil-
lation zero-point (see Fig. 22). Since the redshift is not affected by the baryon content, this
relative shift remains after last-scattering to enhance all peaks from compression over those
from rarefaction. If the baryon-photon ratio R were constant, the effective temperature
perturbation would become
Θ0 (η, k) + Ψ(k) = [Θ0 (0, k) + Ψ(k)] cos(krs ) − RΨ(k) . (5.55)
We see that compressional peaks are a factor of (1 + 6R) larger than in the R = 0 case
[cf. eq. (5.52)]. In reality, the effect is reduced since R → 0 at early times. Notice that
velocity oscillations in (5.48) are symmetric around zero unlike the temperature oscillations.
5
Since the power spectrum is proportional to the square of the fluctuation, both maxima and minima contribute
peaks in the spectrum.
59
2nd peak
1st peak
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 21. Acoustic oscillation of two representative Fourier modes (figure adapted from [5]). Time is
measured by the sound horizon rs = cs η relative to the sound horizon at recombination rs,∗ . Wavenumbers
that reach extrema in their effective temperature Θ0 + Ψ at rs,∗ form a harmonic series kn = nπ/rs,∗ .
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 22. Acoustic oscillations with baryons (figure adapted from [5]). Baryons add inertia to the
photon-baryon plasma displacing the zero-point of the oscillation and making compressional peaks (min-
ima) larger than rarefaction peaks (maxima). The absolute value of the fluctuation in the effective tem-
perature is shown in dotted lines.
• Radiation driving.—During the radiation era the potentials Φ and Ψ become time depen-
dent inside the horizon (cf. Fig. 6). Counterintuitively, the decaying potential actually
enhances temperature fluctuations through its near resonant driving force. Since the po-
tential Ψ decays after sound horizon crossing, it drives the first compression without a
counterbalancing effect on the subsequent rarefaction stage. The higher peaks began their
oscillation in the radiation-dominated universe and therefore have an enhanced amplitude
(see Fig. 23).
60
damp
ing
dri
vin
g
5 10 15 20
Figure 23. Acoustic oscillations with gravitational forcing and dissipational damping. For a mode that
enters the sound horizon during radiation domination, the gravitational potential decays after horizon
crossing and drives the acoustic amplitude higher. As the photon diffusion length increases and becomes
comparable to the wavelength, viscosity σγ is generated leading to dissipation.
Figure 24. Diffusion damping of photons and baryons (figure adapted from [6]).
5.4.3 Diffusion Damping

By assuming perfect tight coupling (mean free path = zero) and instantaneous recombination,
our solution is still missing some important physics. Including the effects of a finite mean free
path for the photons and a finite duration of recombination leads to the damping of small scale
fluctuations6 see Fig. 24. The former effect is sometimes called Silk damping.
To analyze the diffusion damping, we must extend the equations for the moments of the photon
distribution beyond the tight-coupling limit. In particular, we need to allow for a non-negligible
quadrupole Θ2 (or photon anisotropic stress σγ ) in the equations. The task is simplified by
the fact that diffusion damping is relevant on small scales where the dynamical timescale of the
fluctuations is much shorter than the expansion timescale. Gravitational effects are therefore
subdominant and can be ignored, i.e. we can drop Φ and Ψ everywhere. Equations (5.31) and
6
Essentially, fluctuations on scales smaller than the mean free path are damped; just like you can’t have sound
waves with wavelengths smaller than the mean free path in air.
61
(5.32) can therefore be written as
1
Θ̇0 = − kΘ1 , (5.56)
3

2
Θ̇1 = k Θ0 − Θ2 − Γ(Θ1 + vb ) , (5.57)
5
where we have included Θ2 in the Euler equation (5.57). In addition, we have an evolution
equation for the quadrupole
Θ̇2 = 2kΘ1 − ΓΘ2 , (5.58)
where we have dropped a term proportional to Θ3 , since it is still suppressed relative to Θ1 .
Finally, eq. (5.39) implies
R
Θ1 + vb = − v̇b + Hvb . (5.59)
Γ
We will solve these equations in a WKB approximation, where the time dependence of the solution
satisfies the following ansatz R
{Θl , vb } ∝ ei ω dη . (5.60)
In the tight-coupling limit, we have ω ≈ cs k, but now we are looking for the leading correction
beyond tight-coupling. In particular, we want to compute the small imaginary part of ω that
characterized damping. Since damping occurs on small scales, of high frequencies, we have
v̇b = iωvb Hvb , so eq. (5.59) can be written as
" #
iωR −1 ωR 2

iωR
vb ≈ −Θ1 1 + ≈ −Θ1 1 − − . (5.61)
Γ Γ Γ
Similarly, in eq. (5.58) we can drop Θ̇2 relative to ΓΘ2 , so we have Θ2 ≈ (2k/Γ)Θ1 . Finally,
eq. (5.56) reads iωΘ0 = − 31 kΘ1 . Inserting the above into (5.57), we obtain the following disper-
sion relation
k2

2 iω 2 2 8 2
ω (1 + R) − − ω R + k = 0. (5.62)
| {z 3} Γ 27
| {z }
tight-coupling correction
Let us substitute ω = cs k + δω into (5.62) and expand in small δω. This leads to

i 2 2 8
δω = c R + k2 . (5.63)
2(1 + R)Γ s 27
The time-dependence of the perturbations therefore is
k2
Z
{Θ0 , Θ1 } ∝ exp ik dη cs exp − 2 , (5.64)
kD
where the damping wavenumber is
η
R2
Z
1 dη 8
2 ≡ + . (5.65)
kD (η) 0 6(1 + R)Γ(η) 1 + R 9
Including polarization corrections to the scattering would give the same result with 8/9 → 16/15.
2 2
We see that diffusion damping can be modelled by a e−k /kD envelope to the solutions discussed
in the previous section.
62
5.5 Power Spectrum
Figure 25 shows a sketch of the different contributions to the CMB power spectrum. The shape
of the Sachs-Wolfe and Doppler contributions can be understood from the analytical treatment
of the previous section. Note the the velocity vγ ≈ vb vanishes outside the sound horizon and
that the Doppler effect is therefore suppressed on large scales. The Sachs-Wolfe transfer function
is a constant on large scales and the plateau in l(l + 1)Cl for small l is therefore a direct reflection
of the scale-invariant initial conditions. The late ISW effect leads to a small rise of the plateau.
This is a measure of dark energy. The early ISW adds extra power near the first peak. Finally,
diffusion damping suppresses all contributions to the power spectrum at large l.
Sachs-Wolfe: Late ISW

Doppler: Early ISW
Potential:
Figure 25. Sketch of the different contributions to the CMB power spectrum (figure adapted from [7]).
63
5.6 Cosmological Parameters
In the final section of these notes, we will discuss how the shape of the CMB power spectrum
depends on cosmological parameters. The ΛCDM model has six parameters:
• As : Normalization
• ns : Spectral tilt
• Ωb h2 : Baryon density
• Ωm h2 : Matter density
• ΩΛ : Dark energy density
• τ : Optical depth
Our simplified analysis is sufficient to understand how the CMB power spectrum responds to
changes in these cosmological parameters. These effects are used to determine the values of these
parameters from observations of the CMB anisotropies.
• Normalization.—Changing the amplitude of the primordial fluctuations obviously just shifts

the CMB spectrum up and down. The overall normalization of the CMB spectrum therefore
fixes the amplitude of the initial conditions: As = (2.19±0.05)×10−9 (at k? = 0.05 Mpc−1 ).
• Tilt.—The tilt does what the name promises: it tilts the CMB spectrum. For ns = 1 the
spectrum l(l+1)Cl has equal power on all scales, while for ns > 1 (ns < 1) it has more power
on small (large) scales. The Planck data implies ns = 0.96 ± 0.01 (at k? = 0.05 Mpc−1 ).
• Curvature.—The positions of the peaks of CMB spectrum depend on the projected size of
the sound horizon at recombination, rs,∗ = cs η∗ . From eq. (5.47) we infer kpeak rs,∗ = nπ
(for integer n), which corresponds to
χ∗
lpeak = nπ , (5.66)
rs,∗
where χ∗ is the comoving distance to the surface of last-scattering. We have been restricting
ourselves to a flat universe for which χ∗ = η0 − η∗ . More generally, the (angular diameter)
distance to the last-scattering surface will depend on the geometry of the universe as pa-
rameterized by the curvature parameter Ωk ≡ 1 − Ωm − ΩΛ . Geodesics in a universe with
negative spatial curvature, Ωk > 0, diverge and a fixed sound horizon scale gets projected
to a smaller angular scale (larger l). Quantitatively, the angular diameter distance scales
approximately as χ∗ ∝ (1 − Ωk )−0.45 . The dependence on the peak positions on the spatial
geometry is illustrated in panel (a) of Fig. 26.
• Baryons.—We have explained above how baryons baryons affects the ratio of successive
peaks. The ratio of successive peak heights is (1 + 6R)2 , and thus is bigger the larger the
baryon-to-photon ratio is. This is illustrated in panel (c) of Fig. 26. The relative heights
of the peaks therefore measures Ωb h2 .
64
100 (a) Curvature (b) Dark Energy
80
60
40
20
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
100 (c) Baryons (d) Matter
80
60
40
20
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

10 100 1000 10 100 1000
Figure 26. The CMB power spectrum as a function of cosmological parameters (figure adapted from [4]).
• Matter.—We mentioned that scales smaller than the horizon at matter-radiation equality
have a boosted amplitude. In the angular power spectrum the separation between modes
p
that experience this feedback and those that do not occurs at leq ∼ χ? /ηeq ∝ 1 + zeq . (A
typical value for this scale is leq ∼ 100.) Lowering the matter density shifts matter-radiation
equality to later times, zeq = 2.3 × 104 Ωm h2 , i.e. closer to recombination. This affects the
forcing term for the photon-baryon oscillations. In particular, the forcing term is stronger
near equality, so the heights of the peaks are higher when the matter density is lower. This
is illustrated in panel (d) of Fig. 26. The height of the peaks (relative to the low-l plateau)
therefore measures Ωm h2 . (In particular, the amplitude of the third peak is a good measure
of the dark matter density.)
• Dark energy.—When dark energy takes over, the gravitational potential stops being time-
independent, Φ̇ 6= 0. This leads to the late ISW effect which boosts the power of the low-l
modes (see panel (b) of Fig. 26).
65
scalar
tensor
Figure 27. Comparison of the power spectra of CMB temperature anisotropies created by scalar and
tensor perturbations.
• Reionization.—The universe became reionized at late times, around z & 6. This increases
the optical depth to last-scattering. On scales smaller than the horizon after reionization,
the CMB anisotropies get suppressed by a factor of e−τ due to the rescattering of photons.
This effect is somewhat degenerate with an ns > 1 tilt of the primordial spectrum. However,
the effect on the polarization spectrum is distinct which allows ns and τ to measured
separately.
There are many interesting extensions of the baseline ΛCDM model. Here, we consider two
particularly well-motivated examples: the tensor-to-scalar ratio, r, and the effective number of
neutrinos, Neff .
• Tensors.—In the problem set you will derive the spectrum of CMB anisotropies created by
pure tensor perturbations. The result is shown in Fig. 27. Since gravitational waves decay
inside the horizon, the tensor contribution is only significant on large scales (small l). The
measurement of the large-scale CMB temperature anisotropy spectrum constrains the tensor
amplitude to r < 0.3. More sensitive constraints of r require the measurement of CMB
polarization, especially its B-mode type. This will be described in future improvements of
these notes.
• Neutrinos.—The total energy density in relativistic species is often defined as

" #
7 4 4/3

ρr = 1 + Neff ργ , (5.67)
8 11
where ργ is the energy density of photons. The parameter Neff is referred to as the effective
number of neutrinos, although there may be contributions to Neff that have nothing to do
with neutrinos. The Standard Model predicts Neff = 3.046 from neutrinos and the current
66
constraint from the Planck satellite is Neff = 3.04 ± 0.18. Deviations from the standard
value may arise if new physics at high energies leads to additional weakly coupled light
species (cf. Fig. 28). These effects are detectable because they change the damping tail [8]
and shift the phase of the acoustic peaks [9, 10].
Goldstone boson
Weyl fermion
Gauge boson
Planck limit
0.054
0.047
0.027
CMB-S4 limit
Figure 28. Contributions of a single thermally-decoupled Goldstone boson, Weyl fermion or massless
gauge boson to the effective number of neutrinos, ∆Neff , as a function of its freeze-out temperature TF
and freeze-out time tF . Shown are also the current 2σ sensitivity of the Planck satellite and an (optimistic)
estimate of the sensitivity of a future CMB-S4 mission.
67
Part III
Problems and Solutions
6 Problem Sets
6.1 Problem Set 0: Preliminaries
1. Warmup Questions
(a) What is conformal time? Why is it useful?
(b) How do the energy densities in radiation (ρr ), matter (ρm ) and a cosmological constant (ρΛ )
evolve with the scale factor a(t)?
(c) What is a(t) for a flat universe dominated by radiation, matter or a cosmological constant?
What is a(η) for the same cases?
(d) What is the redshift of matter-radiation equality if Ωr = 9.4 × 10−5 and Ωm = 0.32?
(e) Show in the context of expanding FRW models that if the combination ρ + 3P is always
positive, then there was a Big Bang singularity in the past.
2. Horizon Problem
The (comoving) particle horizon at the time t equals the amount of conformal time η between
ti = 0 and t. This can be written as
Z t Z a
dt da
η= = 2
.
0 a(t) 0 a H(a)
In a flat universe filled with matter, radiation and dark energy, we have
H 2 = H02 Ωr a−4 + Ωm a−3 + ΩΛ ,

where H0 is the Hubble constant and Ωi are the densities today (in units of the critical density):
Ωr = 9.4 × 10−5 , Ωm = 0.32, and ΩΛ = 1 − Ωm − Ωr .
(a) Ignoring the contribution from dark energy, show that

2 hp √ i
η=p a + aeq − aeq ,
Ωm H02
where aeq = Ωr /Ωm ≈ 3400−1 is the scale factor at matter-radiation equality. What is the
conformal time today (a0 ≡ 1)? What is it at recombination (a∗ ≈ 1100−1 )? You may
leave your answer in terms of the Hubble constant. Calculate the angle subtended by the
horizon at recombination.
68
(b∗ ) Dark energy leads to a small correction to the above result. Use your favorite software (say
Mathematica or Maple) to repeat the previous analysis. What was the percentage error
that you made in part (a)?
(c) Using a spacetime diagram, or otherwise, explain why the above results imply a horizon
problem for the standard Big Bang cosmology. How does inflation solve the horizon prob-
lem?
3. Slow-Roll Inflation
The equations of motion of the homogeneous part of the inflaton are
1
φ00 + 3Hφ0 + V,φ = 0 , 2
3Mpl H 2 = (φ0 )2 + V ,
2
where the primes denote derivatives with respect to time t.
(a) For the potential V (φ) = 21 m2 φ2 , show that the inflationary solution in the slow-roll ap-
proximation are
r " #
2 φ2i − φ2 (t)
φ(t) = φi − mMpl t , a(t) = ai exp 2 ,
3 4Mpl
where φi > 0 is the field value at the start of inflation (ti ≡ 0).
(b) What is the value of φ when inflation ends? Find an expression for the number of e-folds.
4 , estimate the total number of e-folds of inflation.
If V (φi ) ∼ Mpl
69
6.2 Problem Set 1: Perturbation Theory
[Note: Unless you feel very inspired, you only have to do two of the three problems.]
1. Evolution of Metric Perturbations

In the absence of anisotropic stress, the gravitational potential satisfies
Φ̈ + 3HΦ̇ + (2Ḣ + H2 )Φ = 4πGa2 δP , (?)
where δP is the total pressure perturbation.
(a) Discuss the solution of (?) during both the radiation-dominated and matter-dominated eras.
Describe the evolution on super-Hubble scales, k H, and on sub-Hubble scales, k H.
(b) In the lectures, we introduced the comoving curvature perturbation
H
R = −Φ + δq , with δT 0 j ≡ −∂j δq ,
ρ̄ + P̄
and proved that it doesn’t evolve on superhorizon scales. By considering the time-space
Einstein equation, show that
Φ̇ + HΦ = −4πGa2 δq ,
in the absence of anisotropic stress, so that Φ = Ψ. Use the conservation of R to show
that the gravitational potential decreases by a factor of 9/10 on superhorizon scales in the
transition from radiation-dominated to matter-dominated.
2. Growth of Matter Perturbations

At early times, the universe was dominated by radiation (r) and pressureless matter (m). You
may ignore baryons.
(a) Show that the conformal Hubble parameter satisfies
H02 Ω2m 1

2 1
H = + ,
Ωr y y2
where y ≡ a/aeq is the ratio of the scale factor to its value when the energy density of the
matter and radiation are equal.
(b) For perturbations on scales much smaller than the Hubble radius, the fluctuations in the
radiation can be neglected. Assuming that Φ evolves on a Hubble timescale, show that
δ̈m + Hδ̇m − 4πGa2 ρ̄m δm ≈ 0 . (?)
[You may use any equations given in the lectures without proof.]
70
(c) Show that, in terms of the variable y, eq. (?) becomes
d2 δm 2 + 3y dδm 3
2
+ − δm = 0 .
dy 2y(1 + y) dy 2y(1 + y)
Hence verify that the solutions are

 2 + 3y


δm ∝ √
1+y+1 p
 (2 + 3y) ln √ −6 1+y


1+y−1
Determine how δm grows with y for y 1 (RD) and y 1 (MD).
3. Cosmological Gravitational Waves
The line element of a FRW metric with tensor (gravitational wave) perturbations is
h i
ds2 = a2 (η) dη 2 − (δij + 2hij )dxi dxj ,
where hij is symmetric, trace-free and transverse. To linear order in hij , the non-zero
connection coefficients are
Γ000 = H ,
Γ0ij = Hδij + 2Hhij + ḣij ,
Γij0 = Hδji + ḣij ,
Γijk = ∂j hi k + ∂k hi j − δ il ∂l hjk .
(a) Show that the perturbation to the Einstein tensor has non-zero components
δGij = ḧij − ∇2 hij + 2Hḣij − 2hij (2Ḣ + H2 ) .
[Hint: Convince yourself that the Ricci scalar has no tensor perturbations at first
order.]
(b) Combine the previous result with the perturbation to the stress tensor, δTij = 2a2 P̄ hij −
a2 Πij , to show that the perturbed Einstein equation reduces to
ḧij + 2Hḣij − ∇2 hij = −8πGa2 Πij .
(c) For the case where ∇2 hij = −k 2 hij (i.e. a Fourier mode of the metric perturbation),
and assuming the anisotropic stress can be ignored, show that
kη cos(kη) − sin(kη)
hij ∝
(kη)3
is a solution for a matter-dominated universe (a ∝ η 2 ).
(d) Show that the solution tends to a constant for kη 1 and argue that such a constant
solution always exists for super-Hubble gravitational waves irrespective of the equation
of state of the matter. For the specifc solution above, show that well inside the Hubble
radius it oscillates at (comoving) frequency k and with an amplitude that falls as 1/a.
(This behaviour is also general and follows from a WKB solution of the Einstein
equation.)
71
6.3 Problem Set 2: Quantum Fluctuations
(a) Consider slow-roll inflation with a polynomial potential V (φ) = µ4−p φp , where p > 0 and µ
is a parameter with the dimension of mass. Show that the spectral index ns and the tensor-
to-scalar ratio r, evaluated at a reference scale k? corresponding to CMB fluctuations, are
2+p 4p
ns − 1 = − , r= ,
2N? N∗
where N? ≈ 50 is the number of e-folds between the horizon exit of k? and the end of
inflation. Which values of p are still consistent with current observations?
(b) Axions are promising inflaton candidates. At the perturbative level, an axion enjoys a
continuous shift symmetry, but this is broken nonperturbatively to a discrete symmetry,
leading to a potential of the form V (φ) = µ4 [1 − cos(φ/f )], where f is the axion decay
constant. Using this as the inflationary potential, show that
eN? α + 1 1
ns − 1 = −α , r = 8α ,
eN? α − 1 eN? α −1
2 /f 2 . Sketch this prediction in the n -r plane. Discuss the limit α 1.
where α ≡ Mpl s
2. The Lyth Bound

(a) Show that the tensor-to-scalar ratio predicted by slow-roll inflation is
At 8(φ 0 )2
r≡ = 2 2 .
As Mpl H
(b) Show that the inflaton field travels a “distance” ∆φ ≡ |φe − φcmb | during (observable)
inflation
r
∆φ ∆N r
= ,
Mpl 60 0.002
where ∆N is the total number of e-folds between the time when the CMB scales exited
the horizon and the end of inflation. [You may assume that ε ≈ const. during inflation]
Comment on the implication of this result for observable gravitational waves. [Realistically,
we require r > 0.001 to have a fighting chance of detecting gravitational waves via CMB
polarisation.]
(c) Derive the following relationship between the energy scale of inflation, V 1/4 , and the tensor-
to-scalar ratio,
2 1/4
3π
V 1/4 = rAs Mpl .
2
Use As = 2.1 × 10−9 to determine V 1/4 for r = 0.01. How does that compare to the energy
scales probed by the LHC?
72
6.4 Problem Set 3: Boltzmann Equation
1. Boltzmann for Harmonic Oscillators

Consider a one-dimensional harmonic oscillator with energy
p2 1
E= + κx2 .
2m 2
The distribution function of the harmonic oscillator depends on time t, position x, and momen-
tum p.
(a) Show that the collisionless Boltzmann equation is

∂f p ∂f ∂f
+ − κx = 0,
∂t m ∂x ∂p
and prove that the equilibrium distribution function is a function only of the energy E.
(b) By taking moments of the collisionless Boltzmann equation, derive the fluid equations for
the collisionless, one-dimensional harmonic oscillator in terms of the number density n, the
velocity v, and the pressure P , where
Z ∞
1 ∞ dp p
Z ∞
dp p2
Z
dp
n≡ f, v≡ f, P = 2
f − nv 2 .
−∞ 2π n −∞ 2π m −∞ 2π m
2. Boltzmann for Dark Matter

In this problem, you will derive the Boltzmann equation for cold dark matter and show that its
first two moments reproduce the fluid equations for dark matter.
(a) Show that the four-momentum of the dark matter particles is
P µ = (E/a)(1 − Ψ), (p/a)(1 + Φ)p̂i ,

p
where E ≡ p2 + m2 , with p2 ≡ −gij P i P j .
(b) Show that the Boltzmann equation for the dark matter distribution function fc is
p2

∂fc p ∂fc p
+ p̂ · ∇fc − (H − Φ̇) 2 + p̂ · ∇Ψ = 0 .
∂η E ∂ ln E E E
(c) Take the first two moments of the Boltzmann equation and show that they lead to the fluid
equations for the dark matter, in terms of
d3 p d3 p
Z Z
i 1 p
nc ≡ n̄c (1 + δc ) = 3
fc and vc ≡ 3
fc p̂i .
(2π) nc (2π) E
[Hint: you may drop terms of order p2 /E 2 in the non-relativistic limit and use without
proof that dΩ p̂i p̂j = (4π/3)δ ij .]
R
73
6.5 Problem Set 4: Temperature Anisotropies
1. Anisotropies from Tensors∗

In this problem, you will derive the temperature anisotropies induced by primordial tensor modes,
i.e. metric perturbations of the form
h i
ds2 = a2 (η) dη 2 − (δij + hij )dxi dxj ,
where hij is transverse and traceless.
(a) By considering the geodesic equation in the presence of tensor perturbations, show that the
comoving energy of a photon evolves as
d ln 1
= − ḣij p̂i p̂j ,
dη 2
where p̂i is a unit vector in the direction of propagation of the photon.
(b) Assuming tight-coupling until recombination and instantaneous decoupling, show that the
line-of-sign solution for the photon temperature anisotropy is
1 η0 0 d3 k
Z Z
0
Θ̃(n̂) = − dη 3/2
ḣij (η 0 , k) n̂i n̂j e−ikχ(η ) k̂·n̂ (?) ,
2 η∗ (2π)
where χ(η) ≡ η0 − η.
(c) Consider a single gravitational wave with momentum k pointing in the z-direction and
expand hij into its two polarization modes,
 
X 1 1 ±i 0
λ ± 1
hij (η, k) ≡ √ hλ (η, k)ij (k̂) , with (ẑ) = ±i −1 0 .

2 2
λ=± 0 0 0
Show that r
8π
± i j
ij (ẑ) n̂ n̂ = Y2 ±2 (n̂) .
15
With this it can be shown that the contribution of the Fourier mode k = kẑ to the integral
in (?) is
r r
4π −ikχ cos θ π X jl (kχ)
ḣ± (η, kẑ) Y2±2 (n̂) e =− ḣ± (η, kẑ) αl Yl ±2 (n̂) ,
15 2 (kχ)2
l
√ p
where αl ≡ (−i)l 2l + 1 (l + 2)!/(l − 2)!. The contribution from a general Fourier mode k
is obtained by rotating the previous result. This gives
r
± i j −ikχk̂·n̂ π X jl (kχ) X
ḣij (η, k) n̂ n̂ e =− ḣ± (η, k) αl Dl (k̂) Ylm (n̂) .
2 (kχ)2 m m±2
l
An explicit form of the Wigner D matrices won’t be needed for the rest of this problem.
74
(d) Show that angular power spectrum of the tensor-induced anisotropies is
Z
4π 2
d ln k Θλl (k) ∆2h (k) ,

Cl = 2
(2l + 1)
where s
η0
j2 (kη 0 ) jl (k(η0 − η 0 ))
Z
3 (l + 2)!
Θλl (k) = − (2l + 1) k dη 0 .
4 (l − 2)! η∗ kη 0 (k(η0 − η 0 ))2
(e) Discuss the shape of the spectrum. Show that a scale-invariant tensor spectrum, ∆2h (k) ≈
const. leads to l(l + 1)Cl ≈ const. on large scales.
Useful results.—You may use the following results without proof:
• To linear order in hij , the connection coefficients relevant for this problem are
Γ000 = H ,
1
Γ0ij = Hδij + Hhij + ḣij .
2
• The l = 2, m = ± spherical harmonic is

r
1 15
Y2±2 (n̂) = sin2 θ e±2iφ ,
4 2π
where θ and φ are the polar coordinates of n̂.
• Orthogonality of the Wigner D matrices implies
Z
l l0 4π
dk̂ Dmλ (k̂)Dm 0 λ0 (k̂) = δll0 δmm0
2l + 1
• The following integral may be useful

Z ∞
j 2 (x) 4 (l − 2)! 1
dx l 5 = .
0 x 15 (l + 2)! (l + 3)(l − 2)
75
7 Solutions
7.1 Solutions 0: Preliminaries
1. Warmup Questions
To be discussed in the examples class.
2. Horizon Problem
(a) Ignoring the contribution from dark energy, we have
h i q
H 2 = H02 Ωr a−4 + Ωm a−3 → a2 H = Ωm H02 (aeq + a)1/2 .
Substituting this into the integral for the conformal time, we find
Z a Z a
dã 1 dã 2 hp √ i
η= 2
= p p = p a + aeq − aeq .
0 ã H Ωm H02 0 ã + aeq Ωm H02
Notice that this result has the right limits: at early times (a 1), we get η ∝ a (as expected
during the radiation-dominated era), while at late times (a aeq ), we have η ∝ a1/2 (as
expected during the matter-dominated era). The conformal times today (a0 = 1) and at
recombination (a∗ = 1100−1 ) then are
2
η0 ≈ p ,
Ωm H02
2 hp √ i
η∗ = p 1100 −1 + 3400−1 − 3400−1 ≈ 0.0175 η .
0
Ωm H02
The angle subtended by the horizon at recombination is (in radians)
2η∗ 2 · 0.0175
θ≈ = = 0.036 ≈ 2.0◦ .
η0 − η∗ 1 − 0.0175
(b∗ ) Including dark energy, we have
h i q 1/2
H 2 = H02 Ωr a−4 + Ωm a−3 + ΩΛ → a2 H = Ωm H02 aeq + a + ξ a4 ,
where we have defined
ΩΛ 1 − (1 + aeq )Ωm
ξ≡ = ≈ 2.12 .
Ωm Ωm
Substituting this into the integral for the conformal time, we find
Z a
1 a
Z
da 2 dã 2
η= 2
= p p = p I(a) .
0 a H Ωm H02 2 0 ξ ã4 + ã + aeq Ωm H02
| {z }
≡ I(a)
The integral I(a) has to be evaluated numerically. We find, I(1) ≈ 0.89 and I(1100−1 ) ≈
0.0175, so that
2η∗ 2 · 0.0175
θ= = = 0.040 ≈ 2.3◦ .
η0 − η∗ 0.89 − 0.0175
This is 15% larger than our previous result.
76
(c) To be discussed in class.
(a) In the slow-roll approximation, (φ0 )2 V and |φ00 | |3Hφ0 |, the Klein-Gordon equation
and the Friedmann equation are
3Hφ0 ≈ −m2 φ ,
2 1
3Mpl H 2 ≈ m 2 φ2 .
2
These equations are invariant under φ → −φ, so without loss of generality we can take
φ > 0. We then get
mφ
H≈√ ,
6Mpl
r r
0 2 2
φ ≈− mMpl ⇒ φ(t) ≈ φi − mMpl t ,
3 3
where φi is the value of φ at the beginning of inflation, taken to be ti ≡ 0.
To solve for a(t), notice that
d ln a d ln a dt H 1 φ
= = 0 ≈− 2 .
dφ dt dφ φ 2 Mpl
Integrating from ti to t, we find the desired solution,

" #
φ2i − φ2 (t)
a(t) = ai exp 2 .
4Mpl
(b) The potential slow-roll parameter is

2 2
Mpl Mpl 2

V,φ
εV ≡ =2 .
2 V φ
√
The end of inflation is defined via εV (φe ) ≡ 1 → φe = 2Mpl . The total number of e-folds is
φ2i − φ2e φ2i 1

Ntot ≡ ln(ae /ai ) = 2 = 2 − .
4Mpl 4Mpl 2
4 , then φ is of order M 2 /m, and
If the potential at the beginning of inflation is of order Mpl i pl
the total number of e-folds is of the order
φ2i Mpl 2

Ntot ∼ 2 ∼ .
Mpl m
This achieves sufficient inflation to cure the horizon and flatness problems if the inflaton
mass, m, is about an order of magnitude or more smaller than the Planck scale.
77
7.2 Solutions 1: Perturbation Theory
1. Evolution of Metric Perturbations

(a) During the matter-dominated era, we have 2Ḣ + H2 = −8πGa2 P̄ = 0, so that (?) becomes
6
Φ̈ + Φ̇ = 0 , (??)
η
where we have used H = 2/η. Clearly, Φ = const. is a solution (on all scales). To see that
it is the growing mode solution try the power law ansatz Φ ∝ η p . Equation (??) implies
p(p − 1) + 6p = p(p + 5) = 0 → p = 0, −5 .
Our two solutions therefore are Φ ∝ η 0 (growing mode) and Φ ∝ η −5 (decaying mode).
During the radiation-dominated era, we have
8πG 2
2Ḣ + H2 = − a ρ̄ = −H2 ,
3
4πG 1 2
4πGa2 δP = δρ = ∇ Φ − 3H(Φ̇ + HΦ) ,
3 3
so that
4 1
Φ̈ + Φ̇ = ∇2 Φ , (†)
η 3
where we have used H = 1/η. Notice terms without derivatives acting on Φ have cancelled.
On super-Hubble scales, we can drop the term on the right-hand side of (†) and Φ = const.
is again a solution. This can also be seen by finding the general solution to (†). This is
done most easily in Fourier space, where (†) becomes
4 k3
Φ̈ + Φ̇ + Φ = 0 .
η 3
This equation has the following exact solution
j1 (x) n1 (x) 1
Φk (η) = Ak + Bk , x ≡ √ kη ,
x x 3
where the subscript k indicates that the solution can have different amplitudes for each
value of k. The functions j1 (x) and n1 (x) are the spherical Bessel and Neumann functions
sin x cos x x
j1 (x) = − = + O(x3 ) ,
x2 x 3
cos x sin x 1
n1 (x) = − 2 − = − 2 + O(x0 ) .
x x x
Since n1 (x) blows up for small x (early times), we reject that solution on the basis of initial
conditions, i.e. we set Bk ≡ 0. We match the constant Ak to the primordial value of the
potential, Φk (0). This gives

sin x − x cos x
Φk (η) = 3Φk (0) .
x3
78
Notice that this solution is valid on all scales. On large scales, x 1, this reduces to
Φk (η) = Φk (0) = const., while on small scales x 1, we get
cos √13 kη

Φk (η) ≈ 9Φk (0) .
(kη)2
During the radiation era, subhorizon modes of Φ therefore oscillate with frequency √1 k and
3
an amplitude that decays as η −2 ∝ a−2 .
(b) Consider the time-space component of the Einstein tensor

1
G0j = R0j − g0j R = R0j ,
2
where the second equality applies in Newtonian gauge (since g0j = 0). Substituting the
perturbed connection coefficients into (2.33), we get
R0j = 2∂j (Φ̇ + HΨ) .
To apply the Einstein equation, we note that
T0j = g0µ T µ j = g00 T 0 j

= ḡ00 T 0 j
= −a2 ∂j δq .
Hence, we have
G0j = 8πGT0j
Ψ=Φ
2∂j (Φ̇ + HΨ) = −8πGa2 ∂j δq −−−−→ Φ̇ + HΦ = −4πGa2 δq .
The comoving curvature perturbation can then be written as
H Φ̇ + HΦ
R = −Φ −
ρ̄ + P̄ 4πGa2
H
= −Φ − 2
(Φ̇ + HΦ)
4πGa ρ̄(1 + w)
2 Φ̇ + HΦ
= −Φ − ,
3 H(1 + w)
where we have assumed a constant equation of state w in the second line. On superhorizon
scales, and for w = const., we can drop Φ̇ and get
2 Φ 5 + 3w
R → −Φ − =− Φ.
31+w 3 + 3w
During the radiation-dominated era, w = 1/3, this implies
3
RRD = − ΦRD ,
2
79
while during the matter-dominated era, w = 0, we have
5
RMD = − ΦMD .
3
Using RRD = RMD , we get
9
ΦMD = ΦRD ,
10
which is the result we were asked to prove.
2. Growth of Matter Perturbations

(a) The conformal-time Friedmann equation is
8πG 2
H2 = a (ρm + ρr ) .
3
Defining y = a/aeq , we have ρm = ρeq y −3 and ρr = ρeq y −4 , so that the Friedmann equation
can be written as
8πG 2 8πG 2 Ω2
H2 = a ρeq (y −3 + y −4 ) = aeq ρeq (y −1 + y −2 ) = H02 m (y −1 + y −2 ) .
3 3 Ωr
(b) Combining the continuity and Euler equations for pressureless perturbations,
δ̇m = −∇ · vm ,
v̇m = −Hvm − ∇Φ ,
we find
δ̈m + Hδ̇m = ∇2 Φ .
Because radiation oscillates quickly compared to the Hubble time on small scales, averaging
over time the gravitational potential is only sourced by matter fluctuations, so the Poisson
equation is only sensitive to matter,
∇2 Φ = 4πGa2 ρ̄m δm .
Hence, we find
δ̈m + Hδ̇m − 4πGa2 ρ̄m δm = 0 . (?)
(c) This next step involves a bit of algebra, but it’s nothing outside your powers. Starting from
(?), there are two things we want to do before anything else. One is that, of course, we
want to switch from η to y as the time coordinate. The other is that we want to replace
the 4πGa2 ρ̄ term with something in the Ω and y language that we’ve used elsewhere in this
problem. Let’s do that first: we can write
3 ρm
4πGa2 ρm = H02 a2 Ωm
2 ρm,0
3
= H02 Ωm a−1
2
3 2
= H0 Ωm a−1 eq y
−1
2
3 Ω2
= H02 m y −1 .
2 Ωr
80
Let’s keep this in our back pockets. Next, we’ll do the variable change. Taking the derivative
of the Friedmann equation with respect to y, we get
dH H 2 Ω2
= − 0 m y −2 + 2y −3 .

dy 2H Ωr
It is then straightforward to express δ̇m and δ̈m as

dδm
δ̇m = Hy ,
dy
2
H02 Ω2m −2

2 2 d δm 1 dδm −3 dδm

δ̈m =H y + − y + 2y .
dy 2 y dy 2H2 Ωr dy
Plugging all this into (?) and dividing out H2 y 2 , we obtain
d2 δm 2 dδm 1 H02 Ω2m −2 dδm 3 H 2 Ω2

2
+ − 2
y + 2y −3 − 3 02 m δm = 0 .
dy y dy 2 H Ωr dy 2y H Ωr
We can simplify two of these terms by using
H02 Ω2m y2
= .
H 2 Ωr 1+y
Substituting this and cleaning up the result, we obtain the Meszaros equation,
d2 δm 2 + 3y dδm 3
2
+ − δm = 0 .
dy 2y(1 + y) dy 2y(1 + y)
By sustitituon, we can confirm that the two solutions are
δm ∝ 2 + 3y ,
√
1+y+1 p
δm ∝ (2 + 3y) ln √ −6 1+y.
1+y−1
During radiation domination (y 1), the first mode is clearly constant, while the second
contains a constant term and a piece evolving as ln y ∼ ln a. During matter domination
(y 1), the first solution is δ ∼ y ∼ a, while the second decays as y −3/2 . These confirm
the well-known results: matter clusters very slowly ( logarithmically) during radiation
domination, and then grows linearly, δ ∼ a, during matter domination.
3. Cosmological Gravitational Waves
(a) Calculating the components of the Einstein tensor can become time-consuming, if you
don’t organize your calculation in a convenient way. First, notice that we are trying to
compute Gij = Rij − 12 gij R. You might think that you need to compute all components
of the Ricci tensor Rµν to get the Ricci scalar R = g µν Rµν . However, at linear order,
the Ricci scalar cannot receive any contribution from a tensor perturbation.7 The
7
If you don’t believe this, try writing down some terms. They will all either be second order (like hij hij ) or
vanish because hij is transverse (like ∂i ∂j hij = 0) and traceless (like hi i ).
81
Ricci scalar will therefore take its homogeneous value, which has been computed in
the course notes,
R = −6a−2 (Ḣ + H2 ) .
The only real work we therefore need to do is to compute Rij . It is useful to have at
hand the result for the Christoffel symbol with two indices summed: Γρ0ρ = 4H and
Γρiρ = 0. We then do a little bit of work,
Rij = ∂ρ Γρij − ∂j Γρiρ + Γαij Γραρ − Γαiρ Γρjα
= ∂0 Γ0ij + ∂k Γkij − 0 + Γ0ij Γρ0ρ − Γ0ik Γk0j − Γki0 Γ0jk − Γkil Γljk
= Ḣδij + 2Ḣhij + 2Hḣij + ḧij − ∇2 hij + 4H(Hδij + 2Hhij + ḣij )

− (Hδik + 2Hhik + ḣik )(Hδjk + ḣkj ) − (Hδjk + 2Hhjk + ḣjk )(Hδik + ḣki )
= (Ḣ + 2H2 )δij + ḧij − ∇2 hij + 2Hḣij + 2(Ḣ + 2H2 )hij .
We then calculate the spatial part of the Einstein tensor:

1
Gij = Rij − gij R
2
= (Ḣ + 2H2 )δij + ḧij − ∇2 hij + 2Hḣij + 2(Ḣ + 2H2 )hij − 3(Ḣ + H2 )(δij + 2hij )
= −(2Ḣ + H2 )δij + ḧij − ∇2 hij + 2Hḣij − 2(2Ḣ + H2 )hij ,
which contains the correct background piece and the linear piece that we are after:
δGij = ḣij − ∇2 hij + 2Hḣij − 2(2Ḣ + H2 )hij .
(b) Using that the perturbation to the stress tensor is δTij = 2a2 P̄ hij − a2 Πij , we find the
Einstein equation for tensor perturbations:
ḧij − ∇2 hij + 2Hḣij − 2hij (2Ḣ + H2 ) = 8πG(2a2 P̄ hij − a2 Πij ) .
On account of the zeroth-order Friedmann equation, 2Ḣ + H2 = −8πGa2 P̄ , we find

that the two pressure terms exactly cancel out and we get
ḧij + 2Hḣij − ∇2 hij = −8πGa2 Πij .
(c) A Fourier mode in a matter dominated universe (a ∝ η 2 ) without anisotropic stress

(Πij = 0) satisfies
4
ḧij + ḣij + k 2 hij = 0 .
η
It is straightforward to verify that
kη cos(kη) − sin(kη)
hij ∝
(kη)3
is a solution.
82
(d) In the limit kη 1 — that is, for modes much larger than the Hubble horizon — we
expand the trigonometric functions as
1
cos(kη) = 1 − (kη)2 + · · · ,
2
1
sin(kη) = kη − (kη)3 + · · · ,
6
so that
kη cos(kη) − sin(kη) kη1 1
−−−−−→ − + O (kη)2 .

hij ∝ 3
(kη) 3
Hence, superhorizon gravitational waves have constant amplitude. More generally,
regardless of the equation of state of matter, which affects the Hubble friction term
in the equation of motion for hij , the gradient term k 2 hij can be neglected in the
superhorizon limit, giving us
ḣij + 2Hḣij ≈ 0 ,
which clearly admits constant solutions.
On the other hand, well within the horizon (kη 1) the cosine term in the solution
dominates over the sine term and we get
kη cos(kη) − sin(kη) kη1 cos(kη)

hij ∝ −−−−−→ .
(kη)3 (kη)2
As expected, this solution oscillates with comoving frequency k and the amplitude falls
as η −2 ∼ a−1 .
83
7.3 Solutions 2: Quantum Fluctuations
(a) The slow-roll parameters for V (φ) = µ4−p φp are
2
Mpl V,φ 2 p2 Mpl 2

εV ≡ = ,
2 V 2 φ
Mpl 2

2 V,φφ
ηV ≡ Mpl = p(p − 1) .
V φ
Without loss of generality, we choose the field to evolve from φ > 0 to φ = 0. Inflation ends
√
at φe = (p/ 2)Mpl , where εV (φe ) ≡ 1. The number of e-fold between φ and φe is
Z φ " #
dφ 1 1 φ2 φ2e 1 φ2 1
N (φ) = √ = 2 − 2 = 2 − .
φe Mpl 2εV 2p Mpl Mpl 2p Mpl 4
The horizon exit of the reference scale k? corresponds to

1 φ2? 1 1 φ2? p
N? = 2 − ≈ 2 → φ? ≈ 2pN? Mpl .
2p Mpl 4 2p Mpl
The slow-roll parameters at φ? are

p 1 p−1 1
εV,? = , ηV,? = .
4 N? 2 N?
The spectral tilt and the tensor-to-scalar therefore are
3p 1 1 2+p
ns − 1 ≡ −6εV,? + 2ηV,? = − + (p − 1) =− ,
2 N? N? 2N?
4p
r ≡ 16εV,? = .
N?
(b) The slow-roll parameters for V (φ) = µ4 [1 − cos(φ/f )] are

2
V,φ 2 α
2
Mpl

φ
εV ≡ = cot ,
2 V 2 2f
( )
2
2 V,φφ α φ
ηV ≡ Mpl = csc −2 ,
V 2 2f
where α ≡ Mpl 2 /f 2 . Without loss of generality, we choose the field to evolve from φ > 0 to
φ = 0. Inflation ends at φe = 2f cot−1 ( 2/α), where εV (φe ) ≡ 1. The number of e-fold

p
between φ and φe is
Z φ
dφ 1 2 φ
N (φ) = √ ≈ − ln cos .
φe M pl 2ε V α 2f
The horizon exit of the reference scale k? corresponds to

φ?
cos2 = e−N? α .
2f
84
The slow-roll parameters at φ? are
α 1 α eN? α − 2
εV,? = , ηV,? = − .
2 eN? α − 1 2 eN? α − 1
The spectral tilt and the tensor-to-scalar therefore are
eN? α + 1
ns − 1 ≡ −6εV,? + 2ηV,? = −α ,
eN? α − 1
1
r ≡ 16εV,? = 8α .
eN? α − 1
2. The Lyth Bound

(a) In the lectures, we derived the power spectra of scalar and tensor fluctuations. Their
amplitudes are
1 1 H2 2 H2
As = 2 2 , At = 2 2 .
8π ε Mpl π Mpl
Taking the ratio, we have
At 8(φ0 )2
r≡ = 16ε = 2 2 (?)
As Mpl H
(b) The result (?) can be written as

2
r 1 dφ
= ,
8 Mpl dN
where dN ≡ Hdt is the differential of the number of e-folds. Hence, we get

Z Ncmb r
∆φ r(N )
= dN .
Mpl Ne 8
For ε ≈ const., we have r ≈ const. and hence

r Z N r
∆φ r cmb r
≈ dN = ∆N ,
Mpl 8 Ne ≡0 8
which leads to r
∆φ ∆N r
= .
Mpl 60 0.002
Typically we need ∆N & 60 to solve the horizon and flatness problems, while r & 0.001 is
roughly needed to have any hope of detecting primordial gravitational waves via the B-mode
polarization of the CMB. To satisfy both of these, we see that we would need ∆φ & Mpl .
(c) The amplitude of the tensor spectrum is
2 H2 2 V
At = 2 2 ≈ 2 4 .
π Mpl 3π Mpl
85
Using At = rAs , we get
1/4
3π 2

1/4
V ≈ rAs Mpl .
2
With As ≈ 2.5 × 10−9 and Mpl ≈ 2.4 × 1018 GeV, we find
V 1/4 ≈ 3.3 r1/4 × 1016 GeV .
For r ∼ 0.01 (which is near the current observational limit) this gives V 1/4 ∼ 1016 GeV.
This exceeds the highest energy scales that will be probed at the LHC by a factor 1013 .
86
7.4 Solutions 3: Boltzmann Equation
1. Boltzmann for Harmonic Oscillators

(a) The full time derivative of the distribution function can be written as
df (t, x, p) ∂f dx ∂f dp ∂f
= + + .
dt ∂t dt ∂x dt ∂p
By the definition of momentum, we have
dx p
= ,
dt m
and the equation of motion of the harmonic oscillator can be written as
dp
= −κx .
dt
The collisionless Boltzmann equation for the harmonic oscillator then is
∂f p ∂f ∂f
+ − κx =0 (?)
∂t m ∂x ∂p
An equilibrium distribution function satisfies ∂f /∂t = 0. It is claimed that the distribution

function is then only a function of the energy. To show that f (E) is indeed a solution,
consider

p ∂f (E) ∂f (E) df p ∂E ∂E
− κx = − κx
m ∂x ∂p dE m ∂x ∂p
= 0.
(b) First, integrate (?) over all momentum. The ∂f /∂p term vanishes after integrating by
parts and noticing that f = 0 at p = ±∞ (there are no particles with infinite momentum!).
Hence, we find
∂n ∂(nv)
+ = 0.
∂t ∂x
This is the continuity equation. To get the Euler equation, first multiply by p/m and then
integrate over all momentum. This gives
Z ∞
∂(nv) ∂ dp p2 κx
+ 2
f+ n = 0,
∂t ∂x −∞ 2π m m
where the last term follows from integration by parts. The integral over p2 yields two terms:
i) a bulk velocity term, nv 2 , and ii) a pressure term, P . Using the continuity equation, we
get
∂v ∂v 1 ∂P κx
+v + + = 0.
∂t ∂x n ∂x m
87
2. Boltzmann for Dark Matter
(a) Substituting the metric (2.3) into gµν P µ P ν = m2 , we have
a2 (1 + 2Ψ)(P 0 )2 = m2 + p2 ≡ E 2 ,
where we have defined p2 ≡ −gij P i P j . Solving this for P 0 and expanding to linear order
in Ψ, we get
E
P 0 = (1 − Ψ) .
a
To find the spatial component of the four-momentum, we write P i ≡ C p̂i , so that
p2 ≡ −gij P i P j = a2 (1 − 2Φ)δij C 2 p̂i p̂j = a2 (1 − 2Φ)C 2 .
Solving this for C and expanding to linear order in Φ, we get

p
Pi = (1 + Φ) p̂i .
a
The perturbed four-momentum therefore is
P µ = [(E/a)(1 − Ψ), (p/a)(1 + Φ)p̂i ] (?) .
(b) The total time derivative of the distribution function is
dfc ∂fc dxi ∂fc d ln E ∂fc dp̂i ∂fc

= + + + (??) .
dη ∂η dη ∂xi dη ∂ ln E dη ∂ p̂i
| {z }
O(2)
We need dxi /dη and d ln E/dη in the perturbed background. For the former, we simply
note that
dxi dλ dxi Pi p
= = 0 = p̂i + O(1) .
dη dη dλ P E
Since this coefficient multiplies the first-order quantity ∂fc /∂xi , we only need it at zeroth
order.
The coefficient d ln E/dη is derived from the geodesic equation, which we recall takes the
form
dP µ dxµ
= −Γµαβ P α P β , with P µ ≡ .
dλ dλ
Using
dP µ dη dP µ dP µ
= = P0 ,
dλ dλ dη dη
we can write the geodesic equation as
dP µ P αP β
= −Γµαβ .
dη P0
88
We consider the µ = 0 component. The left-hand side of the geodesic equation becomes
dP 0

d E 1 − Ψ dE E E dΨ
= (1 − Ψ) = − H (1 − Ψ) −
dη dη a a dη a a dη

E d ln E p
= (1 − Ψ) − H − Ψ̇ − p̂ · ∇Ψ + O(2) .
a dη E
The right-hand side is
P αP β P iP j
−Γµαβ 0
= −Γ000 P 0 − 2Γ0i0 P i − Γ0ij ,
P P0
where
E E
−Γ000 P 0 = −(H + Ψ̇) (1 − Ψ) =− (1 − Ψ) × (H + Ψ̇) ,
a a
p E p
−2Γ0i0 P i = −2p̂i ∂i Ψ (1 + Φ) = − (1 − Ψ) × 2p̂i ∂i Ψ ,
a a E
P iP j (p2 /a2 )(1 + Φ)2 E p2
−Γ0ij = −[H − Φ̇ − 2H(Φ + Ψ)] = − (1 − Ψ) × (H − Φ̇) 2 .
P0 (E/a)(1 − Ψ) a E
Combining the above, we get
d ln E p p2
= − p̂ · ∇Ψ − (H − Φ̇) 2 .
dη E E
Substituting the above into (??), we get the desired result
p2

∂fc p ∂fc p
+ p̂ · ∇fc − (H − Φ̇) 2 + p̂ · ∇Ψ = 0 (‡) .
∂η E ∂ ln E E E
(c) Next, we take moments of the Boltzmann equation:
– First, we multiply (‡) by d3 p/(2π)3 and integrate. This leads to
∂nc ∂(nc vci ) d3 p ∂fc p2 d3 p ∂fc p i

Z Z
∂Ψ
+ − (H − Φ̇) − i p̂ = 0 .
∂η ∂xi 3
(2π) ∂ ln E E 2 ∂x (2π)3 ∂ ln E E
The last term can be dropped since it is secretly second order. [The integral over the
direction vector is nonzero only for the perturbed part of fc .] The remaining integral
term can be further simplified. Note that dE/dp = p/E, so the integrand can be
written as p∂fc /∂p. The integral then becomes
Z ∞ Z ∞
d3 p ∂fc
Z
4π 3 ∂fc 4π
p = dp p = −3 dp p2 fc = −3nc .
(2π)3 ∂p (2π)3 0 ∂p (2π)3 0
The zeroth moment of the Boltzmann equation therefore reads
∂nc ∂(nc vci )

+ + 3(H − Φ̇)nc = 0 .
∂η ∂xi
89
Substituing nc = n̄c (1 + δc ), we find
n̄˙ c = −3Hn̄c ,
δ̇c = −∂i vci + 3Φ̇ ,
which are the continuity equations for the background density n̄c and its fractional
perturbation δc .
– Next, we multiply (‡) by d3 p/(2π)3 (p/E)p̂j and integrate. This gives
∂(nc vcj ) d3 p p2 i j d3 p ∂fc p3 j

Z Z
∂
0= + i fc p̂ p̂ − (H + Φ̇) p̂
∂η ∂x (2π)3 E 2 (2π)3 ∂ ln E E 3
d3 p ∂fc p2 i j
Z
∂Ψ
− i p̂ p̂ .
∂x (2π)3 ∂ ln E E 2
The second term can be dropped since it is small, order h(p/E)2 i, in the non-relativistic
limit. The remaining terms must be handled more carefully because of the partial
derivatives. Since (p/E)∂/∂E = ∂/∂p, the third terms is actually order p/E, while
the last is independent of velocity. Performing the integration by parts explicitly in
the third term, we find
d3 p ∂fc p2 j dΩdp̂j ∞ p4 ∂fc

Z Z Z
p̂ = dp
(2π)3 ∂p E (2π)3 0 E ∂E
j Z ∞ 3
p5
Z
dΩdp̂ 4p
=− dp fc − 3 .
(2π)3 0 E E
The p5 /E 3 terms is negligible, so the only relevant contribution comes from the p3 /E
term, which leads to −4nc vcj .
Performing the same manipulations in the last integral term leads to −nc . Hint: use
Z
4π ij
dΩ p̂i p̂j = δ .
3
The first moment of the Boltzmann equation then reads
∂(nc vcj ) ∂Ψ
+ 4Hnc vcj + nc j = 0 .
∂η ∂
To extract the first-order equation, we simply substitute nc → n̄c . Using n̄˙ c = −Hn̄c ,
we then get
v̇c = −Hvc − ∂i Ψ ,
which is the first-order Euler equation.
90
7.5 Solutions 4: Temperature Anisotropies
1. Anisotropies from Tensors
(a) With P µ = dxµ /dλ, it follows that
dη dxi 1
= 2, = p̂i − hij p̂j .
dλ a dη 2
The geodesic equation in conformal time then is
dP µ
+ Γµνρ P ν P ρ = 0 .
a2 dη
The 0-component is
d 2

0 0 i 1 i k j 1 j l
+ 4 Γ00 + Γij p̂ − hk p̂ p̂ − hl p̂ = 0.
a2 dη a2 a 2 2
Substituting the given expressions for Γ000 and Γ0ij , we get

d ln 1 i 1 i k j 1 j l
= +H − Hδij + Hhij + ḣij p̂ − hk p̂ p̂ − hl p̂
dη 2 2 2
1
= − ḣij p̂i p̂j ,
2
where in the second line we have dropped all terms beyond linear order in hij .
(b) Assuming that tight-coupling holds until recombination, we can neglect the temperature
quadrupole at last scattering. The only tensor-induced contribution to the temperature
anisotropies then comes from the free-streaming effect:
dΘ d ln 1
= = − ḣij p̂i p̂j .
dη dη 2
Integrating the Boltzmann equation along the line-of-sight, we find
1 η0 0
Z
Θ̃(n̂) ≡ Θ(η0 , x0 ≡ 0, n̂ = −p̂) = − dη ḣij (η 0 , x(η 0 )) n̂i n̂j ,
2 η∗
where x(η 0 ) ≡ χ(η 0 )n̂. Writing ḣij in terms of its Fourier transform, we get
η0
d3 k
Z Z
1 0
Θ̃(n̂) = − dη 0 3/2
ḣij (η 0 , k) n̂i n̂j e−ikχ(η ) k̂·n̂ (?) .
2 η∗ (2π)
(c) It is convenient to expand the tensor mode in its two helicity components
X 1
hij (η, k) = √ hλ (η, k)λij (k̂) .
λ=±
2
91
We first consider the special case k = kẑ. In that case, the explicit form of the polarization
tensor is
 
1 ±i 0
1
± (ẑ) = ±i −1 0 .

2
0 0 0
Contracting this with n̂ = (sin θ cos φ, sin θ sin φ, cos θ), we find
  
1 ±i 0 sin θ cos φ
1
± i j
ij (ẑ) n̂ n̂ = (sin θ cos φ, sin θ sin φ, cos θ) ±i −1 0  sin θ sin φ 
  
2
0 0 0 cos θ
r
1 8π
= sin2 θ e±2iφ = Y2 ±2 (n̂) .
2 15
The contribution of the Fourier mode k = kẑ to the integral in (?) therefore is
r
4π
ḣ± (η, kẑ) Y2±2 (n̂) e−ikχ cos θ .
15
Using the Rayleigh plane-wave expansion for the exponential and expressing Pl (cos θ) in
terms of YL0 (n̂), this can be written as
4π X √
√ ḣ± (η, kẑ) × (−i)L 2L + 1 jL (kχ)Y2±2 (n̂)YL0 (n̂) .
15 L≥0
Next, we replace the product of the two spherical harmonics by a sum over spherical har-
monics weighted by Wigner 3j symbols
r " ! ! #
4π X X√ 2 L l 2L l
L
ḣ± (η, kẑ) (−i) (2L + 1)jL (kχ) × 2l + 1 Yl±2 (n̂) .
3 ∓2 0 ±2 0 0 0
L≥0 l≥2
Writing out the 3j symbols explicitly and using a recursion relations for Bessel functions
to express jl±2 in terms of jl , gives
r r
4π −ikχ cos θ π X jl (kχ)
ḣ± (η, kẑ) Y2±2 (n̂) e =− ḣ± (η, kẑ) αl Yl ±2 (n̂) ,
15 2 (kχ)2
l
√ p
where αl ≡ (−i)l 2l + 1 (l + 2)!/(l − 2)!.
So far, we have only considered Fourier modes with k parallel to ẑ. The contribution from
a general Fourier mode is obtained by rotating the previous result. We are told that this
gives
r
± i j −ikχk̂·n̂ π X jl (kχ) X
ḣij (η, k) n̂ n̂ e =− ḣ± (η, k) αl Dl (k̂) Ylm (n̂) (??) ,
2 (kχ)2 m m±2
l
and that an explicit form of the Wigner D matrices won’t be needed.
92
(d) We write the temperature anisotropy in a harmonic expansion
Θ̃(n̂) = alm Ylm (n̂) .
The angular power spectrum is then defined as halm a∗l0 m0 i = Cl δll0 δmm0 . We find the alm ’s
by substituting (??) into (?):
r
d3 k
Z
1 X l λ 4π l
alm = √ 3/2
(−i) Θl (k) Dm±2 (k̂) ,
2 λ (2π) 2l + 1
where s Z η0
2l + 1 (l + 2)! jl (kχ)
Θλl (k) = dη 0 ḣλ (η 0 , k) (†) .
4 (l − 2)! η∗ (kχ)2
To obtain the power spectrum, we compute

(" #" 0
#
d3 k d3 k0 Θλl (k) Θλl0 (k0 )
Z
l−l0 4π 1X
halm a∗l0 m0 i = (−i)
hλ0 (k0 )
p
(2l + 1)(2l0 + 1) 2 λλ0 (2π)3/2 (2π)3/2 hλ (k)
0
× hhλ (k)h∗λ0 (k0 )i Dmλ
l l
(k̂)Dm 0
0 λ0 (k̂ ) .
Using
2π 2 2 Θλl (k)
hhλ (k)h∗λ0 (k0 )i = ∆ (k) δD (k − k0 ) δλλ0 and Θλl (k) ≡ ,
k3 h hλ (k)
we get
0
(−i)l−l
Z Z
(λ) 2 0
halm a∗l0 m0 i = p d ln k Θl (k) ∆2h (k) l
dk̂ Dmλ (k̂)Dm l
0 λ0 (k̂)
(2l + 1)(2l0 + 1) | {z }
4π
δll0 δmm0
2l + 1
Z
4π 2
d ln k Θλl (k) ∆2h (k) .

= δll0 δmm0
(2l + 1)2
The final result for the angular power spectrum therefore is
Z
4π 2
d ln k Θλl (k) ∆2h (k)

Cl = 2
(††) .
(2l + 1)
To evaluate (††) we need an expression for the tensor mode function in (†). The universe is
matter dominated at recombination and thereafter. The tensor mode functions then satisfy
(see Problem 3 on Problem Set 1):
j1 (kη) j2 (kη)
hλ (η, k) = 3hλ (ηi , k) → ḣλ (η, k) = −3khλ (ηi , k) .
kη kη
Substituting this into (†), we get
s
(l + 2)! η0 j2 (kη 0 ) jl (k(η0 − η 0 ))
Z
3
λ
Θl (k) = − (2l + 1) k dη 0 (‡) .
4 (l − 2)! η∗ kη 0 (k(η0 − η 0 ))2
93
(e) Since gravitational waves decay inside horizon, we expect the tensor-induced CMB spectrum
to drop off on small scales. Let’s see how this is reflected in the result (‡). This integral
is non-negligible only when kη 0 ∼ 2 and k(η0 − η 0 ) ∼ l simultaneously, since otherwise
at least one of the two Bessel functions is close to zero. Both conditions can be satisfied
simultaneously only if
η0 √
l . 2 ∼ 2 z∗ + 1 ∼ 60 .
η∗
This estimate is consistent with the drop of the spectrum observed in Fig. 27.
Finally, let us show that our result (‡) corresponds to l(l + 1)Cl = const. on large scales.
Let us approximate j2 (x)/x by δD (x − 2). We then get
s
3 (l + 2)! jl (kη0 − 2)
Θλl (k) ∼ − (2l + 1) for η∗ < k −1 < η0 .
4 (l − 2)! (kη0 − 2)2
The restriction on wavenumbers is such that only gravitational waves that enter the horizon
between last-scattering and today contribute. Assuming a scale-invariant primordial tensor
spectrum, ∆2h = At , the angular power spectrum becomes
1/η∗
j 2 (kη0 − 2)
Z
π (l + 2)!
Cl ∼ At d ln k
4 (l − 2)! 1/η0 (kη0 − 1)4
η0 /η∗ −1
dx jl2 (x)
Z
π (l + 2)!
= At ,
4 (l − 2)! 0 x + 2 x4
where we substituted x ≡ kη0 − 2 in the second line. For l 1, but l 60, the integral is
dominated by x ∼ l, and we can replace x + 2 by x in the integrand and extend the upper
limit of integration to ∞. Using
Z ∞
j 2 (x) 4 (l − 2)! 1
dx l 5 = ,
0 x 15 (l + 2)! (l + 3)(l − 2)
we find
π At
Cl ∼ .
15 (l + 3)(l − 2)
Hence, l(l + 1)Cl ≈ const., as expected.
94
References
[1] D. Baumann, Part III Cosmology.

[2] S. Dodelson, Modern Cosmology. Academic Press, 2003.
[3] P. Peter and J.-P. Uzan, Primordial Cosmology. Oxford University Press, 2013.
[4] W. Hu and S. Dodelson, “Cosmic Microwave Background Anisotropies,” Ann. Rev. Astron.
Astrophys. 40 (2002) 171–216, arXiv:astro-ph/0110414 [astro-ph].
[5] W. Hu, “Lecture Notes on CMB Theory: From Nucleosynthesis to Recombination,”
arXiv:0802.3688 [astro-ph].
[6] A. Challinor, Part III Advanced Cosmology.
[7] W. Hu, “Concepts in CMB Anisotropy Formation,” in The Universe at High-z, Large-Scale
Structure and the Cosmic Microwave Background, pp. 207–239. Springer, 1996.
[8] Z. Hou, R. Keisler, L. Knox, M. Millea, and C. Reichardt, “How Massless Neutrinos Affect the
Cosmic Microwave Background Damping Tail,” Phys. Rev. D87 (2013) 083008, arXiv:1104.2333
[astro-ph.CO].
[9] S. Bashinsky and U. Seljak, “Neutrino Perturbations in CMB Anisotropy and Matter Clustering,”
Phys. Rev. D 69 (2004) 083002, arXiv:astro-ph/0310198 [astro-ph].
[10] D. Baumann, D. Green, J. Meyers, and B. Wallisch, “Phases of New Physics in the CMB,” JCAP
1601 (2016) 007, arXiv:1508.06342 [astro-ph.CO].
95

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Advanced Cosmology

Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics,

Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Amsterdam,

2 Cosmological Perturbation Theory 12

3 Quantum Initial Conditions 23

4 The Boltzmann Equation 35

III Problems and Solutions 68

1.1 Homogeneous Cosmology

ds2 = dt2 − a2 (t)γij dxi dxj , (1.1)

P µ = a−1 [E, p] . (1.4)

Γ000 = H , Γ0ij = Hδij , Γij0 = Hδji , (1.5)

where H ≡ ȧ/a is the conformal Hubble parameter.

The µ = 0 component of the geodesic equation (1.3) becomes

3H2 = 8πGa2 ρ̄ , (1.9)

where ρ̄ and P̄ are the background density and pressure, respectively.

Exercise.—By substituting (1.5) into

Rµν ≡ ∂λ Γλµν − ∂ν Γλµλ + Γλλρ Γρµν − Γρµλ Γλνρ , (1.11)

G00 = 3H2 , Gij = −(2Ḣ + H2 )δij . (1.13)

ρ̄˙ = −3H(ρ̄ + P̄ ) . (1.14)

The total radiation density is

A Brief Thermal History

plasma neutral hydrogen

Figure 2. Fraction of free electrons, Xe ≡ ne /nb , as a function of redshift (or temperature).

1.2 Slow-Roll Inflation

For a00 < 0, the integral converges to a finite value:

The Physics of Inflation

The last condition corresponds to a violation of the strong energy condition.

Exercise.—Using the Einstein equations (1.9) and (1.10), show that

where Mpl = (8πG)−1/2 is the reduced Planck mass.

Equation (1.30) corresponds to the first slow-roll condition:

(φ0 )2 < V . (1.31)

φ00 + 3Hφ0 = −V,φ . (1.32)

φ00 < 3Hφ0 . (1.33)

Use this to show that ε ≈ εV during slow-roll inflation.

2 Cosmological Perturbation Theory

gµν (η, x) = ḡµν (η) + δgµν (η, x) , (2.1)

2.1 Metric Perturbations

ds2 = a2 (η) (1 + 2Ψ)dη 2 − [(1 − 2Φ)δij + hij ] dxi dxj ,

2.2 Matter Perturbations

v i (η, k) = ik̂ i v(η, k) , (2.14)

2.3 Equations of Motion

∂η q i = −4Hq i − (ρ̄ + P̄ )∂ i Ψ − ∂ i δP − ∂j Πij . (2.18)

Derivation.—Consider first the ν = 0 component of (2.16),

∂0 T 0 0 + ∂i T i 0 + Γµµ0 T 0 0 + Γµµi T i 0 −Γ000 T 0 0 − Γ0i0 T i 0 − Γi00 T 0 i −Γij0 T j i = 0 . (2.19)

∂0 (ρ̄ + δρ) + ∂i q i + (H + Ψ̇ + 3H − 3Φ̇)(ρ̄ + δρ)

ρ̄˙ + ∂0 δρ + ∂i q i + 3H(ρ̄ + δρ) − 3ρ̄ Φ0 + 3H(P̄ + δP ) − 3P̄ Φ̇ = 0 . (2.21)

Writing the zeroth-order and first-order parts separately, we get

ρ̄˙ = −3H(ρ̄ + P̄ ) , (2.22)

∂0 T 0 i + ∂j T j i + Γµµ0 T 0 i + Γµµj T j i − Γ00i T 0 0 − Γ0ji T j 0 − Γj0i T 0 j − Γjki T k j = 0 . (2.24)

∂η qi = −4Hqi − (ρ̄ + P̄ )∂i Ψ − ∂i δP − ∂ j Πij . (2.26)

• Matter.—For a non-relativistic fluid (i.e. matter), we have Pm = 0 and Πij

δ̇m = −∇ · vm + 3Φ̇ , (2.27)

Each term in these equations should be rather intuitive.

• Radiation.—For a relativistic fluid (i.e. radiation), we have Pr = 1

Rµν = ∂λ Γλµν − ∂ν Γλµλ + Γλλρ Γρµν − Γρµλ Γλνρ . (2.33)

Substituting the perturbed connection coefficients (2.4)–(2.9), we find

R00 = −3Ḣ + ∇2 Ψ + 3H(Φ̇ + Ψ̇) + 3Φ̈ , (2.34)

Example.—The 00 component of the Ricci tensor is

R00 = ∂ρ Γρ00 − ∂0 Γρ0ρ + Γα ρ α ρ

R00 = ∂i Γi00 − ∂0 Γi0i + Γα i α i

= ∇ Ψ − 3∂0 (H − Φ̇) + 3(H + Ψ̇)(H − Φ̇) − (H − Φ̇)2 δij δji

= −3Ḣ + ∇2 Ψ + 3H(Φ̇ + Ψ̇) + 3Φ̈ . (2.38)

This confirms the result (2.34).

in = γ0in (1 + p̂0in · ve )

f 0 (0 , p̂0in ) = f (in , p̂in )

= f [(1 − (p̂ − p̂0in ) · ve ), p̂in ]