SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Name: _________________________________________________

Grade/Strand/Section: ____________________________________

Teacher: ARNEL L. ROSETE

Physical Science
Quarter 1 – Module 1:
Title: Formation of Light Elements in
the Universe

1
Science – Grade 12
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 – Module 1: Formation of Light Elements in the Universe

First Edition, 2020

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 12

Physical Science
Quarter 1 – Module 1: Formation of
Light Elements in the Universe

3
Introductory Message
For the facilitator:

Welcome to the Physical Science Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on The
formation of light elements in the universe!
This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators both from
public and private institutions to assist you, the teacher or facilitator in helping the learners
meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while overcoming their personal, social, and
economic constraints in schooling.

This learning resource hopes to engage the learners into guided and independent learning
activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also aims to help learners acquire the
needed 21st century skills while taking into consideration their needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of the module:

Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that will
help you in guiding the learners.

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module. You also need
to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage their own learning.
Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners as they do the tasks
included in the module.

For the learner:

Welcome to the Physical Science Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on The formation
of light elements in the universe!
The hand is one of the most symbolized part of the human body. It is often used to depict skill,
action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create and accomplish. Hence, the hand
in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner is capable and empowered to
successfully achieve the relevant competencies and skills at your own pace and time. Your
academic success lies in your own hands!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for guided and
independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to process the contents of
the learning resource while being an active learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

4
 What I Need to Know This will give you an idea of the skills or
competencies you are expected to learn in the
module.

What I Know This part includes an activity that aims to check

what you already know about the lesson to take. If
you get all the answers correct (100%), you may
decide to skip this module.

What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link the

current lesson with the previous one.

What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be introduced

to you in various ways such as a story, a song, a
poem, a problem opener, an activity or a situation.

What is It This section provides a brief discussion of the

lesson. This aims to help you discover and
understand new concepts and skills.

What’s More This comprises activities for independent practice

to solidify your understanding and skills of the
topic. You may check the answers to the exercises
using the Answer Key at the end of the module.

What I Have Learned This includes questions or blank

sentence/paragraph to be filled in to process what
you learned from the lesson.

What I Can Do This section provides an activity which will help

you transfer your new knowledge or skill into real
life situations or concerns.

Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your level of

mastery in achieving the learning competency.

Additional Activities In this portion, another activity will be given to you

to enrich your knowledge or skill of the lesson
learned. This also tends retention of learned
concepts.

Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the

module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in developing this

module.
The following are some reminders in using this module:

5
 1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the module.
Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities included in
the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to
consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are not alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and gain deep
understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you understand the
formation of light elements in the universe!

The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.

The module is divided into three lessons, namely:

 Lesson 1 – Cosmology of the big bang model.
 Lesson 2 - Overview of the proof for the big bang model.
 Lesson 3 – Reactions involving the nucleosynthesis of the first elements.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Give evidence for and explain the formation of light elements in the big bang theory.
2. Enumerate the steps involved in the nuclear fusion and model them.
3. Recognize the role played by nuclear fusion in stars and how it affects our everyday lives

6
 What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.

1. What is the term referred to the process that creates new atomic nucleus from
preexisting nucleons , primarily protons and neutrons?
a. nuclear fusion
b. nuclear reaction
c. nuclear synthesis
d. nucleosynthesis

2. What is the term referred to the process by which light nuclei fuse together to form a
heavier nucleus?
a. nuclear fusion
b. nuclear reaction
c. nuclear synthesis
d. nucleosynthesis

3. It is a theory that explains that the universe started as a very dense and hot “singularity”
which eventually cooled and began to form different particles?
a. big bang theory
b. cosmic inflation theory
c. oscillating theory
d. steady state theory

4. What was formed as the universe expanded and cooled down?

a. electron
b. neutron
c. proton
d. subatomic particles

5. What is formed when there is a fusion of a proton and neutron in big bang
nucleosynthesis??
a. deuterium
b. protium
c. tritium
d. hydrogen

6. What is formed when there is a fusion of two deuterium nuclei in big bang
nucleosynthesis?
a. Helium-3
b. Hydrogen
c. neutron
d. one neutron and helium-3

7
7. What are the conditions in the universe so that a nuclear fusion could occur?
a. high energy
b. high energy and temperature
c. high temperature
d. moderate conditions

8. What is formed when there is fusion of deuterium and tritium?

a. Helium-2
b. Helium-3
c. Helium-4
d. Helium-4 and neutron

9. What is the term referred to form of an element that has the same atomic number of the
original element but with different atomic mass or mass number?
a. elements
b. heavy elements
c. isotopes
d. light elements

10. The following light elements were formed in the big bang nucleosynthesis?
a. H, He, Be, C
b. He, H, Be, Li
c. Li, H, He, Na
d. Fe, H, He, Be

8
Lesson
Formation of Light Elements in
1 the Universe
The big bang theory is the leading explanation about how the universe began 13.8 billion years
ago. This theory explains that the universe started as a very dense and hot state that expanded
rapidly.

This rapid expansion caused the universe to cool down and become less dense forming new
particles, the protons, neutrons and electrons. As it cooled down and these particles formed, the
universe entered the phase called nucleosynthesis. Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates
new atomic nucleus from preexisting nucleons , primarily protons and neutrons.

What’s In

How was the universe formed?

How do we use the periodic table of elements?

Notes to the Teacher

It is significant that learners had background on formation of universe and
the use of periodic table of elements, in particular aside from the
familiarization of name and symbol of elements they need to have been
familiarized to distinguish which element is lighter and heavier and the
basis for such distinction particularly the atomic no. and the atomic mass.

9
 What’s New

Cosmology and the Big Bang model

Cosmology is the study of how the universe began, how it continue to exist, and how it will end.
Different religions and cultures have different interpretations about cosmology based on their
beliefs. Do you think there is a proof that any of these cosmologies are true?
Science brings forth a cosmological theory not from beliefs but from scientific evidence that
universe once began to expand and continues to expand until today. This theory is called the Big
Bang theory or Big Bang model. Astronomers George Lemaitre and Edwin Hubble were some of
its proponents. George Lemaitre is also a catholic priest but he did not find his theory or science
incompatible with his religion. Why is it that some people think that science goes against what
they believe in?

Key stages of the Big Bang model

There are five key stages in the Big Bang model

Figure 1.1 Big bang Timeline

Source: https://www.rankred.com/dark-matter-may-have-existed
a. The universe may have begun as an infinitely hot and dense initial singularity, a point with
all of space, time, matter and energy. There is no space around the singularity.

b. Then it began to rapidly expand in a process called inflation. Space itself expanded faster
than a speed of light. In this still hot and dense mass of the universe, pairs of matter and
antimatter (quarks and antiquarks were formed from energy, but these cancelled each other
back into energy (annihilation).

c. The universe cooled down as it expanded. An excess of matter – electrons, protons and
neutrons and other particles came to be in a highly energetic state. Photons (light particles) are
being scattered everywhere. Protons and neutrons came together to form different types of
nuclei through the process called nucleosynthesis and nuclear fusion.

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d. Later on, electrons started to bind to ionize protons and nuclei forming neutral atoms in a
process called recombination. The bound particles no longer scattered photons so light and
energy moved freely across the space. This period is called “dark ages”.

e. Gravity caused these atoms to collapse onto one another to form stars and galaxies and other
matter. This still happens until today. Space continue to expand at an accelerating rate.

Cosmic Inflation
This refers to the expansion of the universe. How does the universe expand? Could you imagine
if the earth is expanding meaning becoming bigger, would you think we are now more nearer to
the sun? If we go nearer to the sun, what will happen to us? The expansion of the universe can
be explained in an illustration in inflating a balloon. Figure 1.2 below, illustrates how the
universe expands, in what directions it is going into and to how much bigger is the expansion.

In the figure, the circle is the balloon represents the universe, the stickers are the galaxies.
Galaxies are group or cluster of stars including planets. Our planet earth, the solar system,
belongs to one cluster or galaxy called the milky way. We belong to milky way. There are so
many billions of galaxies in the universe

Activity 1: Expansion of the Universe

1. Start with a balloon at its normal which means no air inside. Paste a small rounded stickers in
1 cm or 2cm apart. Notice the distances from each other, designate a letter to identify the
reference points (ist circle).
2. Blow the balloon to at least half in size, notice the positioning of the stickers from each other,
notice the distances (2nd circle). Observe
3. Do the stickers appear to be moving away from each other? Are the stickers moving across
the balloons? Do the stickers grow in size?
4. Blow again the balloon to its fullest, notice again the positioning of the stickers from each
other, notice the distances 3rd circle).
5. Did the positioning of the stickers (galaxies) from each which varies? by how much?
6. What is the direction of expansion?
7. Back to the question, would you think during the expansion the distances of the planet
changes? Like our distance to the sun Yes or No, why?

Figure 1.2

8. What can you conclude about the expansion of the universe based on the activity?
9. Write your observation and answers in your notebook

Overview on the proof of a big bang model

What are the proofs that there was really a big bang?

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1.Redshift is the first evidence of the big bang model. Using different instrument can enable us
to detect the light of other galaxies. It was found out that the light of galaxies is found to be
redshifted (the light looks “stretched”) which suggests that galaxies are moving away from each
other (red light has a longer wavelength which shows going away compared to blue light we see
in the skies with a shorter wavelength which means nearer). It was later determined that they
are not moving away instead space itself is expanding in all directions causing all the galaxies to
be relatively farther apart.
2.The relative abundance of light elements in the universe is the second evidence to prove.
Through measurements, we find that around 24% of the universe’s ordinary matter is currently
comprised of helium, about 74% hydrogen and 2% of other elements. These figures only make
sense if nucleosynthesis in the big bang model actually occurred since no chemical process
significantly changes these percentages.
3.Cosmic Microwave background or the energy (thermal radiation) that was left as a result of
recombination. Atoms became neutral due to the binding of nuclei and electrons. The remaining
radiation began to scatter. This is seen by scientists as a faint microwave glow emitted by any
object in space.

The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates new atomic nucleus from preexisting nucleons,
primarily protons and neutrons. Big bang nucleosynthesis in physical cosmology refers to the
production of nuclei other than H-1, the normal, light hydrogen, during the early phases of the
universe, shortly after the big bang. How does free proton (p+) and neutron (n) would combine
and separate from each other due to the high energies at that time?
The composition of nuclei is given below in Figure 1.3. D and T are isotopes of hydrogen namely
deuterium and tritium respectively, other elements are helium, beryllium and lithium. Isotopes
are form of an element that has the same atomic number of the original element but with a
different atomic mass or mass number. For Hydrogen there are three isotopes namely protium
(P), deuterium (D) and tritium (T).

Figure 1.3 Composition of nuclei

Due to rapid cooling due to expansion, nucleosynthesis halted for about three minutes after the
big bang occurred which left mostly of hydrogen(H) isotopes (P,D,T), helium (He) isotopes and
a very tiny bit of other elements like lithium(Li) and beryllium(Be). The relative abundance of
He and H did not change much today.

Two nuclear reactions are happened during big bang nucleosynthesis(Fig.1.4).

1.combination of proton (p) and neutron (n) produces deuterium (D) nuclei and
and gamma (γ) rays.
p+ + n = D + (γ) , ( D is composed of 1p and 1n).
(p + n)
2. Then two deuterium nuclei combine to form one neutron and helium-3(³He) that has two
protons and one neutron.

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 D + D = ³He +n
(p + n) (p +n) ( 2p +n)

The two equations reaction above shows a balanced equation of the reactants at the left with
the product at the right. Which means the no. of p and n on both sides of the equation is the
same.

Figure 1.4
Source: http://www.einstein-nline.info/images/spotlights/BBNI/pn_to_he3.gif
These are not the only reactions that occurred, but these were the most significant

Nuclear Fusion
The energy and temperature of the universe are extremely high to cause the neutrons and
protons to combine and form species of atomic nuclei in a process called nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion is a type of nuclear reaction in which the light nuclei fuse together to form a
heavier nucleus. When this happens, a tremendous amount of energy is released.

An example of nuclear fusion (Figure 1.5): deuterium (with one neutron and one proton) fuses
with tritium (with one proton and two neutrons) producing a helium nuclei and a neutron, and
releasing energy.
In equation, D + T = 4He + n
(p + n) (p + 2n) (2p +2n)

Check: 2p + 3n = 2p + 3n

13
 Figure 1.5
Source: https://chem.linretexts.org/bookshelves/…/Fission _and _Fusion

Formation of light elements

Light elements which includes Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), and small amounts of Beryllium (Be)
and Lithium( Li) were formed through nuclear fusion in the big bang nucleosynthesis. The
isotopes produced were H-1, H-2, H-3, He-4 and Li-7. After fusion, the total mass of the light
nuclei formed in the fusion process is less than the total mass of the nuclei that fused. Nuclear
fusion reactions are accompanied with tremendous release of energy.

Figure 1.6
Figure 1.6 shows the nuclear equation for the fusion reactions that took place during the big
bang nucleosynthesis. These main nuclear reactions were responsible for the abundance of
lighter nuclei in the universe

What is It

The expansion of the universe means the expansion of space in between galaxies. During
expansion the galaxies are moving farther apart from each other proportionately in all
directions because it is the space in between them (galaxies) that expands. While within the
galaxy itself - stars, planets maintain its sizes and distances from each other.

Three evidences proved that big bang existed as this is the most leading theory. Three minutes
after big bang, particles, electrons, protons and neutrons and other particles combine to form

14
different nuclei through nuclear fusion and nucleosynthesis. Then this light nuclei combine
again forming light elements such as H, He, Be and Li.

Important first reactions in big bang nucleosynthesis are:

1.combination of proton and neutron produces deuterium.

2.two deuterium produces Helium-3
3. combination of tritium and deuterium produces Helium-4

What’s More

Activity 1.1- Multiple Choice

Direction: Select the best answer. Write the letter on a separate answer sheet.
1. It refers to a process in the stages of the big bang model wherein protons and neutrons
came together to form different types of nuclei?
a. big bang singularity
b. inflation
c. nucleosynthesis
d. recombination

2. It refers to a process in the stages of the big bang model wherein the universe rapidly
expand?
a. big bang singularity
b. inflation
c. nucleosynthesis
d. recombination

3. It refers to the first stage of the big bang model wherein it begun as an infinitely hot and
dense?
a. big bang singularity
b. inflation
c. nucleosynthesis
d. recombination

4. It refers to a process in the stages of the big bang model wherein electrons started to bind
to ionize protons and nuclei forming neutral atoms?
a. big bang singularity
b. inflation
c. nucleosynthesis
d. recombination

5. Arrange the stages of the big bang theory:

1-recombination 2- big bang singularity 3-inflation 4-nucleosynthesis
a. 2314
b. 2341

15
 c. 3241
d. 3412

6. Which of these is true about the big bang model?

a. The singularity is an established, well-defined part of the model
b. Cosmic expansion stopped at some point in time
c. Part of its proof is the amounts of H and He we have in the universe today.
d. Part of its proof is the amounts of H and He we have in the universe today.

Activity 1.2 Irregular Crossword Puzzle

Direction: Complete the crossword by filling in a word that fits its clue. Use a separate
answer sheet.

ACROSS

1- light nuclei fuse together to form to a heavier nucleus

2- subatomic particle with a positive charge
3- isotope of hydrogen with 1 proton and 1 neutron
4- the lightest element
5- isotope of hydrogen with I proton and 2 neutrons
6- with a negative charge
7- symbol for lithium
8- symbol for helium
DOWN

1- creates new atomic nucleus from preexisting nucleons

2- subatomic particle with a zero charge
3- symbol for beryllium
4- densely part of an atom containing p and n
5- ability to do work

16
Activity 1.3 Fill in the blanks
Answer the following in a separate answer sheet

1. What are the four light elements formed in the big bang nucleosynthesis?
__________________________________________________________ .
2. What is formed when a proton and a neutron fuse?
___________________________________________________________ .
3. What is formed when 2 deuterium nuclei combine?
__________________________________________________________ .
4. What is formed when a deuterium fused to tritium?
__________________________________________________________ .
5. What is formed when a deuterium combines with helium-3?
__________________________________________________________

Activity 1.4 – Complete the nucleosynthesis reactions below

Given: Composition of each nuclei:

D= 1p+, 1n T=1p+,2n He3 = 2p+,1n He4 = 2p+,2n Be7 = 4p+,3n Li7 = 3p+,4n
1. p+ + n = _____+ γ
2. He +
3
D = _____+ p+
3. Li + _____ = 2 4He
7

4. ____ + D = T + p+
5. ____ + ____ = 7 Be + γ

What I Have Learned

Complete the sentences.

1. Big bang nucleosynthesis is the formation of new atomic nucleus from preexisting
______.
2. ______________ is a nuclear reaction wherein light nuclei fuse together to form heavier
nuclei.
3. __________ is a form of element that has the same atomic number but different atomic
mass.
4. __________ and __________ are isotope of Hydrogen.
5. The fusion of proton and neutron resulted to ______________ .
6. The fusion of two deuterium produces _____________ .
7. The fusion of deuterium and tritium resulted to _________ .
8. The light elements formed in big bang nucleosynthesis are ______, _______ , _________ and
_________.
9. There are three evidences to prove that a big bang had occurred that is
____________,_____________ , and ____________ .

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 10. The expansion of the universe means expansion of __________ between galaxies. Galaxies
moves farther apart from each other proportionately in all directions.

What I Can Do

What could happen if there is no nucleosynthesis and nuclear fusion ?

What could happen if there is no light elements formed.

Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. What is the term referred to the process that creates new atomic nucleus from
preexisting nucleons, primarily protons and neutrons?
a. nuclear fusion
b. nuclear reaction
c. nuclear synthesis
d. nucleosynthesis

2. What is the term referred to the process by which light nuclei fuse together to form a
heavier nucleus?
a. nuclear fusion
b. nuclear reaction
c. nuclear synthesis
d. nucleosynthesis

3. It is a theory that explains that the universe started as a very dense and hot ”singularity
‘ which eventually cooled and began to form different particles?
a. big bang theory
b. cosmic inflation theory
c. oscillating theory
d. steady state theory

4. What was formed as the universe expanded and cooled down?

a. electron
b. proton
c. neutron
d. sub atomic particles
5. What is formed when there is a fusion of a proton and neutron in big bang
nucleosynthesis?
a. deuterium

18
 b. hydrogen
c. protium
d. tritium

6. What is formed when there is a fusion of two deuterium nuclei in big bang
nucleosynthesis?
a. helium-3
b. hydrogen
c. neutron
d. one neutron and helium-3

7. What are the conditions in the universe so that a nuclear fusion could occur?
a. high energy
b. high energy and temperature
c. high temperature
d. moderate conditions

8. What is formed when there is fusion of deuterium and tritium?

a. Helium-2
b. Helium-3
c. Helium-4
d. Helium-4 and neutron

9. What is the term referred to form of an element that has the same atomic
number of the original element but with different atomic mass or mass
number?
a. elements
b. heavy elements
c. isotopes
d. light elements

10. The following light elements were formed in the big bang nucleosynthesis?
a. H, He, Be, C
b. He, H, Be, Li
c. Li, H, He, Na
d. Fe, H, He ,Be

19
 Additional Activities

Do an advance reading on Nuclear fission. Compare and contrast between nuclear fusion and
nuclear fission by completing the Venn diagram below

Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fission

20
Answer
key

21
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Physical Science
Quarter 1 – Module 1: Competency #2
Title: Formation of Heavy Elements in
the Universe

What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help understand the
formation of heavy elements in the universe. The scope of this module permits it to be used in
many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of
students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order
in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.

The module is divided into three lessons, namely:

 Lesson 1 – Isotopes and element notation
 Lesson 2 – The stellar nucleosynthesis
 Lesson 3 – Different nuclear reaction process

After going through this module, you are expected to:

4. give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star
formation and evolution.
5. explain other processes that led to other elements.
6. write out fusion reactions involve.
7. explain how heavier elements formed.

22
 What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.

1. What is the term referred to the formation of heavy elements by fusion of lighter nuclei
in the interior of stars?

e. big bang nucleosynthesis

f. nuclear fusion
g. stellar nucleosynthesis
h. supernova nucleosynthesis

2. What is the term referred to the process when there is a fusion of proton
turning to neutron via beta-plus decay?
a. CNO
b. proton-proton chain
c. triple-alpha process
d. r-process

3. If an element is used by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called “burning” even though no

actual combustion occurs. Which of the following processes is likely
to involve “carbon burning.”?
a. alpha ladder
b. CNO cycle
c. triple-alpha process
d. s-process

4. Which of the following reactions is not a part of the alpha ladder?

i it t
a. i
Mg + iHe Si c. t
Ar He
i i
Ca

t
b. P + iHe Cl d. iiTi i
He i
Cr

5. What is the process when alpha particle He-4 fused to heavy elements to form heavier
elements?
a. alpha ladder process
b. big bang nucleosynthesis
c. CNO cycle
d. r-process

23
6. What is the reaction involve when 12C is used as a catalyst?
a. CNO cycle
b. fusion
c. r-process
d. triple-alpha process

7. Which is not a proton-proton chain reaction ?

a. 1H + 1H 2
H + v + e+
b. H + H
2 1 3
He + γ
c. 3He + 3He 4 He + 2 1H
it
d. iiMg + iHe Si

8. The following is a part of CNO cycle except?

a. 12C + 1 H 13
N+γ
13 13 + +
b. N C+e v
c. 13C + 1 H 14
N+γ
d. none of the above

9. Most of the heaviest element were formed in the ___________?

a. main sequence star
b. red giant star
c. sun
d. all of the above

10. The heavy elements in the star are found in its ___________?
a. core
b. middle
c. outer part
d. all of the above

24
Lesson Formation of Heavy Elements in
the Universe
1
As discussed in module 1 light elements H, He, Be and Li were formed just after big bang. These
were formed through nucleosynthesis and nuclear fusion processes.

Once matter recombined which means lighter elements combined to other lighter elements,
forming another elements which is heavier, gravity and other forces brought matter together
and eventually form stars, 200 billion years after the big bang.

What’s In

How were the element formed? How will you explain the big bang nucleosynthesis and nuclear
fusion ?

Notes to the Teacher

It is significant that learners had background on the big bang model, its
stages and big bang nucleosynthesis and nuclear fusion processes
particularly on the formation of light elements

25
 What’s New

Writing notation for isotopes and atoms of an element

Recall on how symbols for an atom of an element or isotope are written?

Mass number or atomic mass of an element is the no. of protons plus the no. of neutrons of an
element while the atomic number is the number of protons or electrons of an element. The
element symbol, atomic mass and atomic no. of an element can be found in the periodic table of
elements. Let’s view a periodic table and have an example.

Figure 2.1 Periodic Table of Elements

Source : http;//www.ptable.com.

Let’s isolate one element which serves as a legend. What is the atomic mass and atomic number
of iron or Fe?

The atomic mass of Fe is 55.845 rounded to 56, and the atomic number is 26. To write this in a
notation,

26
 t
it

What is the number of protons (p)? And the number of neutrons(n)?

The no. of protons will be:
As defined atomic mass is the no. of p+ + n which is 56 , while atomic no is the no. p+ , which is
26, in getting the no. of n, just subtract 26 from 56 (56-26) =30. (Do Activity 1.1, 1.2)

Isotope Notation
For isotopes, same way of representing. Like for element hydrogen H. The isotopes
deuterium(D) tritium (T)
with 1p, 1n 1p, 2n
i i
Isotope notation D or H T or H
Or H-2 H-3 , other ways of naming the isotopes is
by writing the symbol followed by the mass no.

Can you do it for carbon isotopes : carbon-12, carbon13 and carbon 14. Carbon has an atomic no.
of 6. Try it in activity 1.3 follow the format above.

The Cosmic Connection

Carl Sagan’s The Cosmic Connection (Sagan, 2000) find it out remarkable that the elements we
find on earth are also those we find among the stars. In addition the most of what we know as
matter was made by the processes inside the stars themselves. We are as much a part of the
universe as the stars.
He also stated that Big Bang nucleosynthesis in physical cosmology refers to the production of
nuclei other than H-1, the normal, light hydrogen, during the early phases of the universe,
shortly after the big bang.

Give your thoughts how we being made of stardust makes us cosmic (part of the universe) and
yet helps us realize that we are not the center of the universe.

________________________________________________________________________________

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Star Formation

Figure 2.2
Source:https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/50-universal-element-formation
What are the stages of the star?, How did a star formed (Recall your earth and life science
lecture).

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Elements formed in big bang nucleosynthesis are only the light elements which are H, He, Li and
Be and very light isotopes. Elements formed then with five to eight nucleons are very unstable
(prone to change, give way) the main reason why Li and Be occur only in trace amounts.
Heavy elements were formed only billions of years later, after the formation of stars 200 billion
years after big bang. The density inside a star is great enough to sustain fusion for the extended
time periods required to synthesize heavy elements. Stars are hot and dense enough to burn
hydrogen-1(¹H) to helium-4 (4He). The formation of heavy elements by fusion of lighter nuclei
in the interior of stars is called Stellar nucleosynthesis.
Hydrogen and helium atoms in stars began combining in nuclear fusion reactions once
hydrogen-helium stars had formed from the action of gravity. This releases a tremendous
amount of light, heat and radioactive energy. Fusion resulted in the formation of nuclei of new
elements. The first fusion process occurs in the hydrogen core of stars such as the sun with a
temperature of less than 15 million K. These kind of stars are called main-sequence stars.

In figure 2 .3 below shows the equilibrium in main sequence stars including the sun. That is the
inward force of gravity, which tends to compress the star, is balanced by the outward force due
to pressure, outward radiation and gas pressure forces are balanced by gravity forces.
Over time, the forces acting on the star become unbalanced. When the inward gravitational
forces are less then the outward radiation pressure forces, the star swells and cools thus turning
red we call red giant star a low-mass star. (see figure 2.2)

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 Figure 2.3. Equilibrium of the Sun and other main-sequence stars

Low mass star turns into planetary nebula towards the end of their red giant phase.
At that point the star becomes highly unstable and starts to pulsate. The outer layer are ejected
by the resulting stellar winds. Planetary nebula are short-lived and last only for a few thousand
of years.
There are three nuclear synthetic pathways or main branch of the process. These are the
proton-proton chain, triple alpha process and CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) process.
Proton-proton chain is a reaction by which stars convert hydrogen to helium. The conversion
of hydrogen to helium is slow, the complete conversion of the hydrogen in the core of the sun is
calculated to take more than ten billion years. Refer to Fig.2.

The first reaction is the combination of proton (p) and neutron (n) produces deuterium (D)
nuclei and gamma (γ) rays.
1
H + 1H 2
H + v + e+ , proton fusion, with one proton turning into a neutron via
beta-plus decay, giving off a neutrino and a positron.

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Figure 2.4 The main branch of the proton-proton chain reaction (p-p chain resulting in the
formation of 4He.

³He forms from deuterium and proton fusion, also known as deuterium burning. This
immediately consumes all deuterium produced.
²H + ¹H ³He + γ
4
He forms from ³He fusion,
³He + ³He 4He + 2 ¹H

Figure 2.5 A star with a very dense helium core and a hydrogen shell expands into a red giant
due to increased radiation pressure.

Triple alpha process is a set of nuclear fusion reactions by which three helium-4 nuclei (alpha
particles ) are transformed into carbon.

Figure 2.6 The triple alpha process resulting in the formation of 12C(Elert,2015b)

The entire three-step process releases about 26.7 MeV (megaelectron volts of energy. Energy
released is responsible for the thermal pressure that pushes against gravity. It is also
responsible for the light , heat and radiation emitted by the star. A different process facilitates
hydrogen fusion in main sequence stars with temperature greater than 15 million K.

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The core of a star becomes comprised of He as H is depleted, while H fusion only occurs in a
shell around it. Due to this process, the temperature and density the core of the star increase up
to 100 million K. The star’s thermal pressure causes it to push out H gas. The star balloons into a
red giant.
Several nuclear fusion processes occur in a red giant aside from hydrogen fusion. The first is the
triple alpha process. Alpha particles refer to 4He. This reaction involves the fusion of three 4He
atoms in the following steps:
4
He + 4 He 8
Be
8
Be + He4 12
C +γ

Note that the 8Be intermediate is unstable, so either it decays or forms 12 C. The star can keep
growing into supergiant as it accumulates mass. Alpha fusion process continue in the core via
the alpha ladder.
In alpha ladder process more and more alpha particles are fused to create heavier elements
all the way to iron, making the core and the star itself more massive. In figure 2.7 below , an
alpha particle iHe is added to an atomic nucleus (such as carbon) to form oxygen. The addition
of the alpha particle to an atom add 2 protons and therefore the atomic number of the product
is a larger than the original.

Figure 2.7 Alpha Process

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/alpha_process

CNO cycle
The main sequence star hotter than 15 million K could facilitate the production of helium once
carbon was present from alpha processes. This happens through a process where 12C is uses as a
catalyst known as the carbon fusion cycle or the CNO cycle. This process involves repeated
proton capture and beta-plus decay.

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Figure 2.8 The CNO cycle, which uses 12C as a catalyst to form more 4He in larger or hotter main
- sequence stars.
This is the way to account for the number of proton and neutrons in each step:

Carbon nuclei captures a p+ N-13

N-13 unstable decay to C-13
C-13 captures p+, becomes N-14
N-14 captures another p to O-15
O captures p+
N-15 capture a p+ forming
Carbon and Helium

What is It

The formation of heavy elements can be summarized in a concept map below. Disregard first
the supernova nucleosynthesis as this will be discussed in the next modules. Stellar
nucleosynthesis is the formation of heavy elements in the interior of the star particularly main
sequence star. The sun is a main sequence star.

A star formed from a nebula is composed primarily of 75%H and 23%He. When a star reaches
a certain size it generates vast energy and nuclear fusion ignites . The first fusion process forces
Hydrogen together forming Helium, 4He. This main branch is called proton-proton chain
reaction. As the core of the star is becoming helium filled as hydrogen depletes, its temperature
increases to 100m K, its thermal pressure pushes out the H gases the star becomes bigger to be
red giant star.

Several nuclear fusion occurred in the red giant star. The main branch is the triple alpha
process which involves 3 He atoms to combine to produce carbon. Once carbon is produced
there’s a continuation of fusing to He atoms producing heavier element we call it the alpha
ladder process.

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Other main sequence star with a temperature of more than 15M K could facilitate the
production of helium once carbon is present in the alpha process.12C serves only as a catalyst.
This fusion is known as the CNO cycle.

Figure 2.9 Concept map

Another process is the s-process which occur in red giant star where there is a slow neutron
capture in red giant stars. In this process a nucleus captures neutron to form isotopes with
higher atomic mass. If new isotope is stable, increase in mass can occur. If unstable, then beta
decay can occur producing element with a higher atomic no.

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 What’s More

Activity 1.1 - Complete the table

Activity 1- Fill in the Table (see reference of elements)

Element Symbol Atomic Mass Atomic No.

Hydrogen 1 2 3

Lithium 4 5 6

Sodium 7 8 9

Activity 1.2- write the notation for the ff: elements

1. Hydrogen - _______
2. Lithium - _______
3. Sodium - _______

Activity 1.3 – Fill in the Table

Can you do it for carbon isotopes: carbon-12, carbon13 and carbon 14. Carbon has an atomic no.
of 6. Try it.

Name of isotopes 1 2 3

With # of p, n 4 5 6

Isotope notation 7 8 9

Or, other way 10 11 12

Activity 1.4 – Answer the following questions

1.What is the process of formation of heavy elements by the fusion of lighter nuclei in the
interior of stars? _______________________________________________

2.What is the process of converting hydrogen to helium.

______________________________________________________________________

3.What is the process of producing heavy elements wherein carbon is used as a catalyst?

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______________________________________________________________________

4.What is a process where three alpha particles fused to produce carbon?

______________________________________________________________________

5. What is a process wherein more and more particles are fused helium to create heavier
elements all the way to iron.

______________________________________________________________________

What I Have Learned

Complete the sentence

1. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the formation of heavy elements in the _________ of a star.

The main component element of a star is ___________ and ___________ .

2. There are three main process in stellar nucleosynthesis_ proton-proton chain,

CNO cycle and the ___________.
3. Alpha particles refers to _________.
4. Proton-proton chain is a process of converting hydrogen to ____________ .
5. Triple alpha process is the formation of carbon elements from the fusion of three
____________ .
6. CNO cycle is the process of producing heavy elements where _______ is used as a catalyst.
7. ________________star fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium. About 90% of the stars in the
universe including the sun are main sequence star.
8. After carbon is produced there is a continuation of fusion of helium to elements
forming heavier ones. This process is called _____________ .
9. Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of _________________________ while stellar
nucleosynthesis is ________________________________________ .

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 What I Can Do

What is the important of stars to us?

Why heavy elements did not form in big bang nucleosynthesis?

Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. What is the term referred to the formation of heavy elements by fusion of lighter nuclei in
the interior of stars?
a. big bang nucleosynthesis
b. nuclear fusion
c. stellar nucleosynthesis
d. supernova nucleosynthesis

2. What is the term referred to the process when there is a fusion of proton turning
to neutron via beta-plus decay?
a. CNO
b. proton-proton chain
c. triple-alpha process
d. r-process

3. If an element is used by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called “burning” even though no

actual combustion occurs. Which of the following processes is likely to involve “carbon
burning”?
a. alpha ladder
b. CNO cycle
c. s- process
d. triple-alpha-process

4. Which part of the following reactions is not a part of the alpha ladder?
a. iiMg + iHe it
S
b. P + iHe Cl
t
c. t
Ar + iHe i
Ca
t
d. ii
T + iHe i
Cr

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 5. What is the process when alpha particle He-4 fused to heavy elements to form heavier
elements?
a. alpha ladder process
b. big bang nucleosynthesis
c. CNO cycle
d. r-process

6. What is the reaction involve when 12C is used as a catalyst?

a. CNO cycle
b. fusion
c. r-process
d. triple-alpha process

7. Which is not a proton-proton chain reaction?

a. 1H + 1H 2
H + v + e+
b. H + H
2 1 3
He +γ
c. 3He + 3He 4
He + 21H
it
d. iiMg + iHe Si

8. The following is a CNO cycle except

a. 12C + 1H 13
N +γ
b. N
13 13
C + e+ + γ
c. 13C + 1H 14
N +γ
d. none of the above

9. Most of the heaviest elements were formed in ______________?

a. main sequence star
b. red giant star
c. sun
d. all of the above

10. The heavy elements in the star are found in its ______?
a. core
b. middle
c. outer part
d. all of the above

Additional Activities

Research on manmade elements.

37
Answer Key #2

38
References
Teaching Guide for senior high school Physical Science Published by the Commission on Higher
Education, 2016

39
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