Organisational Behaviour (OB)

Lecture 3: The individual in organisation: Values, Attitudes and Job Satisfaction

3.0 Introduction
The organisation comprises of individuals with their own perceptions, feelings and attitudes.
According to Mullins (2016:116), our unique different characteristics and attributes shape our
values and what we give and expect to receive from working. Values1 refer to stable life goals that
people have, reflecting what is most important to them and they are established throughout one’s
life as a result of the accumulating life experiences (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012:109). Robbins
(2007:72) defines attitudes as the evaluative statement (either favourable or unfavourable-
concerning objects, people or event). In short, attitudes reflect how one feels about something2.
Job satisfaction refers to the feelings people have toward their job and it is considered as the most
important indicator of job attitude (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012:109). To Singh (2015:118), job
satisfaction is “a collection of numerous attitudes towards various aspects of the job” to develop a
general attitude about the job. In essence, job satisfaction refers to a feeling of comfort experienced
by the employee with both the content and the conditions of work. Values, attitudes and job
satisfaction influence the individual at work.

Warm Up Activity
List some values and attitudes.

3.1 Values
To understand this concept, Robbins (2007:66) set the following questions:
1. Is death penalty right or wrong?
2. How about racial quotas3 in hiring-are they right or wrong?
3. If someone likes power, is that good or bad?

Robbins (2007:66) argues that the answers to these questions are value-driven. In other words,
they are based on your convictions and contain a judgemental element as to what you consider as
being right, wrong and desirable. The importance that someone assigns to values such as freedom,

1
Conviction
2
“I will like job”- Expressing attitude about your job
3
Positive discrimination
1|Page
pleasure, honesty, equity and ethics among others is determined by two attributes namely the
content attribute (existence) and the intensity attribute (importance attached to it). Values are
important to the study of organisational behaviour since they help in understanding attitudes and
motivation of an individual. For example, a new employee’s values are not present within an
organisation, then the latter can develop an unfavourable attitude of the workplace. The latter’s
disappointment will lead to frustration and job dissatisfaction. It can, thus, be concluded that an
employees’ behaviour is dependent on the extent to which the latter’s values are aligned with the
organisation’s policies. Moreover, according to Bauer and Erdogan (2012:109), people are more
likely to accept job offers when the company possesses the values people care about.

Values are also important in assigning responsibilities to employees. For example, a person who
values honesty and hard work may be placed in a position of responsibility with minimum fear
about any kind of theft or malpractices. Moreover, a person who values work and responsibility
may be appointed in positions where initiative is required. On the other hand, one would be
cautious with someone’s who may be more inclined in engaging in an unethical act.

3.1.2. Types of Values

Our value system comes from two sources namely (i) our genes (refer to lecture 2) and (ii) a
number of factors such as the national culture, parental influences as well as those of our teachers,
friends, neighbours, and other similar factors. For example, moral value lessons learned in school
while certain values are developed through the evolution of time and experience in life.

Reflect on your value system.

1. What elements you value the most?

2. What are the origins of some of these elements?

3. According to you, what values should a manager possess?

2|Page
Rokeach (1973) classified values4 into two namely:
1. Terminal Values- Values that we think are most important or most desirable. They refer
to desirable end-states of existence, the goals a person would like to achieve during his/her
life time.
2. Instrumental Values- The preferable modes of behaviour, or means of achieving the
terminal values.
Table 1: Terminal and instrumental values in the Rokeach Value Survey
Terminal Values Instrumental values

A comfortable life (a prosperous life) Ambitious (hardworking, aspiring)

An exciting life (a stimulating, active life)
A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution)
A world at peace (free of war and conflict)
A world of beauty (beauty of nature and the arts)
Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all)
Family security (taking care of loved ones)
Freedom (independence, free choice)
Happiness (contentedness)
Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict)
Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy)
National security (protection from attack)
Pleasure (an enjoyable, leisurely life)
Salvation (saved, eternal life)
Self-respect (self-esteem)
Social recognition (respect, admiration)
True friendship (close companionship)
Wisdom (a mature understanding of life)
Source: Robbins, Judge, Millett and Boyle (2014:94)
Broad-minded (open-minded)
Capable (competent, efficient)
Cheerful (light-hearted, joyful)
Clean (neat, tidy)
Courageous (standing up for your beliefs)
Forgiving (willing to pardon others)
Helpful (working for the welfare of others)
Honest (sincere, truthful)
Imaginative (daring, creative)
Independent (self-reliant, self-sufficient)
Intellectual (intelligent, reflective)
Logical (consistent, rational)
Loving (affectionate, tender)
Obedient (dutiful, respectful)
Polite (courteous, well-mannered)
Responsible (dependable, reliable)
Self-controlled (restrained, self-disciplined)

4
Values4 refer to stable life goals that people have, reflecting what is most important to them and they are
established throughout one’s life as a result of the accumulating life experiences (Bauer & Erdogan,
2012:109)
3|Page
3.1.3 Comparing generational differences in values
It is widely accepted that different cohorts or generations share unique values as demonstrated in
Table 2 below.

Table 2: Dominant work values in workforce

Cohort Entered the Dominant work Values
Force
Veterans 1950s or early Hardworking, conservative, conforming, loyalty to the
1960s organisation.
Boomer 1965-1985 Success, achievement, ambition, dislike of authority,
loyalty to career.
Xers (Generation X) 1985-2000 Work life balance. Team-oriented, dislikes of rule,
loyalty to relationships.
Nexters (Millennials) 2000 to Confident, financial success, self-reliant but team
present oriented, loyal to both self and relationship.
Source: Adapted from Robbins, Judge, Millett and Boyle (2014:94)

Although, research has shown that values are relatively stable and enduring, several factors such
as parents, relatives, teachers, friends and peer groups may bring changes in values over time. For
example, when someone is exposed to other value systems (as parents, relatives, teachers, friends,
peer groups and the environment at work), his/her value system may either remain same, reinforce
or alter. It is also important in some cases that employees align their value systems to that of their
managers.

3.1.4 Value across cultures

In this era of globalisation, managers are increasingly interacting with people from different
cultures. As values also differ across cultures, global managers should be able to develop an
understanding of these differences in order to predict the behaviour of employees from different
countries. One of the most widely referenced approaches for analysing variations between cultures
was undertaken in the late 1970s by Geert Hofstede. He surveyed more than 116 000 IBM
employees in 40 countries about their work-related values and found that managers and employees
vary on five value dimensions of national culture as presented in the following table:

4|Page
Table 3: Dimensions of the Hofstede National Culture Model
Dimension Type of Society Description
Power Distance High Power Distance A high rating on power distance means
Describes the extent to which Society that large inequalities of power and
a society accepts that power in wealth exist and are tolerated in the
institutions and organisations culture, as in a class or caste system that
is distributed unequally discourages upward mobility.
Low Power Distance A low power distance rating
Society characterizes societies that stress
equality and opportunity.
Masculinity Vs Feminity Masculinity A national culture attribute that
describes the extent to which the culture
favours traditional masculine work roles
of achievement, power and control.
Societal values are characterised by
assertiveness and materialism
Feminity A national culture attribute that has little
differentiation between male and female
roles, where women are treated as the
equals of men in all aspects of the
society.
Uncertainty Avoidance Strong Uncertainty In cultures that score high on
A national culture attribute Avoidance uncertainty avoidance, people have an
that describes the extent to increased level of anxiety about
which a society feels uncertainty and ambiguity and use laws
threatened by uncertain and and controls to reduce uncertainty.
ambiguous situations and tries Weak Uncertainty Cultures low on uncertainty avoidance
to avoid them Avoidance are more accepting of ambiguity, are
less rule-oriented, take more risks and
more readily accept change
Individualism Vs Individualism Individualism is the degree to which
Collectivism people prefer to act as individuals rather
than as members of groups and believe
in individual rights above all else.
Collectivism Collectivism emphasizes a tight social
framework in which people expect
others in groups of which they are a part
to look after them and protect them.
Source: Adapted from Robbins, Judge, Millett and Boyle (2014:99)

5|Page
Table 4: Importance of knowing an Individual’s values

Values
Why is it important to know an individual's values? Values often underlie and explain attitudes,
behaviours and perceptions. So knowledge of an individual's value system can provide insight
into what makes the person 'tick'. Employees' performance and satisfaction are likely to be
higher if their values fit well with the organisation. The person who places great importance on
imagination, independence and freedom is likely to be a poor fit with an organisation that seeks
conformity from its employees. Managers are more likely to appreciate, evaluate positively and
allocate rewards to employees who fit in, and employees are more likely to be satisfied if they
perceive that they do fit in. This indicates that management needs to seek job candidates who
not only have the ability, experience and motivation to perform but also demonstrate a value
system compatible with that of the organisation.

Source: Adapted from Robbins, Judge, Millett and Boyle (2014:102)

3.2 Attitudes
A person’s attitudes is another factor that influences and distinguishes individual behaviour.
Robbins (2007:72) defines attitudes as the evaluative statements - either positive or negative
concerning objects, people or events. In short they represent how one feels about something. For
example, when someone says “I hate the job”, he is expressing his attitude about the work. An
attitude is stable or regular in that we tend to act towards the same stimuli in much the same way
over time. According to Mullins (2013:131), attitudes are learned throughout life and are embodied
within our socialisation process. Although attitude and values are interrelated, they are not the
same.

3.2.1 Components of Attitude

 Cognitive - Represents the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that we have towards the object
or person for which we express an attitude. For example, “discrimination is wrong”,
“smoking is harmful to health”

 Affective- Represents the evaluation and feelings we have about the object or person, for
instance a feeling of like and dislike. I hate smoking because it is harmful to health.

6|Page
  Behavioural - Consists of a person’s tendencies to behave in a particular way toward an
object. I would not want to be tempted to smoke because it is bad for health.

3.2.1 Employee attitude surveys

Many organisations use attitude surveys or questionnaires as a way of attempting to test the
organisation’s climate and monitor views of members of staff.

Table 5: An example of an attitude questionnaire

Source: Mullins (2013:132)

7|Page
3.2.2 Attitude Formation and change
From par 3.2.1, it is clear that attitude we form about someone or something is based on the beliefs
and knowledge (amount and type of information) that we have about it.

Belief- The attitude depends on the beliefs the person. If we have negative beliefs about an object,
we normally form a negative attitude about it. In general, the beliefs that we have about an object
are derived from several sources including family upbringing, our own direct experience, social
and work groups as well as other social experiences.

Information/Knowledge- Information about the object for which we form the attitude can come
from primary sources such as observations and experiences as well as secondary sources such as
newspapers, magazines, radio, television, movies etc.

Belief

Attitude Formation

Information

In contrast to values, attitudes tend to be less stable. For example, advertising messages attempt to
alter your attitudes towards a certain product or service.

3.2.3 Attitude–behavior consistency

People's attitudes/opinions help guide their actions. The study of attitude–behavior consistency
concerns the degree to which people's attitudes (opinions) predict their behavior (actions).
Attitude–behavior consistency exists when there is a strong relation between opinions and actions
(Haddock & Maio, 2010). However, an individual’s behaviour towards an object or person may
and do change. Consistency principle does not apply then and instead there is cognitive dissonance.
For example, someone who has repeatedly owned Japanese cars may change to European cars
after having discovered the innovative features of the European cars.

8|Page
Have you ever noticed how people change what they say so that it doesn't contradict what
they do?

Mullins (2013:61) defines cognitive dissonance as the incompatibility an individual might perceive
between two or more attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes. However, in general,
individuals will seek a stable state, with a minimum of dissonance.

3.2.4 Job Attributes

Although individuals have thousands of attitudes, OB focuses our attention on a very limited
number of work-related attitudes. These emphasise primarily on the positive or negative
evaluations that employees hold about aspects of their work environment and include job
satisfaction, job involvement and organisational commitment.
Table 6: Job Attributes
Job involvement Measures the degree to which people identify psychologically with their
job and consider their perceived performance level important to self-worth.
Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and
really care about the kind of work they do. In other words, job involvement
represents the level of participation and commitment a person has towards
his or her job. High levels of involvement would be reflected by a person
really caring for the work he or she does.
Organisational Degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organisation and
commitment its goals and wishes to remain a member of it.
 Affective commitment - an emotional attachment to the organisation
and a belief in its values.
 Continuance commitment - the perceived economic value of remaining
with an organisation. An employee may be committed to an employer
because he/she is paid well.
 Normative commitment - An obligation to remain with the organisation
for moral or ethical reasons.

9|Page
 Job satisfaction Describes a positive feeling about a job, resulting from an evaluation of its
characteristics. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive
feelings about his or her job, while a person with a low level holds negative
feelings.
Source: Adapted from Robbins, Judge, Millett and Boyle (2014:64)

3.2.4.1. Job Satisfaction

Employees' level of job satisfaction allows managers to know how employees see the organisation.

Measuring Job Satisfaction

Measuring job satisfaction is a complex tasks since it comprises of many distinct elements.
According to Robbins, Judge, Millett and Boyle (2014:65), job satisfaction is not limited only to
an evaluation of the job characteristics only but it also includes other separate elements such as
interactions with people, organisational rules and regulations and working conditions. In
measuring job satisfaction, employees are required to rate on standardised scale key elements in a
job, such as the nature of the work, supervision, present pay, promotion opportunities and
relationships with colleagues.

Impact of Satisfied employees at the workplace

 Increase in Job Performance- Happy workers are more likely to be productive workers.
Studies show that organisations with more satisfied employees tend to be more effective
than organisations with fewer satisfied employees.
 Major determinant of an employee's Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) -
Satisfied employees would seem more likely to talk positively about the organisation, help
others and go beyond the normal expectations in their job.
 Customer Satisfaction- Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.
For example, front liners.
 Low Absenteeism- Several studies found a negative relationship between satisfaction and
absenteeism
 Less Turnover- Satisfied employees tend to stay longer in their job as compared to those
who are not satisfied

10 | P a g e
  Work Place deviance- Job dissatisfaction can lead to undesirable behaviours such as
unionisation attempts, substance abuse, stealing at work, undue socialising and
unpunctuality.

Important factors for job satisfaction

Table 7: Factors important for Job Satisfaction

 Autonomy and independence  Management recognition of employee job

 Benefits performance
 Career advancement opportunities  Meaningfulness of job
 Career development opportunities  Networking
 Compensation/pay  Opportunities to use skills/abilities
 Communication between employees and  Organisation's commitment to professional
management development
 Contribution of work to the organisation's  Overall corporate culture
business goals  Relationship with colleagues
 Feeling safe in the work environment  Relationship with immediate supervisor
 Flexibility to balance life and work issues  The work itself
 Job security  The variety of work.

 Job-specific training
Source: Adapted from Robbins, Judge, Millett and Boyle (2014:64)

On a sheet of paper, rank the importance of the above job factors to your job satisfaction (1 being
the most important), 2 (second most important factor) and so on.

11 | P a g e
12 | P a g e