Social Behavior and Personality, Volume 47, Issue 11, e8244

https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.8244
www.sbp-journal.com

Workplace ostracism and job performance: Meaning at work and family

support as moderators
Liwei Feng1, Jiapei Li2, Taiwen Feng3, Wenbo Jiang2
1
School of Business Administration, Inner Mongolia University of Finance and Economics, People’s Republic of China
2
School of Management, Northwestern Polytechnical University, People’s Republic of China
3
School of Economics and Management, Harbin Institute of Technology (Weihai), People’s Republic of China

How to cite: Feng, L., Li, J., Feng, T., & Jiang, W. (2019). Workplace ostracism and job performance: Meaning at work and family
support as moderators. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 47(11), e8244

Keywords
The negative relationship between workplace ostracism and employees’ workplace ostracism; job
job performance has received increasing attention from academia and performance; innovation;
in practice. However, little is known about the conditions under which meaning at work; family
these negative effects can be alleviated. We investigated whether member support; health
workplace ostracism simultaneously predicts in-role job performance care
and innovative job performance, as well as exploring the moderating
roles of meaning at work and family member support in these
relationships. Using data collected from 727 employees of 3 Chinese
hospitals, we conducted a hierarchical multiple regression analysis to
test our hypotheses. The results indicated that workplace ostracism
predicted both poor in-role job performance and low innovative job
performance. Moreover, high levels of family support moderated the
relationship between workplace ostracism and innovative job
performance. These results have implications for theoretical and
practical understanding of workplace ostracism.

Workplace ostracism is a ubiquitous phenomenon and refers to individuals’ perception that they are
ignored or excluded by others at work (Ferris, Brown, Berry, & Lian, 2008). Robinson, O’Reilly, and Wang
(2013) proposed an integrated model of workplace ostracism, including antecedents, outcomes, and
moderators of reactions to, and effects of, workplace ostracism, and found the pervasive assumption of
workplace ostracism appears to be well founded because of its negative impacts on employees’ behavioral
outcomes, such as job performance, organizational citizenship behavior, withdrawal, and workplace
deviance. The relationships between workplace ostracism and both in-role job performance and innovative
job performance or creativity have been extensively examined (Chung & Kim, 2017; Kwan, Zhang, Liu, &
Lee, 2018). However, how workplace ostracism simultaneously influences these two types of job
performance remains unclear. Indeed, a balance is needed when setting structural procedures to make work
performance predictable but at the same time allow for spontaneous innovation (Jiang, Chai, Li, & Feng,
2018). As such, our study is crucial as we sought to link workplace ostracism to both in-role job performance
and innovative job performance.

It has been argued that innovation is a job performance dimension (Harari, Reaves, & Viswesvaran, 2016).
Whereas in-role job performance can be defined by employees’ job descriptions, innovative job
performance relates to the generation, promotion, and realization of new ideas within a work role, work
group, or organization for benefiting in-role job performance (Janssen & Van Yperen, 2004). Indeed,
innovative employees are likely to seek out information and use it to discover and develop new ideas to

CORRESPONDENCE Wenbo Jiang, School of Management, Northwestern Polytechnical University, 127 West Youyi Road, Beilin
District, Xi'an Shaanxi, 710072, People’s Republic of China. Email: jiangwenbo@mail.nwpu.edu.cn

© 2019 Scientific Journal Publishers Limited. All Rights Reserved.

 Feng, Li, Feng, Jiang

perform work tasks, which facilitates job performance.

In this study we used the job demands–resources (JD–R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007) to explore
how workplace ostracism influences employees’ in-role and innovative job performance. According to this
model, job demands can trigger stress and job resources can compensate for this stress (Bakker &
Demerouti, 2007). Workplace ostracism may reduce the employee’s ability to respond to the demands of
work and may deplete his or her job-related resources, reinforcing the employee’s emotional exhaustion and
fostering disengagement. Consequently, we argued that workplace ostracism would be negatively associated
with the two types of job performance.

Although researchers have demonstrated some negative effects of workplace ostracism on job performance,
little is known about what employees can do to mitigate these detrimental effects (De Clercq, Ul Haq, &
Azeem, 2019). Being ostracized may block the capabilities and resources that employees can utilize to
generate and implement new ideas and perform tasks. Employees who are ostracized by peers within the
organization might turn to alternative sources of support. Thus, we argued that meaning at work and family
member support could mitigate the negative impacts of workplace ostracism on the two types of job
performance. Whereas meaning at work refers to the value, purposes, or goal that individuals attach to
working (Clausen & Borg, 2011), family member support is defined as the extent to which persons perceive
their support needs, including information and feedback, to be fulfilled by family members (Gottlieb &
Bergen, 2010).

In sum, we sought to contribute to the literature on workplace ostracism by incorporating employees’ in-role
job performance and innovative job performance into one model. Further, we examined meaning at work
and family member support as potential boundary conditions under which the strength of the workplace
ostracism–job performance relationship could be attenuated. Finally, the relationship between workplace
ostracism and job performance has not been explicitly examined in the health-care environment that was
the context for our study. Our conceptual model is displayed in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Conceptual research model.

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 Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal

Theory Foundation and Research Hypotheses

Workplace Ostracism and In-Role Job Performance
Exposure to ostracism is a psychologically stressful and physically painful experience, impairing individuals’
ability to self-regulate and increasing the likelihood of outcomes such as social anxiety and poor in-role job
performance (Ferris et al., 2008). In the regulation process, the individual’s attentional resources are
directed toward rumination about causes and meanings of the ostracism event. According to the JD–R
model, a lack of job resources may hinder an employee’s motivation to accomplish his or her work-related
obligations (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001). When self-regulatory resources are
depleted, the resulting impairment in work effectiveness reduces in-role job performance. Thus, people who
perceive that they are the target of workplace ostracism may suffer emotional exhaustion and find
themselves less able to accomplish work-related duties and responsibilities.

Ostracized employees are likely to perceive themselves as belonging to the out-group rather than the in-
group. Being the target of workplace ostracism may decrease employees’ belongingness and organizational
identification (Gkorezis & Bellou, 2016). People with low levels of organizational identification are likely to
be perceived as less trustworthy, honest, and cooperative, which may negatively affect their in-role job
performance (Mao, Liu, Jian, & Zhang, 2018). Moreover, conflicts may arise when individuals hold
divergent values, interests, and beliefs, thus interfering with their task performance (Chung, 2015) and
inducing divergence in individuals’ interests or goals, which is negatively related to in-role job behavior and
performance (Van Quaquebeke, Zenker, & Eckloff, 2009). Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1a: Workplace ostracism will be negatively associated with employees’ in-role job
performance.

Workplace Ostracism and Innovative Job Performance

Workplace ostracism reduces the chance for social interaction with others along with reducing feelings of
belonging to and identifying with the organization, which negatively predicts innovative job performance
(Dotan-Eliaz, Sommer, & Rubin, 2009). When ostracized employees perceive that they are being excluded
by peers, they may feel “out of the loop” (Jones & Kelly, 2010); thus, despite being included in a group, they
are less likely to interact with other members. For example, ostracized employees tend to inhibit their
sharing of work-related information and to engage in knowledge-hiding behaviors (Zhao, Xia, He, Sheard, &
Wan, 2016). Sharing and exchanging work-related information among members may facilitate radical
innovation performance. According to the JD–R model, information sharing can contribute to the
replenishment of job resources (Nahrgang, Morgeson, & Hofmann, 2011). Thus, we believed that workplace
ostracism would negatively predict information-sharing intentions by distracting employees from
innovative job performance.

Workplace ostracism may cause employees to become emotionally exhausted, which undermines their
intrinsic motivation for creative idea generation (Chung & Kim, 2017). In the JD–R model it is stated that
high job demands foster emotional withdrawal and eventual disengagement from work (Tims, Bakker, &
Derks, 2013). Job demands are associated with energy depletion, whereby employees’ emotional resources
may be overstretched where there is workplace ostracism (Jahanzeb & Fatima, 2017). Employees who are
the target of workplace ostracism may fail to show high personal initiative and to seek out potential
opportunities (Zhao, Peng, & Sheard, 2013), leading to low levels of innovative job performance. As such, we
proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1b: Workplace ostracism will be negatively associated with employees’ innovative job
performance.

The Moderating Effect of Meaning at Work

Meaning at work has been perceived as an effective approach to buffering work stress by facilitating greater

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 Feng, Li, Feng, Jiang

motivation and an increased desire to exert oneself at work (Jung & Yoon, 2016). If employees have high
levels of meaning at work, they may maintain related resources and engage in sustained working, making
them resilient to workplace ostracism. Under such circumstances ostracized employees are encouraged to
maintain a sustained effort in work-related activities and innovation activities.

Conversely, employees with low levels of meaning at work may exhaust their energy budget and emotional
resources (Van Wingerden, Derks, & Bakker, 2017), increasing the possibility of burnout. In this case,
ostracized employees may withdraw from their usual work responsibilities and disengage from innovative
behavior. Thus, high levels of meaning at work may attenuate the negative influence of workplace ostracism
on job performance, and we formed the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 2a: Meaning at work will moderate the relationship between workplace ostracism and in-role
job performance, such that high levels of meaning at work will weaken the relationship.
Hypothesis 2b: Meaning at work will moderate the relationship between workplace ostracism and
innovative job performance, such that high levels of meaning at work will weaken the relationship.

The Moderating Effect of Family Member Support

Family member support can boost energy and resources related to creative work involvement, and reduce
stress that interferes with one’s ability to work (Menges, Tussing, Wihler, & Grant, 2017). Employees who
perceive high levels of support from family members are likely to experience energy and obtain extensive
resources. In this case, ostracized employees will still be motivated to invest the effort needed to perform
their usual tasks and generate innovative ideas.

Conversely, employees who perceive low levels of support from family members may lack energy and
resources (Menges et al., 2017). Under these circumstances they are prone to emotional exhaustion and
disengagement when coping with workplace ostracism. On the basis of the above argument, we formed the
following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 3a: Family member support will moderate the relationship between workplace ostracism and
in-role job performance, such that a high level of family member support will weaken the relationship.
Hypothesis 3b: Family member support will moderate the relationship between workplace ostracism and
innovative job performance, such that a high level of family member support will weaken the relationship.

Method
Participants and Procedure
The data used in this study were collected from hospitals in Beijing, Jinan, and Xi’an, China. Each of the
hospital locations reflects one of the three different levels in service industry development in China: Beijing
represents the most developed cities in China’s service industry; Jinan is a city with a prosperous, modern
service industry; and Xi’an has a relatively backward service industry.

First, under the guidance of the Municipal Health Commission, we contacted the human resources manager
of each hospital. Our project was approved by the designated authority within the hospitals and by ethics
committees. Employees were informed of the objectives of this research to encourage their willingness to
participate. Human resources managers prepared a list of employee names and the departments in which
they were employed. At each of the three hospitals 400 employees (including physicians and nurses) were
selected utilizing a random number generator. Survey forms were mailed to the human resources managers
and then delivered randomly to employees and their supervisors in a hermetically sealed package to ensure
anonymity. Only the researchers were able to access the information on the pairing relationships between
employees and their supervisors.

Second, we collected data in two waves: December 2015 and June 2016. All the participants were assured of

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 Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal

the confidentiality of their responses and that their personal information would not be revealed. To match
respondents over the two waves of the survey, each questionnaire was coded with an identification number
known only to the researchers. Finally, completed surveys were returned directly to the researchers in
sealed and preaddressed envelopes to ensure the authenticity of data.

The questionnaire was originally developed in English, then translated into Chinese by three independent
bilingual researchers by following the back-translation procedure to ensure that the translations were
precise (Feng, Huang, & Avgerinos, 2018; Taoketao, Feng, Song, & Nie, 2018). To improve the scale’s
reliability we conducted a pilot test with 12 physicians employed at two of the hospitals from which we
sourced our participants, whose responses were excluded from the practical data collection. They were
asked to review the questionnaire and provide feedback (Feng, Wang, Lawton, & Luo, 2019).

At Time 1 we asked 1,200 employees to report their gender, age, and tenure at the hospital, and their
perception of having been a target of workplace ostracism by peers, meaning at work, and family member
support. After deleting questionnaires with missing data, we received 756 usable responses (response rate =
63.00%). Six months later (Time 2) we sent 756 forms to supervisors who were asked to evaluate their group
members’ in-role job performance and innovative job performance. We received 727 usable questionnaires
at Time 2 that we matched with the equivalent employee questionnaire at Time 1 (response rate of
employees = 60.58% vs. response rate of supervisors = 96.16%). The average age of all participants (73.04%
women, 26.96% men) was 30.88 years (SD = 7.15, range = 18–64), and the average tenure was 8.92 years
(SD = 7.33, range = 0.5–40.9). Comparing the Time 1 and Time 2 responses, all t statistics were
nonsignificant, suggesting that nonresponse bias was not a major concern.

Measures
Workplace ostracism. Ten items adapted from Ferris et al. (2008) were utilized to measure workplace
ostracism. We changed the item “Others at work did not invite you or ask you if you wanted anything when
they went out for a coffee break” to fit the Chinese context so that it read “Others at work did not invite you
or ask you if you wanted anything when they went out for lunch.” Respondents rate the extent to which they
have experienced each item in the past 6 months, using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7
(always).

Job performance. Five items adopted from Janssen and Van Yperen (2004) were utilized to measure in-
role job performance. A sample item is “This worker always completes the duties specified in his/her job
description.” Immediate supervisors of employees indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with
statements about the quality and quantity of role-related activities, using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from
1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Nine items adopted from Janssen and Van Yperen (2004) were used to measure innovative job
performance. A sample item is “This employee creates new ideas for improvements.” Immediate supervisors
rate how often employees perform innovative work behaviors in the workplace, using a scale 7-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always).

Meaning at work. Seven items adopted from Duchon and Plowman (2005) were utilized to measure
meaning at work. A sample item is “I experience joy in my work.” Responses are made on 7-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Family member support. Six items adapted from Procidano and Heller (1983) and Westring and Ryan
(2010) were utilized to measure family member support. We adapted the item “My family supports my
decision to go here” to read “My family supports my decision to be a doctor/nurse.” We also added the item
“There is a member of my family I could go to if I were just feeling down, without feeling funny about it
later.” Responses are made on 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

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 Feng, Li, Feng, Jiang

Control variables. Age, tenure, and gender are likely to be associated with workplace ostracism (Fiset, Al
Hajj, & Vongas, 2017). To follow a normal distribution, age and tenure were controlled for in the subsequent
analyses by using the log of age (Jiang et al., 2018) and the log of self-reported years worked at the hospital
(Li, Feng, & Jiang, 2018). Gender was dummy coded as men = 1 and women = 0 (Wang, Feng, & Lawton,
2017).

Results
Construct Reliability and Validity
The reliability of the scale was evaluated using Cronbach’s α coefficients and composite reliability values
(see Table 1). All scales possessed adequate internal reliability. Confirmatory factor analysis was also
performed to verify the scales’ convergent and discriminant validity. The results showed that the five-factor
model fit the data well: chi square (df = 619) = 2722.13, root mean square error of approximation = .074,
nonnormed fit index = .96, comparative fit index = .97, standardized root mean square residual = .065. All
factor loadings were significant on the latent constructs they were designed to measure (see Table 1) with t
values greater than 2.0, indicating good convergent validity. We calculated the average variance extracted
(AVE) to check for discriminant validity. The square roots of AVE values along the diagonal were greater
than the correlations for all constructs in the lower left off-diagonal of the matrix, indicating good
discriminant validity.

Common Method Variance

To alleviate the potential threat of common method variance, we employed two post hoc procedures: First,
there was a 6-month interval between the two data collection times of predictors. Second, data used in this
study were collected from two groups of respondents—supervisors and employees—minimizing concerns
about sampling bias. The supervisors were asked to rate the effort, quality, and quantity of performance of
each of their employees. A separate form was used to gather predictors.

Relationship Between Workplace Ostracism and In-Role Job Performance

Hypotheses were tested using hierarchical multiple regression analysis with a three-step procedure (see
Table 3, Models 1–8). Table 3 shows that work ostracism predicted poor in-role job performance (Model 2),
supporting Hypothesis 1a. The coefficient associated with the work ostracism–meaning at work interaction
was nonsignificant (Model 4); thus, Hypothesis 2a was not supported. The coefficient associated with the
work ostracism–family member support interaction was nonsignificant (Model 4); hence, Hypothesis 3a
was not supported.

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 Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal

Table 1. Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results for Study Constructs

Note. AVE = average variance extracted.

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 Feng, Li, Feng, Jiang

Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Between Constructs

Note. N = 727. Numbers in bold on the diagonal indicate the square root of average variance extracted.
* p < .05, ** p < .01.

Table 3. Hierarchical Regression Results

Note. N = 727. All coefficients are standardized, and variables were centered in the moderated regression
analysis. Gender: men = 1, women = 0.
* p < .05, *** p < .001.

Relationships Between Workplace Ostracism and Innovative Job Performance

Table 3 shows that work ostracism predicted employees’ poor innovative job performance (Model 6),
supporting Hypothesis 1b. The workplace ostracism–meaning at work interaction was nonsignificant
(Model 8); thus, Hypothesis 2b was not supported. The work ostracism–family member support interaction
was significant and positive (Model 8); hence, Hypothesis 3b was supported.

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 Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal

A simple slope test was conducted to plot the interaction effect of workplace ostracism and family member
support in predicting innovative job performance (see Figure 2). The relationship between workplace
ostracism and innovative job performance was significantly negative at a low level of family member
support (β = -.072, p < .05), but not at a high level of family member support (β = .045, ns). Thus,
Hypothesis 3b was further supported.

Figure 2. Joint moderating effects of meaning at work and family member support on the
relationship between workplace ostracism and innovative job performance.

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine whether workplace ostracism can predict employees’ in-role and
innovative job performance, and to address meaning at work and family member support as moderators in
these relationships. Consistent with our hypotheses, we found that workplace ostracism was related to both
poor in-role job performance and low innovation. As being ostracized depletes employees’ resources, a
reduction in access to valuable resources hinders the ability to fulfill all responsibilities required by their
job, and undermines their intrinsic motivation for developing new ideas. These results are consistent with
those of Chung and Kim (2017) and Ferris and colleagues (2008), who found that ostracism is negatively
related to in-role and innovative behavior.

Theoretical Implications
In accordance with our prediction, family member support moderated the relationship between workplace
ostracism and innovative job performance, as high levels of family member support weakened this
relationship. Our findings support those of Kaynak, Lepore, and Kliewer (2011), who reported that social
support improves family communication and relationships, reducing negative psychological outcomes
associated with violence. Family member support serves as a continuing replenishment of the resources
required in overcoming challenges. If employees experience workplace ostracism, perceived family member
support may replenish the affected employees’ resources, buffering the victims from a decrease in

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 Feng, Li, Feng, Jiang

psychological and physical well-being. Contrary to our expectation, the interaction of workplace ostracism
and family member support did not have a significant impact on in-role job performance. One possible
explanation is that exploring and developing innovative ideas needs more social support in terms of
providing employees with the space, time, and information than is required to perform in-role work (Birdi,
Leach, & Magadley, 2016). When employees perceive their families as supportive, they are better able to
cope with ostracism through acquiring alternative resources from their families; thus, the support of the
family weakens the negative influences of workplace ostracism on innovative rather than in-role job
performance.

Although Leung, Wu, Chen, and Young (2011) argued that having meaning at work allows people to adapt
more effectively to work stress and protects them against the impact of negative stressors, our hypotheses to
test these relationships were not supported. This can be explained in that the focus of meaningfulness is
primarily on responses to stress; however, experiencing traumatic life events may create a discrepancy
between people’s understanding of the event and their understanding of life satisfaction and personal
growth. As such, a stressful situation would threaten a person’s meaning at work if he or she is exposed to
traumatic life events.

Managerial Implications
This study has several implications for managers of organizations. First, they should monitor ostracism
behavior as well as its adverse impacts on employees’ psychological and physical well-being. If ostracized
individuals display higher levels of social anxiety, then managers can provide a face-to-face intervention that
helps assist them in their work behaviors. Managers should also be careful with their own relationships with
other organizational members because engaging in even slight ostracism may encourage employees to act in
a similar manner. Further, managers should address the importance of trust and cooperation among team
members to help employees cope with workplace ostracism and protect their psychological health. We also
recommend managers assist with replenishing the affected employees’ resources by, for example,
establishing formal family-supportive policies so that those family members who are actively involved in
supporting employees in better understanding ostracism can help to resolve the situation.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

There are several limitations that should be considered when interpreting our results. The supervisors’
subjective performance evaluation may be strongly associated with demographic variables (e.g., age, gender)
and personality traits (e.g., optimism, openness, and conscientiousness). Thus, an alternative measure of
job performance will need to be validated in future studies. Further, replication of the findings is limited by
the source of the data. The perception of meaning at work, work–family relationships, and work ostracism
may differ across different cultures. Further studies will be required to replicate our research in other
settings. Finally, future studies may benefit from the incorporating of other potential moderators, such as
emotional exhaustion and job burnout, to provide a more contextualized understanding of the experience of
being ostracized in the workplace.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Social Science Fund Project of China (17BGL107) for the project
Research on Job Stability of Chinese Enterprises Expatriating Mongolian and Russian Employees.

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