Water activity and

food stability
Hydrate salts
Solutes (salts)

Bound water Gels

Sugars Hydrophylic bonds

1
 Water Activity
• More bound water, then less water activity

Water activity
• Ratio of the vapour pressure of water in a food at a specified
temperature to the vapour pressure of pure water at same
temperature

• Foods more perishable if higher water activity

• Microorganisms need water

To reduce water activity

• Dry
• Freeze
• Add sugar or salt
 aw = p/po = ERH (%) / 100

Water activity is a measure of the energy status of the water in a

system. Colligative effects of dissolved species (e.g. salt or sugar)
interact with water through dipole-dipole, ionic, and hydrogen
bonds.

Capillary effects, hydrogen bonding between water molecules,

surface interactions with chemical groups on undissolved
ingredients (e.g. starches and proteins) through dipole-dipole forces,
ionic bonds (H3O+ or OH-) and van der Waals forces (hydrophobic
bonds).

It is a combination of these factors in a food product that reduces

the energy of the water and thus reduces the relative humidity as
compared to pure water.
Why is water activity important?

Water activity (aw) is one of the most critical factors in determining quality and
safety of foods.
Water activity affects the shelf life, safety, texture, flavor, and smell of foods.

While temperature, pH and several other factors can influence if and how fast
organisms will grow in a product, water activity may be the most important
factor in controlling spoilage.
Most bacteria, for example, do not grow at water activities below 0.91, and most
molds cease to grow at water activities below 0.80.

By measuring water activity, it is possible to predict which microorganisms will

and will not be potential sources of spoilage.

Water activity--not water content--determines the lower limit of available water

for microbial growth. In addition to influencing microbial spoilage, water
activity can play a significant role in determining the activity of enzymes and
vitamins in foods and can have a major impact their color, taste, and aroma.
Water activity and food
stability
Water activity and food
stability
 Minimum aw for some microorganisms
Bacteria
•Staphylococcus aureus halophilic bacteria 0.86
•(Halobacterium spp.)
0.75
•Molds
•Aspergillus flavus
•Chrysosporium fastidium 0.78
•Xeromyces bisporus 0.69
0.61
•Yeasts
•Debaryomyces hansenii
•Torulopsis spp. 0.83
•Zygosaccharomyces bailii 0.70
0.80
•Zygosaccharomyces rouxii 0.62
Examples of aw value of several foods

fresh, raw fruits, vegetables, meat, fish > 0.98

cooked meat, bread 0.91 - .095
cured meats, cheeses 0.91 - .095
fermented sausages (some) 0.83 - 0.87
jams 0.75 - 0.80
honey 0.75
dry cereals (some) 0.65 - 0.75
pastry fillings 0.65 - 0.71
candies 0.60 - 0.65
sugars, syrups 0.60 - 0.75
cake and pastries 0.60 - 0.90
dried fruits 0.60 - 0.75
powdered milk, dried pasta, spices 0.20 - 0.60
Controlling aw in foods
•equilibration with atmosphere of known
relative humidity
•water removal (e.g., dehydration)
•addition of solutes (humectants)
•sugars
•NaCl
•polyhydric alcohols (glycerol,
sorbitol)
•propylene glycol
loss or gain of moisture in packaged foods

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•Measurement
•electric hygrometers = consist of potentiometer, sample holder, and
sensor with immobilized electrolye (e.g., lithium chloride); changes in
ERH are reflected in changes in conductance of current through sensor
(Beckman, Rotronic); typically slow and requires routine calibration
with standards
•dew point instruments = use a cooled mirror as condensing surface;
mirror is cooled --> condensation occurs --> temperature = dew point;
ERH is derived from psychrometric chart (automatically)
•very fast and accurate
•calibration is not needed
Hurdle Technology

Several years ago, hurdle technology was developed as a

new concept for the realization of safe, stable, nutritious,
tasty, and economical foods. It employs the intelligent
combination of different preservation factors or techniques
to achieve multi-target, mild but reliable preservation
effects.
Preservation factors are hurdles to inhibit microorganisms.

Hurdle technology deliberately combines existing and new

preservation techniques to establish a series of preservative factors
(hurdles) that the microorganisms in question are unable to
overcome (jump over).
These hurdles may be temperature, water activity, acidity, redox
potential, preservatives, and others.
18
 Water activity and food stability
An increasing list of hurdles

Apart from the most important and commonly used hurdles,

there are many others of potential value.

Other hurdles include:

ultrahigh pressure, thermo-sonication, photodynamic

inactivation, modified atmosphere packaging of both non-
respiring and respiring products, edible coatings, ethanol,
maillard reaction products and bacteriocins. Examples of
foods preserved by combined processes are fruit juices and
heat-processed, cured meat products.
Uses of Water in Food Prep
• Universal solvent
• Heat transfer
• Freezing
• Cleansing agent
• Promotion of chemical changes
• Ionization of salt
• Baking powder
• Water and pH
• Hydrolysis reactions
• H2 O
• Two hydrogen atoms
bonded with covalent
bonds to one oxygen atom
• Is dipolar
• Negative on oxygen side
• Positive on hydrogen sides
• Hydrogen bonds
 Water Hardness
Types of hard water
• Temporary
• Permanent

Hard water and food preparation

• Rehydration and softening of dried beans slowed
• Alkalinity may affect color of vegetables
• Promote cloudiness in tea

• Water may be softened

Quality of Attributes of Foods
BROWNING REACTION:
• Complex reactions that occur on processing imparts a brown colour. This
brown is desirable in high grade products like coffee, maple syrup, bead
crust, baked goods, roasted nuts etc. But undesirable in juices and
processed vegetables like potato.
• Three general types of browning reactions are due to

1) Reaction of aldehydes and ketones with amino compounds. This does not
require oxygen.

2) Caramelization- monosaccharides like glucose, fructose and sugar acids on

heating becomes brown. Oxygen is not required for this reaction also.

3) Enzymatic browning (oxidative changes): browning of apples or potatoes.

Oxidation of ascorbic acid
• Main pigment generated in this type of reaction is Melanin.
Gel formation:
Proteins also forms rigid gels even in low concentrations.
Cooling a colloidal dispersion of large protein moecules, the viscosity
increases to a point at which some rigidity is attained.

• E,g., Gelatin – a partially degraded protein from collagen of skin and

bone from animal source.

• Milk protein ; Casein. Precipitated at pH 4.7.

• Cow milk – 3 to 4 % Protein Buffalo milk – 4 – 4.7% Protein

Human milk – 0.3 - 0.6%

• Casein is precipitated by an enzyme called Rennin to prepare Cheese.

• Egg proteins : Egg white called ovalbumin. Egg yolk – lipo proteins
(Proteins associated with lipids).
• Pectic Substances (Ploysaccharide carohydrates)

• Gel Formation by Starch: (Pectic substances- amylose)

• Take up water and swell on mild heating. It is a reversible

process.

• On moderate heating to 70oC nearly 1000-2500 times the

weight of starch will be absorbed and swell. On further
heating, they form an enmesh retaining water inside and form
a gel.

• Thixotropic gel is formed. That is shearing reduces gel to

liquid. On leaving undisturbed, Gel is formed again.
• Formation depends on % of pectin, molecular weight of pectins,
sugar and acid (pH).

• Sugar is normally in the range of 65%.

• Depending on the time required for setting, pectins are available as

‘Slow settiing’(for Jams) and ‘Rapid setting’.

• Rapid setting starts at 88oC and Slow setting starts at 54oC.

• Gums and mucilages: These are tree or plant extracts. These again
plant polysaccharides. Used as thickeners.
e.g., Gum Arabic, Gum Karaya, Gum Tragacanth
Organoleptic qualities (Qualities as perceived by sensory
organs)
e.g., Flavour – is a combination of taste, smell and feel
Mouth – sweet, sour, salty, bitter (taste buds in tongue)
Nose – odours (olfactory nerves)
Mouthfeel – How the food is felt while chewing.
Smoot, or rough, tender or tough, sticky on tongue or roof of
mouth, chewy or watery. After taste – Lingering sensation
after swallowing the food.
Mostly a blend of sensation occurs while eating foods,
so it is difficult to sort each and every taste.
TASTE :
Detected through solution of soluble compounds in saliva or in food juices
and contact with taste buds. Detection overlaps but general criteria are
• Sour – on the sides of tongue
• Salt – sides and tip
• Sweet – top
• Bitter – back and near throat. Taste is also influenced by
temperature, texture etc.

ODOUR AND AROMA:

Recognized as a prelude to eating. When a rich aroma emanates while
cooking one feels juices secreting in the mouth.

• Detection is possible for some compounds even if they are present in

parts per million or billion.
• Other factors that contribute to overall sensation of flavour are hot,
burning effect of peppers, coolness of menthol.
TEXTURE of FOODS : (as felt when chewing) Foods may be
considered as smooth, creamy, crispy, sticky.
• Control of flavour and aroma is important since too much flavour
or aroma will set in fatigue of the nerves and failure to detect them
starts.
• Eg., Roasting of coffee or cocoa beans under proper temperature
and time otherwise burning will occur off-setting the flavour.

MEASUREMENT of FLAVOUR for QUALITY CONTROL:

• Expert Tasters: Specific to a particular industry ans were able to
detect the mild changes in taste due to any change in process
parameter.
• Panel of Tasters : Persons working in the food industry and people
from other walks of life can be trained to taste foods. A numerical
scale is used to analyse using statistical tools to judge the
acceptance of the food. Prevalent I meat, bakery and milk
processing industry.
• A specific vocabulary is also used to describe the comparative scores of the
product like ‘rubbery’. ‘eggy’, etc. Presence of butyric acid is defined as
‘Buttery’. Sometimes as ‘throat burn’ or ‘cooling’ depending on the effects
on mouth is used.
TERMS in food quality testing :
• Order of appearance, After taste, amplitude,.

• Amplitude : Total effects of flavour – may be low, medium or high

depending on experience of a paryicular flavour on processing.

• Method used is called as 9-point Hedonic Scale. Statistical analysis is done

for the score card and acceptability is tested.
Hedonic Scale Score

9 – Like Extremely 5 – Neither Like nor Dislike

8 – Like very much 4 – Dislike Slightly
7 – Like moderately 3 – Dislike moderately
6 – Like Slightly 2 - Dislike very much
1 – Dislike Extremely
 SENSORY EVALUATION

Scorecard Hedonic Scale

Judge Name : Date:
Product Name :

Attributes Control Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Average

Score
Appearance

Flavour

Mouthfeel

Texture

AfterTaste

Overall
Acceptability

Average Score