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Rockwell scale
The Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on indentation
hardness of a material. The Rockwell test measuring the depth of
penetration of an indenter under a large load (major load) compared
to the penetration made by a preload (minor load).[1] There are
different scales, denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or
indenters. The result is a dimensionless number noted as HRA,
HRB, HRC, etc., where the last letter is the respective Rockwell scale
(see below). When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates
linearly with tensile strength.[2]

Contents
History
Rockwell hardness tester classifications based on Rockwell
scales A Rockwell hardness tester
Operation
Scales and values
Typical values
Standards
See also
References
External links

History
The differential depth hardness measurement was conceived in 1908 by a Viennese professor Paul
Ludwik in his book Die Kegelprobe (crudely, "the cone test").[3] The differential-depth method
subtracted out the errors associated with the mechanical imperfections of the system, such as backlash
and surface imperfections. The Brinell hardness test, invented in Sweden, was developed earlier – in
1900 – but it was slow, not useful on fully hardened steel, and left too large an impression to be
considered nondestructive.

Hugh M. Rockwell (1890–1957) and Stanley P. Rockwell (https://www.alustir.com/english/did-you-kno

w/stanley-rockwell/) (1886–1940) from Connecticut in the United States co-invented the "Rockwell
hardness tester," a differential-depth machine. They applied for a patent on July 15, 1914.[4] The
requirement for this tester was to quickly determine the effects of heat treatment on steel bearing races.
The application was subsequently approved on February 11, 1919, and holds U.S. Patent 1,294,171 (http
s://www.google.com/patents/US1294171). At the time of invention, both Hugh and Stanley Rockwell

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worked for the New Departure Manufacturing Co. of Bristol, CT.[5] New Departure was a major ball
bearing manufacturer which in 1916 became part of United Motors and, shortly thereafter, General
Motors Corp.

After leaving the Connecticut company, Stanley Rockwell, then in Syracuse, NY, applied for an
improvement to the original invention on September 11, 1919, which was approved on November 18,
1924. The new tester holds U.S. Patent 1,516,207 (https://www.google.com/patents/US1516207).[6][7]
Rockwell moved to West Hartford, CT, and made an additional improvement in 1921.[7] Stanley
collaborated with instrument manufacturer Charles H. Wilson of the Wilson-Mauelen Company in 1920
to commercialize his invention and develop standardized testing machines.[8] Stanley started a heat-
treating firm circa 1923, the Stanley P. Rockwell Company, which still exists in Hartford, CT. The later-
named Wilson Mechanical Instrument Company has changed ownership over the years, and was
acquired by Instron Corp. in 1993.[9]

Rockwell hardness tester classifications based on Rockwell

scales
Rockwell hardness tester: HRA, HRB, HRC [10]

Superficial Rockwell hardness tester: 15N, 30N, 45N, 15T, 30T, 45T, 15W, 30W, 45W, 15X, 30X, 45X,
15Y, 30Y, 45Y

Plastic Rockwell hardness tester: HRE, HRL, HRM

Twin Rockwell hardness tester (also named as Rockwell & superficial Rockwell hardness tester): HRA,
HRB, HRC,15N, 15T, 15W, 15X, 15Y, 30N, 30T, 30W, 30X, 30Y, 45N, 45T, 45W, 45X, 45Y [11]

Operation
The determination of the Rockwell
hardness of a material involves the
application of a minor load followed
by a major load. The minor load
establishes the zero position. The
major load is applied, then removed
while still maintaining the minor
load. The depth of penetration from
the zero datum is measured from a
dial, on which a harder material Force diagram of Rockwell test
gives a higher number. That is, the
penetration depth and hardness are
inversely proportional. The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values
directly, thus obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness measurement techniques.

The equation for Rockwell Hardness is , where d is the depth (from the zero load point),
and N and s are scale factors that depend on the scale of the test being used (see following section).

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It is typically used in engineering and metallurgy. Its commercial popularity

arises from its speed, reliability, robustness, resolution and small area of
indentation.

Legacy Rockwell hardness testers operation steps:

1. Load an initial force: Rockwell hardness test initial test force is 10 kgf
(98 N; 22 lbf); superficial Rockwell hardness test initial test force is 3 kgf
(29 N; 6.6 lbf).
2. Load main load: reference below form / table 'Scales and values'.
3. Leave the main load for a "dwell time" sufficient for indentation to come
to a halt.
4. Release load; the Rockwell value will typically display on a dial or
A closeup of the indenter
screen automatically.[12]
and anvil on a Rockwell-
type hardness tester.
In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece should be at
least 10 times the depth of the indentation.[13] Also, readings should be
taken from a flat perpendicular surface, because convex surfaces give lower
readings. A correction factor can be used if the hardness of a convex surface
is to be measured.[14]

Scales and values

There are several alternative scales, the most commonly used being the "B"
and "C" scales. Both express hardness as an arbitrary dimensionless
number.

A digital Rockwell tester

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Various Rockwell scales[15]

Scale Abbreviation Load Indenter Use N s
60
A HRA 120° diamond spheroconical† Tungsten carbide 100 0.002mm
kgf

100 1⁄ -inch-diameter (1.588 mm) Aluminium, brass, and soft

B HRB 16 130 0.002mm
kgf steel sphere steels

150
C HRC 120° diamond spheroconical Harder steels >B100 100 0.002mm
kgf
100
D HRD 120° diamond spheroconical 100 0.002mm
kgf

100 1⁄ -inch-diameter (3.175 mm)

E HRE 8 130 0.002mm
kgf steel sphere

60 1⁄ -inch-diameter (1.588 mm)

F HRF 16 130 0.002mm
kgf steel sphere

150 1⁄ -inch-diameter (1.588 mm)

G HRG 16 130 0.002mm
kgf steel sphere

60 1⁄ -inch-diameter (3.175 mm)

H HRH 8 Aluminum, Zinc, Lead [16]
kgf steel sphere

150 1⁄ -inch-diameter (3.175 mm) Bearing alloy, tin, hard plastic

K HRK 8
kgf steel sphere materials [17]
†Also called a brale indenter

Except for testing thin materials in accordance with A623, the steel indenter balls have been
replaced by tungsten carbide balls of the varying diameters. When a ball indenter is used, the letter
"W" is used to indicate a tungsten carbide ball was used, and the letter "S" indicates the use of a
steel ball. E.g.: 70 HRBW indicates the reading was 70 in the Rockwell B scale using a tungsten
carbide indenter.[18]

The superficial Rockwell scales use lower loads and shallower impressions on brittle and very thin
materials. The 45N scale employs a 45-kgf load on a diamond cone-shaped Brale indenter, and can be
used on dense ceramics. The 15T scale employs a 15-kgf load on a 1⁄16-inch-diameter (1.588 mm)
hardened steel ball, and can be used on sheet metal.

The B and C scales overlap, such that readings below HRC 20 and those above HRB 100, generally
considered unreliable, need not be taken or specified.

Typical values
Very hard steel (e.g. chisels, quality knife blades): HRC 55–66 (Hardened High Speed Carbon and
Tool Steels such as M2, W2, O1, CPM-M4, and D2, as well as many of the newer powder metallurgy
Stainless Steels such as S30V, CPMS-154, ZDP-189, etc.)[19]
Axes: about HRC 45–55
Brass: HRB 55 (Low brass, UNS C24000, H01 Temper) to HRB 93 (Cartridge Brass, UNS C26000
(260 Brass), H10 Temper)[20]

Several other scales, including the extensive A-scale, are used for specialized applications. There are
special scales for measuring case-hardened specimens.
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Standards
International (ISO)
ISO 6508-1: Metallic materials—Rockwell hardness test—Part 1: Test method (scales A, B, C, D,
E, F, G, H, K, N, T)
ISO 6508-2: Metallic materials—Rockwell hardness test—Part 2: Verification and calibration of
testing machines and indenters
ISO 6508-3: Metallic materials—Rockwell hardness test—Part 3: Calibration of reference blocks
ISO 2039-2: Plastics—Determination of hardness—Part 2: Rockwell hardness
US standard (ASTM International)
ASTM E18: Standard methods for Rockwell hardness and Rockwell superficial hardness of
metallic materials

See also
Brinell hardness test
Hardness comparison
Holger F. Struer
Knoop hardness test
Leeb Rebound Hardness Test
Meyer hardness test
Shore durometer
Vickers hardness test

References
1. E.L. Tobolski & A. Fee, "Macroindentation Hardness Testing," ASM Handbook, Volume 8:
Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, ASM International, 2000, pp. 203–211, ISBN 0-87170-389-0.
2. "Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels (https://doi.org/10.100
7%2Fs11665-008-9225-5)", E. J. Pavlina and C. J. Van Tyne, Journal of Materials Engineering and
Performance, Volume 17, Number 6 / December 2008
3. G.L. Kehl, The Principles of Metallographic Laboratory Practice, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1949, p. 229.
4. H.M. Rockwell & S.P. Rockwell, "Hardness-Tester," U.S. Patent 1,294,171 (https://www.google.com/p
atents/US1294171), Feb 1919.
5. S.W. Kallee: Stanley Pickett Rockwell - One of the Inventors of the Rockwell Hardness Testing
Machine (https://www.alustir.com/english/did-you-know/stanley-rockwell/). Retrieved on 21
November 2018.
6. S.P. Rockwell, "The Testing of Metals for Hardness, Transactions of the American Society for Steel
Treating, Vol. II, No. 11, August 1922, pp. 1013–1033.
7. S. P. Rockwell, "Hardness-Testing Machine", U.S. Patent 1,516,207 (https://www.google.com/patent
s/US1516207), Nov 1924.
8. V.E. Lysaght, Indentation Hardness Testing, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1949, pp. 57–62.

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9. R.E. Chinn, "Hardness, Bearings, and the Rockwells (https://archive.today/20120718213601/http://w

ww.asminternational.org/static/Static%20Files/IP/Magazine/AMP/V167/I10/amp16710p29.pdf?authto
ken=22eedf26d8f9bf791016fbc1163353f1ee8dd1a0)," Advanced Materials & Processes, Vol 167
#10, October 2009, p 29-31.
10. EBP R-150T digital Rockwell hardness tester http://www.hiebp.com
11. EBP RSR-45/150D digital Rockwell & superficial Rockwell hardness tester http://www.hiebp.com
12. http://www.hiebp.com
13. Fundamentals of Rockwell Hardness Testing (https://web.archive.org/web/20100129101621/http://w
ww.instron.us/wa/library/streamfile.aspx?doc=1154), archived from the original (http://www.instron.u
s/wa/library/StreamFile.aspx?doc=1154) on 2010-01-29, retrieved 2010-09-10
14. PMPA's Designer's Guide: Heat treatment (https://web.archive.org/web/20090714183935/http://pmp
a.org/technology/design/heattreatment.htm), archived from the original (http://www.pmpa.org/technol
ogy/design/heattreatment.htm) on 2009-07-14, retrieved 2009-06-19.
15. Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2001), Foundations of Material Science and Engineering (4th
ed.), McGraw-Hill, p. 229, ISBN 0-07-295358-6
16. EBP company R-150T Rockwell hardness tester manual book.
17. EBP company R-150T Rockwell hardness tester manual book.
18. E18-08b Section 5.1.2.1 & 5.2.3
19. Knife blade materials (https://web.archive.org/web/20080531085629/http://www.cutleryscience.com/r
eviews/blade_materials.html)
20. matweb.com (http://www.matweb.com), accessed 2010-06-23

External links
Video on the Rockwell hardness test (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2JGNlIvNC4)
Hardness Conversion Chart (http://www.westyorkssteel.com/technical-information/hardness-conversi
on-chart/)
Rockwell to brinell conversion chart (http://www.engineersedge.com/hardness_conversion.htm)
Hardness Conversion Table (http://www.struers.com/default.asp?top_id=5&main_id=25&doc_id=344
&target=_self&collapse=1&admin_language=22)
Rockwell Hardness Testing (https://www.unitedtesting.com/en-us/rockwell-hardness-testing)

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